ENGLISH GRAMMER
There are 26 letters in English language, they are divided into two parts are called ca lled Vowels & Consonants. Vowels (A, E, I, O, U) Consonants (all other letters expect vowels) 1. What What is is sent senten ence ce? ? 2. Set of words words with complete complete senses senses is is known known as sentence. sentence. A sentence sentence is a group group a words that gives full meaning.
Ex: a. Raja goes to college every morning at 10.30 am. b. The leaves are green c. The birds are flying in the sky Simple Sentence: A sentence which has only one subject and one predicate. Ex: The cow gives milk. The fox is cunning animal. The parts of sentence A sentence has two parts. They are called “The Subject:” and “The Predicate”
The “Subject” tell us about the person p erson or animal or thing who does the work or who acts. The “Predicate” tell us about what the subject does. Ex: a. the cow eats grass. b. She is dancing c. The cat drank the milk. d. They work in the field e. The children play games. Subject
The Cow She The cat Th e y The children
Predicate
Eats grass Is dancing Drank the milk Work in the filed Play games
Kinds of sentence There are four kinds of sentences. Assertive Sentence Imperative sentence Interrogative sentence Exclamatary Sentence 1. Assertive Sentence An assertive sentence says something for certain or definite or makes declarations
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Ex: He is going to college Maven is a good boy The Sun rises in the east The road is very wide Sugar is sweet 2. Imperative Sentence An imperative sentence, we express order commends c ommends and also request.
Ex: Do not open the door Stand up on the bench Come in, please Kindly give me a cup of milk Don’t go out 3. Interrogative Sentence Interrogative sentence asks questions or make enquires.
Ex: Where are you going? What is he doing? Are you drinking coffee? How did he lose his bicycle? 4. Exclamatory Sentence The Exclamatory sentence which express surprise, fear etc. It expresses sudden feeling of joy, joy, sorrow, anger, wonder and the like. Sl 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 11 1 2 1 3 1
Assertive sentence Viday is typing a letter I have completed my work I own a car She helps me He went to belgaum Sita nursed the sick Hari cheats the customers Sunil patted the ox’s back Tapan is a naughty boy They were were full full of sturdi sturdiness ness and and singing singing
Negative Sentence Viday is not typing a letter I have not completed my work I do not own a car She does not helps me He does not go to belgaum Sita does not nurse the sick Hari does not cheats the customers Sunil did not patted the ox’s back Tpan is not a naughty boy They were were not full full of sturdiness sturdiness & singing singing
I will tame you They They have have many many clea cleane ned d word wordss to say say
I will not tame you They They have have no no many many clea clean n word wordss to say
I am your teacher
I am not your teacher
He we went di directl ctly to to th the wa waiting ma man
He di did no not go go di directly to to th the wa waiting man
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4
Sl 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Negative sentence They are not making noise You did not tell the truth Budda Budda has has not not ques questi tione oned d the the cast castee syst system em It is not important to record He would not replay it tomorrow Sita did not teach the poor children We are not going to talk I would not like you to listen to me I had not panned it
Sl.no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Assertive They are playing hockey Ravi is not working hard He goes to Chennai She sang well Ram is quite good at studies Hari charges higher prices It was very wicked It was very perfect day I am coming out of the shadow I shall help you in very way
Assertive Sentence They are making noise You told the truth Buddh Buddhaa had had ques questi tione oned d the the cast castee syst system em It is important to record He will repay it tomorrow Sita tought the poor children We are going to talk I would like you to listen to me I had panned it interrogative Are they playing hockey? Is Ravi not working hard? Does he goes to chenni? did she sang well? Is ram is quite good at studies? Does hari charges higher prices? Was it very wicked? Was it a perfect day? Am I coming out of the shadow? Shall I help you in very way?
PARTS OF SPEECH (What is parts of speech) The words which are used in the formation of sentence are called parts of speech. There are eight parts. They are 1. Noun 2. Pronoun 3. verb 4. adverb 5. Adjective 6. Preposition 7.conjunction 8. Interjection 1. Noun: A noun is a word used to denote a person, place, animal, and thing Ex: Atoka was a wise king Santee works hard Rona is a good girl My sore is a beautiful place. 2. Pronoun: The word which is used instead of noun is called Pronoun. Ex: She is a good girl. He is my brother They are students She is cooking
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Kinds of Pronoun a. Personal Pronoun Ex: He b. Reflexive Pronouns Ex: c. Demonstrative Pronoun Ex: Those mangoes are mine d. Indefinite pronoun Ex: Anyone some somebody e. Distributive pronoun Ex: everybody each f. Relative Pronoun Ex: g. interrogative Pronoun Ex :which who whose
Verb Verb is a word which is used to express the action of Noun or Pronoun Ex: Rave thrown a stone Krishna is a grazing the cows The rat runs away from the room They have come home. They are two kinds of verbs. 1. Main Main verb 2. helping helping verb (auxiliary verb) Helping verbs: is used with the main verb ve rb Ex: am, have, have been, had, had been, has, were, may be can , can be shall, could. Ex: I am playing cricket We are going go ing to cinema He is running The have already arrived here. • Irregular verbs are irregular in the past simple in the positive only (not in the negative or question form): go — went She went home yesterday, yesterday, sit — sat I sat down, write -- wrote She wrote for hours. ADVERB
Express the nature of action and it also called the detail of verb. It is used to say something about the verb. Ex: The train moves slowly Dear goes fastly He walks quickly She speaks loudly
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Adverbs of manner • Adverbs of manner are formed from adjectives by adding ly: quick --> quickly; polite —> politely; careful —• carefully
• Note these irregulars: good -> well; hard -> hard; fast --> fast; early --> early; late --> late; loud --> loud or loudly. loudly. He's a good worker. He works well. She's a hard worker. She works hard. She's a fast runner. She runs fast. Practice Write the adverbs. quick slow fast careful stupid dangerous bad intelligent
Polite rude brave early good hard clever nice
Comparison of adverbs • Most adverbs are used with more and most: slowly —> more slowly, slowly, most slowly dangerously--> more dangerously, most dangerously
• One-syllable adverbs add er and est: hard —• harder, hardest; fast --> faster, fastest; loud --> louder, loudest
• The irregular comparisons are: well Better best badly worse worst little less least
far
farther/ further
farthest/ furthest
Frequency adverbs with the Present Simple
• The adverb goes between the subject and the verb: I often see them. we rarely talk to them. ! seldom go out in the evenings.
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• occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently, frequently, and normally can also be at the beginning or end of a clause: / see them occasionally. Sometimes we talk to each other. Normally I go out in the evenings. Note: always is sometimes used with present continuous to express anno yance, always goes between the auxiliary verb and the main verb: Sams's always borrowing my tilings without asking! Peter's always complaining about his job Practice Choose the correct word and write it in its proper place in these sentences. 1 I see them nowadays nowada ys - the last time we met was ten years ago. {never / often / always) / never see them nowadays nowada ys - the last time we met was ten years ago.
2 You're You're lucky: we have ice cream, but we've got some today, today, (hardly ever / normally / nearly always) 3 Peter's playing football instead of doing his homework, (seldom / hardly ever / always) 3. We go out out now now - we can't can't affor afford d it. it. (hardly ever / sometimes / frequently) 4. I don't finish finish work work before eleven eleven o'clock, o'clock, so I see see the children children before before they go to bed. (always / never / usually) 5. I sit here when when I come to the park park - it's it's my favourite favourite place, place, (hardly ever / occasionally / always)
Link words: and, but, so, then, before, after, because
Practice Write one of the above words in the correct place in these sentences. Use each word for two sentences. Where two answers are possible, choose the more likely one. 1 I got out of the car ..and.. walked into the the house. 2 The weather was lovely ________________we stayed in the garden. ADJECTIVE It is used to say something about the noun. It speaks about the quantity of noun. It also speaks about the number and quality of a noun. Ex: Leela is a good girl
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Soma is strong boy They gave him ten mangoes There is some rice in the bag. Possessive adjectives • Each pronoun has a possessive adjective: I —> my you —> your he —> his she — her
we —> our you —> our they --> their it —> its
Kinds of Adjective a. Qu Quan antit titati ative ve Adje Adjecti ctive ve Show the kind or quality of a person or thing; as Ex: Kolkata is a large city He is an honest man b. Quali Qualita tativ tivee Adje Adjecti ctive ve Shows how much of a thing is meant; as Ex: I ate some rice He showed much patience He has little intelligence He has lost all his wealth C.Demonstrative Adjective Point out which person or things is meant; a s Ex: The boy is stronger than Prasad I hate such things Those rascals must be punished
COMPARISON COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES IRREGULAR COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES These adjectives have completely irregular comparative and superlative forms:
Adjective
Comparative
Superlative
Good
Better
best
Bad
Worse
worst
Little
Less
least
Much
More
most
Far
further / farther
furthest / farthest
COMPARISON COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
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FORMING THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE Number of syllables
Comparative
Superlative
One syllable
+ -er
+ -est
Tall
Taller
tallest
one syllable with the spelling consonant + single vowel + consonant: double the final consonant:
Fat
Fatter
fattest
Big
Bigger
biggest
Sad
Sadder
saddest
two syllables
+ -er OR more + adj
+ -est OR most + adj
ending in: -y, -ly, -ly, -ow ending e nding in: -le, -er or -ure these common adjectives - handsome, polite, pleasant, common, quiet Happy
happier/ more happy
happiest/ most happy
Yellow
yellower/ more yellow
yellowest/ most yellow
Simple
Simpler/ more simple
simplest/ most simple
Tender
Tenderer/ more tender
tenderest/ most tender
If you are not sure, use MORE + OR MOST + Note: Adjectives ending in '-y' like happy happ y, pretty, busy, busy, sunny, lucky etc:. replace the -y with -ier or -iest in the comparative and superlative form
Busy
busier
busiest
Nmber of syllables
Comparative
Superlative
three syllables or more Important
more + adj more important
most + adj most important
Expensive
more expensive
most expensive
Examples: a. A cat is fast, a tiger is faster but a cheetah is the fastest b. A car is heavy, a truck is heavier, but a train is the heaviest c. A park park benc bench h is is comfortable , a restaurant chair is more comfortable, but a sofa is the most comfortable FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES Where a number of adjectives are used together, the order depends on the func tion of the adjective. The usual order is:
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Value/opinion, Size, Age/Temperature, Shape, Colour, Origin, Material Value/opinion delicious, lovely, charming small, huge, tiny Size Age/Temperature old, hot, young Shape round, square, rectangular Colour red, blonde, black Swedish, Victorian, Chinese Origin Material plastic, wooden, silver
Examples: a. a lovely old red post-box b. some small round plastic tables c. some charming small silver ornaments FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES Adjectives tell us more about a noun. n oun. They can: Describe feelings or qualities : He is a lonely man They are honest people
Give nationality or origin : Pierre is French This clock is German Our house is Victorian Victorian Tell more about a thing's characteristics : A wooden table. The knife is sharp. Tell us about age: He's a young man My M y coat is very old Tell us about size and measurement : John is a tall man. This is a very ver y long film. Tell us about colour : Paul wore a red shirt. The sunset was crimson and gold. Tell us about material/what something is made of : It was a wooden table She wore a cotton dress Tell us about shape: A rectangular box A square envelope Express a judgement or a value: A fantastic film FORM AND FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES
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1. Adjectives are invariable : They do not change their form depending on the gender or number of the noun. A hot potato Some hot potatoes 2. To emphasise or strengthen the meaning of an adjective use 'very' or 'really ': A very hot potato Some really hot potatoes. (BUT see also Modifiers/Adverb Modifiers/Adverbs) s) 3. Position of adjectives: Usually in front of a noun: A beautiful girl. After verbs like "to be", "to seem" , "to look", "to taste": 0The girl is beautiful 1You look tired 2This meat tastes funny. funny. After the noun: in some fixed expressions: 3The Princess Royal 4The President elect 5a court martial the adjectives involved, present, concerned : a. I wan wantt to to see see the the peo peopl plee involved/concerned (= the people who have something to do with the matter) b. b. Here Here is is a lis listt of the the peop people le present (= the people who were in the building or at the meeting) Be careful! When these adjectives are used before the noun they have a different meaning: ● ● ●
An involved discussion = detailed, complex A concerned father = worried, anxious The present situation = current, happening now
PREPOSITION Preposition is word used before a noun or pronoun in a sentence to show how the noun or pronoun stands in relation with a verb or an adjective or another noun or pronoun.
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or a noun equivalent to show in what relation that noun or noun equivalent stands to something else in that sentence. A preposition can be one word or a group of words. Ex: The crow on the tree
There are cows in the field
He is fond of sweets
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(On, in, of, by, by, for, at, into, upon, off, from, to inside, outside, without, within, within, about , beyond, with beside, since, around, beneath, under, through, up, down, between) at in, on • at is used for a place plac e when the exact position p osition is not very important: He was standing at the gate. We were waiting at a t the station.
• on is used when the place is seen as a line or surface: The cat sat on the table. There was a picture on the wall. • in is used when the place is seen as having volume or area: The dog was in the car. My keys are in my bag. Prepositions of movement (to, at, or away from a place) She ran to the gate She stood at the gate. She walked away from the gate. on, onto, or off a line or surface (a wall, table, floor, etc.) put the money onto the table. The money's on the table. The money fell off the table. in, into, or out of a box, car, or anything with volume in (to) out (of) The dog jumped into the car. The dog's in the car. Take the dog do g out of the car. Certain verbs with to or at • Some verbs are followed by to or at, and some verbs do not use a preposition: Listen to me! Look at me! She told me the news. PREPOSITIONS OF TIME (at, in, on )
• at a point in time: at four o'clock, at bedtime • on a day or date; on Monday, on July 6th, on your birthday
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• in a period of time: in the morning, in April, in the summer, in 1987 Notes • at night, • on Monday, in the morning, on Monday morning
until, before, after • before and after can be followed by a noun, pronoun, clause or gerund: I'll see you after lunch.. John arrived before me. She phoned after the party started. We had some coffee before starting the meeting.
1 I learnt to speak some Turkish. I went to Turkey. Turkey. / learnt to speak some Turkish before I went to Turkey. Turkey. 2 They stayed awake. Their daughter came home. 4 I'm going to stay here. It's time to go home. 5 I'm going to finish working. I'm sixty. 6 The meeting started. I arrived. 7 We We waited. The ambulance came. 8 Are you going to carry on working at the cafe? You You can find a better job. 9 I'd like to visit the Acropolis. I leave Greece. 10 He usually has a big breakfast. He goes to work. Kinds of preposition: a. Simple Simple prepos prepositi ition: on: (by, (by, for) for) b. Compoun Compound d Prepos Prepositi ition on (abou (about, t, over over)) CONJUNCTION Conjunction is a word used to connect the two words or two sentences. (And, but, so, or, because, since, although, u nless, if yet, as, as if, where, than, when, that, while, before, after, though, till, than, until, although, whether, in order that)
Ex: Time and tide wait for none. Is it coffee or tea? He is tall and thin He ran way because he was afraid Singh and Riana are sisters. Don’t talk while you are writing INTERJECTION An interjection is a word used to express sudden feeling of joy, joy, sorrow, anger, anger, surprise and the like. An interjection is is a word of exclamation expressing expressing sudden feeling of excitement.
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Ex: Hurrah! I have secured the fist rank What a beautiful flower rose is! How big this temple is? How great he is? What a precious thing diamond is! What a useful thing iron is! Kinds of Interjection a. Expr Expres essi sing ng a joy joy b. b. Expr Expres essi sing ng a sorr sorrow ow c. Expr Expres essi sing ng a surp surpri rise se d. Expr Expres essi sing ng a reco recogn gnit itio ion n e. Expr Expres essi sing ng a con conte temp mptt f. Expr Expres essi sing ng an appr approv oval al / admi admira rati tion on THE TENSES The Tenses Tenses are associated with “verbs”. The word tenses means time. The Tenses tell us about the time of action or o r event that takes place. The tenses tell us about when actually a work is done or was done, or will be done. Kinds of tenses There are mainly three kinds of tenses. They are Present tenses, Past tenses, tenses, Future tenses. 1. Pres Presen entt Tense ensess a. Simple present tenses Simple present tense shows that action or work take place at present but it does not no t say when actually the work begins and when it ends. It simply says that works take places at present. Ex: I drink milk He drives the car She clean the floor They eat fruits. Sl.no
1 2 3 4 5
Sl.no
1 2 3
Interrogative (present Tenses) Does he go to college everyday? Do you write a letter? Are you read Hindi? What do you do in this house? Does he climb on the tower
Negative (present Tenses)
He does not go to college He does not write a letter He does note like to read Hindi
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4 5
She does not eat He does not know how to catch
B.Present Continuous Conti nuous Tenses The present continuous Tenses show that the work has started presently but it going on continuously. continuously. It means the work has not yet been completed. Hence the verb is said to be in the present continuous Tenses. Tenses.
Ex: He is working in the field. The child is weeping. We are going go ing to school. We are running. Sl.no
1 2 3 4 5
Interrogative (present continuous Tenses)
Am I reading? Is he going to college? Is she coming to your dinner? Are they killing? Am I working in this school?
Sl.no
1 2 3 4 5
Negative (present continuous Tenses) I am not drinking any cold drinks You are not going to college She is not dancing on the road You are not looking happy I am not going to cinema hall
C. Present Prefect Tenses Tenses Present Perfect Tenses Tenses shows that the work which has started something now (before) has been just now finished or completed, have been in progress for quite sometime (or over period of time). Perfect means complete. So, the work said to be in the present perfect tense.
Ex: The birds have built a strong nest. They have made beautiful kites He has repaired the scooter Sl.no
1 2 3 4 5 Sl.no
Interrogative (present Prefect Tenses) Have you killed a deer? Have you known him? Has he left his home? Has she met her friends? Have you seen a good picture? Negative (present prefect Tenses)
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1 2 3 4 5
He has not taken She has not finished her job You have not spoken in Hindi I have not won this game I have not finished this lesson
d. Present Prefect Continuous Tenses The Present prefect continuous Tenses shows that work which has started some thing now (before) has been temporarily (once) completed but again it has been set in operating to go on for long. It means the work has been going since long time, to stop ultimately at something.
Ex: It has been raining since morning. They have been waiting for him. He has been reading the books since afternoon. He has playing the game since evening. Sl.no
Interrogative (present Prefect Continuous Tenses) Have I been reading since morning? Has chandru not been eating the food for two days? Has she been cooking for two hours? Has he been sitting on the rock since morning? Have they been waiting for him?
Sl.no
Negative (present prefect Continuous Tenses) He has not been climbing the pole for three minutes I have not been dancing since 5 o’clock She has not been singing for two hours I have not been working since morning She has not been cooking for two hours
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
2. Past Ten Tensses a. Simple past tenses The simple past tenses show that verb or o r action took place in the past time. But does not say when actually the work begins and when it ended. It simply says that the work begin and ended in past. Ex: They broke the pot He sold his cow for Rupees. 8000. He held the ball correctly The baby drank milk. Sl.no
1 2 3
Interrogative (Simple past Tenses) Did he bring a note book? Did you drink tea? Did she come at morning?
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4 5
Did he write a letter? Did she bring a toy? Sl.no
1 2 3 4 5
Negative (Simple past Tenses)
I did not go He did not sing a good song She did not speak It did not play He did not write a letter
b .Past Continuous Tenses The past continuous Tenses shows that the work had started in the past time, it was going on continuously. continuously. It means that the work had not yet been completed. Hence, the work is said to be in the past continuous tenses.
Ex: They were going to the temple The dog was barking He was ploughing the land The cows were eating the grass. Sl.no
1 2 3 4 5
Sl.no
Interrogative (Past Continuous Tenses) Was he going to college? Were you cooking meals? Were they playing? Was it sitting on the table? Was it raining?
Negative (Past Continuous Tenses)
1 2 3 C. Past Prefect Tenses Past prefect tenses shows that the work which had started in the past time had just then been finished or completed, having been in progress quite some time (or over period of time) “perfect” completed.
Ex: He had requested them to help him They had gone out when he arrived there She had given a diamond d iamond ring to her sister. He had participated in all the games. Sl.No 1
Interrogative (Past Prefect Tenses) Had he bought your site?
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2 3 4 5
Had she reached your school? Had he broken the chair before the bus came? Has she seen this dog with you?
Sl.no
Negative (Past Prefect Tenses) 1 I had not been beaten to him before he told 2 He had not broken the chair before the bus came 3 She had not seen this dog with you 4 He had not bought your site 5 He had not reached your school D. Past Prefect Continuous Tenses The past prefect continuous tenses shows that the work had been started in the past had been temporarily (once) complete but again it had been operation to go on far far long. It means that work had been gone since long time, to stop ultimately at sometime.
Ex: She had been previously learning in our school. He had been writing the poetry before joining the army. He had been working as a professor when he was sent aboard. Sl.No 1 2 3 4 5 Sl.no
1 2 3 4 5
Interrogative (Past Prefect Continuous Tenses) He had been working for ten hours. She had been weeping for two hours Child had been sleeping since 8’o clock He had been writing the books before joining the school He ha had be been wo working as as commissioner wh when he he wa was sent ab abroad Negative (Past Prefect Continuous Tenses) Had she not been cooking the food for three days Had he not been working for 3 days Had child not been sleeping since yesterday
3. Futu Futurre Ten Tense sess a. Simple future tenses Simple future tenses shows that the work or action h as not yet begun and that will take place sometime later. later. So, that the work or action will take place in future. future.
Ex: She will return the book in about a week. He will start a hotel in few days. If you study hard, you will get the first rank. Sl.No 1
Interrogative (future Tenses)
Will you come?
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2 3 4 5
Will she meet Ravi on Monday? Shall I play boot ball? Shall he go to school? Shall she sing a good song? Sl.no
Negative (future Tenses)
1 I shall not go to the school 2 She will not come from Hyderabad 3 She will not go now 4 You will not go to market 5 B .Future Continuous Tenses Future Continuous Tenses shows that the work which will start sometime later, that is, in the future time, will continue thereafter for quite some time. Ex: From next month onwards, he will be getting more salary. Tomorrow by this time, we shall be traveling in the bus. Sl.No 1 2 3 4 5 Sl.no
1 2 3 4 5
Interrogative (future Continuous Tenses) Shall I be dancing? Shall I be cutting the plants? Shall I be playing ma match at at this time next morning? Will he be going?
Negative (future Continuous Tenses) They will not be coming tomorrow Shall he not be reading a book Shall I not be playing match at this time next morning
C. Future Prefect Tenses Tenses Future perfect tenses shows that the work which will beg in in the future tie or whichhas already begun and it is in progress over a period of time, will be completed.
Ex: Before, his retirement, he will be served the department for twenty years. Tomorrow by now, they will reached their place. Before you reach the bus stand, the bus will have arrived there. Sl.No 1 2 3 4
Interrogative (future perfect Tenses)
Shall I be dancing? Shall I be cutting the plants? Shall I be playing ma match at at this time next morning? Will he be going?
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5 Sl.no
1 2 3 4 5
Negative (future perfect Tenses) They will not be coming tomorrow Shall he not be reading a book Shall I not be playing match at this time next morning
d. Future Prefect Continuous Tenses Future Prefect Continuous Tenses shows that the work or action which has already begun and has been in progress over a period of tie will continue to be in operation in the future time.
Ex: Next this day, he will have been running his school for forty years. Tomorrow by now, she will have been celebrating her second marriage anniversary day.
Present Tense Give Go Come Take Do Look Clean Drive Pour Drink Sing Work Bind Bend Arise Write Hope Become Break Ride Grow Broadcast Bu y Build Bring Blow
Past Tense Gave Went C am e Took Did Looked Cleaned Drove Poured Drank Sang Worked Bound Bent Arose Wrote Hopped B e c am e Broke Ro d e Grew Broadcast Bought Built Brought Blew
Past participle Given Gone C om e Taken Done Looked Cleaned Driven Poured Drunk Sung Worked Bound Bent Arisen Written Hopped Become Broken Ridden Grown Broadcast Bought Built Brought Blown
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Open Shut Wonder See Hide Walk Make Bite Eat Pay Read Know Forget Forgive Hit Ring Rise Send Shake Reply Return Run Sell Mean Leave Lead Tell Understand Hold Keep Fly Feel Fall Lose Sleep Throw Stand Swim Steal Spread Spend Sweep Wear Weep Withhold
Opened Shut Wondered Saw Hid Walked Made Bit A te Paid Red Knew Forgot Forgave Hit Range Rose Sent Shook Replied Returned Ran Sold Meant Left Le d Told Understood Held Kept Flew Felt Fell Lost Slept Threw Stood Swam Stole Spread Spent Swept Wore Wept Withheld
Opened Shut Wondered Seen Hidden Walked Made Bitten Eaten Paid Red Known Forgotten Forgiven Hit Rung Risen Sent Shaken Replied Returned Run Sold Meant Left Led Told Understood Held Kept Flown Felt Fallen Lost Slept Thrown Stood swum Stolen Spread Spent Swept Worn Wept Withheld
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Withdraw
Withdrew
withdrawn
Articles An Article is a word used before a noun to show whether that noun is the singular form or plural form.
There are three three articles. They are ‘A’, ‘A’, “AN”, and “The”. “A” and “AN” are used before nouns each denoting a singular form. “The” is used before nouns denoting denoting both singular and plural numbers, but particular definite persons, things, etc, . Example on the Article “A” It is a tree. He is a student. She is a singer It is a book It is a chair. There is a cup on the table. Example on the article “An” (“AN” is used before words beginning with vowels, a,e, I , o , u) It is an elephant It is an ink-bottle It is an orange It is an ass. It is an umbrella. Examples on the article “The” (“The” is used before nouns denoting great persons etc., in the world, as – The Mount Everest is the tallest peak in the world. The Atlantic Ocean stretches between Europe and America. Kalidas is the shekespeare of India. The Ganga is the most sacred river.
COMPREHENCE
Sequence A group of things that are arranged in or happen in an order is called sequence. Ex: 1. He did a great deal of penance 2. There was a hill called brahmagiri
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3. Brahma was pleased and granted his wish. 4. He had no children. 5. On that hill there lived a sage named kavera Answer 2. There was a hill called brahmagiri 5. On that hill there lived a sage named kavera 4. He had no children. 1. He did a great deal of penance 3. Brahma was pleased and granted his wish. SYNONYMS Synonyms are words of the same grammatical class that have a similar meaning.
Baby : Infant Buy : purchase Sick : ill Walk : step Fast : quick Harm : damage Funny : amusing Hard : difficult Close : shut Old : aged Smart : wise Avenue - pin Spectator - without taking part Club - a heavy wooden stick
Student: Pupil Pretty : attractive Freedom: liberty Dead : deceased House : home Exit : leave Search : seek Noon : midday Easy : simple Silly : foolish Little : small Raised - brought up Stalwart - a wide street in a town
WORD FORMATION – COMPOUND WORDS. A compound word is a combination of two or more separa te words that functions as a single word and has its own special meaning.
1. Hand 2. Pen 3. Money 4. Tea 5. Wedding eddin g 6. Honey 7. Fire 8. Heat 9. Guilty
- Hand bag - Pen knife - money cap - Tea spoon - Wedding eddin g card - Honey moon - Fire wood - heat engine - Guilty person
TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCE
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To transform a sentence is to change it from one grammatical form to another without altering its sense. Use of “IF” or “IF NOT” 1.I fail to maintain the standard, I demand de mand of you, you may criticize me. If I fail to maintain the standard I demand de mand of you, you may criticize me. 2. Tell Tell me the truth or I will flog the skin off your back. If Tell Tell me the truth or I will flog the skin off your back. 'IF' SENTENCES AND THE 'UNREAL' PAST In this section you will find information on sentences containing the word 'if', the use of conditional tenses, and the 'unreal past' , that is, when we use a past tense but we are not actually referring to past time. IF AND THE CONDITIONAL There are four main types of 'if' sentences in English: conditiona l, where the tense in both parts of the sentence is the simple 1. The 'zero' conditional present: 'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple present If you heat ice If it rains
simple present it melts. you get wet
In these sentences, the time is now or always and the situation is real and possible . They are often used to refer to general truths. 2. The Type 1 conditional conditiona l, where the tense in the 'if clause is the simple present, and the tense in the main clause is the simple future 'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple present If it rains If you don't hurry
Simple future you will get wet we will miss the train.
Nouns- Singular & Plural There are some general rules for changing chan ging the singular form of a noun to its plural form.
Eg: Common nouns. Pen(singular) – Pens(plural) Collective nouns. Army(singular) – Armies(plural)
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Proper, abstract & material nouns can have plural forms when they are used as common nouns. All of you must be aware that the most common form of forming a plural by adding an “s” to the noun. Eg: Hand – Hands
House - Houses
Plural of the nouns ending in “x” “sh” or “ch” (ahissing sound) is ormed b y adding “es” at the end. Eg: glass – glasses box – boxes brush - brushes bench - benches Plural of the nouns ending in a “y” and having a consonant before “y” is formed by changing “y” into “ies”. Eg: army – armies lady - ladies baby – babies fly – flies If there is a vowel before the “y”, we just add “s” to the noun nou n to form its plural. Eg: monkey - monkeys boy - boys toy - toys donkey - donkeys day - days key – keys There are some nouns which are used in plural sense, though they look singular. Eg: These cattle (not cattles) These people These folk Some nouns are used in singular form. Eg: This scenery is beautiful. All this information was wrong. Furniture is sold here. Some nouns have the same sa me form both in singular and plural. Eg: This deer. These deer. This sheep. These sheep. This fish. These fish. Compound nouns form their plural by b y adding “s” to the important word. Eg: mother-in-law - mothers-in-law step-son - step-sons passer-by - passers-by maid-servant - maidservants. Singular Man Head Dog
Plural Men heads dogs
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Book Brother Formula Radius Goose Mouse Foot Tooth Life Thief
Books Brothers Formulas Radii Geese Mice Feet Teeth Lives thieves
PUNCTUATION The word punctuation comes from the latin word “Punctum” which means the right use of putting in points in writing. The Full stop The full stop indicates the close of a sentence. The sentence following it would invariably start with a capital letter. letter.
Example: He is one of the good boys. The Comm(,) Just as the full stop is the longed pause, the comma represents the shortest pause.
Ex: Health, wealth and peace go together. He lived wisely, prudently and honestly. The Quotation Marks / Inverted Comma Quotation marks (inverted comas) are used to mark off the actual words of a speaker, or a quotation. Inverted Comma and Apostrophe Apostrophe is used to show the omission o mission of a letter to letters.
Ex: I don’t know, doesn’t I’ve etc… QUESTION MARK (?) It is used at the end of an Interrogative sentence.
Ex: Do you know this gentleman? What are you doing there? The Exclamatory Mark (!)
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The exclamation mark is used after words or sentences expressing surprise, joy jo y, sorrow, or a wish. Ex: What a naughty boy! How heartless they are! COLON (: ) These are some important cities in karnatka: Bangalore, Hubli, Harihar. Semi Colon ( ;) Ex: Here court was pure; serene. Degrees of Compression (Three degree of comparision, positive, comparative degree and superlative degree) Sudha is a tall girl. Ramani is taller than sudha. Geeta is tallest in the class.
The sentence 1. merely tells us that height he ight without saying how much of it has, the sentences 2 to tells ramani compare with sudha. Sentence 3 geetha is the tallest in the class (all the class) Positive Comparative superlative Small Smaller Smallest Clever Cleverer Cleverest Young Younger Youngest Tall Taller Tallest Great Greater Greatest Sweet Sweeter Sweetest White Whiter Whitest Large Larger Largest Brave Braver Bravest Happy Happier Happiest Red Redder Reddest Thin Thinner Thinnest Fat Fatter Fattest Big Bigger Biggest Good Better Best Bold Bolder Boldest Wise Wiser wisest ANTONYMS (OPPOSITES) Antonyms are words of the same grammatical class that have opposite meanings. Short Long Good Bad Understand Misunderstand Strong Week Thick Thin Honest Dishonest Outside Inside Wrong Right Legal Illegal Comfort Discomfort
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Valid Expected Wanted Regularly Satiable Reasonable Co-operation Pleasant Like Able Active Artificial Brave Cunning Careful Duplicate Essential Fortunate General High Heavy Hopeful Important Last Meaningful Superior Suitable Regular Same Positive Obedient Pleasant Proper
Invalid Unexpected Unwanted Irregulary Insatiable Unreasonable Non-co-operation Unpleasant Dislike Unable Inactive Natural Coward Honest Careless Original Inessential Unfortunate Particular Lo w Light Hopeless Unimportant First Meaningless Inferior Unsuitable Irregular Different Negative Disobedient Unpleasant Improper
Healthy Pure Absence Safe Black Open Wicked Major Clean Cold Angry Cheap Difficult Bad Down Efficient False Familiar Grateful Humble Hard Interesting Kind Left Tight Sufficient Slow Dangerous Modern Necessary Old Perfect Small
Unhealthy Impure Presence Unsafe White Close Virtuous Minor Unclean Hot Calm Costly Easy Good Up Inefficient True Unfamiliar Ungrateful Hughty Soft Uninteresting Unkind Right Loose Insufficient Fast Safe Ancient Unnecessary New Imperfect big
RHYMING WORDS The word having the same sound at end of lines of verses are called rhyming words. Ex: lay – gay, gay, eye – die, ring – sing, sing, so – go. Smile Awhile Upright Height Health Wealth Greed Need Mild Wild Brought Thought Stair There Wicket Cricket On Gone Fears years Sound Found Snow Know Tent Bent Creep Peep Cool Pool Eye Sigh
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Crept Aspire Art Spears Chain Just Folly Gold Ant Borrow By Note Eats Fears Shadow Paid Pool Beauty sun – one book – look pear – share walk – talk read – feed car – bar cat – hat
Wept Fire Heart Tears Brain Dust Jolly Cold Grant Sorrow I Throat Gets Years Meadow Raid Fool Duty Man – fan Sick – kick bright light funny bunny glad lad
Bright B ea t Grasp See Far Say Sing See Rain Friend Mine Higher Gloom Rough Urge Paws Great late mate bad lad rude dude long song fat cat to do swiss miss
Night Feet Clasp Th e e Star Ga y Spring E Gain Lend Fine Weather Bloom Cough Purge Jaws Late
mouse house cross boss funny money
GENDERS There are four genders, they are: Masculine gender, Feminine gender, Neuter Gender and Common Genders. Masculine Gender (All male categories) God, father, brother, uncle, king, husband, emperor, actor, actor, aster, poet, lion, tiger, dog, cock, co ck, land lord Feminine Gender (All female categories) Goddess, mother, sister, sister, aunt, queen, q ueen, wife, empress, poetess, land lady, tigress, lioness, actress.. Neuter Gender Tree, table, bench, chair, house, mountain, field etc. Common Gender Students, audience, devotees, players, umpires, applicants, people, passengers, etc. Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Man Woman Poet Poetess
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Brother Uncle King Master Land lord Cock Bo y Dog Peacock
Sister Aunt Queen Mistress Land lady Hen Girl Bitch Peahen
Father God Husband Actor Horse Author Tiger Lion
Mother Goddess Wife Actress Mare Authoress Tigress Lioness
CAPITAL LETTERS Capitals are used: 1. To begi begin n a sent sentenc ence. e. 2. to begi begin n each each fres fresh h line line of poetry poetry 3. to begi begin n all all prope properr nouns nouns and adje adjecti ctive ve 4. for for all all nouns nouns and pron pronou ouns ns 5. to write write the the pronoun pronoun I and the the interj interject ection ion
Letter writing Letters are of three kinds, such as 1. Social letters: letters: letters letters to to relatives relatives and friends friends 2. Busi Busine ness ss let lette ters rs:: 3. Offi Offici cial al Lett Letter erss There are six points of form a letter such as a. heading b. greeting c. commu communi nicat catio ion n or or con conte tent nt d. pol polite le leave e. signa signatu ture re (of (of the the wri write ter) r) f. address address on the the envel envelop op (rea (reader derss addre address) ss) a. Heading: It consists of address of the writer and date on which it is written. b. Greeting: like “dear father”, dear brother, dear sister, sister, dear son, dear sir, dear teacher, gentle man.
say. c. Communication or content: whatever the writer wants to say. d. Polite leave – Taking: marks the end of the letter with words like “yours lovingly”, “your affectionately”, “your loving son”, “your loving daughter”, “yours faithfully”, “yours truly”, “yours sincerely” c. Signature (of the writer): It enables the reader to know who exactly has written him the letter.
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f. Address on the Envelop: The address of the reader of ther letter is written on envelop of the letter fully and neatly.
1. Write a letter to your friend inviting him to the marriage of your sister (social Letter) No. 16th, 4th cross Jayanagar Bangalore Date: 10-aug-08 Dear Ravi I am keeping myself in good health here. I wish to hear the same thing from you. My sister’s sister’s marriage is fixed. She is going to marry a handsome doctor who is settled in Bangalore. The marriage is fixed for 5th February, February, 09. I heartily invite you to the marriage of my sister. sister. I am sending the invitation card along with this letter. letter. Please come to the marriage and please us all. I hope you do not disappoint me me by keeping yourself away from us. No more to write now. Yours loving Prasad, (Signature) Leave letter
To The Head Master, Master, Alike school Alike Sir Kindly requested with this letter to give one da y leave for attending my sister marriage on 15th june 2010. therefore, I am not able to attend the class.
Date: 10-jun-2010 Place: Bangalore
yours obedient student (Prasad) th 7 standard
Letter to father
Alike 1 june 2010 st
Dear Father I am healthy and also same expectation exp ectation from you. My examination will be commenced th on next month 19 . I am studying hardly for the examination. So I can’t come to the home.
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Your loving son Prasad
Paragraph writing What is a paragraph?
It is a group of sentences that introduces, presents and develops one main idea about the topic. And it can be divided into three major parts. Topic Sentence S entence A. The Topic • • • •
It is normally the first sentence of the paragraph. It conveys the overall point of the paragraph. It helps the writer focus on the idea written about. It helps the reader know about what the paragraph is all about.
B. The Supporting Details • • • • •
They are sentences used to support the main idea stated in the topic sentence. They give more information about the main idea through examples. They say in details what the topic sentence says in general. They should be clear evidence eviden ce that what the topic sentence says is trustworthy. trustworthy. They should be strong convincing points on which the topic sentence can rely upon.
C. The Concluding Sentence • • • • •
It is a reflection of the main idea pronounced in the topic sentence. It sums up what the topic sentence sentenc e and the supporting details talk about. It is the closing sentence that reminds the readers of what they have to value. It is compulsory for the completion of the paragraph unity. It eventually indicates the end of a paragraph.
It prepares the reader for a smooth transition to the next paragraph if there is one. Practice Imagine you are asked to write a paragraph about ASPIRIN, which of the following topic sentences you would prefer to open your paragraph with: 1. Aspirin is a pain killer drug, but it has side-effects. 2. Aspirin can be a fatal poison. 3. Aspirin Aspirin is used to calm down headaches but it attacks the stomach. Simple paragraph
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Aspirin can be a fatal poison. People are used to taking aspirin whenever wheneve r they feel pain. It is true that aspirin is an efficacious pain-killer for example in headache cases. However, aspirin is like any other medicine can be dangerously harmful. Any unregulated use of it may result into the damage to the lining of the stomach, prolonged bleeding b leeding time, nausea, vomiting, ulcers, liver damage, and hepatitis. h epatitis. It is scientifically proven that excessive use of aspirin turns it into a toxin. Its toxic effects are Kidney Damage, severe metabolic derangements, respiratory and central nervous system effects, strokes, fatal haemorrhages of the brain, intestines & lungs and eventually eve ntually death. Thus, the careful and regulated use of aspirin is most advisable so as not to turn into a deadly poison Essay Writing
Essay writing improves your skills as a complete communicator. It improves your writing skills, allows scope to express better and combines communication skills with knowledge about the subject. Essays, if well written, conve y a message to the reader who looks at your points of view and feels Special preparation needs to be done for good essay writing: 1.1 Defining The Subject: You You should have a clear conception of the subject of the essay. A little little bit of homework before you start writing goes a long way in creating good goo d ideas. 1.2 Collecting Material: For a number of topics, you need to collect more information 1.3 Logical Arrangement: Now you can decide on the line of the essay; the logical order in which you can arrange your points you have selected. But you must put them down according to some plan. 1.4 Filling The Content: Now that you have the outline and the way you want to write, you can start filling in the content in the logical order Verb ‘do’ It is used as a principal and a helping verb subject I, you, we, they He, she, it
Present Do Does
Past Did Did
Past participle done done
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Making questions
• Questions are formed for all tenses except p resent simple and past simple by changing the position of the auxiliary verb {am, was, will, etc.) and the subject (I, you, she, he, etc.): You 're going —• Are you going? He has gone -» Has he gone? •
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Questions are formed for the present simple and past simple by using do, does, or did: They work here. Do they work here? She lived here. Did she live here? Practice Make questions from these statements. 1 She likes travelling Does she like travelling? 2 They're working. Are they working? 3 He was playing tennis. 4 She went to school today. 5 They live here. 6 She's eating at the moment. 7 They drove to the station. 8 She's reading. 9 He had breakfast early. early. 10 They came c ame today. 11 She drives to work. 12 He left this morning. 13 He was writing a letter. 14 They watched television. 15 She's at home. 16 They went home. 17 She likes horror films. 18 He's walking home. 19 They were eating ice cream. 20 They gave him the money. Make ten questions from the box below, and give the answers.
Who Why When Where What What time How How much
Are you going? Did they leave? Is she talking to? Did they come here? Are you looking at? Did it cost?
Example: Why did they leave? Because they wanted to catch the train. Who asked you? Who did you ask?: question words as subject or object Who drove the car? Who did you see? What happened? What did you do?
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• who and what are sometimes the subject. who and what as subject + verb: Alison asked you. Who asked you? Alison. NOT Who did ask you! • who and what are sometimes the object. who and what as object + question form of verb: You asked Steve. Who did you ask? Steve. • Who stayed with you? but Who did Jane stay with? (Preposition at the end.) Practice Write the questions. 1 Who came to see me you? Raj came to see me. 2 Who ___________________ last night? Ravi met barbar. 3 What _________________you_________reading?.I like reading books. 4 Who ________________________? Priya made the cake 5 Who _________________________? Helen found the car key. 6 What ________________________ A cigarette started the fire fire 7 What________________________? I want some help. 8 Who ____________________You? Ravi told me 9 What What ___________you_________? I said nothing. 10 Who_______________________? Ravi came with sitha Short responses using so, neither, nor • so + auxiliary verb + subject is used u sed to say that something which is true about abou t one thing or person is also true about another thing or person: 'I can speak Spanish.' So can I.' ( = T can speak Spanish too)
• The negative form is neither/nor + auxiliary verb + subject; 'Mike didn't win the prize/ Neither/Nor did Bill' {= And Bill didn't win it) • If there is no auxiliary verb in the first sentence, do / does / did is used: 'Leo plays tennis.' 'So does Tom.' 'Wee went to the cinema last night.' 'W n ight.' So did we.'
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Practice Write responses to these statements using So or Neither/Nor and the word in brackets. 1. I've I've got got a cold cold.. (I) (I) So have I. 2 Peter doesn't eat meat. (Steve) Neither/nor does Steve.
3.Sarah had a baby last year. (Jo) 4 We're going away for the New Year, (we) 5 I'd like to have a pet. (I) 6 Harry hasn't finished his essay. essay. (Paul) 7 I won't be able to go to the meeting. (I) 8 Jenny could read when she was three. (Fiona) 9 I wasn't very interested in history when I was at school. (I) 10 You You should do more exercise, (you) Short responses: / think so, I hope so
1 think I hope so are used to give a positive answer to a question, or to agree with someone without repeating what the other person said: 7s it Tuesday today?' 'Yes. I think so.' (= I think it is Tuesday.) 7s it ready?' 'I hope so.' (= T hope it's ready) The usual negative forms are I don't think so, and I hope not: 'Will there be many people at the meeting?' I don't think so.' I think it's going to rain.' I hope not.' Practice Underline the correct or most likely response. 1 'Is Auckland the capital of Australia?' Australia?' a 'I don't think so.' b 'I hope not.'
3 'Will I have to go into hospital?' a 'No, I don't think so.' b 'Yes, I think so.' 4. 'Will the house be finished before next year? b 'No, I don't hope so.' b 'Yes, I hope not.' 5 'I think it's going to be sunny this weekend.' a T think so, because b ecause I'm playing tennis on Sunday.'
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b 'I hope so, because becau se I'm playing tennis on Sunday.' 6 'Are there 31 days da ys in July?' a 'I hope so.' b 'I hope so. 7. I think Mr. Ravi going to give a speech a. I hope so, He's really boring.' b 'I don't think so.' He's really rea lly boring. 8. 'Do you think there will be any food at the party? a. I don't think so b. I don't hope so Modals
'Modals' are the small verbs like can, must, and might, which give certain meanings to main verbs. There are twelve modal verbs: could can may date
Would shall Must Ought (to)
should will might Need (to)
• Positive is formed by putting the modal between the subject and the main verb: We should stay. You ought to go. He might come. • Negative is formed by adding not (or n't) after the modal: We shouldn't stay. You ought not to come. He might not come. • Questions are formed by changing the position of the modal and the subject: Should we stay? Shouldn't we stay? Ought you to go? Oughtn't yon to go? Might he come? Mightn't he come? Notes • need can be needn't [modal form) or don't need to (verb form). • Negative questions generally use n't. If not is used, there is a different word order: Shouldn't we stay? Should we not stay? Using modals in questions and negatives Practice
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Rewrite these sentences as questions or negatives, acc ording to the instruction given. 1 I must go to the hospital tonight, (negative) / mustn't go to the hospital tonight. 2 James can play the piano, (question) Can James play the piano? 3 Peter can pay for us. (question) 4 We We must go to the passport office today toda y, (negative) 5 We We can go to the bank tomorrow, (negative question) 6 You You should phone the school today, (negative) 7 You You can answer all the questions, (que stion) 8 She can pay for the lessons, (negative) 9 You You can talk to Mary for me. (question) 10 Peter can check the times of the trains for us. (question) 11 We We must say goodbye goo dbye to Alan and Sue. (question) 12 They can stay here for a week, (negative) 13 We We can buy a return ticket here, (question) 14 They should help you. (negative) 15 He can understand me. (negative question) can, could • can: (i) know how to, be able to: J can swim. Mary can speak French. (ii) can: be allowed to: You can sit here. My mother says I can't go out tonight. • could: knew how to: Emily could swim when she was two.
• couldn't: (i) (i) (ii) (ii)
wasn wasn't 't abl ablee to: I'm I'm sor sorry ry,, I could couldn' n'tt come come yest yester erday day.. I could couldn' n'tt go to to work work this morning. could/c could/coul ouldn' dn'tt (ii) (ii) used used in in the the second second conditi conditiona onall [> [> Exer Exercis cisee 59} 59} If you gave me the money mone y, could I do the shopping? • Requests: both can and could are used in requests. Could is a little more polite: Can I have a. glass of water, please? Could you open the door for me, please?
Notes • can refers To the future if it is followed by a time word {next week, tomorrow, etc): I can do it for you next month. • In the negative: can —* can't or cannot could —* couldn't or could not. Practice
Complete these sentences using can or could. If two answers arc possible, write them both.
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1 .Could.. n't you find John yesterday? 2 .Can/.Could. I come and see you tomorrow? 3…………………………………. 3…………………………… ……. you pass me the salt, 4. ……………………………. you play the guitar? 5. why………………………….. the children go to the cinema tonight? 6………………………………………… 6…………………………… …………… you help me with my suitcase, please? 7…………………………………….. 7…………………………… ……….. you drive my car c ar if you had to? 8……………………………………………………… 8…………………………… ………………………………. ……. you answer an swer the phone p hone for me? 9 why………………………………………………… why………………………………………………… you come to the disco tomorrow? 10 It was very difficult to hear; I,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, what she was saying? 11…………………………………………… 11…………………………………………….. .. I smoke in here.
may, might
may and might indicate present or future possibility: He might arrive soon. He may arrive soon. She might be angry if yon do that. She may be angry if you do that. May I? or May we? are used for polite requests, in the same way as Can I? or Can we? It is a very polite form: May I ask you a question? May Ma y I have a glass of water, please? Notes • may is occasionally used in formal English to mean to be allowed to: Guests may bring husbands or wives if they wish. • may and might are usually used in question form only with / or we: other pe rsons more often use the positive with Do you think ...?: He might be late. —* Do you think he. might be late? • The negative of may is may not. (NOT mayn't). The negative of might is might not or mightn't.
Practice Rewrite these sentences using may or might. Where two answers are possible, write them both.
1 Maybe he'll get a new job. He might/may get a new job.
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2 Do you think I could have one of these cakes? May I have one of these cakes? 3 Maybe there's some tea in the pot. 4 Would Would you mind if I asked you how old you are? 5 Visitors are not allowed to stay in the hospital after ten p.m. 6 Do you think I could have one of these sandwiches? 7 I think the car is in the station car park. 8.Is it all right if I use your phone? 9. Guests are allowed to wear casual dress. 10 Maybe she'll move to London. 11 There's a possibility that the show will be cancelled. 12 Maybe she'll be elected. 13 1 think that Andrew will collect the money. 14 Maybe Peter won't come to the cinema tomorrow. 15 Maybe it'll rain this afternoon. Verb ‘have’ It is used as a principal and a helping verb have to be there at 9 o'clock: have + fo-infinitive
subject I, you, we, they He, she, it
Present Have to Has to
Past Had to Had to
Past participle had had
• The verb have + the to-infinitive. Note: have + fo-infinitive has its own meaning and in this way it is like a modal moda l verb. However, it does not have the form of a modal - it is an ordinary verb and we can use it in any tense. The form of the positive, negative and question is the same as for other othe r verbs. USE • have + to-infinitive = It is very important to do something/It is necessary to do something. • not have + to-infinitive = It is not necessary to do something. • have + to-infinitive is very similar in meaning to must but we can use it for all tenses. We We can say: We must leave early, or We have to leave early, but only We We had to leave early last night. (W (Wee do not use must in the past.) • must and have + to-infinitive have different meanings in the negative: You mustn't stay here. It's very dangerous.
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( = It is very important that you don't stay here.) You don't have to wait for me. I can get a taxi home. (= It is not necessary for you to wait for me, b ut you can wait if you want to.) Practice
Complete the sentences with have + to-infinitive in the correct form and one of the verbs below. below. Use have in the present simple. read come open
explain get up answer
shout sleep decide
be talk take
stop send turn
1. I .have to be.. at work at 9 o'clock in the morning, (positive) 3. she………………………………….all the phone calls at work, (positive) 2 We ..don't have to get up...early at weekends, (negative) 3. she………………………………….all the phone calls at work, (positive) 4 ……………………………………you………………………………..all ……………………………………you………………………………..all these books for the exam? (question) 5. I …………………………………. which job I want before the end of the week (positive) 6 You You ………………………….- I can hear you. (negative) Rewrite the sentences adding have + to-infinitive in the correct tense and form.
1. Did you take a taxi home? Did you have to take a taxi home? 2.I've used the bus for the last two days. I've had to use the bus for the last two days. 3 I do the washing once a week. 4 We didn't go to college yesterday. 5.Did you get up early this morning? 6 I'll start work next week. 7 I've always worked hard. 8 The children go to bed at 8 o'clock. 9 They don't work on Saturdays. 10 Did you take your lunch with you? 11 She worked very hard for her exam. 12 I usually cut the grass once a week. 13 She didn't cook the dinner last night. 14 Do you pay to go in? 15 I usually stay at a t home on Wednesdays. Complete the sentences with mustn't or the correct form of not have to . 1 She ..doesn't have. to., come if she doesn't want to. 2.we_________________miss the train. It's the last one tonight.
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3. I________________do this work tonight. I can do it tomorrow. 4. I_________________clean I________________ _clean the floor today. today. I cleaned it yesterday. yesterday. 5. we________________ forget to lock all the doors before we go away. away. 6. They__________ sit in the sun for too long. They might get burnt. 7. we _____________ stay in a hotel in London. We can stay with my cousin. 8. We We ________________ ____________ ____ spend too much money tonight. We have only got a little left. Silent Letters in Words There are certain words which have a particular letter or letters that are silent and therefore the pronunciation of the word is different.
B – Silent in words like Comb Dumb Debt G - Silent in words like Resign Sign
C - Silent in words like Scene Scent
D - Silent in words like Judge Edge
GH – Silent in words like Brought Though Night
H - Silent in words like Hour Honor
K- Silent in words like Know Knee
L - Silent in words like Talk Half
N – Silent in words like Autumn
P - Silent in words like Psychology Pneumonia
T - Silent in words like Listen Catch
U- Silent in words like Tongue Guard
W - Silent in words like Write Answer HOMONYMS
A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in meaning. The words may be spelled the same, such as rose (flower) and rose (past tense of "rise"), or differently, differently, such as their, there, carat carat,, caret caret,, and carrot carrot,, or to, two and too. Here are two or more homonyms in each sentence. Read the sentences carefully and then underline the homonyms. The first two sentences have been done for you. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
The wind wind blew blew my my blue blue shir shirtt into into the the pool pool.. Cheryl Cheryl rode along along as we we rowed rowed the boat from the island island to the the lakeside lakeside road. road. I’ve I’ve never never seen seen such such a beauti beautiful ful scene. scene. We want a site site for for our our home home that will will be be out of of sight. sight. The seam seam in in the tent tent does doesn’ n’tt seem seem to hold hold back back the rain rain..
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6. Due to to the dry dry weath weather er,, we do not not see any any dew dew on the gras grass. s. 7. I knew knew they they had had a new new gnu gnu at the the zoo. zoo. 8. Some Some people people know that that you you add to find find the sum. sum. 9. They’re They’re hangin hanging g their their coats coats over over ther there. e. 10. I ate the eight cakes that were on my plate. 11. How many ways can I tell him that he weighs too much? 12. They banned the crude band from playing at the concert. 13. She only won one ticket to the show. 14. We We must raze the old building before the sun’s rays can raise the temperature. 15. We’ll We’ll find a tropical isle where I’ll walk down the aisle with my bride. 16. You’re You’re crazy if you pierce your ankle! Pronunciation
Pronunciation is the way in which a word is pronounced or spoken. Ways To Improve Your Pronunciation 1. Listen to the English news regularly - CNN - BBC - Star News 2. Be attentive when you hear others speak. 3. Look up the dictionary for the correct pronunciation of words. 4. Read the paragraph loud loudly and then tape it. After listening to tape correct your mistakes and speak again. The formation of the mouth and placing of the tongue is important for correct pronunciation. Looking into a mirror will help. 5. Enjoy the company of people who speak fluent English. 6. Buy tapes of speeches of great leaders of the world and listen to them. A skillful skillful speaker never pronounces a word in a way that is alien to the habits of his listener. The three most common mistakes that happen while pronouncing: -- carelessness -- a put-on accent -- pronunciation that is too careful Take for example: Two most commonly used words : Either Neither When pronounced as Either and Neither, no one notices them. But if they are pronounced as Eyether and Nyether, they will be certainly noticed and the chances are that they will cause irritation.
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THE QUANTIFIERS NUMBERS The cardinal numbers (one, two, three, etc.) are adjectives referring to quantity, quantity, and the ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.) refer to distribution. Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Ordinal one two three four five six seven eight nine ten eleven twelve thirteen fourteen fifteen sixteen seventeen eighteen nineteen twenty twenty-one twenty-two twenty-three twenty-four twenty-five twenty-six twenty-seven twenty-eight twenty-nine thirty thirty-one forty fifty sixty seventy eighty ninety one hundred
Cardinal first second third fourth fifth sixth seventh eighth ninth tenth eleventh twelfth thirteenth fourteenth fifteenth sixteenth Seventeenth eighteenth nineteenth twentieth twenty-first twenty-second twenty-third twenty-fourth twenty-fifth twenty-sixth twenty-seventh twenty-eighth twenty-ninth thirtieth thirty-first fortieth fiftieth sixtieth seventieth eightieth ninetieth hundredth
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500 1,000 100,000 1,000,000
five hundred one thousand one hundred thousand one million
five hundredth thousandth hundred thousandth millionth
Examples: ● There are twenty-five people in the room. ● He was the fourteenth person to win the award since 1934. ● Six hundred thousand people were left homeless after the earthquake. ● I must have asked you twenty times to be quiet. ● He went to Israel for the third time this year. Fractions and decimals Said Half a quarter three quarters
Written 0 .5 0.25 0.75
Said point five point two five point seven five
Percentages Written 25% 50% 75% 100%
Said twenty five percent fifty percent seventy five percent a/one hundred percent
Some Tips To To Learn English Better
Read an extract from a book everyday. everyday. Newspaper editorials make good reading material. Read articles in magazines and try tr y to rewrite them in your own words. Use the language as often as possible, but also try and be a good listener. listener. Listen to the news broadcast on the radio and also on the television. It will help you improve your pronunciation. Maintain a register and keep noting down your grey areas. Go through them every week and try to correct your mistakes. Intonation and emphasis on the right word at the right time is very important. Read aloud a passage from a book or a poem, record it and then correct intonation as you listen to it. The dictionary should be your constant companion. When in doubt about the meaning or pronunciation of a word, always refer to the dictionary. dictionary.
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Note down some new words and phrases, which you think could be used in your day to day conversation, in your register. register. Group discussions are extremely important. Select a topic of your choice and discuss it with a group of friends. It will boost your confidence and will also allow you to think of new n ew sentences. Select a topic and try to speak about it for at least a minute in front of the mirror.
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Who is applied to persons only; as, "The man who was here." Which is applied to the lower animals and things without life; life; as, "The horse which I sold." "The hat which I bought." That is applied to both persons and things; as, "The friend that helps." "The bird that sings." "The knife that cuts." What is a compound relative, including both the antecedent and the relative and is equivalent to that which ; as, "I did what he desired," desired," i. e. "I did that which he desired." Relative pronouns have the singular and plural alike. Who is either masculine or feminine; which and that are masculine, feminine or neuter; what as a relative relative pronoun is always always neuter. neuter. That and what are not inflected. Who and which are thus declined: Sing. and Plural N. Who P. Whose Whos e O. Whom
Sing. and Plural N. Which P. Whose Who se O. Which
Who , which and what when used to ask questions are called Interrogative Pronouns .
Tenses Present Can May Shall Will Ought
Past Could Might Should Would Ought
Passive Participle (Wanting) (W anting) " " " "
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There are are nine auxiliary or helping verbs, viz., Be , have , do , shall shall , will , may , can , ought , and must . They are are called helping verbs, because it is by their aid the compound tenses are formed. TO BE The verb To To Be is the most important of the auxiliary verbs. It It has eleven parts, viz., am, art, is, are, was, wast, were, were, wert; be, being and been . AM COME--HAVE COME " I am come " points to my being here, while "I have come" intimates that I have just arrived. When the subject is not a person, the verb to be should be used in preference to to the verb to have ; as, "The box is come" instead of "The box has come." PAST TENSE--PAST PARTICIPLE The interchange of these two parts of the irregular or so-called strong verbs is, perhaps, the breach oftenest committed by careless speakers and writers. To To avoid mistakes it is requisite to know the principal parts of these verbs, and this knowledge is very ver y easy of acquirement, as there are not more than a couple of hundred of such verbs, and of this number but a small part is in daily use. Here are some of the most common blunders: "I seen" for "I saw;" "I done it" for "I did it;" "I drunk" for "I drank;" "I begun" for "I began;" "I rung" for "I rang;" "I run" for "I ran;" "I sung" for "I sang;" "I have chose" for "I have chosen;" "I have drove" for "I have driven;" "I have wore" for "I have worn;" "I have trod" for "I have trodden;" "I have shook" for "I have shaken;" "I have fell" for "I have fallen;" "I have drank" for "I have drunk;" "I have began" for "I have begun;" "I have rang" for "I have rung;" "I have rose" for "I have risen;" "I have spoke" for "I have spoken;" "I have broke" for "I have broken." "It has froze" for "It has frozen." "It has h as blowed" for "It has blown." "It has flowed" (of a bird) for "It has flown." N. B.--The B.--The past tense and past participle of To Hang is hanged or hung . When you you are talking about a man meeting death on the gallows, say "He was hanged"; when you are talking about the carcass of an animal an imal say, say, "It was hung," hu ng," as "The beef was hung dry." dry." Also say your coat " was hung on a hook."
THE PRONOUNS Very many mistakes occur in the use of the pronouns. "Let you and I go" should be "Let you and _me_ go." "Let them and we go" should be "Let them and us go." The verb let is transitive and therefore takes the objective case. "Give me _them_ flowers" should be "Give me _those_ flowers"; "I mean _them_ three" should be "I mean those three." Them is the objective case of the personal pronoun and cannot be used adjectively like the demonstrative adjective pronoun. "I am as strong as _him_" should be "I am as strong as _he_"; "I am younger than _her_" should be "I am younger than _she_;" "He can write better than _me_" should be "He can write better than I," for in these examples the objective cases _him_, _her_ and _me_ are used wrongfully for
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the nominatives. After each of the misapplied pronouns a verb is unde rstood of which each pronoun is the subject. Thus, "I am as a s strong as he (is)." "I am younger than she (is)." "He can write better than I (can)." Don't say " It is is me ;" say " It is I " The verb To Be of which is is a part takes the same case after it that it has before it. This holds good in all situations as well as with pronouns. The verb To Be also requires the the pronouns joined to it to be in the same case as a pronoun asking a question; The nominative I requires the nominative who and the objectives me , him , her , its , you , them , require the objective whom . " Whom do you think I am?" should be " Who do you think I am?" and " Who do they suppose me to be?" should be " Whom do they suppose me to be?" The objective form of the Relative should be always used, in connection with a preposition. "Who do d o you take me for?" should be " Whom do, etc." "Who did you give the apple to?" should be "Whom did you you give the apple to," but as pointed out elsewhere the preposition should never end a sentence, therefore, it is better to say, say, "To whom did you give the apple?" After transitive verbs always use the objective cases of the pronouns. For " He and they we have seen," say " Him and them we have seen."
Subject and predicate 1. Napo Napole leon on was was banis banishe hed. d. 2. Andr Andree was was capt captur ured ed.. 3. Money Money is circu circula late ted. d. 4. Colu Columb mbus us was was imp impri riso sone ned. d. 5. Acor Acorns ns are are spr sprout outin ing. g. 6. Bell Bellss are are toll tolled ed.. 7. Summ Summer er has has come come.. 8. Sent Sentenc ences es may may be be anal analyz yzed. ed. 9. Cloud Cloudss are are redd reddeni ening. ng. 10. Air may may be weighed. weighed. 11. Jehovah Jehovah shall reign. 12. Corn is planted. planted. 13. Grammarians Grammarians will differ differ.. 14. Snow is fallin falling. g. 15. Leaves are rustlin rustling. g. 16. Children Children will prattl prattle. e. 17. Crickets Crickets are are chirping. chirping. 18. Eclipses Eclipses have been foretold. foretold.
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19. Storms Storms may may abate. abate. 20. Deception Deception may have been practiced practiced.. 21. Esau was hated. 22. Treason Treason should should have been punished. 23. Bees are humming. humming. 24. Sodom might might have been been spared. spared. Sentence Building Prefix the little helping words in the _second column_ to such of the more important words in the _third column_ as with them the m will make complete predicates, and join these predicates to all subjects in the _first column_ with which they will unite to make good sense. 1
| | Burgoyne | Henry Hudson | Sparrows | Comets | Time | Turbans | Lime | Steam | A ir | Carpets |
2
|
3
| a re | woven. was | defeated. can be | condensed. is | inhaled. have been | worn. may be | slacked. has been | wasted. could have been | seen. must have been | deceived. were | quarreling.
One verb may consist of _two, three_, or _four_ words; as, _is singing, will be sung, might have been sung_. Form _verbs_ by combining the words in columns 2 and 3, and add these verbs to all the _nouns_ in column 1 with which they appropriately combine. 1 Laws Clouds Food Health Taxes Books
| 2 | | | | has been | published. | have been | paid. | will be | restored. | should have been | preserved. | m a y be | collected. | a re | obeyed.
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Tenses Let the teacher give other verbs, and require the pupils to name and explain the different tenses. _I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. They walk_.
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In the second sentence, the verb _walk_ was changed by adding _est_; and in the third, it was changed by adding _s_. These changes are for the sake of agreement with the person of the subject. The verb ending in _est_ agrees with the subject _thou_ in the second person, and the verb ending in _s_ agrees with _he_ in the third person. In the fourth sentence, the subject is in the third person; but it is plural, and so the verb drops the _s_ to agree with they in the plural. Verbs are said to agree in +Person+ and +Number+ with their subjects. The person and number _forms_ will be found in Lessons 93, 93 , 94. +DEFINITIONS+. +_Mode_ is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of asserting the action or being+. +The _Indicative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a fact+. +The _Potential Mode_ asserts the power, liberty, liberty, possibility, possibility, or necessity of acting or being+. +The _Subjunctive Mode_ asserts the action or being as a mere condition, supposition, or wish+. +The _Imperative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a command or an entreaty+. +The _Infinitive_ is a form of the verb which names the action or being b eing in a general way wa y, without asserting it of anything+. +The _Participle_ is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of an adjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being as assumed+. +The _Present Participle_ denotes action or being a s continuing at the time indicated by b y the predicate+. +The _Past Participle_ denotes action or being as past or completed at the time indicated by the predicate+. +The _Past Perfect Participle_ denotes action or being as completed at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate+. +_Tense_ +_Tense_ is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the action or being+. +The _Present Tense_ expresses action or being as present+. +The _Past Tense_ expresses action or being as past+. +The _Future Tense_ expresses action or being as yet to come+.
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+The _Present Perfect Tense_ Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at the present time+. +The _Past Perfect Tense_ Tense_ expresses action or being as a s completed at some past time+. +The _Future Perfect Tense_ Tense_ expresses action or being to be b e completed at some future time+. +_Number_ and _Person_ of a verb v erb are those modifications that show its agreement with the number and person of its subject+. _Present_. Be _or_ am, Begin, Blow, Break, Choose,
_Past_. was, began, blew, broke, chose,
Co m e, Do, Draw, Drink, Drive, Eat, Fall, Fly, Freeze, Go, Get, Give, Grow, Have, Know, Lay, Lie, (to rest) Ride, Ring, Rise, Run, See, Set, Sit, Shake, Sing, Slay, Speak,
c am e, did, drew, drank, drove, ate, fell, flew, froze, went, got, gave, grew, had, knew, laid, lay, rode, rang _or_ rung, rose, ran, saw, set, sat, shook, sang _or_ sung, slew, spoke,
_Past. Par._ been. begun. blown. broken. chosen.
come. done. drawn. drunk. driven. eaten. fallen. flown. frozen. gone. got _or_ gotten. given. grown. had. known. laid. lain. ridden. rung. risen. run. seen. set. sat. shaken. sung. slain. spoken.
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Steal, Swim, Take, Tear, Throw, Wear, Write,
stole, swam _or_ swum, took, tore, threw, wore, wrote,
stolen. swum. taken. torn. thrown. worn. written.
The following irregular verbs are called +_Defective_,+ b ecause some of their parts are wanting. _Present_. Can, May, Shall,
_Past_. | _Present_. | could. | Will, might. | Must, should. | Ought,
_Past_. would. -------
LESSON 92. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB +SEE+ IN THE SIMPLE FORM. +PRINCIPAL PARTS+. _Pres_. See,
_Past_. saw,
_Past Par._ seen.
INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. 1 . I s e e, 2. Yo You see, _or_
_Plural_. We see, You see, Page 88
1. 2.
Thou seest, 3. He sees;
3. They see.
PAST TENSE. 1. I saw, 2. You saw, _or_ Thou sawest, 3. He saw;
1. We saw, 2. You saw, 3. They saw.
FUTURE TENSE. 1. I shall see, 2. You will see, _or_ Thou wilt see,
1. We shall see, 2. You will see,
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3. He will see; PRESENT PERFECT
3. They will see. TENSE.
1. I have seen, 2. You have seen, _or_ Thou hast seen 3. He has seen;
1. We have seen, 2. You have seen, 3. They have seen.
PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I had seen, 2. You had seen, _or_ Thou hadst seen, 3. He had seen;
1. We had seen, 2. You had seen, 3. They had seen.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 1. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen, 2. You will have have seen, _or_ _or_ 2. You You will have have seen, Thou wilt wilt have seen, seen, 3. He will have seen; POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. 1. I may see, 2. You may see, see, _or_ _or_ Thou Thou mays maystt see, see, 3. He ma may see; PAST TENSE. 1. I might see, 2. You might might see, see, _or_ _or_ Thou Thou mights mightstt see, see, 3. He mi might see; ee; PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I may may have have seen seen,, 2. You may have have seen, seen, _or_ _or_ Thou Thou mayst mayst have have seen, seen, 3. He may may hav havee see seen; n; PAST PERFECT TENSE. 3. They will have seen. _Plural_. 1. We may may see, 2. You may may see, see, 3. They They may see. ee.
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1. We mi might ght see see,, 2. You migh mightt see, see, 3. They They might ight see. ee.
1. We may may have have seen seen,, 2. You may may hav havee see seen n 3. They They may may hav havee see seen. n. englishgrammar _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I might have seen, 1. We might have seen, 2. You might might have seen, _or_ _or_ 2. You might might have have seen, Thou Thou mights mightstt have have seen, seen, 3. He might have seen; 3. They might have seen. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. PRESEN T TENSE. _Singular_. 1. If I see, 2. If you see, _or_ If thou see, 3. If he see;
_Plural_. 1. If we see, 2. If you see, 3. If If they see.
IMPERATIVEMODE. PRESEN T TENSE. 2. See (you _or_ thou); INFINITIVES . PRESEN T TENSE.
2. See (you).
To see. PRESEN T PERFECT TENSE. To have have seen. een. PARTICIPLE S. PRESEN T.
PAST.
PAST PERFECT.
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Seeing,
Seen,
Having seen.
+To +To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils prefix _do_ and _did_ to the simple present _see_, and thus make the _emphatic form_ of the present and the past tense. Let _can_ and _must_ be used in place of _may_; and _could_, _would_, and _should_, in place of _might_. Require the pupils to tell how each tense is formed, and to note all changes for agreement in number and person. A majority of modern writers use the _indicative_ forms instead of the _subjunctive_, in all of the tenses, unless it may be the _present_. The _subjunctive_ forms of the verb _to be_ are retained in the present and the past tense. Let the pupils understand that the mode and tense forms do not always correspond with the actual meaning. _The ship sails next week. I may go to-morrow_. The verbs _sails_ and _may go_ are _present_ in form but _future_ in meaning. _If it rains by noon, he may not come_. The verb _rains_ is _indicative_ in form but _subjunctive_ in meaning. The plural forms, _You _You saw, You You were_, etc., are used in the _singular_ also. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB--SIMPLE FORM. Fill out the following forms, using the principal parts of the verb _walk. Pres., walk; Past, walked; Past Par., walked_. INDICATIVE MODE. PRESEN T TENSE. _Singular_. 1. I / _Pres_ 2. You / _Pres_ Thou Thou / _Pres _Pres_ _ 3. He / _Pres_
/, /, /est, /est, /s;
_Plural_. 1. We / _Pres_ /, 2. You / _Pres_ /, 3 . Th e y
/ _Pres_ /.
1. We 2. You
/ _Past_ /, / _Past_ /,
3 . Th e y
/ _Past_ /.
PAST TENSE 1. I 2. You Thou Thou 3. H e
/ / / /
_Past_ _Past_ _Pas _Past_ t_ _Past_
/, /, /st, /st, /;
FUTURE TENSE. / _Pres_ 1. I _shall_ /, / _Pres_ 2. You _w _will_ /, Thou Thou _wil-t _wil-t_ _ / _Pres_ _Pres_ /, /,
1. We _will_
/ _Pres_ /,
2. You _will_ / _Pres_ /,
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3. He _will_ / _Pres_ /; PRESEN T PERFECT TENSE.
3. They
_will_ / _Pres_ /.
1. I _have_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _have_ /_Past /_Past Par._/, Par._/, 2. You You _have_ _have_ /_Past /_Past Par._/ Par._/,, Thou Thou _ha-st_ _ha-st_ /_Past Par._/, 3. He _ha-s_ _ha-s_ /_Past /_Past Par Par._/; ._/; 3. They _have_ /_Past /_Past Par Par._/. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I _had_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _had_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _had_ _had_ /_Past /_Past Par._/ Par._/,, 2. You You _had_ /_Past /_Past Par._/ Par._/,, Thou _had-st_ _had-st_ /_Past Par._/, 3. He _had_ /_Past /_Past Par._/; Par._/; 3. They _had_ /_Past /_Past Par._/. Par._/. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 1. I _sha _shall ll have have_ _ /_P /_Past ast Par._ ar._/, /, 1. We _wil _willl have have_ _ _Pas _Pastt Par Par._, ._, 2. You _will have_ /_Past /_Past Par._/, Par._/, 2. You You _will have_ _Past _Past Par._, Par._, Thou _wil-t _wil-t have_ /_Past Par._/, 3. He _will have_ /_Past /_Past Par._/; Par._/; 3. They _will _will have_ _Past Par Par._. POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 1. I _may_ 2. You _may_ Thou _may-st_ 3. He _may_
/ / / /
_Pres._ _Pres._ _Pres._ _Pres._
/, /, /, /;
1. We _may_ 2. You _may_ 3.
/ _Pres._ /, / _Pres._ /, They _may_ / _Pres._ /.
PAST TENSE. 1. I _might_ / _Pres._ /, /, 2. You _might_ / _Pres._ /, /, Thou _m _might-st_ / _Pres._ /, 3. He _might_ / _Pres._ /; /;
1. We We _might_ 2. Yo You _might_
/ _Pres._ /, / _Pres._ /,
3. Th T hey _might_ / _Pres._ /.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I _may have_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _may have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _may have_ /_Past /_Past Par._/, Par._/, 2. You You _may have_ /_Past /_Past Par._/ Par._/,, Thou _may_may-st st have_ /_Past Par._/, Par._/, 3. He _may have_ /_Past /_Past Par._/; Par._/; 3. They _may have_ have_ /_Past Par Par._/. PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I _mi _might hav have_ /_Pa _Past Par._/, 1. We _mi _might have_ /_Past ast Par._/, _/, 2. You _might have_ /_Pas /_Pastt Par._/, Par._/, 2. You You _might have_ /_Past Par Par._/, ._/, Thou _might-st _might-st
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have_ /_Past Par._/, Par._/, 3. He _might have_ /_Past /_Past Par._/; Par._/; 3. They _might _might have_ /_Past /_Past Par._/. Par._/. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. 1. If I 2. If you If thou 3. If he
/ / / /
_Pres._ _Pres._ _Pres._ _Pres._
/, /, /, /;
_Plural_. 1. If we 2. If you
/ _Pres._ /, / _Pres._ /,
3. If they / _Pres._ /.
IMPE IMPERA RATI TIVE VE MODE MODE.. PRESENT TENSE. 2. / _Pres._
/ (you _or_ thou);
2. / _Pres._ / (you).
INFINITIVES. PRESENT TENSE. To / _Pres._ /. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. To _have_ /_Past Par._/. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. PAST. /_Pres./ing_. /_Past Par._/
PAST PERFECT. _Having /Past Par./_
+To +To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils fill out these forms with other verbs. In the indicative, present, third, singular, _es_ is sometimes added instead of _s_; and in the second person, old style, _st_ is sometimes added instead of _est_. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE. In studying this Lesson, pay no attention to the line at the right of each verb. INDICATIVE MODE.
PAST TENSE.
PRESENT TENSE.
1. I was ----, 2. You wer weree -------,, _or_ _or_ Thou wast ----, 3. He wa was -----;
_Singular_. 1. I am ----, 2. You are ---- _or_ Thou art ----, 3. He is ----;
FUTURE TENSE.
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1. I sha shall ll be ------, 2. You will will be be -------,, _or_ _or_ Thou Thou wilt be ----, 3. He will will be ----; ---; PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I have have been been -------,, 2. You have been ---- _or_ Thou hast been ----, 3. He has has been been -------;; PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I had had been been ----, ---, 2. You had been ---- _or_ Thou hadst been ----, 3. He had had bee been n ------; -; FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 1. I sha shall ll have have been been -------,, 2. You will will have have been been ------- _or_ _or_ Thou Thou wilt have been ----, 3. He will will has been been ------; -; POTENTIAL
MODE.
_Plural_. 1. We are are -------,, 2. You are are ------, -, 3. They They are are -----.
1. We wer weree ------, -, 2. You were were -------,, 3. They They were were ----. ---.
1. We sha shall ll be -------,, 2. You wil willl be be ------, -, 3. They They will will be -------..
1. We hav havee been been -------,, 2. You have have been been -------,, 3. They They have have been been -------..
PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. 1. I may may be ----, ---, 2. You may be ------ _or_ Thou mayst be ----, 3. He may may be ----; --;
1. We had had been been -------,, 2. You had had bee been n ------, -,
PAST TENSE.
1. We shal shalll have have bee been n -------,, 2. You wil willl have have bee been n -------,,
1. I mig might ht be -------,, 2. You might be ---- _or_ Thou mightst be ----,
3. They They had had bee been n ------. -.
3. They They will will have have bee been n ------. -. _Plural_. 1. We may may be -------,, 2. You may may be be ------, -, 3. They They may may be -------.. 1. We mig might ht be -------,,
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2. You mig might ht be be ------, -,
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3. He might be ----;
3. Th They might be ----.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. I may have been ----, 2. You may have been ---- _or_ Thou mayst have been ----, 3. He may have been ----;
1. We We may have been ----, 2. You may have been ----, 3. They may have been ----.
PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. I might have been ----, 2. You might hav have bee been ---- _or_ Thou mightst have been ----, 3. He might have been ----;
1. We might have been ----, 2. You might have been ----, 3. They might have been ----.
SUBJUNCTIVE
MODE.
PRESENT TENSE. _Singular_. 1. If I be be -----, 2. If you you be ------- _or _or _ If If thou thou be ----, ----, 3. If he be ------; PAST TENSE. 1. If I wer weree ------, -, 2. If you you were were ------- _or_ _or_ If thou thou wert wert -------,, 3. If he were ere -----; --; IMPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 2. Be (you _or_ them) ----; INFINITIVES. PRESENT TENSE. To be ----. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. To have been ----. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. Being ----.
PAST. B e e n.
_Plural_. 1. If we be ----, --, 2. If you you be -------,, 3. If the they y be be ------. -.
1. If we we wer weree ------, -, 2. If you were were -------,, 3. If they they were were -------.. 2. Be (you)------. PAST PERFECT. Having been ----. +To +To the Teacher+.--After the pupils have become thoroughly familiar with the verb _be_ as a principal verb, teach them to use it as an auxiliary in making the +Progressive Form+ and the +Passive Form+. The _progressive form_ may be made by filling all the blanks with the _present participle_ of some verb. 70
The _passive form_ may be made by filling all the blanks with the _past participle_ of a _transitive_ verb. Notice that, after the past participle, no blank is left. In the progressive form, this participle is wanting; and, in the passive form, it is the same as in the simple. AGREEMENT OF THE VERB. +To the Teacher+.--For additional matter, see pp. 163-167. +_Remember_+ that the verb must agree with its subject in number and person. Give the person and number of each of the following verbs, and write sentences in which each form shall be used correctly. correctly. _Common forms_.--Does, has=ha(ve)s, is, am, are, was, were. _Old forms_.--Seest, sawest, hast=ha(ve)st, wilt, mayst, mightst, art, wast. When a verb has two or more subjects connected by _and_, it must agree with them in the plural. _A similar rule applies to the agreement of the pronoun_. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. +Model+.--Poverty and obscurity _oppresses_ him who thinks that _it is oppressive_. Wrong: the verb _oppresses_ should be changed to _oppress_ to agree with its two subjects, connected by _and_. The pronoun _it_ should be changed to _they_ to agree with its two antecedents, and the verb _is_ should be changed to _are_ to agree with _they_. Industry, Industry, energy, and good sense is essential to success. Time and tide waits for no man. The tall sunflower and the little violet is turning its face to the sun. The mule and the horse was harnessed together. Every green leaf and every blade of grass seem grateful. +Model+.--The preceding sentence is wrong. The ve rb _seem_ is plural, and it should be be singular; for, when several singular subjects are preceded by _each_, every_, or _no_, they are taken separately. Each day and each hour bring their portion of duty. Every book and every paper were found in their place. When a verb has two or more singular subjects connected by b y _or_ or _nor_, it must agree with them in the singular. _A similar similar rule applies to the agreement of the pronoun_. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. One or the other have made a mistake in their statement. Neither the aster nor the dahlia are cultivated for their fragrance. Either the president or his secretary were responsible. 71
Neither Ann, Jane, nor Sarah are at home. To foretell, or to express future time simply, the auxiliary _shall_ is used in the first person, and _will_ in the second and third; but when a speaker determines or promises, he uses _will_ in the first person and _shall_ in the second and third. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. I will freeze, if I do not move about. You You shall feel better soon, I think. She shall be fifteen years old to-morrow. I shall find it for you, if you shall bring the book to me. You You will have it, if I can get it for you. He will have it, if he shall take the trouble to ask for it. He will not do it, if I can prevent him. I will drown, nobody shall help me. I will be obliged to you, if you shall attend to it. We We will have gone by to-morrow morning. You shall disappoint your father, if you do not return. I do not think I will like the change. Next Tuesday shall be your birthday. You shall be late, if you do not hurry. hurry. ERRORS IN THE FORM OF THE VERB. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. +Model+.--Those things _have_ not _came to-day_. Wrong, because the past _came_ is here used for the past participle _come_. The present perfect tense is formed by prefixing _have_ to the _past participle_. I done all my work before breakfast. I come in a little late yesterday. yesterday. He has went to my desk without permission. That stupid fellow set down on my new hat. _Set_ is generally transitive, and _sit_ is intransitive. _Lay_ is transitive, and _lie_ is intransitive. He sat the chair in the corner. Sit that plate on the table, and an d let it set. I have set in this position a long time. That child will not lay still or set still a minute. I laid down under the tree, and enjoyed the scenery. Lie that stick on the table, and let it lay. lay. Those boys were drove out of the fort three times. I have rode through the park. I done what I could. He has not spoke to-day. to-day. The leaves have fell from the trees. This sentence is wrote badly. 72
He throwed his pen down, and said that the point was broke. He teached me grammar. grammar. I seen him when he done it. My hat was took off my head, and throwed out of the window. The bird has flew into that tall tree. I was chose leader. ar I have began to do better. I begun this morning. My breakfast was ate in a hurry. Your dress sets well. That foolish old hen is setting on a wooden egg. He has tore it up and throwed it away. away. William William has took my knife, and I am afraid he has stole it. This should be well shook. I begun to sing, before I knowed what I was doing. We drunk from a pure spring. I thought you had forsook us. His pencil is nearly wore up. He come, and tell me all he knowed about it. REVIEW questions +To the Teacher+.--See "Scheme," p. 187. How many modifications have verbs? Ans.--_Five; viz., voice, mode, tense, number, and person_. Define voice. How many man y voices are there? Define each. Illustrate. What is mode? How many modes are there? Define each. What is an infinitive? What is a participle? How many different kinds of participles are there? Define each. Illustrate. What is tense? How many tenses are there? Define each. Illustrate. What are the number and the person of a verb? Illustrate. What is conjugation? What is synopsis? What are auxiliaries? Name the auxiliaries. What are the principal parts of a verb? Why are they so called? How does a verb agree with its subject? When a verb has two or more subjects, how does it agree? Illustrate the uses of _shall_ and _will_. +To +To the Teacher+.--Select some of the preceding exercises, and require the pupils to write the parsing of all the verbs. See Lessons 34, 35, 48, 49, and 56. +Model for Written Written Parsing--Verbs+.--_The Parsing--Verbs+.--_The Yankee, Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new lands_. CLASSIFICATION. _Verbs_. *selling wanders *seek
_Kind_.
MODIFICATIONS.
SYNTAX .
_Voice_. _M _Mode_. _T _Tense_. _N _Num_. _P _Per_.
Pr. Par., Ir., Tr. Ac. Reg., Int. --Inf, Ir., Tt, A c.
--Ind. ---
--Pres. "
----- Mod. of _Yankee_. Sing. 3d. Pred. of " ----- Prin. word in phrase Mod. of _wanders_. 73
[Footnote *: Participles and Infinitives have no _person_ or _number_.] SENTENCE-BUILDING. Participles sometimes partake of the nature of the noun, while they retain the nature of the verb. Build each of the following phrases into a sentence, and explain the nature of the participle. +Model+.-- ----_in building a snow fort_. They were engaged _in building a snow fort_. The participle _building_, like a noun, follows the preposition _in_, as the principal word in the phrase; and, like a verb, it takes the object complement _fort_. ---- by foretelling storms. ---- by helping others. ---- on approaching the house. ----- in catching fish. Use the following phrases as subjects. Walking in the garden ----. His writing that letter ----. Breaking a promise pro mise ----. Use each of the following phrases in a complex sentence. Let some of the dependent clauses be used as adjectives, and some, as adverbs. ---- in sledges. ---- up the Hudson. ---- down the Rhine. ---- through the Alps. ---with snow and ice. ---- into New York York Bay. ---- on the prairie. ---- at Saratoga. Build a short sentence containing all the parts of speech. Expand the following simple sentence into twelve sentences. Astronomy teaches the size, form, nature, and motions of the sun, moon, and stars. Contract the following awkward compound sentence into a neat simple sentence, Hannibal passed through Gaul, and then he crossed the Alps, and then came down into Italy, and then he defeated several Roman generals. Change the following complex sentences to compound sentences. When he asked me the question, I answered him courteously. Morse, the man who invented the telegraph, was a public benefactor. When spring comes, the birds will return. Contract the following complex sentences into simple sentences by changing the verb in the dependent clause to a participle. Notice all the other changes. A ship which was gliding along the horizon attracted our attention. I saw a man who was plowing a field. When the shower had passed, we went on our way. I heard that he wrote that article. That he was a foreigner was well known. I am not sure that he did it. Every pupil who has an interest in this work will prepare for it. 74
Change the following compound sentences to complex sentences. +Model+.--Morning dawns, and the clouds disperse. d isperse. When morning dawns, the clouds disperse. Avoid swearing; it is a wicked habit. Pearls are valuable, and they are found foun d in oyster shells. Dickens wrote David Copperfield, and he died in 1870. Some animals are vertebrates, and they have a backbone. each of the following sentences as much as you can. Indians dance. The clock struck. The world moves.
MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS. CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. I have got that book at home. +Model+.--Wrong, +Model+.--Wrong, because _have_, _have_ , alone, asserts possession. _Got_, used in the sense of _obtained_, is correct; as, _I have just got the book_. Have you got time to help me? There is many mistakes in my composition. +Model+.--Wrong, because _is_ should agree with its plural subject _mistakes_. The adverb _there_ is often used to introduce a sentence, that the subject may follow the predicate. This often makes the sentence sound smooth, and gives variety. There goes my mother mothe r and sister. Here comes the soldiers. There was many friends to greet him. It ain't there. +Model+.--_Ain't_ is a vulgar contraction. Correction--It _is not_ there. I have made up my mind that it ain't no use. 'Tain't so bad as you think. Two years' interest were due. due . Every one of his acts were criticised. I, Henry, Henry, and you have been chosen. +Model+.--Wrong, +Model+.--Wrong, for politeness requires that you should mention the one spoken to, first; the one spoken of, next; and a nd yourself, last. He invited you and I and Mary. Me and Jane are going to the fair. I only want a little piece. He is a handsome, tall man. Did you sleep good? How much trouble one has, don't they? He inquired for some tinted ladies' note-paper. 75
You needn't ask me nothing about it, for I haven't got go t no time to answer. Him that is diligent will succeed. He found the place sooner than me. Who was that? It was me and him. If I was her, I would say less. Bring me them tongs. Us boys have a base-ball club. Whom did you say that it was? Who did you speak to just now? Who did you mean, when you said that? Where was you when I called? There's twenty of us going. Circumstances alters cases. Tell them to set still. He laid down by the fire. She has lain her book aside. It takes him everlastingly. everlastingly. That was an elegant old rock. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Thou shalt shalt not not take the name name of the the Lord thy God God in vain. vain. Strike Strike!! till till the last last arme armed d foe expir expires! es! You wro wrong ng me, me, Bru Brutu tus. s. Shall we gather gather strengt strength h by irresolutio irresolution n and inaction? inaction? Why stan stand d we we her heree idl idle? e? Give Give me libe liberty rty,, or give give me deat death! h! Thy mercy mercy,, O Lord, is in in the heavens, heavens, and thy faithfulnes faithfulnesss reacheth reacheth unto the clouds. clouds. The clouds clouds poured poured out water water,, the skies skies sent out a sound, sound, the voice of thy thunde thunder r was in the heaven. 9. The heavens heavens declare declare his righteous righteousness, ness, and and all the people people see his his glory. glory. 10. The verdant lawn, the shady grove, the variegated variegated landscape, the boundless ocean, and the starry firmament are beautiful and magnificent objects. 11. When you grind your corn, give give not the flour to the devil and the bran to God. 12. That which the fool does in the the end, the wise man does at the beginning. 13. Xerxes commanded the largest army that was ever brought into the the field. 14. Without oxygen, fires would cease to burn, and all animals would immediately die. 15. Liquids, when acted upon by gravity, gravity, press downward, upward, and sideways. 16. Matter exists in three three states--the solid solid state, the liquid state, state, and the gaseous state. 17. The blending of the seven prismatic colors colors produces white light. 18. Soap-bubbles, when they are exposed to light, exhibit colored rings. 19. He who yields to temptation temptation debases himself himself with a debasement debasement from which he can never arise. 20. Young eyes that last year year smiled in ours Now point the rifle's barrel; And hands then stained with fruits and flowers Bear redder stains of quarrel. CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. 76
+Capital Letters+.--The first word of (1) a sentence, (2) a line of poetry, poetry, (3) a direct quotation making complete sense or a direct question introduced into a sentence, and (4) phrases or clauses separately numbered or paragraphed should begin with a capital letter. Begin with a capital letter (5) proper names n ames and words derived from them, (6) names na mes of things personified, and (7) most abbreviations. Write in capital letters (8) the words _I_ and _O_, and (9) numbers in the Roman notation. [Footnote: Small letters are preferred where numerous references to chapters, etc., are made.] +Examples+.--1. The judicious are always a minority. 2. Honor Honor and shame shame from from no no conditio condition n rise; rise; Act well well your part, there all the honor lies. 3. The quest question ion is, is, "Can "Can law make make peopl peoplee honest? honest?"" 4. Paintings Paintings are are useful for for these these reasons: reasons: 1. They They please; please; 2. They instruct. instruct. 5. The heroic heroic Nelson Nelson destroyed destroyed the the French French fleet in Aboukir Aboukir Bay. Bay. 6. Next, Next, Anger Anger rush rushed, ed, his his eyes eyes on fire fire.. 7. The Atlant Atlantic ic ocean ocean beat beat Mrs. Mrs. Parting Partington ton.. 8. The use use of of _O_ _O_ and _oh_ _oh_ I am now now to to explai explain. n. 9. Napole Napoleon on II. II. never never came came to to the throne. throne. +Period+.--Place a period after (1) a declarative or an imperative sentence, (2) an abbreviation, and (3) a number written in the Roman notation. For examples see 1, 7, and 9 in the sentences above. +Interrogation Point+.--Every direct interrogative sentence or clause should be followed by an interrogation point. +Example+.--King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets? +Exclamation Point+.--All exclamatory expressions must be followed by the exclamation point. +Example+.--Oh! bloodiest picture in the book of time! +_Comma_+.--Set off by the comma (1) a phrase out of its natural order or not closely connected with the word it modifies; (2) an explanatory modifier that does not restrict the modified term o r combine closely with it; (3) a participle used as an adjective modifier, with the words belonging to it, unless restrictive; (4) the adjective clause, when not restrictive; (5) the adverb clause, unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies; (6) a word or phrase independent or nearly so; (7) a direct quotation introduced into a sentence, unless _formally_ introduced; (8) a noun clause used as an attribute complement; and (9) a term connected to another by or and having the same meaning. Separate by the comma (10) connected words and phrases, unless un less all the conjunctions are expressed; (11) independent clauses, when short and closely connected; and (12) the parts of a compound predicate and of other phrases, when long or differently modified. +_Examples_+.--l. In the distance, icebergs look like masses of burnished metal. 2. Alexandria, the capital of Lower Egypt, is an ill-looking city. 3. Labor, Labor, diving diving deep into into the earth, earth, brings brings up long-hi long-hidden dden stores stores of coal. 4. The sun, which which is the the center of our system, system, is milli millions ons of miles miles from from us. 5. When When beggars die, there are no comets seen. 6. Gentlemen, this, then, is your verdict. 7. God 77
said, "Let there be light." 8. Nelson's signal was, "England expects every man to do his duty." duty." 9. Rubbers, or overshoes, ov ershoes, are worn to keep the feet dry. dry. 10. The sable, the seal, and the otter furnish us rich furs. 11. His dark eye flashed, his proud breast heaved, his cheek's hue came and went. 12. Flights of birds darken the air, and tempt the traveler with the promise of abundant provisions. +_Semicolon_+.--Independent clauses (1) when slightly connected, or (2) when themselves divided by the comma, must be separated by the semicolon. Use the semicolon (3) between serial phrases or clauses having a common dependence on something that precedes or follows; and (4) before _as, viz., to wit., namely, namely, i. e._, and _that is_, when they introduce examples or illustrations. +_Examples_+.--1. The furnace blazes; the anvil rings; the b usy wheels whirl round. 2. As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at a t it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew him. 3. He drew a picture of the sufferings of our Saviour; his trial before Pilate; his ascent of Calvary; his crucifixion and de ath. 4. Gibbon writes, "I have been sorely afflicted with gout in the hand; to wit, laziness." +_Colon_+.--Use the colon (1) between the parts of a sentence when these parts are themselves divided by the semicolon; and (2) before a quotation or an enumeration of particulars when formally introduced. +_Examples_+.--l. Canning's features were handsome; his eye, though deeply ensconced under his eyebrows, was full of sparkle and gayety: the features of Brougham were harsh in the extreme. 2. To Lentullus and Gellius bear this message: "Their graves are measured." +_Dash_+.--Use the dash where there is an omission (1) of letters or figures, and (2) of such words as _as_, _namely_, or o r _that is_, introducing illustrations or equivalent expressions. Use the dash (3) where the sentence breaks off abruptly, abruptly, and the same thought is resumed after a slight suspension, or another takes its p lace; and (4) before a word or phrase repeated at intervals for emphasis. The dash ma y be used (5) instead of marks of parenthesis, and may (6) follow other marks, adding to their force. +_Examples_+.--1. In M------w, M------w, v. 3-11, you may find the "beatitudes." 2. There are two things certain in this world--taxes and death. 3. I said--I know not what. 4. I never would lay down my arms--_never_-- NEVER--+NEVER+. 5. Fulton started a steamboat----he called it the Clermont--on the Hudson in 1807. 6. My dear Sir,--I write this letter for information. +_Marks of Parenthesis_+.--Marks of parenthesis may be used to enclose what has no essential connection with the rest of the sentence. +Example+.--The noun (Lat. _nomen_, a name) is the first part of speech. +_Apostrophe_+.--Use the apostrophe (1) to mark the omission of letters, (2) in the pluralizing of letters, figures, and characters, and (3) to distinguish the possessive from other cases. +_Examples_+.--1. Bo't of John Jones 10 lbs. of butter. 2. What word is there one-half of which is _p's_? 3. He washed the disciples' feet. 78
+_Hyphen_+.--Use the hyphen (-) (1) between the parts of compound words that have not become consolidated, and (2) between syllables when a word is divided. +_Examples_+.--1. Work-baskets Work-baskets are convenient. 2. Divide _basket_ thus: _bas-ket_. +_Quotation Marks_+--Use quotation marks to enclose a copied word or passage. If the quotation contains a quotation, quo tation, the latter is enclosed within single marks. +_Example_+---The sermon closed with this sentence: "God said, 'Let there be light.'" +_Brackets_+.--Use brackets [ ] to enclose what, in quoting another's words, you insert by way of explanation or correction. +_Example_+.--The Psalmist says, "I prevented [anticipated] the dawning of the morning." SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS. +_To the Teacher_+.--It Teacher_+.--It is very profitable to exercise pupils in combining co mbining simple statements into complex and compound sentences, and in resolving complex and compound sentences into simple statements. In combining statements, it is an excellent practice for the pupil to contract, expand, transpose, and to substitute different words. They thus learn to express the same thought in a variety of ways. wa ys. Any reading-book or history will furnish good material for such practice. A few examples are given below b elow.. +_Direction_+.--Combine in as many ways as possible each of the following groups of sentences:-+_Example_+.--This man is to be pitied. He has no friends. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
This This man has no no friends friends,, and he he is to to be pitie pitied. d. This This man is is to be piti pitied, ed, becaus becausee he has no no friend friends. s. Because this man has has no friends, friends, he he is to be pitied. pitied. This This man, man, who has has no friend friends, s, is to be piti pitied. ed. This This man, man, having having no frien friends, ds, is is to be pitie pitied. d. This This man, man, without without frie friends nds,, is to be be pitied pitied.. This This friendl friendless ess man man deserv deserves es our pity pity..
1. The ostrich ostrich is unable unable to fly fly. It has not wings wings in proport proportion ion to its its body. body. 2. Egypt is is a fertile fertile country country.. It is annually annually inundated inundated by the the Nile. Nile. 3. The nerves nerves are little little threads, threads, or fibers. fibers. They extend, extend, from from the brain. brain. They spread spread over over the whole body. 4. John Gutenber Gutenberg g published published a book. It was was the first first book book known to have have been printed printed on a printing-press. He was aided by the patronage p atronage of John Paust. He published it in 1455. He published it in the city of Mentz. 5. The human body body is a machine. machine. A watch watch is delicat delicately ely construct constructed. ed. This This machine machine is more delicately constructed. A steam-engine is complicated. This machine is more complicated. A steam-engine steam-engine is wonderful. This machine is more wonderful. You see that short statements closely related in meaning ma y be improved by being combined. But young writers frequently use too many _ands_ and other connectives, and make their sentences too long. 79
Long sentences should be broken up into short ones when the relations of the parts are not clear. As clauses may be joined to form sentences, so sentences may be united to make _paragraphs_. A +_paragraph_+ is a sentence or a group of related sentences developing one point po int or one division of a general subject. The first word of a paragraph should begin a new line, and should be written a little farther to the right than the first words of other lines. +_Direction_+.--Combine the following statements into sentences and paragraphs, and make of them a complete composition:-Water is a liquid. It is composed of oxygen o xygen and hydrogen. It covers about abou t three-fourths of the surface of the earth. It takes the form of ice. It takes the form of snow. snow. It takes the form of vapor. The air is constantly taking up water from rivers, lakes, oceans, and from damp ground. Cool air contains moisture. Heated air contains more moisture. Heated air becomes lighter. lighter. It rises. It becomes cool. The moisture is condensed into fine particles. Clouds are formed. They float across the sky. sky. The little particles unite and form rain-drops. They sprinkle the dry fields. At night the grass and flowers become cool. The air is not so cool. The warm air touches the grass and flowers. It is chilled. It loses a part of its moisture. Drops of dew are formed. Water has many uses. Men and animals drink it. Trees and plants drink it. They drink it by means of their leaves and roots. Water Water is a great g reat purifier. purifier. It cleanses our bodies. It washes our clothes. It washes the dust from the leaves and the flowers. Water is a When predicate verbs immediately follow their subjects, there is little danger of errors in agreement, except that _was_ is often used incorrectly for _were_, and _don't_ for _doesn't_. The chief object of introducing these exercises here is to train the pupils' observation so that they will readily and naturally note the agreement of the subject and predicate when these terms are transposed, o r are separated by other words. To determine the correct form of the verb in such cases, let the pupils see how it sounds when placed immediately after its subject. We suggest exercises like the following:-1 is 2 was 3 has 4 does 5 comes 6 goes 7 thinks 8 writes
a re w e re have do come go think write
Exercise 1.
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1 Group One find hear say ge t
3 Group Three sit
t e ll
drive
lose sell stick win
ea t
1 They _______ ____________ ______ _ the apartment apartment that they had in Gandia for a very good price. 2 He ________ _____________ _____ me his name name but but now I've forgotten it. 3 We _______ ____________ ______ _ home at three three o'clock last night. 4 Sorry Sorry I'm late. late. I was ______ ____________ _______ _ in traffic. 5 Valencia Valencia FC FC ___________ _____________ __ The King's Cup in 1999. 6 I __________ _____________ ___ the news about about The World Trade Centre on the radio. 7 We entered entered the restaur restaurant, ant, _____________ a table and sat down. 8 Sorry Sorry. I didn't didn't hear what what you _____________ .
f al l
give
ride
take
forget hide shake write
1 We ______ ___________ _______ __ all night night to get to France. 2 Have you you ever ever ___________ _____________ __ a horse? 3 I've ______ ___________ _______ __ a letter letter to my my bank manager. 4 We ___________ _____________ __ hands hands at the end of the meeting. 5 She had had a headach headache e so she _____________ an aspirin. 6 I _________ _____________ ____ too much much for for dinner yesterday and I feel fat. 7 My sister sister _______ ____________ ______ _ me a watch for Christmas. 8 He _________ _____________ ____ over over on the the wet floor and broke his wrist. 9 She ______ ___________ _______ __ the money under the mattress.
9 We were were all a bit bit hot and tired tired so so we all _____________ down on the grass.
10 Blast! We We __________ _____________ ___ to buy buy milk.
10 I've ________ _____________ _____ three three umbrellas umbrellas this month. Terrible! I'm so careless. 2 Group Two be become
break X2 come choose
see
steal
freeze speak
1 I've never never ________ _____________ _____ to Caceres. 2 Have you ______ ____________ _______ _ Sarah Sarah today? 3 Mr Aznar Aznar __________ _____________ ___ presiden presidentt in 1996. 4 Has Beatriz Beatriz __________ _____________ ___ back back from lunch yet? 5 Rita ________ _____________ _____ her her leg skiing. skiing. 6 What What colour colour have have you you _____________ for the curtains? 7 It was so cold cold that the lake lake _____________ over. 8 She ________ _____________ _____ fluent fluent Frenc French h on holiday last year. 9 My purse's purse's been been _________ _____________. ____. 10 A friend's friend's kid ______ ___________ _______ __ my stereo.
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Exercise 2. Sports Stars Last week, Venus and Serena Williams played each other in the final of a tennis tournament. Venus is now fourth in the world, and her younger sister Serena is really happy because she has moved up to third. The two sisters have already come a long way from the poor area in California where they were born. It was full of violence and drugs, and the girls’ father, Richard, wanted to move to a safer place. They moved in 1991 and they have never looked back. Richard started to train Venus when she was four, and says: “The first time I took Venus to the tennis court, I told my wife: ‘We have have a champi champion’ on’.” She played played in her first first big tourna tournamen mentt in 1996 1996.. She She hasn hasn’t ’t won won Wmble Wmbledo don n yet, yet, but but she she has has alrea already dy reac reache hed d impo import rtan antt finals finals such such as the the US Open Open.. Sere Serena na has has continued to improve and she has made fantastic progress. In 1999, she won the US Open, but she hasn’t won the singles yet. Has tennis ever caused problems between sisters? “We’ve played each other before and it hasn’t worried us-yet!”, says Venus. “If she wins,” Serena jokes, “Mama says she has to do the dishes!”
Questions: 1. Why are the sister sister unusua unusual? l? 2. What What kind kind of bacgr bacgroun ound d are they they from from? ? 3. Who helped helped the to succee succeed? d? 4. How do do the two two sist sisters ers get on on at home? home?
Exercise 3. What happened? What has happened? Study these sentences. Pay close attention to the words in italics. What happened? What h as happened? I wrote to him last month. month. The train has just left the station. I bought this car last year . I’ve already seen seen that film. He came to see me this morning. morning. He has been abroad for six years. years . I saw him ten minutes ago. ago. Have you ever met ever met him before? before? I have never met him before. before. I have not finished work yet . There have been a great number of accidents lately .
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Exercise 6. Find the regular verb in each line and write it into the gap. Example: Answer: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
say, sing say, sing
lose, dance, - _____ lose, dance, - dance
read, feel, play, see listen, do, go, make know, help, say, think like, write, forget, eat take, bring, cut, clean watch, be, have, meet put, buy, cook, teach catch, find, answer, lose -
Exercise 7. Fill in the missing forms of the phrases. Use the long form of the auxiliary only. only. Infinitive 1 2 3
7
Past Participle
I played she has listened you work Andrew cleaned
4 5 6
Simple Past
we count I have helped the brothers live
8 9 10 Susan looks
he has watched they started
Exercise 8. In each sentence choose the correct form of verb. Exercise 9. Choose teh correct answer. 1 1. I __________________ ____________________ __ in 1960. was born have been born were born 2 I ____________________ in this city for many years, and I still enjoy the place. has lived Lived have lived 3 I ______________to high school here, and now I am a full time teacher. teacher. has gone went
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have gone 4 Freddy and Ivan ______________ in this university since since 1980, and next year they plan to study abroad. have worked has worked Worked 5 I ____________ this morning at 8 o'clock. o'clock. waken up woken up have waken up woke up 6 Our friends _____________ for almost 2 years. They are going to celebrate their anniversary in three weeks. was married is married be married have been married 7 Last night, I ______ TV for an hour, hour, and now I don't have time to do my homework. have watched watched has watched watches 8 She ____________ my best friend for two years. We We talk on the phone everyday. is was were has been 9 Monica _____________ her first first baby a month ago. has had have has had 10 My wife and I ______________ Paris last summer. summer. This year we want to go again. visited visits have visited has been there Exercise 10. 1.
Where's your wallet? I don't know. I LOSE it.
2.
I BE in London two years ago and I HAVE a great time.
3.
Look! Someone DAMAGE the bus stop. It looks terrible!
4.
How YOU/BREAK your arm? By accident?
5.
My parents are a happy couple. They BE MARRIED for ten years.
6.
YOU/SEE Mary yesterday? I couldn't find her anywhere.
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7.
Jane plays the piano. She PLAY it for two years and she's brilliant.
8.
Ann isn't here. She LEAVE the house but she should be back in an hour.
9.
My grandfather DIE in 1989 and my grandmother LIVE alone since then.
10.
Her brother is a writer. He WRITE many books and they're really good.
11.
What time YOU/GO to bed? Around 11 p.m or even later?
12.
Where YOU/BE last night? YOU/GO to Mary's party?
13.
My room is clean. JUST/CLEAN it and it looks better now.
14.
Oh, they are here! When THEY/ARRIVE ?
15.
Shakespeare WRITE many plays and they're all famous.
16.
I NOT/DRINK anything today so I'm very thirsty. thirsty. Can I ask you for some water, please?
17.
Is Monica here? No, she NOT/COME yet. She must be on her way.
18.
I WORK at school for two years and then I left it because I was fed up with teaching.
19.
The days BE very windy recently and some trees have even been destroyed.
20.
What YOU/SAY ? Could you repeat it, please?
The Past Perfect Continuous Tense Fill in the blanks with had (hadn’t) + been + a present participle. EXAMPLES: a.a.- (protest) When the war in Vietnam finally ended, people all over the world had been protesting against it for many years. b.b.- (get) Everything in our garden was dying because we hadn’t been getting any rain for more than five months. 1.1.- (go) Fred and Peggy Peggy _________ _______________ _______ _ together together for three three years years before before they finally got married. 2.2.- (make) He lost his job because he ______________ (causing) trouble at the office. He was a real troublemaker. 3.- (bother) I had to go to the dentist because a tooth __________________ me for a month; (take) I ___________________ care of myself. 4.- (rain) When the monsoon finally ended, it __________________ for more than a month. 5.5.- (wait) When they finally finally had their baby boy, boy, they _____________ ___________________ ________ __ for more than seven years. Now complete the following sentences orally or on a separate piece of paper. EXAMPLE: c.c.- I wasn’t surprised by the Director’s decision to suspend Jim from the school because he’d been making a great deal of trouble for a long time.
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6.6.- When the rain finally stopped… 7.7.- When I finally found a good job… 8.- When our daughter finally became a medical doctor… 9.9.- My eyes were very tired last night because… 10.10.- My feet were very tired last night because… 11.11.- John’s father had to go to the doctor because… 12.12.- The patient wasn’t feeling well because… 13.13.- When we finally reached the top of Mt. Everest… 14.14.- When our plane finally landed at JFK (Kennedy Airport in New York)… 15.- When my alarm clock rang… 16.16.- When my girlfriend/boyfriend finally got to our meeting place… 17.17.- When they finally got married… 18.18.- When the surgeon finally finished the operation… 19.- We were tired yesterday morning because our baby… 20.20.- He was kicked out of (suspended from) school because he… 21.21.- When the concert finally ended… 22.22.- When I finished my homework last night…
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