WE ARE ONE
Students Guide to I AM A COMMUNITY ORGANIZER
Methods of
Community Organization
Compiled by
S.Rengasamy
See also the related materials on page no.5
Go to the People Live among them Love them
Lao Tsu ,
Learn from them Start from where they are Work with them Build on what they have. But of the best leaders, When the task is accomplished, The work completed, The people all remark: "We have done it ourselves"
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Contents Fact Finding -What are the facts to be collected –Model I .................................................................................. 12 Types of Community Need & its Identification ............... .................. ................. ................. .................. .......... 12 Analyzing Community Problems - Model I ......................................................................................................... 13 What is analyzing community problems all all about? ............... .................. ................. ................. .................. .... 13 Why should analyze a community problem?.................................................................................................. problem?.................................................................................................. 13 When should analyze a community problem?................ .................. ................. ................. .................. .......... 13 How should analyze a community problem?.................................................................................................. 13 Dia: Steps to analyze a community problem ................................................................................................. 14 Analysis helps to find out an effective solution. ............................................................................................. 14 Analyzing the facts / Problem identification –Model II .................................................................................... 14 What is the problem? ................................................................................................................................. 14 Where does the problem exist? ................................................................................................................... 14 Who is affected by the problem? ................................................................................................................. 14 Why the problem occurred? ........................................................................................................................ 14 To what extent the problem is felt? ............................................................................................................. 14 What are the facts to be collected –Model II ..................................................................................................... 15 Information requirement to understand a community ........................................................................................ 15 1.Basic community characteristics ................................................................................................................ 15 2.How the community functions to meet its needs ........................................................................................ 15 3. Unmet needs ......................................................................................................................................... 15 4. Community resources ............................................................................................................................. 15 5. Capacity for disposition towards purposeful change ................................................................................... 15 1. Basic community characteristics ................................................................................................................... 16 Population ................................................................................................................................................. 16 How the community functions? ........................................................................................................................ 16 2.1. Physical needs ......................................................................................................................................... 16 2.2. Social and emotional needs................ .................. ................. ................. .................. ................. ................ 16 2.3. Political needs ......................................................................................................................................... 16 2.4. Economic needs ....................................................................................................................................... 16 2.5. Educational and communication needs.................. ................. ................. .................. ................. ................ 16 3. Assessing the community‘s unmet needs ...................................................................................................... 16 4. Community resources.................................................................................................................................. 17 5. Capacity for change and disposition to change .............................................................................................. 17 How to find out what we need to know?................ ................. .................. ................. ................. .................. .... 17 Look for organizations that do at least one of the following things ...................................................................... 17 Guided personal discussions ............................................................................................................................ 18 Focus groups ................................................................................................................................................. 18 Surveys and questionnaires ............................................................................................................................. 18 Collecting list ................................................................................................................................................. 18 A check list that can be used to facilitate discussion to study/ understand a community ............... .................. ....... 18 Phases/ Methods /Outcome of Community Organization..................................................................................... 19 Understanding the Community by Understanding the Local Business ................ .................. ................. ................ 20 Community Business Survey ............................................................................................................................ 20 Understanding the Community by Understanding the Local Business ................ .................. ................. ................ 20 Collection of self explanatory diagrams on Steps /Stages in Community Organization ........................................... 21 Stages & Steps in Community Organization .................................................................................................. 22 Stages in Guiding Guiding / Organizing Communities Communities ................. .................. ................. ................. .................. .......... 23 Some self explanatory diagrams on Problem Solving Process.......................................................................... 24 Phases in community organization learning................................................................................................... 25 Diagrams of Phases / Steps / Stages in Community Organization ................. .................. ................. ................ 26 Tools that can be used at different stages and for different purposes ................. ................. .................. .......... 27 PRA tools for many purposes – to understand and organize the communities .................................................. 28 Diagram: Problem Analysis Model ................................................................................................................ 30 Diagrams: Models - Steps / Stages in Community Organization ...................................................................... 31 Comprehensive list of Community Organization / Engagement Tools ................................................................... 32 Levels of Community Engagement Its Objectives, Outcomes & Techniques used.............................................. 33
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Description of Tools.................. ................. ................. .................. ................. ................. .................. .......... 34 Methods of Group Decision Making and Co-Operative Action .............................................................................. 39 Groups in the context of Community Organization ............................................................................................. 39 Synopsis ........................................................................................................................................................ 39 Meaning of a Group: .................................................................................................................................. 40 Meaning of Decision Making ........................................................................................................................ 40 Meaning of Group Decision Making: ............................................................................................................. 40 Understanding the Groups ............................................................................................................................... 41 Stages in the development of a group. ............................................................................................................. 41 Napier and Gershenfled Gershenfled................. ................. ................. .................. ................. ................. .................. .......... 41 Forming Stage................................................................................................................................................ 41 Beginning Stage ............................................................................................................................................. 41 Storming Stage .............................................................................................................................................. 41 Movement toward Confrontation Stage ............................................................................................................. 41 Compromise and Harmony Stage ..................................................................................................................... 41 Performing Stage ........................................................................................................................................... 41 Reassessment Stage ....................................................................................................................................... 41 Adjourning Stage ............................................................................................................................................ 41 Resolution and recycling stage stage .................. .................. ................. ................. .................. ................. ................ 41 Task Roles and Relationship Roles of a Group: .................................................................................................. 41 Structure of the Groups................................................................................................................................... 42 Pairs are useful for ......................................................................................................................................... 42 Group Decision Making ................................................................................................................................... 43 Involvement / Types of decision making ........................................................................................................... 44 Difficulties in decision-making: ......................................................................................................................... 45 Fear of Consequences: ............................................................................................................................... 45 Conflicting Loyalties: .................................................................................................................................. 45 Interpersonal Conflict: ................................................................................................................................ 45 Hidden agenda: ......................................................................................................................................... 45 Blundering Methods: .................................................................................................................................. 45 Inadequate Leadership: .............................................................................................................................. 46 Clash of Interest: ....................................................................................................................................... 46 Factors, which help in making good decisions: .................................................................................................. 46 Advantages & Disadvantages in group decision- making .................................................................................... 46 Different methods of group decision-making ..................................................................................................... 46 Meeting Practice: ............................................................................................................................................ 47 Merits and demerits of parliamentary procedure ................ .................. ................. ................. .................. .......... 47 Conference .................................................................................................................................................... 47 Characteristics: .............................................................................................................................................. 47 Committee Practice ......................................................................................................................................... 48 Characteristics of a Committee: ....................................................................................................................... 48 Functions of a Committee Committee................ .................. ................. .................. ................. ................. .................. ....... 48 Guidelines for Organizing Committees .............................................................................................................. 48 Organization of a committee: .......................................................................................................................... 49 Chairman .................................................................................................................................................. 49 Members ................................................................................................................................................... 49 Committee Aide (Staff Assistance to committee) ........................................................................................... 49 Committee Procedures: ................................................................................................................................... 49 Agenda : ................................................................................................................................................... 49 Loophole Agenda & Hidden Agenda ............................................................................................................. 50 Minutes ..................................................................................................................................................... 50 Conflict and conflict Resolution in Community Organization ................................................................................ 51 Conflict- Meaning ........................................................................................................................................... 51 Competition Vs Conflict ................................................................................................................................... 52 Box: Community Conflict ................................................................................................................................. 52 Levels of Conflict ........................................................................................................................................ 52 Types of conflict......................................................................................................................................... 52 Economic Conflict: ...................................................................................................................................... 52 Power Conflict: .......................................................................................................................................... 53
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Value Conflict: ........................................................................................................................................... 53 Other types of conflict: ............................................................................................................................... 53 Personality clashes: .................................................................................................................................... 53 Escalation of Conflict: ................................................................................................................................. 53 Table: Strengths and Limitations of various Approaches to Conflict Management ................. ................. ................ 54 Methods of Conflict Resolution:................. .................. ................. ................. .................. ................. ................ 54 Approaches to managing conflict: .................................................................................................................... 54 Two-dimensional model of conflict management: .............................................................................................. 54 Box: Levels of Conflict................ ................. ................. .................. ................. ................. .................. ............. 55 Conflict Resolution Terminologies Defined................. ................. .................. ................. ................. .................. . 56 Box: Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management................. ................. ................. .................. .... 57 Strategies of Community Organization .............................................................................................................. 58 Methods of Conflict Resolution ......................................................................................................................... 58 Table: Four approaches in conflict resolution .................................................................................................... 58 The major elements we need to understand before deciding a strategy ............... ................. .................. ............. 59 NEGOTIATION ............................................................................................................................................... 59 1. Supporting Survival Needs .................. ................. .................. ................. .................. ................. .......... 60 2. Demonstrating public support and sympathy:................. .................. ................. ................. .................. . 60 4. Conducting Behind – The Scenes Discussions ....................................................................................... 60 5. Targeting pressure points:............... ................. .................. ................. .................. ................. ............. 60 6. Threatening: ................. ................. ................. .................. ................. ................. .................. ............. 61 7. Waging campaigns against persons or institutions: .................. ................. .................. ................. .......... 61 Skills ............................................................................................................................................................. 61 Community Organizing Organizing Skills.................. .................. ................. .................. ................. ................. .................. . 62 Community Organizing Organizing Skills.................. .................. ................. .................. ................. ................. .................. . 62 I. Organizing and Planning Skills .................................................................................................................. 62 Leadership Skills for Community Organizers ...................................................................................................... 63 Skills for community Organizers ....................................................................................................................... 65 Information literacy .................................................................................................................................... 65 Research and inquiry .................................................................................................................................. 65 Ethical, social and professional understanding............................................................................................... 65 Communication and interpersonal ................................................................................................................ 65 Personal & intellectual ................................................................................................................................ 65 Autonomy ................................................................................................................................................. 65
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Well Run
Well Connected
Governance
Transport & Connectivity
Active Inclusive & Safe
Well Served Social & Cultural
Service
Geographical Community Well designed & built
Housing & Built Environment
Entertainment Environmentally Sensitive Economy
Equity
Thriving
Fair for everyone
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Unit III -Syllabus Phases in community organization. Study, Analysis, Assessment, Decision Making, Organization, Action, Evaluation, Modification and Continuation. Tools and techniques used in various phases. Methods of negotiation and conflict resolution. Skills required to handle the community organization methods.
Phases in Community Organization Phase/Steps/Stages are interrelated terminologies. These terms has been used informally. It means a distinct time period in a sequence of events; a short unit of time, or an episode of development or change, usually within the c ontext of a longer period. Study: Application of the mind to the acquisition of knowledge, as by reading, investigation, or reflection: Any personal effort to gain knowledge: to understand community; Something studied or to be studied: research or a detailed examination and analysis of a subject, phenomenon, etc. Analysis Analysis (from Greek "a breaking up") is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. Assessment Classification of someone or something with respect to its worth; appraisal; the act of judging or assessing a person or situation or event; judgment Decision Making The act of making up our mind about something, or a position or opinion or judgment reached after consideration. Decision making means selecting the best course of action from two or more alternatives And when people ordinarily consider their own definition of decision making, it is typical that they consider that somehow it is a thinking process, with lots of mental activity involved in choosing between alternatives. Making a decision implies that there are alternative choices to be considered, and in such a case we want not only to identify as many of these alternatives as possible but to choose the one that (1) has the highest probability of success or effectiveness and (2) best fits with our goals, desires, lifestyle, values, and so on. Decision making is the process of sufficiently reducing uncertainty and doubt about alternatives to allow a reasonable choice to be made from among them. This definition stresses the informationgathering function of decision making. It s hould be noted here that uncertainty is reduced rather than eliminated. Very few decisions are made with absolute certainty because complete knowledge about all the alternatives is seldom possible. Every decision involves a certain amount of risk. But this doesn't include the way some people make decisions for example You may have heard people saying I have a gut feeling; I know in my heart: I feel it in my bones Organization Orderly arrangement of group effort; An organization is a social arrangement which pursues collective goals, which controls its own performance, and which has a boundary separating it from its environment. The word itself is derived from the Greek word (organon) meaning tool. The term is used in both daily and scientific English in multiple ways. Action A process or condition of acting or moving, as opposed to rest; the doing of something; exertion of power or force, as when one body acts on another; the effect of power exerted on one body by another; agency; activity; operation; as, the action o f heat; a man of action. Modification Partial or slight change in form; product of such a change; slight reduction; moderation;
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Phase/Steps/Stages are interrelated terminologies. These terms has been used informally. It means a distinct time period in a sequence of events; a short unit of time, or an episode of development or change, usually within the context of a longer period The following diagram explains how Steps /Stages are used as logical sequences to guide our actions in our planned efforts
There are many ways to present the steps / stages visually – visually –Circular, Circular, Ladder staircase, milestones etc
Community Organization Related Learning Material Compiled by S.Rengasamy http://www.scribd.com/doc/11787871/Introduction-to-Community-Organization http://www.scribd.com/doc/13086532/Introduction-to-Community-OrganizationPhases-and-Methodshttp://www.scribd.com/doc/13988043/Role-of-a-Community-Organizer http://www.scribd.com/doc/13287799/Understanding-Social-Action http://www.scribd.com/doc/13828772/Advocacy-Lobbying http://www.scribd.com/doc/24264150/Understanding-Public-Participation
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Arthur Dunham’s Classification of CO Methods 1. Methods of Planning and Related Activities 1. Fact finding 2. Analysis 3. Evaluation 4. Planning 2. Methods of Group Decision Making and Co-operative Action: 5. Meeting practice 6. Conference 7. Committee practice 8. Negotiation 9. Organization including Mass organization 3. Methods of Communication: 10. Education 11. Consultation 12. Public Relations 13. Formal written Communication 14. Formal oral communication 15. The interview 4. Methods of Promotion and Social Action: 16. Promotion 17. Legislative promotion 18. Non Legislative procedural social action 19. Direct action 20. Exerting or invoking authoritative Action 5. Methods of Financing and Fund Raising: 21. Fund procurement by governmental agencies 22. Fund raising by voluntary agencies 23. Federated financial campaigning 24. Joint budgeting 6. Methods of Administration: 25.. Administrative activities of agencies concerned with social planning. 25 26. Administration of common services or community organization 27. Recording.
Some Popular Trends in Community Organization
Participatory Action Research
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e h t y g i t n i n d u n m a t m s r o e d C n U e s a h p n o i g t a n t i d n n e a m t e s l r p e m d i n t u c e r j u o o r p n s o a d d e o s o a t b s r e k r d o n u w y l o l t a g r e n n i e d g i c i e s e D s a h p s i h T
Study: Application of the mind to the acquisition of knowledge, as by reading, investigation, or reflection: Any personal effort to gain knowledge: to understand community; something studied or to be studied: research or a detailed examination and analysis of a subject, phenomenon, etc. Analysis Analysis (from Greek "a breaking up") is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. Assessment Classification of someone or something with respect to its worth; appraisal; the act of judging or assessing a person or situation or event; judgment Decision Making The act of making up our mind about something, or a position or opinion or j udgment reached after consideration. Decision making means selecting the best course of action from two or more alternatives And when people ordinarily consider their own definition of decision making, it is typical that they consider that somehow it is a thinking process, with lots of mental activity involved in choosing between alternatives. Making a decision implies that there are alternative choices to be considered, and in such a case we want not only to identify as many of these alternatives as possible but to choose the one that (1) has the highest probability of success or effectiveness and (2) best fits with our goals, desires, lifestyle, values, and so on. Decision making is the process of sufficiently reducing uncertainty and doubt about inition alternatives to allow a reasonable choice to be made from among them. This def inition stresses the information-gathering function of decision making. It s hould be noted here that uncertainty is reduced rather than eliminated. Very few decisions are made with absolute certainty because complete knowledge about all the alternatives is seldom possible. Every decision involves a certain amount of risk. But this doesn't include the way some people make decisions for example You may have heard people saying I have a gut feeling; I know in my heart: I feel it in my bones Organization Orderly arrangement of group effort; An organization is a social arrangement which pursues collective goals, which controls its own performance, and which has a boundary separating it from its environment. The word itself is derived from the Greek word (organon) meaning tool. The term is used in both daily and scientific English in multiple ways. Action A process or condition of acting or moving, as opposed to rest; the doing of something; exertion of power or force, as when one body acts on another; the effect of power exerted on one body by another; agency; activity; operation; a man of action.
Evaluation/ Modification /Replication Evaluating one‘s a ction and based on that learning partial or slight change of our actions; product of such a change; slight reduction; moderation; further improving our approach. Replication means broadening our learning /actions if it is correct
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The first step in organizing the community is to understand it. Understanding the community involves certain tasks. These tasks are variously outlined as Fact finding, Need assessment, Problem identification depending upon the objectives of intervention Fact- finding Fact-finding includes activities designed to aid the discovery, ascertainment, assembling, compilation and recording of facts. Most community problems are sustained by a wide variety of factors, and some are more influential than others. The challenge is to locate the major factors that have an effect on the problem requiring correction. To meet this challenge effectively, it is essential to gather relevant facts regarding the background of the problem. In gathering information on the problem, the Community Organizer may be faced with two difficulties: obtaining too much information that may prove to be irrelevant; identifying too little information from normal sources. Good judgment must be used to distinguish noise (meaningless data) from information that helps in analyzing a problem. Similarly when information is not easily available, concerned individuals may be required to use ingenuity, functioning like good investigative reporter by checking checking out leads. With the advice of the knowledgeable researchers, special studies may need to be conducted as part of the fact-finding process. Why we need Community Organization http://www.vcn.bc.ca/citizens-handbook/ We need more active citizens and CO is the way to do it A way of tackling large public issues Community Organization - A way of solving local problems Community Organization - A way of improving liveability Community Organization - A bridge to strong democracy Community Organization Organization is a recognized route to better health Community Organization Organization is a way of rekindling community community
Following are the techniques normally adopted for fact finding. (Recording / Documentation Compilation of information), Formal Hearing (to find out how representative citizens think on a particular issue or proposal), Action Research (Research combined with some other type of action programs), Demonstration projects (to find out whether a certain program will work or how effective a particular type of program) and keeping abreast of new developments and new information in regard to certain subjects – is a Need assessment / Problem identification – identification – a crucial first step in program development – is systematic verification of the existence, prevalence, location, and importance of a social problem as it is expressed in needs for service. Problem identification: Social programs are developed to address social problems. Obviously community organizers have to study and document the existence of the social problem before developing a program
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Fact Finding -What are the facts to be collected – collected – Model Model I What are the facts to be collected? 1. External conditions and factors Levels of socio-economic development and its relationship to the area Location advantages Govt policies & Programs 2. Characteristics of the area Land resources –Soil & Water Human Resources Quantitative---Age, Se x, Religion, Education, Literacy 3. Social & Institutional Structure Familial Corporate Units (Families-House) Associational Corporate Units (Caste) Territorial Corporate Units (Panchayat Raj, Categoric Units (Religion) 4. Delivery System System For Social & Economic Services Economic i.e. Extension, Credit, Marketing Marketing Education, Health, Family Planning, Nutrition Nutrition 5. Infrastructure Facilities for Production and Marketing Road, Electricity, Irrigation, Telecommunication
Types of Community Need & its Identification Principles of Organizing Normative Need: Experienced organizers know that the It means a desirable standard---if the individual or process of organizing is seldom "tidy" — it doesn't always happen in neat, community falls short of this desirable standard then they predictable steps. It can be thought are being in need. Middle class standard ---’A’ --- ’A’ is in need of as a process guided by principles of ‘B’ and ‘B’ is incompatible incompatible with the values values held in that repeat in a cyclic, rather than society ’C’ and therefore ‘B’ should be changed. linear wa : Felt Need: Equated with wants---Felt need is limited by the perception of the people. People may ask for help without really needing it. Exaggerate it or inflate it. Comparative Need: Relative Need--- this need can be assessed by studying the characteristics of the people who are receiving a particular service. Community ‘A’ is in receipt of service, because it has the similar characteristics of ‘AB’; Community ‘B’ also has similar characteristics, but not in receipt of that service. So Community ‘B’ is in need. Expressed Need: Expressed need is demanded. E.g. Phone Facilities: USA-450 per1000; Europe-380 per 1000; Singapore-100 per 1000(?); INDIA-- 4 per 1000 (?) (Highest number indicate normative condition) Comparative Need My neighbor has a phone. Felt Need I am willing to be wait listed Expressed Need I paid deposit for getting phone connection
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Analyzing Community Problems - Model I There's no official definition of a community problem; but the criteria below should give you a start. The problem occurs frequently. (Frequency) The problem has lasted for a while. (Duration) The problem affects many people. (Scope or range) The problem is disturbing, and possibly intense. (Severity) (It disrupts personal or community life.) The problem deprives people of legal or moral rights. (legality) The problem is perceived as a problem. (Perception
What is analyzing community problems all about? In a nutshel, analyzing community problems is a way of thinking carefully about a problem or iss ue before acting on a solution. It first involves looking for possible reasons behind a problem, and checking out whether those reasons are true. Then (and only then) does it involve identifying possible solutions, and implementing the best ones. The techniques for analyzing community problems are easy to state. They require simple logic, and sometimes the collection of evidence. But sometimes these techniques elude us in practice.
Why should analyze a community problem?
Analysis: Analysis is the application of the six basic analytical questions i.e. what, whom, where, when, why and how? What is the problem? Where does it exist? Who is affected by it? When does it occur? What degree it is felt? Analysis lies midway between fact finding and planning. planning. It involves collection of data, exploring the content of the data, breaking up the content or problem, examining the inter relationships between the constituencies. The purpose purpose of analysis is to gain insight, and understanding. Planning can scarcely exist without analysis. A sound plan plan normally implies that the planner has the facts and that the facts and the problem have been analyzed as a basis for the formulation of the plan.
* To better identify what the problem or i ssue * To understand what is at the heart of a problem .... * To determine the barriers and resources associated with addressing the problem . * To develop the best action steps for addressing the problem .
When should analyze a community co mmunity problem? Always. At least, almost always. Every community problem should benefit from analysis. The only possible exception is when the problem is an immediate crisis that requires action this very moment. And even then, analysis should help later. However, there are conditions when analysis is especially important. And these are: 1. When the community problem is not defined very clearly 2. When little is known about the community problem, or its possible consequences 3. When you want to find causes that may improve the chance of suc cessfully addressing the problem 4. When people are jumping to solutions much too soon 5. When you need to identify actions to address the problem, and learn what persons or groups could best collaborate in taking action.
How should analyze a community problem? And of course, that is the heart of this section. The answer is there's no one way to do it. There are many ways to understand the problem better and to deal with it more effectively. These are the goals of any problem analysis. So the method you choose should accomplish those goals for you Steps to analyze a community problem 1. State the problem, in general terms 2. Give specific examples of the problem 3. Think of reasons for the problem 4. Find the most probable reason 5. Identify solutions 6. Choose the best one 7. Implement the solution 8. Evaluate the solution
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Dia: Steps to analyze a community problem 1
3
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State the problem. problem . The room is dark.
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Give some examples. examples. When I turn on the light switch, nothing happens.
Think of reasons. reasons. (a) I might have blown a fuse. (b) The switch could be defective. (c) The light bulb might have blown. Identify solutions. solutions. (a) Replace the fuse. (b) Replace the switch. (c) Replace the bulb. .
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Implement it. I can change a bulb with the best of them
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Find the most probable reason. reason. The fuse isn't blown. The switch is new. The bulb is old. So it's probably the bulb
Choose the best one. one . I'll try changing the bulb; it's simplest and cheapest. (If the bulb has really blown, that's probably the only solution there is.) Evaluate it. Good. I've got some light now
Community problems, it is true, are generally more complicated than changing light bulbs. But the same type of analysis can apply to them as well, frequently with similarly -successful results.
Analysis helps to find out an effective solution. How did you find the most probable reason? A likely answer is that you did some checking around. You collected some facts about events in the past, and related those facts to the accident patterns now. In other words, you collected some evidence. And then you used logic. In other words: Analysis of community problems involves collecting evidence, and using logic to interpret that evidence.
Analyzing the facts / Problem identification – identification – Model Model II What is the problem? Where does the problem exist? Who is affected by the problem?
Deteriorating Public Health In the sanitary division No. 36 of Madurai Corporation More than 5000 families residing in the 36 division {geographic} area When does the problem occur? For the last two years. Why the problem occurred? Poor drainage facilities; increase in the wastewater cover. To what extent the problem is 35% of the patients who attended the local felt? Medical practitioners are affected by malarial fever Problem statement: In the past two years, the incidence of malarial fever increased 35% in the sanitary division No.36 Madurai Corporation. Corporation. 5000 families are affected due to this public health deterioration.
Community Survey: The term survey derived from two words i.e. “SUR” („to see a particular thing ) and VOR” (From a high place) ―Community Survey is a method by which quantitative facts are collected about the social aspect of a community’s position and activities.
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By survey method the Community Organizer can assess existing services and resources in an area of need as well as gaps in service. Surveying both service agencies and community residents, asking them how they perceive their unmet needs can identify potential demand for service. Steps in Community Survey: Planning the survey Executing the survey
What's a community? In the physical world, communities are typically groups of people (a village, town) held together by some common identity or interest. The same holds true for virtual or online communities in that they, too, are comprised of people with shared identity or interests coming together for a shared purpose. This shared interest or intent offers a strong forum for members of the community to build relationships and affiliations out of which they can learn from one another and make an impact on the society or culture around them. Coming from two Latin words meaning "with gifts," the term community suggests a general sense of altruism, reciprocity, and beneficence that comes from working together. Communities help generate a shared language, rituals and customers, and collective memory of those that join the group. Encyclopedia Americana defines a community as, "A relatively small, isolated center with a stable population, in which all economic and social services necessary to life can be maintained. The community is one of the oldest forms on human social organizations... The ideal type of community emerges as an intellectual concept when social change threatens to destroy a locality's isolatio n, traditionalism, and solidarity.... [This] leads to a newer form -- including occupational and professional groups, neighborhood groups, and ethnic and political groups -- becomes the functional equivalents of the older, ecological, isolated community and they make it possible for their members to avoid the problems of a multidimensional mass society. Their m embers can find a focus for their social relations, loyalties, and interests."
What are the facts to be collected – collected – Model Model II Information requirement to understand a community 1. Basic community characteristics [Physical features and population particulars] 2. How the community functions to meet its needs [Physical needs /Social and Emotional needs / Political needs / Economic needs / Educational and communication needs] 3. Unmet needs 4. Community resources [Natural/Tangible human made things / Systems of serving people / Social relationships/Major institutions / Financial service /Human values / Skills and talents / Knowledge availability e 5. Capacity for disposition towards purposeful change
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1. Basic community characteristics Size [small or big] * Common places * Landmarks * Look [dirty or clean] * Natural features Population Understanding a Community’s Number*Demographic break down [male female /married / Agriculture unmarried/old/young/] * Population density * Nature of Agriculture‘s Role in the families [joint/nuclear/male and female headed/family Community members] 1. Environmental Role 2. Economic Role How the community functions? 3. Cultural Role [Function means community attempt to meet its needs] Laws that Protect Agriculture 2.1. Physical needs Understanding Specific Aspects of Access to adequate needs * Affordable medical care * Farming Adequate and safe transport system * Adequate waste and 1. Timeliness and Seasonality of drainage system * Clean environment * Routine Farming Practices maintenance 2. Manure Management 3. Odors and Noise 2.2. Social and emotional needs 4. Use of Roads Safety and security * Pride in the community * Confident 5. Use of Pesticides of their own and others abilities * Caring by others * 6. Animals in Pastures Groupings * Handling of deviants 7. Changing nature of farming 2.3. Political needs Ability to work together * Participation in decision-making * Formal/Informal process of making community decisions * Formal government structures and leadership positions * Recognizing community problems * Dominants [vocal] and passive [silent] * Basis of community power * Carrying out decisions 2.4. Economic needs Access to goods and services * Income and occupational levels * Opportunities available [plenty/limited] * Earnings [inside/outside] * Production centers * Forces which influence economic health 2.5. Educational and communication needs Ways of learning about the things happening in the community /world * How people decide about what is true? * Whom they listen and their credibility? * Schools and training programs * Formal provider of news-their philosophical and editorial basis Informal methods of providing news * Interest in communicating with one another 3. Assessing the community‟s unmet needs When a community cannot meet its goals or sustain it self, the community has unmet needs Needs are often undiscovered, undeclared or considered unimportant by those who could do something about them Recall *Normative need/Comparative need/Expressed need/Felt need – one should not mistake this as a need it self Symptoms of need and solution to need – one E.g. Over crowded clients-inadequate chairs Symptom Putting adequate chairs Solution [Both may be wrong] Timely service may be the solution
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4. Community resources A need arises not because of the absence of resource. Allocation of resources and our inability to recognize and develop resources may result in need. In order to meet the need, collect the required information about the resources available in a community. Natural resources - Land, Water, Trees etc. Tangible human made things --E.g. Libraries, bridges, cars etc — Local Systems of serving people — Local government, grievance procedure, games, health etc — Family, friends, Social relationships — Family, business associations etc — Temples, schools, Major institutions — Temples, government departments’ etc — Money, barter etc Financial services — Money, — Honesty, Human quality and values — Honesty, determination, passion etc — Carpentry, plumbing etc Skills and talents — Carpentry, — Science, history etc Knowledge availability — Science, — Temples, meeting places etc Resources that can be used in multiple ways — Temples, — Storage place that can be used Resources that can be combined to produce new resources — Storage to collect used books 5. Capacity for change and disposition to change The desire for change often involves correcting injustices, but it is not limited to this. It can also involve providing new opportunities or challenges, escaping the boredom of the routine All communities have some capacity to change, though some have more constraints than others. E.g. Public employees legally limited to take political action. Each community also differs in its disposition to change E.g. Some communities are happy with the existing conditions
Six stages of effective community organizing: Assess the community Create an action team Develop an action plan Mobilize to action Implement Evaluate
It's extremely important that one get to know the community where one will be working in, and the history of the issue one will address. Allow two to three months to become familiar with the community, its history, make-up, demographics, geography and political leadership. Continue to learn about the community by going ―door knocking ―and conducting ―one-to-one discussions ". The organizer must learn what community members concerns are and find o ut what they identify as problems, not tell the community what the problem is.
How to find out what we need to know? Library/Census/City directory/Community profile/Publications/News paper files/Local magazines/Year books/Resource directories / Impact or issue publications /Lists of local clubs and organizations/Travel or tourism books/Economic profiles/Community trend profiles etc Look for organizations that do at least one of the following things Sell your community: Chamber of Commerce, Tourism organizations etc Sell in or from your community: Provision stores, Retail estate associations, Business concerns
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Serve your community: Schools, Temples, Churches, Service providers State a particular concern about your community: Environmental organizations, Police, Transport Qualities of a good Community Organizer Study your community: Universities, Community organizers think strategically about their work Planning bureaus, consulting while always keeping the final goal in mind and continually companies. making contributions to the goal. This is especially Guided personal discussions important in community organizing campaigns to enact or Focus groups change policies. Qualities include: • Imagination • Sense of Humor • Blurred vision of a Surveys and questionnaires better world • An organized personality Collecting list • Strong ego/sense of oneself • A free, open mind, and Membership lists *Donor lists *List of political relativity officers or board of directors • Ability to create the new out of the old Officers of political parties *Creating (Saul Alinsky, 1971) our own lists A check list that can be used to facilitate discussion to study/ understand a community A check list that can be used to facilitate discussion. Adapt it to local c onditions For each of the following statements, please indicate your response using the following key: Strongly agree -5, Agree- 4, Disagree – Disagree – 3, Strongly disagree 2, Don’t know -1 1 This community feels like home to me 2. I can get help from my friends when I need it. 3. If I need information to make an important decision I know where to find that information. 4. The community is able to respond to important issues 5. I think of myself as similar to the people who live here 6. People here are confident about the future of our community 7. I am able to get the services I need in my community 8. I shop locally whenever I can 9 The community has strong local leadership 10 There is a strong sense of cooperation and community pride 11 Our community is highly regarded in the region 12 I stop and chat with my neighbors‘ 13 I feel my concerns and opinions about local issues can be heard 14 The local businesses support the community 15 I feel safe in my community In the past 3 years 16 Have you ever joined a local community action to deal with an emergency? 17. Have you ever taken part in a community project? 18. Do you help out a local group as a volunteer? –
19. 20.
Have you ever been part of a project to organize a service in your area? Have you taken part in any education or training program?
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What do you think are the three m ost important issues for this community?
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Is there anyone else you think would be interested in doing this survey?
23 24
Is there anyone else you think would be interested in doing this survey? Would you like to make any comments about your community?
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5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
YES/NO YES/NO YES/NO YES/NO YES/NO
Phases/ Methods /Outcome of Community Organization Based on the syllabus content
5
5
Methods
Professional management, Scheduling & Monitoring Evaluation tools, resource mobilization, Financial Mgt, Cooperative Cooperative action
Co management capacity, Visible out puts. User groups,
Phases / Steps in
5
Outcomes
Professional management, Scheduling & Monitoring Evaluation tools,
Implementation Organization &
4 Consensus on how to act & mobilize, developed indicators, visible outputs,
4
6
Planning & Decision Making
6 Evaluation / Modification / Replication 6 Developed regulations, cooperation & integration,
Community Organization Phases Methods Tools & Outcome
1
4 Project planning tools, Group decision making, Negotiation, conflict resolution, Appraisal Appraisal
3 Base line surveys, Community Profiling, Observation, PRA Tools, Need assessment,
1
Stud Stud
2
3
Anal Anal sis sis
Asse Assess ssme ment nt
Understanding the Community / Issue / Problem 2 Field consultations, Focus group, Stakeholder workshops , Meeting, Conference, Committees, Problem & Need analysis 1
2
Negotiation, consultation, PRA Tools, Workshops, Group decision making, SWOT Analysis, Prioritization matrix,
3
Understood problems & needs, assessed context, created databases, more awareness about the problems & stakeholders, community assets,
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Understanding the Community by Understanding the Local Business Community Business Survey
Understanding the Community by Understanding the Local Business Community Business Survey (Adapt It to Local Conditions) Category of Business............. Number Employed: Years Established . . . . . Are you a member of any local business organization? YES NO If YES which organization/s? Which of the following best describes how you r un your business? (One or more) A. Provision of essential service to customers B. Provision of competitive service service and seek customers Provision of competitive, quality services and Provision of specialized services so customers seek us have loyal customers out Provision of specialized service and people are rreferred eferred to us Trying new ways ways of winning business business Reaching customers through advertisements Sponsoring one major local activity Sponsoring several local activities Employing trainees Technology and your business: Is there a role in your business for information infor mation technology? Which of the following best describes the technologies you use? Manual bankcard/credit card facilities Electronic banking for our business needs Basic computing- word processing and spreadsheets Commercial software packages Software for stock and inventory control Industry specific software Internet address and website Using industry specific technologies About your potential business growth Which of the following business strategies do you hav e in place at the moment? Planning to grow our business Having a working business plan Having a marketing plan Having a contingency plan for financial emergencies About the Business Community: 5. Yes, completely satisfactory 4. Yes, but not completely satisfactory 3. Somewhat, but need attention to be satisfactory 2. No not at all. Not satisfactory 1. Don’t kno w How do you feel about each of the following i ssues in the business community? The business sector works together well 5 4 3 2 1 We work to reduce reduce that leakage 5 4 3 2 1 The community supports its local businesses work together to promote the benefits benefits of shopping shopping 54321 locally 5 4 3 2 1 Businesses work together to maximize The business sector is optimistic about the future opportunities for the future 5 4 3 2 1 54321 The business sector promotes customer service 54321 Business, Council and the Community A spirit of mutual assistance and cooperation in the There is a strong working relationship between the community 5 4 3 2 1 Council and the business community 5 4 3 2 1 A high level of optimism in the community community There is a strong level of pride in the community 54321 54321 You as a member of the community Are you involved in any community organizations Do you undertake any voluntary work/ service in outside work? the community? What you do and how many hours each week you are involved in community work ?
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Collection of self explanatory diagrams on Steps /Stages in Community Organization
A look at the series of diagrams given in the following pages will help to understand how the steps and stages in community organization is differently described. This is not to confuse the readers but enable them to appreciate the complexity associated with community organization process.
4. Problem Census with Individual stakeholder groups
5. Consolidated problem ranking by facilitators
6. Plenary to agree problems
8. Plenary Primary & Secondary 7. Solution & Impact Analysis with Individual Stakeholders
10. Develop detailed plan of action
3.Household Census
11. Review & agree mitigation
9. Development of community organizations & Institutions 2. Stakeholder
1. Situation
12. Implement action plan including rules &
13. Co management formalized
Start
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Stages & Steps in Community Organization Situation that need improvement
Available Resources
Existing opportunities
Success stories
Decided to work
What to do?
Situation Assessmen
Learnings
Areas of improvement
When to do it?
Impact of project
Where to do?
Evaluation
Planning Who will do it?
Suggestions for the future
Implementatio
Analyze the issue or problem What is the issue or problem?
Identify Stakeholders Who is involved?
Know your target group Whom you want to reach?
Determine objectives & outcomes
2 E G A T S
Design your methods What methods should you use?
Consider funding How much will it cost & W ho’ll pay?
Make an action plan & implement it
Monitor & Evaluate How will you know if its been
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Required resources
Stages in Guiding / Organizing Communities
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Some self explanatory diagrams on Problem Proble m Solving Process
Steps in Problem Solving
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Phases in community organization learning
Phases in Community Organization Learning
25
Diagrams of Phases / Steps / Stages in Community Organization
Steps /Phases in Community Organization Organization
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Tools that can be used at different d ifferent stages and for different purposes
Experience
Brain storming Cause effect Diagrams Mind Mapping Social & Resource mapping
E x
Seasonal Diagrams
Visioning
e ri
Action /Implementing
m
Exploring
R
Semi structured Interviews
e fl e
e c n
Deciding
ta ti o n
Action Plannin
Analyzing
ti
Venn Diagrams
Historical Analysis
o n SWOT Analysis
s
Nom Nominal inal Grou Grou Tech Techn ni ue Force Field Analysis
Card ard Tec Techn hnii ue Inte Interr rrel elat atio ions nshi hi Dia Dia rams rams
Matrix Analysis
Stakeholder s Wo Works rksho s ’
Priority Ranking Wealth Ranking
Conceptualization
Major Phases / stages 1. Understanding the Community 2. Project Planning
1. Study 2. Assessment 3, Diagnosis 4. Planning & Decision Making
3. Resource mobilization, Financial Management, Monitoring & evaluation
5.Implementation & Action
4. Evaluation,
6. Evaluation – Modification / Replication
Appropriate tools Social Map, resource Map, Seasonal Calendar, Wealth ranking, Venn diagrams, Consultations, focus-group discussions, Community Profiling, , transect walk, Demographic profiles, Asset mapping, Referring Referring secondary sources Focus group discussions, Stakeholders workshops & meetings Data-gathering tools such as stakeholders' analysis, Problem ranking and prioritization, Project Appraisal & Scheduling techniques, SWOT & Force Field Analysis, PERT & CPM, Professional Management techniques relevant to Project administration, Logical Framework Analysis (LFA) Fund raising methods, Budgeting, Financial Management Techniques, Gantt chart, Monitoring tools, Alternative technologies or methods like micro-finance, sustainable agriculture, alternative medicine, co-operative, indigenous f orest management, appropriate technologies for livelihoods Stakeholders workshops & meetings, community-based evaluation tools,
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PRA tools for many purposes – to understand and organize the communities
PRA tools for many purposes – to understand and organize the communities Gaining ideas Analyzing factors, steps, relationships •Brainstorming can be applied to gain as •A conceptual model is a diagram of a set of many ideas as possible without getting caught relationships between certain factors that are believed up in detailed discussion. to impact or lead to a target condition. •With flow diagrams you can map out steps that need Organizing and ranking ideas, factors, to be taken and the factors that need to be taken into issues account •Cause and effect mapping can be used to •Force Field analysis is a tool for systematically brainstorm on and organize causes for a analyzing the driving and restraining forces in a situation particular problem •Interrelationship diagrams are used to examine if •Card techniques are an easy way to factors are caused by or a cause of o f the other factor, and cluster, organize and rank information. to show relations between factors with arrows. •The Delphi technique can be used to •Issue analysis is identification of major issues that categorize ideas, issues or questions with a have been raised from a range of other tools (focus group groups, semi-structured interviews) and grouping these •Mind mapping is a good exploring tool to into major themes. cluster similar ideas and see links. •Matrix analysis can be used for ranking the value of •Nominal group techniques enable a a particular activity or item according to a range of group to quickly develop a ranked list of criteria problems, issues or actions •SWOT is the identification of Strengths, Weaknesses, Collecting information Opportunities and Threats •Focus groups discussions take place with Participatory learning tools a small group of selected people to collect •With historical analysis you create a table with dates information about an issue. and topics which can be filled in with a group to create •With historical narratives you can create understanding about history and background. personal testimonies of past events and •Locality mapping is drawing on the knowledge of conditions. local people to develop a map of the local area. •Questionnaires and surveys are a •A timeline is a widely used participatory tool to structured way to gather quantitative understand a kind of history of a community information. •A time trend helps to understand and analyze the •By semi-structured interviewing we fluctuation situation of development progress and their mean guided conversations where broad reasons during a certain time interval. questions are asked and new questions are •An empowerment circle aims to generate allowed to arise as result of discussion. information from stakeholders about the progress of Planning their empowerment situation after project intervention. • Visioning is a nice tool to let people think •With institutional linkage or Venn diagrams you can about and describe how they would like things visualize institutions and organizations and their to be in the future Action plans are tables with influence for example. tasks, resources, due date and responsible •Rich picturing is a kind of group work (4-8 persons) persons to visualize a situation on a large sheet of paper with symbols, pictures and words.
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Phases /Steps in Community Organizing
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Diagram: Problem Analysis Model
Example of Problem Analysis
High Infant Deaths
Too Young Mothers (<18 yrs)
Close spacing of births (<2 yrs)
Pregnancy
High risk birth arrives too late at hospital
Mothers are living in far flung areas
Intermittent use of Family Planning Methods
due to rape
Children are living on the streets
Too many Births (>5)
Mothers don’t know their pregnancy is high risk
Short Breast feeding practice Non use of Family Planning methods
Religious belief forbids use of Family Planning
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High incidence of infection (sepsis)
Midwives use unhygienic practices
Diagrams: Models - Steps / Stages in Community Organization
Phases /Steps in Community Organizing
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Comprehensive list of Community Organization / Engagement Eng agement Tools It is a challenge to list out community organization/engagement - 1. steps/stages and 2.tools and techniques matched to each stage /phase. The choice of steps and techniques will depend on a number of factors, including: . The purpose of organization / engagement . Legal requirements for organization / engagement . Who is to be consulted? . The environment in which engagement is being carried out (political, social, cultural –normal, conflict ridden, emergency) . Money, time and skills available. List of Community Organization / Engagement Tools Advisory committee Background papers see Written information Charette
Citizens‘ jury Citizens‘ panel Commission of inquiry see Public hearing Community information and feedback session Consultative committee see Advisory Advisory committee Design workshop see Charette Discussion forums see Website Discussion papers see Written information Face-to-face interview see Meeting Facilitation . Feedback see Written information Focus group Inquiry by design see Charette Meeting Mediation meetings see Meeting Newsletter see Written information Open day see Community information and feedback session Planning focus meeting Policy round table see Planning focus meeting Precinct committee Pre-lodgment meeting see Meeting Post-determination meeting see Meeting. Public forum see Public meeting . Public hearing Public meeting Public notices Research panel see Citizens‘ panel Questionnaire Regional forum Search conference Threaded discussion groups see Website Website 32 Workshop see Focus group
Levels of Community Engagement Its Objectives, Outcomes & Techniques used Level
M R O F N I
T L U S N O C
E V L O V N I E T A R O B A L L O C
Objectives To provide provide the public with balanced and objective information to assist them in understanding the problem, alternatives, or solutions To obtain public feedback on analysis, alternatives, or decisions
Promise to the public We will keep you informed
Major techniques Meeting Public notice Written Website
We will keep you informed, listen to and acknowledge your concerns, and provide feedback on how public input influenced the decision
Citizens‘ panel
To work directly with the public throughout the process to ensure that public and private concerns are consistently understood and considered
We will work with you to ensure that your concerns and issues are directly reflected in the alternatives developed and provide feedback on how public input influenced the decision We will look to you for direct advice and innovation in formulating solutions and incorporate your advice and Recommendations into the decisions to the maximum extent possible
To partner with the public in each aspect of the decision including the development of alternatives and the identification of the preferred solution To place final decision making
R E in the hands of the public W O P M E
To place final decision making in the hands of the public
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Community information and feedback session Facilitation Focus group Meeting Public hearing Questionnaire Facilitation Planning focus meeting Precinct committee
Advisory committee Charette Facilitation Policy round table Regional forum Search conference
Citizens‘ jury Search conference
Description of Tools MEETINGS This is a cost effective, relatively informal technique for information sharing that can be a good alternative to public meetings Description Small or one-on-one meetings and interviews are a popular way to inform or consult with interested parties and members of the community. Being less formal than large meetings, they are a way to engage those who may be under-represented in public forums. They offer a more focused opportunity to discuss a planning issue or project with an individual or group. PUBLIC NOTICE This is one of the least expensive information giving techniques, although costs will vary according to the methods used. Description A public notice is a means of providing information to the public about a proposal or key community engagement activity associated with a planning or development assessment process. A public notice usually appears: . in a local or national circulation newspaper . as a sign in a public place . on land or buildings that t hat may be affected by a planning or development assessment process . on a public notice board. A public notice describes the proposal or event, for example, local environmental planning process, public hearing, exhibition. Its purpose and objectives are stated briefly, including: . the name of the authority or organizers for an event . the place, time and date of the event . the timeframe for the process. It may also state that the public can make submissions during a specified submission period. Public notices are mandatory for specified steps of some statutory planning and development assessment processes. In some cases not only the contents, but the size of the notice is specified. WRITTEN INFORMATION The written word is a widely used and cost effective method of providing information and encouraging input. Costs will vary depending on the nature of the written information. Description Written information is a widely used, traditional consultation method. When associated with consultation on plan making and development proposals, it takes many forms. These include: . discussion, issues and background papers . Reports on processes . records of meetings . questionnaires . articles . advertisements . media releases . brochures and newsletters publicizing planning proposals and associated community engagement strategies. Written material is used to: . provide information about policies, strategies, services, plans, proposals and forthcoming events . encourage broad discussion and response to policies, strategies, plans and proposals . provide feedback to participants in the consultation process or the community generally
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CITIZENS’ PANEL Although this technique is costly to establish in both time and money, it offers ongoing value as a resource for a range of engagement techniques. Description Standing citizens‘ panels, research panels, or similar techniques have been wi dely used. They are large scale consultative groups (1000 –2500 participants) weighted for gender, age, ethnic background and occupation to be representative of the community. This technique provides a relatively permanent forum that can be surveyed on a regular basis about issues or services. One advantage is that it provides a large sample from which it is possible to gauge changes in attitudes, knowledge and behaviors over time.
Participants normally serve on a citizens‘ panel for a period of two to four years. A citizens‘ panel is a 'deliberative' form of participation. Deliberative participation differs from normal public consultation or public participation because it does not seek 'snapshot' answers on predefined questions framed by policy makers. Instead the emphasis is on getting citizens to think about their experiences and priorities, to look at the problems of providing public services, and to frame their own suggestions and recommendations for policy makers to consider. In short, people are asked to deliberate, listen to evidence, and get involved in a far more extensive way with the issues under consideration. The motivation for establishing a citizens‘ panel comes from several sources: . the intelligence of the electorate should not be underestimated . it is difficult for public officials to have as much information about citizens' situations as the citizens do themselves . the interconnections between problems from the citizens' point of view are often subtle and yet very important for the way that policy decisions work or do not work. COMMUNITY INFORMATION AND FEEDBACK SESSION This technique itself takes little time yet requires significant expenditure of resources to prepare. Description A community information and feedback session is usually a day on site at a nominated venue where participants will: . view plans for a proposed development . discuss issues with the sponsoring organization . provide comments or written feedback about the project. FACILITATION This technique involves some additional expenditure of preparation time and money to cover the cost of the facilitator but can deliver outcomes that would not be possible without facilitation. Description Facilitation is a technique used to enhance the effectiveness of other commu nity engagement techniques. It involves a neutral person, or facilitator, steering an event such as a forum, workshop or public meeting to ensure that all views are voiced and heard and that the environment is conducive to the open expression of needs and concerns. A facilitator‘s role is also to lead participants towards identifying common ground and mutually acceptable options. Facilitation is a vital tool when dealing with contested issues or where there is potential conflict between parties over outcomes. This can occur in almost any issue. Cole-Edelstein (2001) has identified some of the fundamental principles of facilitation: . trust and integrity . transparency and accountability . flexibility to reflect the directions of the process . responsibility to process, not outcomes. FOCUS GROUP This technique can be relatively resource intensive, especially when a wide range of special interest groups are targeted, however, it is an effective way to engage groups who may be under represented in larger forums. Description Focus groups can help develop a program or consider a proposal by incorporating views from groups that have a specific interest or concerns. Focus groups target members of a specific population or special needs group.
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It is useful to seek advice from individuals or organizations with local expertise when selecting appropriate groups. Because focus groups tend to involve small numbers, around eight to twelve, all participants have a chance to contribute. The advantages of focus groups are that they: . allow for brainstorming ideas . can include those who may usually be excluded . allow in depth discussion. Weaknesses include: . possible cost . lack of confidentiality . qualitative information only . difficulty in prioritising issues PUBLIC HEARING Description A Description A public hearing is held in response to a submission for a hearing to discuss concerns about a draft local environment plan. A council has the discretion as to whether or not to hold a public hearing. The concerned authorities may arrange a public hearing to enable the community to comment on a particular aspect, or on the entire draft of a planning policy. Some advantages of a public hearing are: . the public is allowed, by prior arrangement, to speak without rebuttal . available evidence can to be worked through systematically . comments are put on record. Weaknesses include: . it does not foster dialogue . an adversarial mood can be created . minority groups and those who do not like public speaking are not easily included . people with the confidence or resources to make a case tend to be favoured. QUESTIONNAIRE This technique can be a valuable way to obtain information that will inform the engagement process although it takes significant resources. Description A questionnaire or survey is a face-to-face, postal or electronic set of pre-determined pre -determined questions designed to obtain information, views and concerns associated with a planning or development process. The advantages of a questionnaire include: . those who might not attend meetings are engaged . statistically valid results can be more acceptable to the public and decision makers. ma kers. Weaknesses include: . resource intensive . low response rate . limited detail. PLANNING FOCUS MEETING This technique is a cost effective way of resolving issues at the pre-lodgment stage and involves relatively few resources. Description The planning focus meeting includes one or more meetings between the development proponent and authorities. It provides a forum for proponents to introduce projects and explain various components and considerations. It also acts as a contact point for various government agencies including councils in those areas the development will be, to identify key issues of concern. From this point, the authorities are able to advise on which key issues the proponents should analyze and assess. Planning focus meetings are valuable because they deal at an early stage with matters that might otherwise hold up the assessment process. They help clarify the main standards, criteria and guidelines that will be used by authorities in assessing and determining projects. Their purpose is to establish a sound basis that ensures projects are adequately described and their implications are properly identified and addressed. addressed. It is not a forum for making decisions about whether a project can be approved or for setting conditions ADVISORY COMMITTEE This technique requires ongoing commitment and resource support. Description Advisory committees generally comprise comprise members of community groups and government or nongovernment agencies with expertise in a specific field. They can be formed to monitor mo nitor
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issues in relation to: . various government programs . planning processes – place-based strategic planning or development of a specific local government area . specific issues – advising on Aboriginal peoples‘ needs/concerns . specific matters such as access for people with disabilities, and community safety. In a consultation process, they can offer advice on appropriate changes to programs, policies or plans or recommend the introduction of specific services. Advisory committees can help produce more appropriate policy and reduce criticism from interest groups. Although similar to task forces, advisory committees function as an ongoing structure while task forces tend to be formed on a short term basis to focus specifically on the development of a particular proposal. CHARETTE This is a resource intensive technique that can deliver concrete outcomes very quickly and cost effectively. Description A charette or ‗inquiry by design‘ workshop is an a n intensive workshop where stakeholders are brought together to suggest solutions for complex planning issues. Such solutions include trying to balance planning, economic and social factors as well as urban design and sustainability considerations. A charette should include representatives from interest groups although it is not limited to these groups. It involves a rapid and dynamic interchange of ideas between planning practitioners, stakeholders and the general community. Concrete results are produced rapidly with meaningful and well placed involvement of the community. It is a cost effective means of envisioning the outcomes at an early stage and assessing the planning proposals at the final stage. It is important that both the consent authority and the participants in the charette understand its role i n decision-making. REGIONAL FORUM This technique is an important way of promoting cooperation and coordination in regional planning. It requires ongoing commitment of resources and is an implicit component of planning. Description A regional forum promotes cooperative and coordinated regional planning and provides comprehensive advice to the govt. It brings together key government and community based interests in a region and coordinates preparation, maintenance and implementation of regional strategies. This task also includes: . streaming information management . developing consistent, whole-of-government guidance to local councils o n implementing regional strategies. SEARCH CONFERENCE This technique is a resource intensive, effective means of creating a partnership with the community. It can be used for developing and gaining broad commitment in a strategic planning process. Its success depends on a strong commitment to follow through with conference outcomes. Description Search conferences were pioneered in England in 1959. They are usually held early in a planning process to develop a broad vision for a particular project or organization. Search conferences focus on first identifying desirable futures and then concentrating on ways to achieve them. Search conferences are intensive events, usually taking place over two days and two nights (Roulier 1997). Sometimes called future search conferences, they involve a large group of people, selected because they have power or information on the topic at hand or are affected by the outcomes. The ideal number is considered to be 64 people, as this breaks down into eight groups of eight. People from similar interest groups are usually placed together for some or all of the conference to take part in a highly structured process covering five stages: 1. Review the past . Each participant writes key events in the history of themselves, the community and the world onto three parallel time lines. 2. Explore the present . A mind map is made of trends affecting the local community. . Specific interest groups identify important trends and what they would like done about them.
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. Groups share what they are proud of and sorry about in their community. 3. Create ideal futures . Mixed small groups develop visions. . Barriers to the visions are identified. . Each group acts out its vision to everyone else. 4. Identify common ground . First the small groups, then the whole group, work out: - the common ground or shared vision - identify projects to achieve it - identify any unresolved differences. 5. Make action plans . Self selected action groups plan projects and publicly commit to their action. CITIZENS’ JURY A citizens‘ jury is a time, labour and cost intensive exercise that requires expert facilitation. Description
In a citizens‘ jury, a randomly recruited and demographically representative panel of citizens meets for three to five days to carefully examine an issue of public significance. The jury usually consists of 12 to 20 individuals, and serves as a microcosm of the community. Jurors are often paid a stipend for their time. Childcare, specialist support and travel expenses should also be offered to jurors. They hear from a variety of expert witnesses and are able to deliberate together on the issue. On the final day of their moderated hearings, the members of the citizens‘ jury present their recommendations to the p ublic. The ‗charge‘ is the task facing the jury. It ty pically takes the form of a question or series of questions that the jurors address and answer during deliberations. A citizens‘ jury is a transparent process that involves experts, ordinary citizens, service providers, interest groups and the decision makers on a specific topic of community concern.
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Methods of Group Decision Making and Co-Operative Action Groups in the context of Community Organization
The work of the organizations is largely the work of the groups. Most of the stuff of community organization – discussing, planning, and decision -making and camaraderie occurs in groups. Building a successful organization Synopsis demands an understanding of the Groups in the context of Community Organization functioning of successful groups. The importance of Groups Meaning of a Group & Decision Making Meaning of Decision Making Meaning of Group Decision Making Understanding the Groups Stages of Group Formation Johnson & Johnson / Napier & Greshenfeld Task roles and Relationship roles Improving the efficiency of the Groups Providing proper learning climate Deciding the size Group Decision Making Involvement / Types of decision making Difficulties in decision-making Making good decisions Advantages & Disadvantages in group decision making Forms of group decision-making Meeting practice Conference practice Committee practice Characteristics of good & bad decisions
Good decisions Informed Supported by best evidence Compatible with patients values Considers patients preferences Weigh pros and cons Practical Poor decisions Objective data inadequate Too few options considered Alternatives unclear Values and preferences unexplored Roles unclear Communication is poor
Community organizers see group methods of ensuring authentic participation as a means towards transformation. Groups are seen as preparing ground for participation. Trust and dialogues are pre requisite for group process. Founded on love, humility and faith, dialogue becomes a horizontal relationship of mutual trust. Trust is established by dialogue; it cannot exist unless the words of both parties coincide with their actions. Nor can dialogue exist without hope. Hope is rooted in our human
Different Types of Decisions Irreversible Reversible Delayed Quick decisions Experimental Trial and Error Conditional
Decision Making Styles Authoritative Facilitative Consultative Delegative
incompleteness, from which we move out in constant search, which can be carried out only in communion with other people. Group decisions require an intense faith in human beings; founded on love, humility and faith, group decision-making process develops mutual trust. (It requires intense faith in human being;
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requires love and humility; requires hope, which is rooted in human incompleteness; involves critical thinking) Issues facing the people are often complex and no expert has all the answers. On the other hand no body is totally ignorant. To discover valid solutions everyone needs to be both a learner and a teacher. ‘A’ may provide a fact; ‘B’ may provide a premise; ‘C’ may provide a value judgment; ‘D’ may provide a complete alternative; ‘E’ may provide second alternative. This may lead to valid solutions. To discover valid solutions, everyone needs to be both a learner and a teacher. Groups provide an environment for mutual learning process. Meaning of a Group: Two or more people who interact with and influence each other towards a common purpose. (Who interact with one another; psychologically aware of one another; who perceive themselves in a group) Meaning of Decision Making: Selection of a preferred course of action from or more alternatives Meaning of Group Decision Making: When two or more people who interact and influence each other attempt to select a preferred course of action from two or more alternatives. Group decisions emerge from group meetings. These meetings may be called as conferences, committees, staff meetings etc
An example of Personal Decision Making
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Understanding the Groups Stages in the development of a group. The following stages are identified in the life cycle of a group . Tuckmen and Jenson 1. Forming Stage Members are unsure of themselves and the group. They try to figure out where they fit in with these new relationships 2. Storming Stage It is characterized by rebellion as members assert their individuality and resist authority
3. Norming Stage. Members establish procedure and a sense of how they should act in the group
4. Performing Stage The group concentrates on the tasks to be achieved
5. Adjourning Stage When the group completes its work, which results in a change in the relationship among its members
Napier and Gershenfled 1. Beginning Stage This stage is a period of watching, waiting and testing how to act 2. Movement toward Confrontation Stage After people have dropped their polite facades and begin acting more like themselves. Questions arise over w ho makes decision and how. Members try to firmly establish their place in the group seeking prestige and influence. This bound to cause some conflict 3. Compromise and Harmony Stage The group starts reversing confrontative trend realizing that if continues the group will disintegrate. This period of goodwill, tolerance for different behaviors and more acceptance of individuals. Collaboration is increased and competitiveness is reduced. There is a pressure to preserve the spirit of harmony 4. Reassessment Stage The group starts feeling that the pressure to preserve superficiality makes them to ignore the members personal needs, suspicions and realize that it stands in the way of accomplishing goals. The group realizes that survival depends on increasing shared responsibility as well as personal accountability. This in turn increases the trust and individual risk taking 5. Resolution and recycling stage The group realizes that periods of harmony are normal and conflicts are handled easily and quickly.
Task Roles and Relationship Roles of a Group: TASKS AND RELATIONSHIP NEEDS IN ANY GROUP In every group some one is needed to play each of the following roles if the group is to accomplish its tasks and keep good relationships among its members. Any action that strengthens the task or relationship level can be considered a leadership act ion. Task Needs Relationship Needs Task Component: any action the group undertakes Relationship or Maintenance Component: to accomplish its purpose / goal. If task component Actions not directed at the working of the, but to receives little attention, the group wont accomplish enhance the harmony among individuals and the very much. group. Maintenance component includes the ability of the group members to work well together, to effectively manage their conflicts and to feel good about them. This necessary after a sequence of intense task activities or otherwise the group will probably fall apart
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1. Starting the discussion or helping the group to begin a job. 2. Asking for information. information. Asking group members what information they have and / or where the information can be found on the topic being discussed 3. Giving information. information. When group member do not have particular facts that are relevant to the topic. 4. Asking what people think. Getting group members‘ opinion is for good decision -making. It is also important for people to be willing to share what they think. 5. Explaining. Explaining. Giving practical examples to make a point clear. 6. Summing up. up. Repeating what has been said clearly in few words. 7. Checking to see if everyone agrees 8. Analyzing the problems under discussion 9. Making creative suggestions to resolve the problems 10. Having clear process for making each decision 11. Evaluating. Evaluating. Looking at the strengths and
1. Encouraging. Being friendly, responding to and building suggestions made by others. Showing acceptance and appreciation of others and their ideas. 2. Giving every one a chance to speak 3. Asking what people feel. Sharing what one fells and checking group feelings 4. Encouraging shy members, especially young women or those who less formally schooled 5. Resolving arguments 6. Encouraging creativity in the group. 7. Sharing responsibilities 8. Developing the confidence and skills of all members 9. Setting standards. standards. E.g. shall we agree that nobody speaks more than twice 10. Diagnosing difficulties E.g. may be some of us are afraid of the consequences of this decision 11. Relieving tension. tension. By bringing it out into the open, putting a problem in a wider context, or making a well timed joke
weaknesses of the group‘s work and seeing how it can be improved
To use groups as a tool for Community transformation, Community Organizers have to concentrate on the following aspects 1. Structure of the Groups 2. Improving the efficiency of the Groups 3. Providing proper learning climate Structure of the Groups Deciding the size: Majority of people find it difficult to speak in a big group of strangers. Also there is usually not enough time for everyone to speak. Therefore if everyone is to participate actively, small groups are essential.
Decision Making Modes Low w o L y l t a n c i i a n t r h e c c e T n U
Goal Ambiguity /Conflict
Rationale Mode
Political Mode
Emotional Mode
Anarchy Mode
h g i H
Pairs are useful for
Interviews, intimate sharing, practicing some skills, ti stir a passive sleepy group in to action. 3s are very useful for Getting everyone thinking and participating actively Testing out an idea one is hesitant to present to the big group. If two people think it is worthwhile, one might risk saying it to the whole group
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High
4s, 5s, 6s is useful for, Good size for a planning team or discuss about more complex situations. The bigger the group gets, the longer the discussion time needed and the longer it will take to make decisions. 6-12 This is a good size for sharing ideas and insights when the group has plenty of time. But the group is bigger than this, it need an appointed animator or leader. All members should try to be sensitive to the needs of the group (task and relationship needs) 30s An ideal size to develop the sprit of a community. But it is also necessary with groups of this size to break into smaller groups of different kinds for different purposes. 30 – 30 – 200 200 > Useful to inform new ideas and policy. But these groups should be broken in to small groups and animators or facilitators are needed to break the passivity. Group Decision Making
Community organizers frequently use a number of small group process in decision-making / problem solving process. The use of decision- making groups typically called ‘Committees’ is common in almost all community organization settings. Decision-making is defined as the selection of a preferred course of action from two or more alternatives. Group decisionmaking has several advantages over individual decisions making. They are: Greater knowledge Greater number of approaches to the problem Greater acceptance of the solution through participation and support Better comprehension of the decision.
Steps, Strategy, tools & techniques
Community s a great place to work
ommunities can be transformed, made liveable
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Involvement / Types of decision making It is neither possible nor desirable to involve everybody in every decision. One of the main skills in democratic leadership is deciding who should be involved in making which decisions. The basic rule is that the more deeply people are affected by a decision, the more important it is they should share in making it. If we analyze how many people were actively involved in making a decision, we will find they all fall somewhere along the following line
Plop Hand Clasp One Person
Minority Clique
Majority Vote True Consensus Silent Consensus
The plop: plop: Here the group makes a decision by not making a decision. Not to decide is to decide. Some one makes a suggestion but drops like a stone into a pond and no one pays any attention to it all. If the person who made the suggestion really felt enthusiastic about it, the fact that it was totally ignored could make that person withdraw or resist later suggestions. The one-person decision: This is quickly made, but later when the decider depends on free or voluntary support from others to implement it he /she may find himself / herself carrying it out alone. The hand Clasp: One person makes a suggestion. Another says, ―what a marvelous idea‖, and without further discussion, the matter is decided. These decisions are more frequent than one thinks, and often passed unnoticed at the time, but resentment comes to the surface later. The Clique: Clique: Decisions are made by a small group who plan beforehand to get their way, because they are better organized than those who disagree. They are often successful on the immediate issue, but they bring a spirit of rivalry rather than the co-operation in to the group. Sometimes groups of people who have formerly been excluded or silent form a caucus in order to present a common agenda. This can be a positive action and check-and- balance to a dominant group. It is a healthy sign in a participatory democracy. Minority: these decisions are not consciously organize as those of the clique, but a few powerful personalities dominate the group, often unconsciously and later they wonder why the others are apathetic. Majority Vote: In big groups this is often the most effective way to make a decision. However, one may lose the interest or the loyalty of the minority who voted against a decision, especially if they feel that their point of view was not heard. Silent Consensus: Some groups aims at unanimous decisions. These are good, if genuine, but they are rarely achieved completely on certain issues. Unanimous agreement is some times assumed, when some members have not felt free to disagree and kept silent. Consensus This as an agreement, often involving compromise or the combination of various possibilities, after all opinions have been heard. Disagreements and minority viewpoints are discussed fully. It takes time and care to build a climate in which all feel free to express themselves, but this method does build unity, cooperation and commitment. It does not mean listening to people and then doing what we were going to do in the first place. It means adapting to accommodate the concerns of all. It may take longer to make a decision this way, but it will often be carried out more quickly and whol wholeh ehea eart rted edll .
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Difficulties in decision-making:
Every group, to achieve its goal is constantly involved in making decisions. These decisions may be big, little, easy, hard, right or wrong. Decision making forms a continuing pattern of relationships among members of a group: a pattern in which every individual member has some influence. It is amazing to note that a bit of information may change the mood of the group, a loud objection, an expression of approval or hostility, envy or admiration, contempt or condescension, can have an impending decision. So it is little wonder that group after group has difficulty making the decisions. Some become paralyzed when confronted with a decision: some argue over a minor point: others rush into a vote only to reverse their decision later on or fail to carry out the plan: others appoint a committee to save them from having to decide. Most of the difficulties encountered by a group in making decisions center around one or another of the following factors. Fear of Consequences: In some groups the possible outcomes of an impending decision may bring divisions and disagreements. Frank acknowledgement of these fears often suggests how they can be dealt with effectively. E.g. being in a group, this is not liked by the superiors. Conflicting Loyalties: When one person is a member of number of groups, this frequently leads to divided loyalties about decisions. An atmosphere in which it is possible for these conflicts to be brought out into the open without the threat to the individual is a help in resolving them. E.g. I would like to help this community project, but I hardly get any time to spend with my wife and children these days. Interpersonal Conflict: In group of any size personal differences occur which provoke feelings of affection or dislike among members and which interfere with sound decision making. When two different people each trying to get things done in their own way, struggle erupts. Often another member who is not involved in the interpersonal conflict can bring the real problem into the open. Hidden agenda: One person may try to get the group to make certain decision, which he /she wants for reasons which he / she will not share with the group. Blundering Methods: A group may be bound by rigid procedures (e.g. always addressing all remarks to the chairperson) that there is little chance for free expression of differences. or a group may allow itself to substitute personal opinion for adequate information. Or a group may approach the decision making process without testing for consequences.
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Inadequate Leadership: A leader may hinder good decision making if he / she restricts the expression of opinion or discussion on issues too soon. Leaders also may fail to provide assistance in selecting appropriate methods for decision-making or be insensitive to the factors causing difficulty in the group. Clash of Interest: Sometimes different group or individuals within an organization do have opposing interest (e.g. workers wanting higher wages and owners wanting higher profits). Factors, which help in making good decisions: a. Clear goal b. Clear understanding of who has responsibility for the decision. c. Good means of stimulating and sharing ideals d. Effective leadership and structures to deal with the size of the group. e. Effective way of testing different suggestions offered. f. Commitment of the leader to genuine group involvement in making the decision. g. Agreement on the procedures on what procedures will be most appropriate. (e.g. consensus, majority vote, secret ballot etc ) Advantages & Disadvantages in group decision- making Advantages Greater knowledge Diversity of ideas Diffuses the responsibility Better comprehension Participation hence acceptance Greater number of solutions Protects individuals from embarrassment embarrassment Intense pressure to go along with others.
Disadvantages Slow and time consuming consuming Risky shift Passing the buck Strong vocal minority opinion overrides majority opinion. Group think [norm for consensus overrides the Realistic appraisal of alternative of alternative solution; hesitation to disagree with others]
Different methods of group decision-making Meeting Meeting may be defined as any gathering, assembly or coming together of two or more persons for the transaction of some lawful business of common concern
Properly convened [by formal authority] Properly constituted [quorum & chairmen] Proper procedure [Agenda & minutes] Just to discuss matters When there is conflict of interest To get majority idea
Conference Conference means an informal group discussion by three or more persons, with the object of carrying out open minded exploration and usually of achieving consensus or integration of thinking on a subject or problem DO Face to face contact
Committee Committee may be defined as a group of persons, limited in membership, by selective appointment, usually appointed by some superior authority and having joint responsibility for inquiry, deliberation, decision, action or related activities in regard to matters assigned to them
Participation To get consensus To generate group idea To explore the problem
Specialists in the subject matter Both to decide & act To take joint responsibility
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DO
Meeting Practice: A ‘meeting’ may be defined as any an y gathering, assembly or coming together of two or more persons for the transaction of some lawful business of common concern.
The proper functioning of any association of persons, large or small requires that the members of the association come together from time to time discuss matters of common concern and take decisions by common consent by the majority. Meeting may be classified as public meeting and private or business meeting. It is a statutory requirement for a registered community organization to conduct regular and proper meetings to transact its business. A registered organization has to conduct executive committee meeting, annual general body meeting and extraordinary general body meeting. These meetings should be properly convened (i.e. by proper authority, by proper notice) properly constituted (i.e. quorum and chairman) and follow proper procedures (meeting procedure, agenda). The method of meeting practice usually adopts parliamentary procedure to make decisions. Parliamentary procedure is based on the democratic principles of majority rule, which requires that the minority abide by the will of the majority. In turn, the acceptance of the majority rule by the minority is based on the willingness of the majority to permit the minority to express its views before action is taken. Merits and demerits of parliamentary procedure Merits It provides rules and regulations for the orderly conduct of the business. Decisions must be made in the fact of conflicting interests among members It increases the belief in the organization
Demerits It is much too formal method It decreases the losing factions commitment to the decisions It discourages exploration of innovative ideas in a free and open manner because people tend to take sides early in the discussion.
Conference “The term conference means informal group discussion by three or more pe rsons, with the object of carrying on open minded exploration and usually of achieving consensus or integration of thinking on a subject or problem”.
Consensus is a co-operative effort to find a sound solution acceptable to everyone. Consensus occurs after all members have had an opportunity to voice their opinions and can then arrive at a decision that almost everyone can support. It ensures that each individual’s concerns are heard and understood and then a sincere attempt is made to take them into consideration in searching for a resolution. This resolution may not reflect the exact wishes of each member, but since does not violate the deep concerns of anyone, it can be agreed upon by all. Characteristics: 1) It is carried out by a group.
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2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)
Conference normally involves a face-to-face meeting of the group. Conference implies general participation. Conference uses informal group discussion. Conference has some definite subject for discussion. Several groups – groups – Committees Committees Boards, study groups, use conference method. Members should open-mindedly discuss the subject; they should also show interest in reaching consensus. 8) Conference aims to create a group idea (Not majority idea), which will be better than any one – moreover which will be better than all the members idea added of the members ideas alone – moreover together. 9) Conference method is not appropriate for large bodies. Committee Practice The committee is to community organization as the interview is to casework 1. A committee may be defined as two or more people associated for some purpose towards which they function as an organizational entity. 2. A committee may be defined as a group of persons, limited in membership, by selective appointment, usually appointed by some superior authority, and having joint responsibility for inquiry, deliberation, decision, action, Sponsorship, or related activities in regard to matters assigned to them. Characteristics of a Committee: 1) A group with limited membership. 2) Membership is based on selection. 3) Appointed by some superior authority. 4) Joint responsibility. 5) Working on the matters referred to it Functions of a Committee Functions of the committee depend upon for what purpose it is constituted. The most common functions of committees are as follows. 1) Studying the problem. 2) Reporting information. 3) Coordinating work. 4) Distributing Distributin g work. 5) Solving problem. 6) Making decisions. 5) Monitoring. Guidelines for Organizing Committees 1) A clear statement of the objectives and functions of the committee. 2) There should be a written assignment or terms of reference. 3) There should be appropriate selection of members. 4) The committee should have competent leadership and adequate executive and clerical service. 5) There should be appropriate arrangements for follow up after meetings of the committee. 6) There should be appropriate procedures at meetings. 7) There should be adequate preparation for follow up after meetings. 8) The committee should have adequate records.
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Organization of a committee: 1. Chairman, 2. Members, 3. Committee Aide / Secretary. Chairman - Official head of the committee in both internal and external relationship. - Decides when meetings should be held. - Preside the meetings of the committee. As a president, he has to keep the committee on the track; he has to preserve an atmosphere of freedom and vitality of participation. - Officially presents the reports to the superior authority. Members - The members should be reasonably well equipped for the work of the committee or should be willing to raise their level of competence. - The membership should be interested and willing to serve and should have sufficient time, health and strength. - The committee membership should adequately represent the interest that needs to be represented. - The members should be able to work together as a group. Committee Aide (Staff Assistance to committee) Committee aide is a technical resource; he supplies professional assistance to the committee, he helps the committee in the following ways: Program Service - He helps the committee to develop its programs. Organizational Service - Provides the necessary manpower. Administrative Service - Planning meetings and agendas in consultation with the chairman making physical arrangements for the meetings , sending notices, writing reports and handling correspondence. The basic task of committee aide involves working with and strengthening the position of the chairman. He is to facilitate the work of the committee, to help or enable it to perform its task effectively, but never to dictate or determine its course of action nor to usurp the functions of the chairman. Committee Procedures: 1. Agenda 2. Minutes. Agenda : A Committee meeting needs a written agenda. The world ―Agenda ―literally means ‘things to be done’. It refers to the programme of Business to the tr ansacted ansacted at a meeting. Agenda is essential for the systematic transaction of the business of a meeting in the proper order of impotence. It is customary for all organizations to send an agenda along with the notice of meeting to all members. Usually routine items are placed first and controversial items later.
The business of the meeting must be conducted in the same order. Items for agenda may be drawn from: -
Unfinished business from the last meeting. Items previously scheduled by the committee for consideration on this date. Matters suggested by a member of the committee.
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-
Communications from outside the committee requiring consideration by the committee. Matters which the chairman, committee aide or a member of the committee feels important to be discussed by the committee. Loophole Agenda & Hidden Agenda It means any other business with the permission of the chair. This provides an opportunity for the members to discuss on matters, which has not been specifically included in the agenda. Minutes Minutes may be defined as the permanent, official record of the proceedings of a meeting. It serves as a reminder of the subjects previously dealt with and the conclusions reached. Once approved and signed they are acceptable in a court of law as evidence of the proceedings.
The Minutes should begin by identifying the body that is meting; the date, hour and place; name of the presiding officers, members absent. The Minutes should generally be chronological, following the actual order of events.
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Conflict and conflict Resolution in Community Organization
Synopsis Conflict. Competition Aggression Conflict theory Conflict handling modes Conflict resolution Functional Vs Dysfunctional Positive Vs Negative Competition Vs Conflict Basic properties – incompatible goals, emotional hostility, antagonistic interaction Levels of Conflict – intra personal (approach, avoidance types), i nterpersonal, group conflict, organizational conflict. Types of conflict – economic conflict, power conflict, value conflict – Conflict due to personality clashes, conflict due to different needs, roles, goals, interest. Different needs, Stages in conflict – antecedent conditions, perceived / felt conflict; manifest behavior, conflict resolution or suppression, resolution aftermath. Escalation of conflict – causes. Methods of conflict resolution – promoting pro-social behavior, approaches to manage conflict (win-win, win-lose, lose-lose), withdrawing, smoothing, compromising, forcing, third party consultation (arbitration, mediation)
Conflict- Meaning The word ‘conflict’ carries negative Conflict is usually defined as a social situation in connotations. It is often thought of as the which incompatible goals and activities occur opposite of co-operation and peace, and is between two or more parties (individuals or groups) most commonly associated with violence, the threat of violence or disruptive (nonviolent) who hold antagonistic feelings towards each other disputes. This view of conflict as negative is and attempt to control each other. not always helpful. In non-violent settings it Conflict exists whenever incompatible can often be seen as a force for positive social activities occur. change, its presence being a visible Conflict occurs when an individual is demonstration of society adapting to a new motivated to make two or more political, economic or physical environment. mutually incompatible responses. Conflict is a tension between two or more entities (individuals, groups or larger organizations), which arise from incompatibility of actual or larger responses. Competition implies an opposition in the goals of the interdependent parties such that the probability of goal attainment for one decreases as the probability of other increases. Aggression is a form of behavior intended to inflict injury to a person or object.
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Conflict Theory. A theory that views community and society as an arena in which various groups compete to attain maximum gain for themselves. Conflict (or alienation) approach. A theory of society, which argues that fundamental tensions or built in contradictions exist between the powerful and the powerless – and – and these problems, can be resolved only through radical changes in society. Conflict handling modes / conflict resolution . Settlement of disputes that are mutually satisfactory and that receive a long-term commitment from both the parties.
If there is a possibility to enjoy social justice without recourse to physical violence in any society then there will be less conflict in that society. Systems that handle conflict openly and productively can maximize the benefits while reducing the conflicts One has to examine both the goals and the means of conflict in order to judge its acceptability. Functional Vs Dysfunctional Conflict Positive Vs Negative Conflict Competition Vs Conflict Competition No direct action of one party to interfere with the ongoing activities of another e.g. track and field events Competition occurs within a set of agreed upon rules. E.g.hockey
Conflict Conflict interferes There is no agreed upon rules. All is fair in conflict
Box: Community Conflict
Basic properties of conflict: Incompatible goals. Emotional hostility Antagonistic interaction
Community Conflict The potential for community conflict exists whenever a nd wherever people people have contact. contact. Communities faces increasing community conflicts due to the cultural, linguistic and ethnic diversity associated associated with its changing population. population. Communities and government services are being redefined and, at the same time, neighbors are facing unfamiliar lifestyles in their neighborhoods. Stresses caused by economic or social change can impact community resources, leaving groups feeling that they are being denied government services at the expense of other groups. Law enforcement, schools and local government officials are increasingly affected by resulting tensions and need to be prepared when serious conflict erupts. Community conflict also can occur when individuals or groups perceive or experience discriminatory behavior directed at them by an agency or its representative, by members of another group, or by members members of their own group. For example, a highhighprofile case of police misconduct, an incident of violence on a college campus, a hate crime or case of discrimination can polarize a community. community. All of these events can produce stress on community residents, often resulting in disagreements over what should be done to solve these problems. This stress can even even lead to open conflict within the community.
Levels of Conflict – intra – intra personal (approach, avoidance types), interpersonal, group conflict, organizational conflict. Types of conflict – economic – economic conflict, power conflict, value conflict conflict – – Conflict due to personality clashes, conflict due to different needs, roles, goals, interest. different needs, Economic Conflict: It arises due to competing motives to obtain scarce resources. Each group wants to maximize its gain at the cost of other party. Economic conflict will not be resolved by improving communication, but by difficult and detailed negotiations among the parties.
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Power Conflict: Power conflict arises when each party wishes to maximize the influence it has. This type of conflict usually ends in a victory for one party and a defeat for another, or in a stand off that involves a continuing state of tension. The crucial issue is not resource scarcity or differences in basic values, but simply a question of control and related matters such as pride, recognition and future material rewards that power may bring. Value Conflict: It involves incompatible principles and practices that people believe in- their ideology, religion, political system and culture. E.g. Marxist Vs Capitalist, Religious conversion etc.
Since the value conflicts lie at the very heart of a person / peoples identity, they are extremely difficult to resolve. Most conflict involve a mixture of realistic economic, power or value differences as well as unrealistic ingredient of misperception and miscommunication. Usually a conflict may begin from one source but broaden to include other elements. Other types of conflict: The more our lives overlap with others, the more likely it is that there will at times be conflicts. So one can identify different types of conflicts. Personality clashes: It occurs when two people who have to see each other frequently cause negative feelings and reactions in one another. Often these people share common goals, but they cannot get along. E.g. he hurts me Different needs: Roles: Role expectation can cause conflict Goals: lack of clarity or disagreement about the goals of the program Conflict of interest: e.g. higher wages Ways of dealing with conflict / opposition Give in Anger Negative Feelings Turn away Counter anger Attempt to hear other persons Flight or run away Negative Response Involvement with other persons Division/disunity Increased anger Understanding each other ideas
Escalation of Conflict: Human beings behave in ways calculated to maximize their goals and minimize their loses. The behavior of each party in conflict imposes constraints on the potential satisfaction of the other. This tends to escalate conflict. Unless it resolved at an early stage, it become more intense and hostile to proliferate more issues and involve stronger and more destructive attempts to control.
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Escalation usually feeds on fear, defensiveness, selective and distorted perception, attributing negative intentions on others Table: Strengths and Limitations of various Approaches to Conflict Management Strengths and Limitations of various Approaches to Conflict Management Traditional & Customary Legal Alternative Conflict Management Strengths Limitations Strengths Limitations Strengths Limitations Respect for Not all people WellTend to Contributes to May not be able local values may have defined neglect process of to overcome and equal access to procedures indigenous community selfpower customs the conflict knowledge reliance differences resolution &empowerment Provides Courts have Decisions Inaccessible Encourages Decisions are familiarity supplanted are legally to the participation & not legally & past local authority binding marginal respects local binding experience &poor groups customs and values Methods of Conflict Resolution: Promoting pro-social behavior: Human beings have at least as much potential for caring, sharing and cooperating as they do for aggression, competing and destroying. Pro social behaviors are activities that have positive social consequences for others. Approaches to managing conflict: Ones approach to manage conflict differs as per ones assumptions 1) people, 2) about conflict, 3) characteristic attitudes, 4) behaviors and typical outcomes. The Win-Win approach is a conscious and systematic attempt to maximize the gains of both parties through collaborative problem solving. 1. Forcing- an antagonistic, competitive approach that pushes for an all or nothing solution Lose-Lose approach is characterized in many ways 1. Avoidance of conflict is preferred to open competition and half loaf is better than one loaf. 2. Withdrawing- avoiding conflict by retreating or remaining silent 3. Smoothing- playing down differences, emphasizing commonalities and avoiding discussions on contentious issues 4. Compromising- a simple splitting of differences through negotiation Two-dimensional model of conflict management: This model states that assertiveness (to satisfy others concerns) and cooperativeness (to satisfy others concerns) are both necessary to understand peoples approach and behavior towards conflict. This model yields five conflict modes
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Box: Levels of Conflict
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Conflict Resolution Terminologies Defined Conflict resolution is a range of processes aimed at alleviating or eliminating sources of conflict. The term "conflict resolution" is sometimes used interchangeably with the term dispute resolution or alternative dispute resolution . Processes of conflict resolution generally include negotiation, mediation and diplomacy . The processes of arbitration, litigation are usually described with the term dispute resolution, although some refer to them as " conflict resolution." Processes of mediation and arbitration are often referred to as alternative dispute resolution. Conflict management refers to the long-term management of intractable conflicts. It is the label for the variety of ways by which people handle grievances — standing up for what they consider to be right and against what they consider to be wrong. Those ways include such diverse phenomena as gossip, ridicule, ly nching, terrorism, warfare, feuding, genocide, law, mediation, and avoidance. Which forms of conflict management will be used in any given situation can be somewhat predicted and explained by the social structure. Conflict management is often considered to be distinct from conflict resolution Negotiation is a dialogue intended to resolve disputes, to produce a n agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for individual or collective advantage, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. It is the primary method of alternative dispute resolution. Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organizations, government branches, legal proceedings, among nations and in personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, and everyday life. The study of the subject is called negotiation theory. Those who work in negotiation professionally are called negotiators. Professional negotiators are often specialized, such as union negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage negotiators o r may work under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators or brokers. Mediation, a form of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) or "appropriate dispute resolution", aims to assist two (or more) disputants in reaching an agreement. The parties themselves determine the conditions of any settlements reached — rather than accepting something imposed by a third party. The disputes may involve (as parties) states, organizations, communities, individuals or other representatives with a vested interest in the ou tcome. Advocacy is the pursuit of influencing outcomes — including public-policy and resource allocation decisions within political, economic, and social systems and institutions — that directly affect people’s current lives. Advocacy can be seen as a deliberate process of speaking out on issues of concern in order to exert some influence on behalf of ideas or persons. Based on this definition, Cohen states that “ideologues of all persuasions advocate” to bring a change i n people’s lives. However, advocacy has many interpretations depending on the issue at stake, which can be different from this initial value-neutral definition. Diplomacy is the employment of tact to gain strategic advantage or to find mutually acceptable solutions to a common challenge, one set of tools being the phrasing of statements in a non -confrontational or polite manner. Activism, in a general sense, can be described as intentional action to bring about social o r political change. This action is in support of, or opposition to, one side of an often controversial a rgument. The word "activism" is often used synonymously with protest or dissent, but activism can stem from any number of political orientations and take a wide range of forms, from writing letters to newspapers or politician s, political campaigning, economic activism (such as boycotts or preferentially patronizing preferred businesses), rallies, blogging and street marches, strikes, both work stoppages and hunger strikes, or even guerrilla tactics. In some cases, activism has nothing to do with protest or confrontation: for instance, some religious, f eminist or vegetarian/vegan activists try to persuade people to change their behavior directly, rather than persuade governments to change laws. The cooperative movement seeks to build new institutions which conform to cooperative principles, and generally does not lobby or protest politically. Critical pedagogy is a teaching approach that attempts to help students question and challenge domination, and the beliefs and practices that dominate. In other words, it is a theory and practice of helping students achieve critical consciousness. Critical pedagogue Ira Shor defines critical pedagogy as "Habits of thought, reading, writing, and speaking which go beneath surface meaning, first impressions, dominant myths, official pronouncements, traditional clichés, received wisdom, and mere opinions, to understand the deep meaning, root causes, social context, ideology, and personal consequences of any action, event, event, ob ect, ect, rocess rocess,, or anizati anization, on, ex erienc erience, e, text, text, sub ect matter matter,, olic olic , mass mass media, media, or discou discourse rse." ."
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Box: Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management. Examples of Types of conflicts arising in Natural Resource Management. Intra micro –micro conflicts:
• Disputes over land and resource ownership, e.g. between private and communal land owners; • Disputes over land boundaries between individual s or groups; • Latent family and relationship disputes; • Disputes due to natural resource projects being captured by élites and/or those who happen to own Resources of a higher quality; • Breaking of CPR constitutional or operational rules, such as protection agreements for grazing areas, fish net sizes, forests, or misappropriation of funds, etc.;
• Disputes over the unfair distribution of work and profits. Inter micro –micro conflicts: • Conflict between land -owners and resource users; • Conflict between indigenous CPR groups, and more recent r ecent settlers; • Disputes generated by jealousy related to growing wealth disparities; • Lack of co-operation between different community groups; • Disputes over renewal arrangements for leased land; • Internal land owners hip disputes ignited by the spe culation activities of commercial companies; • Resentment built up due to lack of representation on village committees. Micro –macro conflicts:
• Contradictory natural resource needs and values, e.g. between wildlife habitat p rotection and local livelihood security;
• Cultural conflicts between community groups and outsiders; • Disputes over project management between community groups and outside project-sponsors; • Disputes caused by political influence (national, provincial or local); • Disputes arising from differences between the aspirations of community groups and expectations of NGOs or commercial companies;
Third Party
Consultation: Arbitration: Involves a third party judgment that is arrived at by considering the merits of the opposing cases and their imposing a settlement. Mediation: Involves a skilled third party who attempts to help clients reach a compromise on specific issues that are amenable for negotiation
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Strategies of Community Organization Methods of Conflict Resolution A strategy is the general framework of or orientation to the activities undertaken to achieve a goal. It is not a particular action but rather a series of actions that take in to account, the anticipated maneuvers of people. [Supporters as well as opponents] A strategy is an orchestration of individual attempts’ that brings together and consciously blends a variety of different components of action. A strategy takes in to account the actions and reactions of key allies and adversaries as they bear upon achievement of the proposed goal. There are four strategic approaches pursued in community organization Table: Four approaches in conflict resolution Confrontation
Negotiation
Co-operation
Co-optation Co-optation
It involves bringing the demands of one party to the attention of another and forcing compliance
It is a process of bringing parties with different needs and perspectives to an agreement
It exists when parties share resources to accomplish a common goal
It results when parties share common beliefs about matters and when success or failure of one party produces similar feelings
Situation for which a particular strategy may be appropriate Target refuses to Unable to sustain The respondents have meet with us. confrontation resources we need Target is effectively. and from which we unresponsive. Unable to neither can benefit. Need to crystallize or convince nor force the When we have dramatize the issue. respondent into full resources to offer. Need to energize the compliance with our Situation of mutual issue. demands. benefit. Need to attract the To see progress Want to increase the allies. toward accomplishing respondents‘ some gain. dependence on us. When the opponents Respondent is O.K have recognized the and we want to work legitimacy of the together. demands. When both sides want to gain or build relationship. Strengths of a Particular strategy * Fighting with an * Likely to end up external opponent more favorable may strengthen group condition, even if you
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Opposite group is uncooperative and is not a good target for confrontation. Key individuals in the opposite group are amenable to some sort of affiliation. Weakening the opposite by putting them in our agency where their opinion is silenced.
*Combined resources * Silencing a * More people to work potentially harmful * More dependence of critic
cohesion don‘t get everything * Winning provides you want tremendous emotional * Other sides ability uplift to gain some thing * Mere threat of makes them more confrontation may be accepting of your gain sufficient to * Positive relationship accomplish our may develop purpose Limitations of the strategy * Loss can be * Settle for to little discouraging that may weaken the And may lead to future demands internal puckering * Non cooperation from the other side
others may alter the balance of power
* Gain some insights into the working of the competition * Gaining access to a community that has been closed to you
* More energy is needed to maintain the relationship * Loss of autonomy * Others may take credit for the success
* Letting a fox in the hen house * Co-opted members may manipulate your transparency
The major elements we need to understand before deciding a strategy Elements Issues Target Your Troops Other Resources
Things to know Basic facts; causes and effects of problems; solutions applied in other places; rights and obligation of parties Probable reaction to specific tactic; principal decision makers; degree of rationale for support or opposition; strengths and vulnerabilities; cohesion
Degree of commitment; numbers; probable reactions to opponent‘s tactics; cultural norms; strengths and vulnerabilities; cohesion Awareness of needed additional resources; availability and location of resources; steps required to gain additional resources
NEGOTIATION In trying to solve certain problems, community Organizations often find it necessary to Negotiate with other parties. “Negotiation is an attempt to hold di scussion with those who evidence varying degrees of resistance, resistance, in the hope of ultimately ultimately arriving at an agreement. This is the essence (i.e. arriving at an agreement through discussion) and the end point of the negotiating process. In this context a negotiant is anyone whom the community organization is trying to influence. A negotiant can be undecided, neutral or hostile. E.g. Strike by the govt. staff. Activism against lock up deaths. The common element in all these examples is that the community organization attempts to hold discussions with those who evidence varying degrees of resistance in the hope of ultimately arriving at an agreement. Thus negotiation implies a conflict and the promotion of a cause or certain interests.
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In successful negotiation both parties ideally perceive that they have given up something of limited value to gain something of major major value. If one party feels feels defeated then that party won’t won’t show any interest in making the agreement stable and may be provoked into laying plans for future retaliation. Problems in Negotiation:
Many community organizations do not always heave within their capacity the power to gain success to decision- makers. Unlike in industrial negotiation, community groups lacking power frequently find themselves prevented from the negotiation process. So community organizations have to develop their position and power that allows them to sit at the negotiating table To gain access to negotiations and enhance their bargaining positions, community organizations use a variety of tactics. Tactics to strengthen the community organizations
Negotiating
power
of
the
1. Supporting Survival Needs Eg.Helping politicians in their campaigns Supporting local departments to get more budget allocations. Assisting in find raising campaigns. 2. Demonstrating public support and sympathy: It means demonstrating the decision- makers that they espouse a cause, which has widespread community support Eg. Holding mass rallies. Conducting letter-writing campaigns. Circulating petitions. Increasing membership. Obtaining editorial support. Organizing leading citizens to contact their legislators. Signature campaigns. 3. Forming Alliances: Alliances can be formed with other organizations whose members have similar values. Broader the base of the alliance more power can be exerted in the negotiating process. E.g. - Demands one NGO supported by other NGOs. 4. Conducting Behind – Behind – The The Scenes Discussions In most of the political situations certain people bear major responsibility for what happens. Through quite discussions with these persons, the key decision- makers can be convinced to carryout a course of action promoted by the community organization. In fact these key leaders sometimes become the crusaders of the cause, and the initiating community organization may have to be satisfied with little credit even through their objective is achieved. 5. Targeting pressure points: Selecting targets that are vulnerable to the special kinds of pressure a community organization can bring to hear. – Road Blockade Eg. – Road
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Agitation during assembly session Wearing Black Badge. 6. Threatening: Negotiation often involves a degree of threat. The fact that rewards can be with held or punishment inflicted constitutes a threat. – Threat of a Lawsuit. E.g. – Threat Threats to withdraw support or boycott. 7. Waging campaigns against persons or institutions: Direct action.
Skills
s i s y l a n A & h c r a e s e R
l a n o i t t a n z i e n m a p g o r l O e v & e p D u o r G
n o i t a c i n u m m o C
g n i s i a R d n u F
g n i & l v g o n S i n m n e a l l P b o r P g n i n o i s i V
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Community Organizing Skills Community Organizing Skills Undergraduate C.O.D. Program at Hunter College
I. Organizing and Planning Skills Ability to develop and engage people in groups Capacity to organize and run a meeting Ability to represent the organization II. Interpersonal Skills Capacity to work with different types of people Capacity to understand how to motivate and involve people in change Capacity to observe, listen, and hear III. Analytical Skills Capacity to understand the issues, philosophy, and styles of the organization Capacity to gather and use data and information able to understand different types and models of organizing and advocacy IV. Administrative Skills Capacity to keep records Capacity to communicate verbally and in writing Capacity to use time productively V. Political Tactics and Strategies Capacity to understand and analyze power structures Capacity to understand and develop relevant tactics Capacity to understand the impact of gender, race, ethnicity, sexual. orientation on organizing pr ocess and outcomes VI. Personal Characteristics and Professional Values Capacity to take initiative and self-directed Capacity to ask for help, support, guidance Capacity to make responsible decisions Capacity to demonstrate integrity Capacity to identify with clients/community/constituency
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Leadership Skills for Community Organizers INDICATORS OF LEADERSHIP SKILLS IN COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS http://www.povertycafe.org/pcweb/archives/December/training_on_basic_community_orga.htm
1. Problem Solving Skills Leaders are able to: - Identify group problems - Analyze problems - Set priorities - Set general and specific objectives - Set action strategies - Implement action strategies - Evaluate action strategies 2. Organization Skills Leaders are able to: - Prepare/organize meetings - Prepare agenda/keep records - Conduct meetings - Create necessary committees - Carry committee work effectively effectively - Communicate verbally to other members members and residents on the importance of having viable viable organizations, etc. - Motivate members members to attend meetings meetings - Formulate goals goals for the organization 3. Relationship Skills Leaders are able to: - Express positive and negative feelings feelings about self and others - Express positive and negative feedbacks feedbacks to members - Receive positive and negative feedbacks - Express need for for others - Volunteer needed needed help to others - Determine various ways of creating positive relationships amongst members - Accept feelings of self and others - Identify and analyze conflict situation clearly - Demonstrate excellent excellent interpersonal interpersonal skills skills - Self-discovery - Self-disclosure 4. Community Management Skills Leaders are able to: - Assesses community needs, values, expectations - Analyze constraints - Formulate objectives - Identify, sequence and scheduled activities/resources needed in implementing implementing projects - Set up a system/procedure in the implementation implementation of identified projects projects
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Skills
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Skills for community Organizers
Critical thinkin
y r i Problem solving u q n i c Dissemination d a n r a e t i h Anal sis l c r n Information literac a o i e t s a Info Inform rmat ation ion tech techno nolo lo liter literac ac e R m r o Information research f n I l a n o Ethical perspective i s s e f Profes Professio sional nal ers ective ective o r Social d n a l Oral communication a i c o Written communication s l a c i Non-verbal communication h t E Leadership Teamwork
l a n o s r e r e t n i d n a n o i t a c i n u m m o C
Networking
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l a u t Self-ma mana na emen ementt c Self e l l y e m t n o i n oIndependent learning & t l u a A n o s Goal skills r e P
l a n Leadin o i t t a n z e Project Program effectiveness i n a m p g o l S stem stems s Think Thinkin in r e O v & eComm unit it Bu Buil ildi din n p DCommun u o r G
What skills topics are covered? A Popular Skill Development module for Community Organizers in USA covers a range of skills which includes an introduction to direct action organizing which includes; power analysis, strategic planning, public speaking, planning a variety of public events, fundraising for justice, working with local media, becoming your own media, coalition-building, and transforming conflicts.
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