111425581-Grammer

tense

Simple Present

Affirmative/Negative/Question

A: He speaks. N: He does not speak. Q: Does he speak?

Present A: He is speaking. Progressive N: He is not speaking. Q: Is he speaking?

Use 

action in the present taking place once, never or several times



facts



actions taking place one after another



action set by a timetable or schedule



action taking place in the moment of speaking



Simple Past A: He spoke. N: He did not speak. Q: Did he speak?

Past A: He was speaking. Progressive N: He was not speaking. Q: Was he speaking?

Present Perfect Simple

A: He has spoken. N: He has not spoken. Q: Has he spoken?

Signal Words always, every …, never, normally, often, seldom, sometimes, usually if sentences type I (If I talk, …)

at the moment, just, just now, Listen!, Look!, action taking place only for a now, right now limited period of time



action arranged for the future



action in the past taking place once, never or several times



actions taking place one after another



action taking place in the middle of another action



action going on at a certain time in the past



actions taking place at the same time



action in the past that is interrupted by another action



putting emphasis on the result



action that is still going on



action that stopped recently



finished action that has an influence on the present



action that has taken place once, never or several times before the moment of speaking

yesterday, 2 minutes ago, in 1990, the other day, last Friday if sentence type II (If I talked, …)

when, while, as long as

already, ever, just, never, not yet, so far, till now, up to now

Present A: He has been speaking. Perfect N: He has not been speaking. Progressive Q: Has he been speaking?

Past Perfect Simple

A: He had spoken. N: He had not spoken. Q: Had he spoken?

Past A: He had been speaking. Perfect N: He had not been speaking. Progressive Q: Had he been speaking?

Future I Simple

Future I Simple

A: He will speak. N: He will not speak. Q: Will he speak?

A: He is going to speak. N: He is not going to speak. Q: Is he going to speak?

(going to)

Future I A: He will be speaking. Progressive N: He will not be speaking. Q: Will he be speaking?

Future II Simple

A: He will have spoken. N: He will not have spoken. Q: Will he have spoken?

Future II A: He will have been speaking. Progressive N: He will not have been

all day, for 4 years, since 1993, how long?, the whole week



putting emphasis on the course or duration (not the result)



action that recently stopped or is still going on



finished action that influenced the present



action taking place before a certain time in the past



sometimes interchangeable with past perfect progressive



putting emphasis only on the fact (not the duration)



action taking place before a certain time in the past



sometimes interchangeable with past perfect simple



putting emphasis on the duration or course of an action



action in the future that cannot be influenced



spontaneous decision



assumption with regard to the future



decision made for the future



conclusion with regard to the future



action that is going on at a certain time in the future



action that is sure to happen in the near future



by Monday, in a action that will week be finished at a certain time in the future



action taking place before a

already, just, never, not yet, once, until that day if sentence type III (If I had talked, …)

for, since, the whole day, all day

in a year, next …, tomorrow If-Satz Typ I (If you ask her, she will help you.) assumption: I think, probably, perhaps in one year, next week, tomorrow

in one year, next week, tomorrow

for …, the last couple of hours,

speaking. Q: Will he have been speaking?

certain time in the future 

putting emphasis on the course of an action



action that might take place

Conditional A: He would be speaking. I N: He would not be speaking. Progressive Q: Would he be speaking?



action that might take place



putting emphasis on the course / duration of the action

Conditional II Simple



action that might have taken place in the past



action that might have taken place in the past



puts emphasis on the course / duration of the action

Conditional I Simple

A: He would speak. N: He would not speak. Q: Would he speak?

A: He would have spoken. N: He would not have spoken. Q: Would he have spoken?

Conditional A: He would have been II speaking. Progressive N: He would not have been speaking. Q: Would he have been speaking?

all day long

if sentences type II (If I were you, I would go home.)

if sentences type III (If I had seen that, I would have helped.)

PRESENT TENSES SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE In Simple Present, the action is simply mentioned and there is nothing being said about its completeness. I eat. I sleep. I play. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE In Present Continuous, the action is on-going/ still going on and hence continuous. I am eating. I am sleeping. I am playing. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE In Present Perfect, the action is complete or has ended and hence termed Perfect. I have eaten. I have slept. I have played. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE In Present Perfect Continuous, the action has been taking place for some time and is still ongoing. I have been eating. I have been sleeping. I have been playing. PAST TENSES SIMPLE PAST TENSE

In Simple Past, the action is simply mentioned and understood to have taken place in the past. I ate. I slept. I played. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE In Past Continuous, the action was ongoing till a certain time in the past. I was eating. I was sleeping. I was playing. PAST PERFECT TENSE Past Perfect is used to express something that happened before another action in the past. I had eaten. I had slept. I had played. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE Past Perfect Continuous is used to express something that started in the past and continued until another time in the past. I had been eating. I had been sleeping. I had been playing. FUTURE TENSES SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE Simple Future is used when we plan or make a decision to do something. Nothing is said about the time in the future. I will eat. I will sleep. I will play. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE The future continuous tense is used to express action at a particular moment in the future. However, the action will not have finished at the moment. I will be eating at 9 a.m. I will be sleeping when you arrive. I will be playing at 5 p.m. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE Future Perfect expresses action that will occur in the future before another action in the future. I will have eaten before 10 a.m. I will have slept before you arrive. I will have played before 6 p.m. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE Future Perfect Continuous is used to talk about an on-going action before some point in the future. I will have been sleeping for two hours when you arrive. I will have been playing for an hour when it is 5 p.m.

English Grammar - The tenses One sentence is put into different tenses. You can see how the meaning changes. The words in green are signal words. They tell you which tense you have to use.

Tense

Example

Explanation

Simple Present

I play football every week. Here you want to say that it happens regularly.

Present Progressive

I'm playing football now.

Simple Past

I played footballyesterday. You did it yesterday, it happened in the past.

Past Progressive

I was playing football the whole evening.

You were doing it in the past. It's not sure whether the action was finished or not.

Present Perfect

I have just playedfootball.

You have just finished it. So it has a connection to the present. Maybe your clothes are dirty.

Present Perfect Progressive

I have been playingfootball for 2 hours.

You want to say how long you have been doing it. (You started in the past and it continues up to the present.

Past Perfect

I had played football before Susan came.

The two actions are related to each other: you had finished to play football and after that the girl arrived.

Past Perfect Progressive

I had been playing football Here you want to point out how long you had been when Susan came. doing it before the girl came.

will-future

I will play football next week.

This is a prediction, you can probably do something else.

going tofuture

I'm going to play football this afternoon.

This is a plan you've made.

Future Progressive

I will be playing football next Sunday.

You do it every Sunday (as usual)

Future Perfect

I will have played football by tomorrow.

You will have done it before tomorrow.

Conditional Simple

I would play football.

You'll probably do it.

Conditional Progressive

I would be playingfootball.

You'll probably do it. Here you concentrate more on the progress of the action.

Conditional Perfect

I would have playedfootball.

You'll probably have finished playing football at a special time in the future. Here you concentrate on the fact (football).

Conditional Perfect Progressive

I would have been playing football.

You'll probably have finished playing football at a special time in the future. Here you concentrate on the progress of playing (football).

Here you want to say that it is happening at the moment.

Negations of the sentences Tense

Example

Simple Present

I do not play football every week. I don't play football every week.

Present Progressive

I am not playing football now. I'm not playing football now.

Simple Past

I did not play football yesterday. I didn't play football yesterday.

Past Progressive

I was not playing football yesterday. I wasn't playing football yesterday.

Present Perfect

I have not played football.

I haven't played football. I've not played football. Present Perfect Progressive

I have not been playing football. I haven't been playing football. I've not been playing football.

Past Perfect

I had not played football. I hadn't played football. I'd not played football.

Past Perfect Progressive

I had not been playing football. I hadn't been playing football. I'd not been playing football.

will-future

I will/shall not play football next week. I won't play football next week.

going to-future

I am not going to play football this afternoon. I'm not going to play football this afternoon.

Future Progressive

I will/shall not be playing football. I won't be playing football.

Future Perfect

I will/shall not have played football. I won't have played football.

Conditional Simple

I would not play football. I'd not play football.

Conditional Progressive

I would not be playing football. I wouldn't be playing football. I'd not be playing football.

Conditional Perfect

I would not have played football. I wouldn't have played football. I'd not have played football.

Conditional Perfect Progressive

I would not have been playing football. I wouldn't have been playing football. I'd not have been playing football.

Questions Tense

Example

Simple Present

Do you play football?

Present Progressive

Are you playing football?

Simple Past

Did you play football?

Past Progressive

Were you playing football?

Present Perfect

Have you played football?

Present Perfect Progressive

Have you been playing football?

Past Perfect

Had you played football?

Past Perfect Progressive

Had you been playing football?

will-future

Will you play football?

going to-future

Are you going to play football?

Future Progressive

Will you be playing football?

Future Perfect

Will you have played football?

Conditional Simple

Would you play football?

Conditional Progressive

Would you be playing football?

Conditional Perfect

Would you have played football?

Conditional Perfect Progressive

Would you have been playing football?

Modal auxiliary verbs can, may, must We use modal auxiliary verbs can, may, must in the English language for various meanings - ability, possiblity, probability, certainty, permission, prohibition, obligation, opinion, speculation, etc.

CAN 1. It is used to express the ability to do something. I can swim very well. Can he can speak English fluently? - No, he can't. We cannot sing at all! 2. It expresses the possibility to do something. We can go to the seaside at last. Our holidays start next week. 3. We use it to say that something is probable. It can be John. He has blond hair and he is wearing glasses. 4. It expresses the permission to do something. Why not? You can marry her. She is a nice girl.

MAY 1. It is used for permissions. You may borrow my car. I won't need it. May I smoke here? - No, you can't, I'm sorry. 2. It is used to express probability or prediction. They may call tomorrow. I hope so. The main difference between may and can is in style. May is more formal than can. Can is typical of spoken English. 3. The opposite of may is must not or may not. May I smoke here? - You mustn't smoke here. (strong prohibition) - You may not smoke here. (more polite, very formal) - You can't smoke here. (informal spoken English)

MUST 1. It is used for strong obligations. It is personal, because it expresses the speaker's opinion or will.

I must clean my teeth. I want to be healthy. You must go there. And do it right now! 2. It means a strong recommendation. You must see it. It's the best film I've ever seen. 3. We use it to show the certainty of the speaker. They must be at school by now. It's already 9 o'clock. 4. The opposite of must is need not. Mum, must I wash up? - No, you needn't. I've already done it. Must not has a different meaning. It is used to express prohibition that involves the speaker's will. We mustn't come late today. Or the teacher will be very angry. He mustn't enter this room. It is dangerous.

3.07 Modal auxiliary verbs What are "modal auxiliary verbs"? The verbs can, could, will, would, should, may, might, must, ought and shall are verbs which 'help' other verbs to express a meaning: it is important to realise that these "modal verbs" have no meaning by themselves. A modal verb such as would has several varying functions; it can be used, for example, to help verbs express ideas about the past, the present and the future. It is therefore wrong to simply believe that "would is the past of will": it is many other things. A few basic grammatical rules applying to modal verbs Modal verbs are NEVER used with other auxiliary verbs such as do, does, did etc. The negative is formed simply by adding "not" after the verb; questions are formed by inversion of the verb and subject: You should not do that. Could you pick me up when I've finished? Modal verbs NEVER change form: you can never add an "-s" or "-ed", for example. Modal verbs are NEVER followed by to, with the exception of ought to. What sort of meanings do modals give to other verbs? The meaning are usually connected with ideas of DOUBT, CERTAINTY, POSSIBILITY and PROBABILITY, OBLIGATION and PERMISSION (or lack of these). You will see that they are not used to talk about things that definitely exist, or events that definitely happened. These meanings are sometimes divided into two groups: DEGREES OF CERTAINTY: certainty; probability; possibility; impossibility OBLIGATION/FREEDOM TO ACT: permission,lack of permission; ability; obligation. Let's look at each modal verb separately, and the functions they help to express:

WILL

Making personal predictions I don't think the Queen will ever abdicate. I doubt if I'll stay here much longer. Talking about the present with certainty (making deductions) I'm sure you will understand that there is nothing the Department can do There's a letter for you. It'll be from the bank: they said they'd be writing. Talking about the future with certainty I won't be in the office until 11; I've got a meeting. Don't bother ringing: they'll have left for their 10 o'clock lecture. Talking about the past with certainty I'm sure you will have noticed that attendance has fallen sharply. Reassuring someone Don't worry! You'll settle down quickly, I'm sure. It'll be all right! You won't have to speak by yourself. Making a decision For the main course I'll have grilled tuna. I'm very tired. I think I'll stay at home tonight. Making a semi-formal request Will you open the window, please? It's very hot in here. Sign this, will you? Offering to do something You stay there! I'll fetch the drinks. Insistence; habitual behaviour I'm not surprised you don't know what to do! You will keep talking in class. Damn! My car won't start. I'll have to call the garage. Making a promise or a threat You can count on me! I'll be there at 8 o'clock sharp. If you don't finish your dinner off, you'll go straight to bed! Top of page

SHALL Shall is a form of will, used mostly in the first person. Its use, however, is decreasing, and in any case in spoken English it would be contracted to "-ll" and be indistinguishable from will. The only time you do need to use it is in questions, when:

Making offers Shall I fetch you another glass of wine? Making suggestions Shall we go to the cinema tonight?

MAY & MIGHT May & might sometimes have virtually the same meaning; they are used to talk about possibilities in the past, present or future. ("Could" is also sometimes used). May is sometimes a little bit "more sure" (50% chance); whereas might expresses more doubt (maybe only a 30% chance). May & might are used, then, for: Talking about the present or future with uncertainty She may be back in her office: the lecture finished ten minutes ago. I may go shopping tonight, I haven't decided yet. England might win the World Cup, you never know. Talking about the past with uncertainty I'm surprised he failed. I suppose he might have been ill on the day of the exam. They can also sometimes be used for talking about permission, but usually only in formal situations. Instead of saying May I open a window? we would say Is it all right/OK if I open a window? or Can I open a window? for example. You might, however, see: Students may not borrow equipment without written permission.

MAY Talking about things that can happen in certain situations If the monitors are used in poorly lit places, some users may experience headaches. Each nurse may be responsible for up to twenty patients. With a similar meaning to although The experiment may have been a success, but there is still a lot of work to be done. (= Although it was a success, there is still ...)

MIGHT Saying that something was possible, but did not actually happen You saw me standing at the bus stop! You might have stopped and given me a lift!

WOULD As the past of will, for example in indirect speech

"The next meeting will be in a month's time" becomes He said the next meeting would be in a month's time. Polite requests and offers (a 'softer' form of will) Would you like another cup of tea? Would you give me a ring after lunch? I'd like the roast duck, please. In conditionals, to indicate 'distance from reality': imagined, unreal, impossible situations If I ruled the world, every day would be the first day of Spring. It would have been better if you'd word processed your assignment. After 'wish', to show regret or irritation over someone (or something's) refusal or insistence on doing something (present or future) I wish you wouldn't keep interrupting me. I wish it would snow. (This is a complicated area! Check in a good grammar book for full details!) Talking about past habits (similiar meaning to used to) When I was small, we would always visit relatives on Christmas Day. Future in the past The assassination would become one of the key events of the century. Top of page

CAN & COULD Talking about ability Can you speak Mandarin? (present) She could play the piano when she was five. (past) Making requests Can you give me a ring at about 10? Could you speak up a bit please? (slightly more formal, polite or 'softer') Asking permission Can I ask you a question? Could I ask you a personal question? (more formal, polite or indirect) Reported speech Could is used as the past of can. He asked me if I could pick him up after work.

General possibility You can drive when you're 17. (present) Women couldn't vote until just after the First World War. Choice and opportunities If you want some help with your writing, you can come to classes, or you can get some 1:1 help. We could go to Stratford tomorrow, but the forecast's not brilliant. (less definite) Future probability Could (NOT can) is sometimes used in the same way as might or may, often indicating something less definite. When I leave university I might travel around a bit, I might do an MA or I suppose I could even get a job. Present possibility I think you could be right you know. (NOT can) That can't be the right answer, it just doesn't make sense. Past possibility If I'd known the lecture had been cancelled, I could have stayed in bed longer.

MUST Examples here refer to British English; there is some variation in American English. Necessity and obligation Must is often used to indicate 'personal' obligation; what you think you yourself or other people/things must do. If the obligation comes from outside (eg a rule or law), then have to is often (but not always) preferred: I really must get some exercise. People must try to be more tolerant of each other. You musn't look - promise? If you own a car, you have to pay an annual road tax. Strong advice and invitations I think you really must make more of an effort. You must go and see the film - it's brilliant. You must come and see me next time you're in town. Saying you think something is certain This must be the place - there's a white car parked outside. You must be mad. What a suntan! You must have had great weather. The negative is expressed by can't:

You're going to sell your guitar! You can't be serious! She didn't wave - she can't have seen me. Top of page

SHOULD Giving advice I think you should go for the Alfa rather than the Audi. You shouldn't be drinking if you're on antibiotics. You shouldn't have ordered that chocolate dessert - you're not going to finish it. Obligation: weak form of must The university should provide more sports facilities. The equipment should be inspected regularly. Deduction The letter should get to you tomorrow - I posted it first class. Things which didn't or may/may not have happened I should have renewed my TV licence last month, but I forgot. You shouldn't have spent so much time on that first question. Ought to Ought to usually has the same meaning as should, particularly in affirmative statements in the present: You should/ought to get your hair cut. Should is much more common (and easier to say!), so if you're not sure, use should.

Word

British English meanings

AA

The Automobile Association (US: AAA)

A&E

the accident and emergency (casualty) department of a hospital (US: emergency [1] room, ER)

Meanings common to British and American English

American English meanings

Alcoholics Anonymous

Arts & Entertainment (name [1] of a television network)

accumulator rechargeable battery

[2]

a type of bet

[3]

one that accumulates, as a type of computer processor register or a hydraulic [2] accumulator

(US: parlay)

good, excellent (1980s slang)

a one in a suit of playing cards someone who is very good at something. A term in tennis for a point won for the server without the opponent returning his or her serve. fighter pilot who has shot down at least 5 enemy aircraft

advocate (n.) Scottish also the Isle of Man, Channel Islands and South African lawyer who appears in higher courts (rest of UK:barrister)

someone who supports or speaks for a particular position generic term for a lawyer (v.) to recommend or support

ace

air marshal

(v.) to perform outstandingly *; esp., to achieve an A (on a school exam) the best starting pitcher in a rotation on a baseball team

a senior air force officer an undercover law (equivalent to a USAF Lt. enforcement officer on board a commercial aircraft, also General) known as a sky marshal

à la mode

fashionable

with ice cream (ex. Apple pie à la mode)

alternate

(adj.) done or occurring by turns; every second, every other ("on alternate weeks") (n.) one that alternates with another

(adj.) constituting an alternative, offering a choice (UK usu. & US also alternative) ("use alternate routes") "alternative", unconventional ("alternate lifestyles") (n.) an alternative *; a substitute

amber

traffic light of this colour (US: yellow light)

orange-yellow colour fossilised resin; a material used in the construction of some tobacco pipes' stems; female given name; (sealed in

amber) state of being oblivious to changing circumstances anæsthetist (UK), anesthetist (US)

physician trained to induce anesthesia (US: anesthesiologist)

someone who induces anesthesia.

a critical care experienced graduate level educated Registered Nurse who is nationally certified to induce anesthesia

(1) a position in a tug of war team

(1)a type of radio or TV presenter ("a news anchor"). Seenews (2) device for mooring ships by presenter for a description of the different roles of a providing a firm fix to the newscaster, an American seabed news anchor, and a (3)(anchorman/anchorwoman) Britishnewsreader. the last member of a relay (2) A dowel or fastener, team to compete

anchor

usually made of plastic, that enables a weight-bearing screw to be attached to a wall - equivalent to Wall plug and its widely used eponym Rawlplug in British English. anorak

a parka hooded, rainproof outerwear (slang) a socially that lacks a full-length zipper in awkward person the front (UK: cagoule) obsessively interested in something (syn. US: geek, nerd; dweeb; etc.)

apartment

suite of rooms set aside for a particular person (rare), usu. rented housing unit in a larger building implying luxury (In other words a narrower definition than the US.) (Overlapping with the

usu. rented housing unit in a larger building (usu. flat in UK)– cf. s.v. condominium

rare usage in reference to stately homes or historic properties which have been converted into residential units.) appropriate to take (money) to (v.), oneself, to filch or appropriation misappropriate (n.) Asian

originating from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh or Sri Lanka (South Asian)

ass

athletics

Sport comprising the events in track and field, cross country running, road running and racewalking

to take (money) (there is considerable overlap but difference of emphasis)

to dispense (money), to budget

originating from the continent of Asia

originating from East Asia or continental Southeast Asia

donkey slow-witted or stupid person, often in combination (dumbass) unpleasant or unthinking person (less common colloquially) ("you ass")

(often vulgar) buttocks (UK: arse); also, by synecdoche, the person ("your ass is dead"); also (vulgar) anus (short forasshole) (vulgar) sex ("get some ass") (adv.) a postpositive intensive (i.e., to add emphasis to an adjective) ("He drove a big-ass truck") kick-ass: to beat up or beat, e.g. "I am going to kick his ass" or, more positively, something that beat (did better than) everything else, e.g. "The opening band was kick-ass." (vulgar) someone acting inappropriately or offensively ("That guy was an ass!") Athletic sports in general, (e.g. College athletics)

an agent or representative authorised to act on someone else's behalf ("attorney-infact", "power of attorney") (Attorney General) main legal advisor to the government

attorney

aubergine

the plant Solanum melongena, or the fruit thereof (US:eggplant)

(or attorney-at-law) a lawyer (UK: barrister (England, Northern Ireland, Wales)/advocate (Scotland) or solicitor, depending on the actual profession) (District attorney, prosecuting attorney) local public official who represents the government in the prosecution of criminals (archaic in Br. Eng. for lawyer)

an aubergine-like colour (US also: eggplant)

[edit]B

Word

British English meanings

Meanings common to British and American English

American English meanings

backside (n.)

posterior, buttocks

(as two words, back side) [4][5][6][7] rear of anything

banger (n.) a sausage, as in "bangers and mash" an old motorcar in a state of disrepair (US: beater)

a type of firework

a particularly club-friendly beat or song a gang member (gangbanger)

bang(s)

small explosions or reports; (v.) have sexual intercourse with (vulgar slang) ( e.g. "bang some chick" or "he's banging her")

locks of hair on forehead (UK: fringe)

base

foundation, starting point; in baseball, one of the

many meanings in sciences, architecture, politics, military installation, etc.; see base

bash

Have a go – to try to achieve something, as in "have a bash at this crossword")

to strike physically to attack verbally a party or celebration "they're having a little bash this weekend" (orig. US, but now probably more common in UK than US)

bath

(pl.) swimming pool (v.) to bathe, or give a bath to, example have a bath (US:take a bath meaning bathe)

(n.) plumbing fixture for bathing *(US: bathtub) (n.) the act of bathing [clarification a (financial) loss needed]

bathroom

room containing a bath (US: bathtub) or shower, other washing facilities, and usu. (but not necessarily) a toilet

three places a runner can stand in safety; hence in many fig. senses, off one's base (crazy), to get to first base (esp. in neg. constr., to get a first important result); more recently (slang), a metaphor for one of three different stages in making out (q.v.) – see baseball metaphors for sex; more s.v. home run

(n.) a bathroom (esp. a half bath which has a sink and toilet but no shower stall or bathtub, or a 3/4 bath which has a sink, toilet, and shower stall, but no bathtub)

room, in a home or hotel room, containing a toilet, related washing facilities, and often, but not necessarily, a shower orbathtub (Henc e "Going to the bathroom" is a euphemism for going to the toilet even in a setting where one would not expect to find a bath, e.g. a restaurant or shop *) (a room without shower or

bathtub may also be known as a powder room, but this usage may be considered dated)

beaker

drinking vessel without a handle, or one (with or without handles) made of unbreakable plastic for the use of children (US: sippy cup)

beater

beaver

bee

flat-bottomed vessel, with a lip, used as a laboratory container.

person who flushes game from concealment so it can be shot at by 'the guns' something or someone that beats

beard; a bearded man (archaic slang)

used car or bicycle in very poor condition (UK: banger) (slang) wifebeater (q.v.) a sleeveless undershirt (from the stereotype that poor men who wear them beat their wives, perhaps from Jackie Gleason in "The Honeymooners" TV series (50s/60s U.S.) or more likely from the costume of the character Stanley Kowalski in the play "A Streetcar Named Desire") (UK: vest)

aquatic rodent known for female pubic hair (slang) building dams woman's undepilated external genitalia (obscene slang)

a four-winged insect a meeting for communal which collects nectar and work or amusement pollen, produces wax and honey, and lives in large communities

bender

derogatory expression for a gay man, referring to the act of bending over to permit buggery.

an expression for a binge A period of extensive drug drinking spree, referring use: "He went on a 3 week to the act of bending over heroin bender" to vomit.

bespoke

(esp. of apparel) made to the customer's specification (US:custom-made, tailor-made)

pret. of bespeak

bill

The bill=the police (slang, poss. from Old Bill)

invoice; request for payment (also US: check, tab) a proposed law before it is voted on by a legislature

billion

(traditionally) a million millions 12 (10 ) (US: trillion)

thousand million (10 ) 10 (now most common in both UK and US) (traditional UK: milliard) (see also Long and short scales)

bin

(v.) to throw away. (bread bin) container for storing bread (US: breadbox)

(1) a waste container (2) a usu. large receptacle or container for storage ("a grain bin"; "Scrooge McDuck's money bin")

bird (np.)

one's girlfriend or any young [8] female (slang; getting rarer and considered derogatory by some) prison sentence (slang)

avian creature an aircraft

biscuit (n.) baked sweet or savoury cake-like

9

a piece of paper money (UK: note/banknote)

9

insulting hand gesture involving shaking one's fist towards someone with knuckles pointing towards the person being insulted and the middle finger extended (used chiefly in "flipping someone the bird") (slang)

type of quick bread served

item, usu. flat, which is hard when baked and softens over time (colloquially bikkiesfor sweet biscuits) (US: cookie (sweet biscuit), crackersavoury biscuit) (to take the biscuit) to be very surprising (US: take the cake)

with savory foods (UK: similar to a savoury scone, or similar in consistency to a croissant)

blinder (n.) excellent performance in a game or race (slang) "e.g. he played a blinder"

either of two flaps on a horse's bridle to keep it from seeing objects at its sides (UK: blinker, also used in US) (wear blinders) (colloq.) state of being oblivious, unresponsive to changing circumstances. Myopic, tunnel vision.

blinkers

leather flaps on a bridle used to restrict a horse's lateral vision*(US usu.: blinders)

lights on a car that indicate the direction about to be taken *(UK: indicators)

block (n.)

a building (block of flats, office block)

a solid piece of something to obstruct (basketball) a blocked shot, or (plural) in the low post position near the basket, as in "on the blocks"

in a city, the portion of a street between adjacent intersections or an informal rough unit of distance derived from the length of the same. The usage to mean a single large building was common in the Western U.S. until the early 20th century.

bloody

expletive attributive used to express anger ("bloody car") or shock ("bloody hell"), or for emphasis ("not bloody likely") (slang, today only mildly vulgar) *(similar US: damn ("damn car"))

having, covered with or accompanied by blood

considered a euphemism for more emphatic swear words

blow off

to break wind

to perform oral sex upon

to fail to turn up to meet somebody, to disavow or fail to meet an obligation

(UK: blow out) ("I'm just too busy, I'll have to blow you off for this evening.") bog (n.)

toilet (slightly vulgar slang) (bog off) go away (slightly vulgar slang, often jocular)

wetland that accumulates A plot of artificially appreciable peat deposit floodable farmland used to growcranberries s (a cranberry bog)

bogey

dried nasal mucus usu. after extraction from the nose (US:booger) (informal)

the score of one over par an unidentified aircraft, often assumed to be that in golf of an enemy alternate spelling of "Bogie" (nickname of Humphrey Bogart)

boiler (n.)

1.an old fowl best cooked by boiling;

1. device (usu. oil or gas- A car (1930s slang) fired) for heating water for central heating or hot 2. (derogatory) an ugly woman water *, "central heating (usually in the phrase "old boiler") boiler" (US furnace);

vessel in which steam is generated bomb

a striking success; used in the phrases "go (like) a bomb" and "go down a bomb"; Go like a bomb also means, when used of a vehicle, to go very fast

an explosive weapon

bombardier corporal in the Royal Artillery – see Bombardier (rank)

bonk

act of sexual intercourse, or to have sexual intercourse (slightly

(v.) to be a failure ("the show bombed"); also as n. (n., used with the) something outstanding ("that show was the bomb"); sometimes spelled da bomb crew member of a bomber responsible for assisting the navigator in guiding the plane to a bombing target and releasing the aircraft's bomb load – see Bombardier (air force)(UK: bomb aimer)

blow to the head (n. and v.) to suffer glycogen depletion in an

vulgar slang) (US: boink)

endurance sporting event; see hitting the wall

bonnet

hinged cover over the engine in a hat tied under chin worn car (US: hood) by a baby or (archaically) a woman

boob (n.)

a mistake (slang); (v.) to make a mistake (US: blooper)

boob tube

woman's shoulderless, strapless top (US: tube top)

boost

boot

storage compartment of a car (US: trunk)

boss

bottle

courage ("he's got some bottle") (slang) (US: moxie) to fail to do something through fear ("he's bottled out", "he bottled it") (slang)

woman's breast (slightly vulgar slang)

stupid person

(the boob tube) television (slang) to (figuratively) lift up; to improve, increase, revitalize.

to (literally) lift up, especially a person: booster cushion*, a cushion used to increase the height of a seat (esp. in a car) to steal, especially from a retail establishment (i.e., shoplift)

footwear covering lower leg to kick something hard to start up a computer

(Denver boot, car boot) device used to render cars immobile (UK: wheel clamp) to expel (UK: give someone the boot *)("I have been given the Order of the Boot", Winston Churchill) to vomit (slang) to shoot up (with intravenous drugs) (ex: to boot cocaine or heroin; slang)

the person you report to at work

cool, totally awesome (slang) e.g. "That is a boss Zefronposter"

container for liquids (the bottle) alcohol, heavy drinking (synecdochical slang)

to attack somebody with a broken bottle (slang) box

a gift in a box, hence Boxing Day genital protector used in cricket (US similar: cup) (the box) television set (slang) (US: idiot box, boob tube) a box stall in a barn any of various box-like structures, such as: signal box (US: switch/signal/interlockin g tower) telephone box (US & UK also: telephone booth), more at call box witness box (US: witness stand) either one of the two marked areas adjacent to the goalmouth on an association football pitch (see here) see also box junction

(n.) rigid container (v.) to attack using one's fists (n.) generalpurpose computer (e. g. "this box needs its hard disk re-formatted") (think "out of the box") to be original, inventive, innovative (cliched phrase)

any of various areas on a baseball diamond (as for the batter, or the pitcher, the catcher, etc.) female genitalia (obscene slang) * (box canyon) a canyon with vertical walls (boxcar) a type of enclosed railroad freight car (UK: goods van), a three-ball "frame" for one player in candlepin bowling(New England)the genital area kicked in the box

brace bracers braces

over-the-shoulder straps to support trousers *(US usu.suspenders, q.v.)

support that steadies or strengthens something else

leg supports (UK: callipers) tertiary enclosing punctuation: { } (UK: curly brackets)

devices for straightening teeth brackets

enclosing punctuation: ( ) (US & UK also: parentheses); more at braces

brew (n.)

supports for shelves, etc. secondary enclosing punctuation: [] (UK: square attached to a wall brackets) tea

beer coffee

brilliant

bud

excellent, of the highest quality (rarely sarcastic)

very bright (of a light or a brain) very intelligent undeveloped shoot which normally occurs in the axil of a leaf or at the tip of a plant stem

marijuana (slang) hand-rolled marijuana cigarette (slang), compare joint

shortening of 'buddy', used to address strangers assuming a non-existent familiarity (UK: similar: mate) buffet

railway carriage containing a refreshment counter selling snacks and drinks, esp. on a train on which a full restaurant car (US: dining car) service is not provided

refreshment counter or bar; a meal set out on a table, etc. for diners to serve themselves insect of the order Hemiptera pathogen, bacteria, germ covert listening device (orig. US) defect in software (orig. in a machine) (orig. US) an enthusiast of something (orig. US) Volkswagen Beetle (v.) to apply a covert listening device (orig. US) (v.) to annoy (colloquial)

bug

a type of sideboard

any of various insects *(nontechnical usage) an important person ("a big bug"); also, someone crazy (as in "firebug", a pyromaniac)* to go away, depart, also from a responsibility (used with out) (bug off) to go away (often as a command) (from UK bugger, q.v.)

bugger

(vulgar) to engage in or someone who engages in anal sex a form of address for either a person or item, either jocular ("he's a generous bugger") or less so ("he's a mean bugger") (slang) (buggered) 1. broken, not working (typically of mechanical devices, e.g. "the engine's buggered") (slang); 2. syn. for bothered (e.g. "I didn't do it. I couldn't be buggered.") (slang) (bugger up) to make a mess of something (slang) (bugger off) (imperative) go away, leave me alone (slang)

term of endearment, often used for children (slang)

buggy

2-wheeled horse-drawn (slang) an automobile lightweight carriage (orig. US) baby transport vehicle also called see baby transport for

4-wheeled horse-drawn lightweight carriage baby transport vehicle also

(UK) pushchair (US:stroller) details any of various light cart or cars ("a see also dune buggy golf buggy")

to engage in anal sex (vulgar

(1)to cadge ("can I bum a hobo, homeless person cigarette off you?") poor quality (slang) to sadden (often used with (slang) "out") (2) buttocks (slang) (US:

slang)

butt)

bumps

a type of rowing race a method of marking someone's birthday (see Birthday customs and celebrations)

a set of small protuberances

bunk

to be absent without authorization:

bureau

a type of writing table

a public office or government agency

a type of chest of drawers

burn (n.)

(Scotland and Northern England) narrow river, stream – more s.v. creek

wound caused by heat, or chemical agents, etc.

clearing (as in a forest) made by burning vegetation

to travel by bus

to clear (as tables) in a restaurant; to work as a busboy

bum

bus (v.)

a person's bottom (buttocks)

called (US) baby carriage (UK:pram) regional (esp. South) for shopping cart (UK: trolley) (marsh/swamp buggy) a type of motor vehicle for marshland (slang) caboose (horse and buggy) something obsolete (as from before the invention of the automobile)

type of bed, where two small beds are stacked on top of each other bunk off, to play truant from (UK bunk (up) with implies sharing a school (US: play hooky) bed, rather than merely a do a bunk, to abscond (US: go on room) the lam) nonsense as in "History is bunk" (from bunkum)

group of plain beds used as no-frills lodging (UK: dormitory, qv); also used as a verb ("I bunked with them in their room"; "The cabin could bunk about 18")

butcher

(have a butcher's) to have a look (rhyming slang: butcher's hook=look)

to kill and cut up an animal for meat to kill messily, or someone who does so one who cuts and sells meat

to make a big mess of things; botch ("butcher it up"; "I butchered the spelling")

butchery (n.)

slaughterhouse, abattoir

a cruel massacre a butcher's trade

a botch

(n.) the (larger) end of anything, a stub; also, a cigarette a sudden blow given by the head of an animal a large wooden cask a person mocked by a joke (v.) to strike bluntly (as with the head) (butt in) to interfere when uncalled for (orig. US)

(colloquial) buttocks (UK usu. bum); hence butthead * (n.) (butt-in) one who butts in (v.) to cut off the end (of a log) (butt out) to stop interfering

butt (n.)

buzzard

a hawk of the genus Buteo

vulture (slang)

[edit]C

Word

callbox (n.)

British English meanings

Meanings common to British and American English

telephone booth (UK also telephone box)

American English meanings

roadside emergency telephone

call for (v.)

to require or advocate

to predict or anticipate ("The forecast calls for rain")

can (n.)

small metal container

can (v.): to fire someone from a job (UK: sack) can (n.): toilet (slang), jail

canteen (n.) basic food service

a box with

location usually at a work place or institution (US:Cafeteria).

compartments for storing eating utensils, silverware etc. a military mess kit water bottle, typically used for military or camping purposes.

campsite (n area or park for people to camp in .) (US: campground) candy (n.)

(candy floss) heated sugar spun into thin threads and collected into a mass, usually on a stick; something pleasing but having little worth (US: cotton candy for both senses)

spot for a particular person or group to camp, often within a campground (UK: pitch) (v.) to sugarcoat, or boil (eye candy) (derog.) someone with sugar (as fruit) particular who is physically attractive (See also arm candy.) to sweeten edible, sweet-tasting confection containing sugar, or sometimes artificial sweeteners, and often flavored with fruit, chocolate, nuts or artificial flavours; a piece of candy (UK: sweets, confectionery)

canfield (n.) a patience (solitaire) card game (US: Klondike) car (n.)

railway vehicle, only in combination (e.g. "restaurant car", except London Underground "carriage")

a patience (solitaire) card game (UK: Demon) motorcar (n.) (UK, q.v.)/automobile

nonpowered unit in a railroad or railway train ("railroad car"; "a passenger/freight/parlor/dining/ba ggage etc. car") (see s.v.motor car, trolley; UK: cf. s.v. carriage, coach, wagon) elevator (q.v.) cage

overland trading convoy

a type of minivan sold in the United States (see Dodge Caravan)

(archaic) street tramway vehicle caravan

towed recreational vehicle containing accommodation (US:travel trailer) to take such a vehicle on

holiday caretaker (n one who takes care of a building, usu. a state.) owned building, i.e. school (US: janitor; cf. s.v. custodian) one put in charge of a farm after eviction of tenant carnival

one who takes care of one who takes care of real estate someone or something in exchange for rent-free living stopgap government accommodations * or provisional government

(n.) the festive days just (adj.) suggesting a preceding Lent (US: Mard festive atmosphere i Gras)

carousel (n. )

a moving a rotating fairground ride luggage/baggage (UK: merry-go-round, roundabout) display unit, most often at airports

4-wheeled horse-drawn carriage (n.) railway coach (q.v.) designed for the private passenger conveyance of vehicle passengers the conveying of goods or the price paid for it ("carriage-paid"); "handling" carry on, carryon

(n.) a travelling circus or fair (UK: funfair ) comprising amusement rides

continue, take part in, (informal) have a love

(baby carriage) baby transport vehicle featuring the infant lying down facing the pusher (UK: perambulator, pram) – more s.v. buggy a shopping cart (primarily in North Atlantic states)

(colloquial) carrying-on, luggage that can be carried aboard an aircraft, bus, or train unruly behaviour (UK: hand luggage or baggage)

affair usu. 2-wheeled onehorse vehicle (as that used in farming)

cart

casket (n.)

a small box, as for jewels, particularly an antique

casualty (person)

often, someone who has been wounded; hence casualty

a lightweight wheeled vehicle, as for shopping, serving, carrying baggage, etc. (UK: trolley) cartridge (primarily related to video games) The type of coffin with upholstery and a half-open lid, any coffin

generally, someone who has been injured

often, someone who has been killed; see also casualty insurance

department (US: emergen or killed cy room) catapult

small Y-shaped handheld a type of projectile weapon often medieval siege engine used by children an aircraft catapult (US: slingshot)

(v.) rise quickly

chaps [?]

men or boys (but increasingly used for people of either sex; in the singular it still almost exclusively refers to a male, "Guys" has become a more popular phrase in the UK) (US & UK: guys) one's friends ("the chaps") (US & UK: the guys) cheeks – as in Bath Chaps – stewed pigs' cheeks, a delicacy

leather leggings worn by cowboys and designed to protect the legs against thorns (sometimes pronounced shaps), short for "chaparajos"

check

examine for a particular purpose a pattern of coloured squares a warning given in chess

leave items in the care of someone else (e.g. at a cloakroom; hence checkroom) (also check mark) mark used to denote 'correct' or indicate one's choice (UK: tick, q.v.) request for payment, especially at a restaurant; bill written order for a bank to pay money (UK: cheque)

checker

one who checks (e.g. an inspector)

a store or shop cashier (almost always a grocery store) (checkers) a popular board game (UK: draughts) to mark with alternating colored squares (UK: chequer)

cheers said to express gratitude (interjection in England, or on parting (slang). Also cheerio. )

used as a toast or valediction

chemist

pharmacist, pharmacy student or researcher (US of chemistry similar: druggist, drugstor

e) to chew on something, i.e. food

chew

chip in

to express one's opinion (as in a conversation); to "chime in"

chips (food) Long cuts of deep fried potato, usu. thick cut resembling American steak fries chippie, chippy

to contribute (as money) (orig. US)

French fries, in (orig. UK) phrase fish and chips

(adj.; chippy only) carpenter (slang); fish-and-chip shop (slang) aggressively (Scot, Ire: chipper) belligerent, especially in sport friend (sometimes sarcastic)

chum

referring to or using chewing tobacco

thin slices of fried potato*(UK: crisps)

loose woman (dated slang); the N. American bird Chipping Sparrow

(n.) waste products from fish processing (heads, tails, blood etc.) often used for shark fishing (v.) to spread fish entrails etc. in the hope of luring sharks. "We chummed the water all morning, but never spotted any dorsal fins." Has some cross-over usage metaphorically in non-fishing situations.

cider

an alcoholic drink derived from apples (US: hard cider)

Cinderella

a team which underachieves, or is overshadowed by successful neighbouring rivals*

city

a large town, in particular a town created a city by charter and containing a cathedral "The City": the City of

a nonalcoholic drink derived from apples

fairy tale character

a lowly sports team or individual which enjoys an unexpectedly good run in a tournament

a usually large or important municipality governed under a charter granted by the state (however some smaller towns in the US are cities); an element of a

London, London's financial centre, hence financial markets and investment banking more generally (c.f. US Wall Street) clerk

standard mailing address (UK "postal town")

administrative worker

(or salesclerk) store or shop worker (UK: shop assistant) hotel employee at the reservation desk (US & UK:receptionist)

a private chamber for retirement in secret; (come out of the closet) to reveal what was secret (especially in relation to homosexuality)

a cabinet or wardrobe, as for utensils or apparel; in the latter case oftenest built-in; hence e.g. walk-in closet, linen closet, and skeleton in the closet *(UK also: in the cupboard) *

closet

any small room (esp. Northern England, Scotland, & Ireland); hence water closet, a room containing a flush toilet, later the toilet itself

coach

bus with of higher enclosed horse-drawn standard of comfort, passenger carriage usually chartered or used sports trainer for longer journeys* tutor, usu. private, who prepares pupils for examinations * railway carriage *

cob

(mainly Northern & Central Eng.) a type of bread roll ("Chip cob", "ham cob", "pack of six cobs please") (pl.) large globules of sweat ("I'm sweating cobs")

The portion of a corn plant around which the kernels grow. a building material a type of horse a male swan

cock

(n.) form of address to a man to gain attention or greet e.g. "Wotcha cock!" a popular personage e.g. Cock o' the North (v.) (cock up) *to make a mess of things; cockup (n.) is the act or the

(n.) a male bird; esp., an adult male chicken (US oftenestrooster) (n.) penis (vulgar slang) (v.) to set the hammer or firing pin of a loaded firearm ready for firing; likewise, to "cock the shutter" of an old,

extracurricular sports teacher at a school (UK: PE teacher) lowest class on a passenger aircraft (UK: economy)

resulting state of affairs

spring-activated camera (n.) A type of tap, faucet, or valve (e.g., a stopcock).

collect

To win a bet (from the idea of picking up the winnings)

(v.) to gather together, to pick up; (orig. US) to pick up a person or thing (n.) short prayer read during the first part of a church service as practised by certain parts of the Christian faith; mainlyAnglican and Ro man Catholic.

(adj., adv.) charged to the receiver ("to call collect", to reverse the charges) ("a collect call") [from collect on delivery]

college

part of the name of some state secondary schools (US approx.: high school) and many independent schools (US approx.: prep school) educational institution between school and university (e.g. sixth form college, technical college, college of further education) vocational training institution

constituent part of some larger universities, especiallyancient universities

professional association which usu. grants some form of professional qualifications, mostly in the medical field (e.g.Royal College of Surgeons, American College of Surgeons) an independent institution of higher education (as a small university or a division of a university) granting bachelor's degrees generic term for higher education, but only at the undergraduate level

comforter

a baby's dummy (q.v.)

commission professional head of the Metropolitan Police er Service and City of London Police (US: chief of police) commode

small cabinet

one who comforts

quilted bedspread (UK: duvet) political head of a police department member of any commission

portable toilet for use in normal toilet, in a bathroom (q.v.) a room without

plumbing compensati on

the act of compensating damages awarded for a legal wrong (workers' compensation) payment to injured workers

remuneration received by employees (unemployment compensation) compensation paid to an unemployed person (as a laid-off worker), arising from government resources

concession reduction in price (discount) for a certain category of person

the action of conceding in politics, the action of a candidate yielding to another an area within one country that is administered by another

a lease or grant of premises or land for a particular use, or the so contracted-out service, as in concession stand, i.e. a counter, stand or area at public entertainment venues where snacks or drinks are sold, often at inflated prices a concession stand

condominiu m

a political territory (state or border area) in or over which two sovereign powers formally agree to share equally dominium (in the sense of sovereignty) and exercise their rights jointly

(also condo) a type of joint ownership of real property (as anapartment building) in which portions of the property are commonly owned and other portions are individually owned; an apartment in a condominium

constable

construction

technically, a police officer of any rank, but usu. understood to mean a police officer of the lowest rank (one who holds no other more specific rank) (US: officer or patrolman)

peace officer in a township without an organised police department official who serves summonses (UK: bailiff or sheriff's officer)

the act or process of building or constructing; a structure; the construction industry from construe: the

road construction and maintenance work; roadwork ("a construction area/zone") (UK: roadworks)

assigning of meaning to ambiguous terms cooker

an appliance for cooking food (US: cookstove, stove, ra nge); see also AGA cooker a cooking apple, a large sour apple used in cooking

cookie

a bun (Scotland)

a pot or utensil for cooking in ("pressure cooker", "rice cooker", "slow cooker")

a small packet of information stored on a biscuit of a particular users' computers by variety, usually containing websites chocolate chips (often referred to as a "chocolate chip cookie")

cop

to take ("cop a look at this", "cop one of these") (slang) to be blamed for, be caught ("he'll cop it!") (slang)

police officer (short for "copper") (slang) (cop a feel) to grope (slang)

copper

low value coin, brown or 'copper' colored (currently 1p and 2p coins) large copper vessel used for heating water and washing clothes (archaic)

the metallic element copper police officer (slang, orig. UK)

coriander

the leaves of the coriander plant, used as a herb (US:cilantro or Chinese parsley)

the plant Coriandrum sativum dried seeds of this plant

corn

wheat in England, oats in Scotland and Ireland

in both dialects, the principal crop cultivated in a particular region Indian corn, in corn on

a person who cooks (UK always cook)

a small, flat baked cake *(UK usu. biscuit, q.v.) fellow, guy *("a tough cookie"); also, an attractive girl * (that's the way the cookie crumbles) that's how things go (to toss one's cookies) to vomit (cookie-cutter) trite, banal a cook or Culinary Specialist (Army and Navy slang) (cop a plea) (law, orig. slang) to plead guilty to a lesser offence to not be tried for a graver charge; compare plea bargain (cop a squat) to take a seat (slang)

Zea mays; originally known as Indian corn (q.v.; UK usu.:maize or sweetcorn); hence cornfield, cornstarch (UK: c

any of various cereal plants or grains (US usu.: grain), also in

the cob, corn flakes, popcorn horny swelling on the foot

orn flour), cornbread, cornball, cornbla de, etc. something corny *, hence cornball

combination (e.g. cornfield, a field of any cereal) (see also US) cot

infant bed; hence cot death (US: crib)

camp bed

a (solidified) stream of lava

coulee

(chiefly Western, orig. Canadian) a deep steep-sided ravine formed by erosion, or a small valley or stream

course

the entire degree programme a student takes at university

an individual subject a student takes at university

court shoe

a women's dress shoe with a heel (US: pump, q.v.)

a type of athletic shoe used for sports played on an indoor court, such as volleyball or squash (UK similar: plimsoll or regionally pump)

cowboy

an unscrupulous or unqualified tradesman

a legendary archetype found in Wild West genre works

a cowhand working with livestock (UK: drover)

(derog.) one who is reckless, uncontrollable. cracker

small parcel that makes an explosive report when pulled from both ends, traditionally pulled at Christmas attractive woman (slang) anything good ("the new product is a cracker") (slang)

crèche

day care, day nursery

thin, hard, unsweetened biscuit (formerly chiefly US, now common everywhere)

an unsophisticated, typically rural white person (also white cracker; derogatory slang, southeastern US)

nativity scene, manger

scene, crib (q.v.) * creek

tidal channel through a coastal marsh (orig. sense)

crew

any inland stream of water smaller than a river (other terms: UK: rill, gill; N. Eng. & Scot.: burn; Eng. & New Eng.: brook; Midland US: run) body of people manning a vehicle of any kind gang of manual workers (e.g. road crew) group of friends or colleagues ("I saw him and his crew at the bar")

rowing as a sport

crib (n.)

nativity scene, crèche (q.v.) *

a manger or rack, or stall for cattle a plagiarism, as of a student ("crib sheet") cribbage

small enclosed bedstead for a child; hence crib death (UK:cot) (informal) one's house or apartment a bin for storing maize a structure of logs to be anchored with stones; used for docks, dams, etc. (orig. Canada) a small raft of timber

crisp

fried potato slices with when something salt, sometimes with sounds clear and dry. flavour (US: potato chips)

a term to sunburning. For example: Because he didn't have sunscreen, Jack was burnt to a crisp.

crumpet

an attractive female (slang)

A savoury waffle-like cake made from flour or potato and yeast

cubicle

A compartment in a bathroom with low walls that contains a toilet. (US: stall)

A compartment in a larger area separated from similar adjoining compartments by low walls, such as in an office area.

cuffs

The ends of a garment's sleeves, furthest from the wearer short for handcuffs

An arrangement at the bottom of trouser-legs, in which the material is folded back upon itself to form a trough externally around the bottom of the leg. (UK: turn-ups) offensive, obscene term usu. applied to women

cunt

offensive (or sometimes indulgent) term often applied to men

vagina (usu. obscene)

custodian

an association football goalkeeper

a keeper or guardian of one who cleans and maintains a building; a building a person or thing superintendent, a janitor

[edit]D

Word

British English meanings

Meanings common to British and American English

American English meanings

daddy longlegs, daddy-long-legs

crane fly

daddy long-legs spider

Opiliones

davenport

a type of writing table *

[both prob. from the names of their resp. manufacturers; both old-fashioned]

a type of couch, often convertible into a bed

dead

(of a cup, glass, bottle or cigarette) empty, finished with very, extremely ("dead good", "dead heavy", "dead rich")

deceased completely, perfectly ("dead straight", "dead on", "dead right") extremely quiet (e.g. business or nightlife) (dismissive usage) boring

dead beat, deadbeat

exhausted (slang) (US: dead tired)

an idler; someone who does not pay their debts, often in construction ("deadbeat dad")

(slang)

DC

Detective Constable, a police officer who works in or with a branch of CID.

deck

Dennis the Menace

a character and comic strip developed by Ian Chisholm and Davey Law, debuted in March 1951 (US: Dennis)

depot

a location (large building or piece of land) where buses, trams or trains are stored when not in use and maintained (pronounced /ˈdɛpoʊ/)

direct current (see also other expansions)

District of Columbia

(n.) the floor or level of a ship or other types of vehicles the roadway of a bridge a recording device (v.) to decorate for a festivity ("deck the halls with boughs of holly", "decked out with flags") to hit a person hard enough such that they fall to the floor (orig. US) a pack of cards

a wooden, raised platform adjoining a house, usu. enclosed by a railing a packet of narcotics (slang) (v.) to pile up (logs) on a deck of logs or a skidway (on deck) in baseball, the hitter due up next ("Albert is on deck, so they must be careful to not walk this batter."). A general usage connotes availability, e.g. "Who's on deck?" (Who is available to do this?). Occasionally used to indicate who is next in line.

a character and comic strip developed by Hank Ketcham, debuted in March 1951

a storehouse or depository; a location for the storage of military or naval supplies (pronounced /ˈdɛpoʊ/ in BrE, /ˈdiːpoʊ/ in AmE) A slow-release drug injection (usu. psychiatric)

a railroad station or bus terminal or station; also, an air terminal (pronounced /ˈdiːpoʊ/)

(pronounced /ˈdɛpoʊ/ in both dialects)

DI

Detective inspector (police)

diary

personal calendar *(US: appointment book, appointment calendar, datebook)

Drill instructor (military)

personal journal

digital radio

any radio that receives a digital signal

a radio with a digital display

dim (trans. v.),dimmer (switch)

to reduce the intensity of a domestic, industrial or other light; hence dimmer (switch)

to lower a vehicle headlight's beam, typically when approaching vehicles travelling in the opposite direction at night (UK: dip); hence dimmer switch (UK: dip switch)

diner

one who dines

railroad dining car (UK: restaurant car) a type of restaurant, traditionally but not necessarily often resembling a dining car

to lower into a liquid; esp., a sheep or dog in chemical solution; to lower and then raise

to use smokeless tobacco

dip (trans. v.), dip switch

to lower a vehicle headlight's beam, typically when approaching vehicles travelling in the opposite direction at night (US: dim); hence dip switch (distinguished from DIP switch) (US: dimmer switch) (n.) a pickpocket (slang)

dirt

substance(s) rendering earth, soil * something unclean incriminating evidence ("we've got the dirt on him now")

diversion

circuitous route to avoid roadworks (US: detour)

deviation; recreation; tactic used to draw attention away from the action

dock

water between or next to a pier or wharf (US: berth, also used in UK, or slip) section of a courtroom where the accused sits during a trial *

(v.) to reduce an constructed place to employee's wages, usu. moor a boat or engage as discipline in water sports (largely interchangeable with pier or wharf, although often with a modifier, such as "ferry dock", "swimming dock", etc.)

docker

dockworker, stevedore *(US: longshoreman)

one who docks (as tails of animals)

dogging

various kinds of public sexual activity

pursuing diligently as a dog would

dollar

5 shilling coin or equivalent major unit of currency amount (obsolete; used in slang of the USA until early 1970s, especially in "half-dollar"=half-crown, but some re-stamped Spanish dollar coins were used in the UK in the late 18th/early 19th century)

dormitory, dorm

(n. or usu. adj.) (part of) a town

insulting in a persistent fashion, often referring to the dozens pursuing someone persistently

(n.) large sleeping-room building with many

where commuters live, usually dormitory town (US: bedroom or bedroom community)

with many beds,*typically in aboarding school ("a sleeping dormitory"; usu. abbreviated todorm)

small private rooms, as for housing the students of a college (UK: hall(s) of residence, hostel) dormitory car — railway sleeping car

drape

(v.) to hang limply

(n., usu. pl.) curtain

an act of drawing, or something drawn a game result in which no player/team wins (also tie)

a ditch that draws water off an area of land a shallow valley or gully

draw (n.)

cannabis (slang)

dresser (furniture)

a type of cupboard or sideboard esp. for kitchen utensils *

drop (of liquid)

several (fluid) ounces ("just a drop of tea, please") (meioticusage)

droplet (less than a milliliter)

duck

a score of zero by a batsman in cricket, supposedly derived from the zero-like shape of a duck's egg. Hence to "break one's duck": to score one's first run. c.f. US: "get the monkey off one's back"

(n.) a bird of the family Anatidae

a chest of drawers, usu. with a looking glass (mirror) (UK:dressing-table)

(v.) to lower the head or body suddenly, to dodge (v.) to plunge under the

a term of endearment

surface of water (n.) a heavy cotton fabric

duff

of poor quality non-functional (up the duff) pregnant (slang, originally Australian)

a type of pudding coal dust

dummy

rubber teat for babies (US: pacifier), a feint (esp. in association football)

mannequin, especially for automobile crash tests fake, usu. legal

vegetable matter on the forest floor

idiot (slang) the contract bridge player who faces his hand after the bidding/auction dungarees

sturdy protective bib trousers (cf. s.v. bib overall)

(slightly dated) jeans (blue denim jeans)

duplex

composed of two parts two direction (electronical signalling)

(or duplex house) an often vertically divided two-family dwelling * (or duplex apartment) an apartment on two levels * (duplex locomotive) a large steam locomotive with two sets of driving wheels

[edit]E

Word

earth

British English meanings

safety connection of an electrical circuit, or to connect (an electrical device) to this (US: ground)

efficiency

el

(L) letter identifying a learner driver; see L-plate

Meanings common to British and American English

American English meanings

the planet Earth soil the burrow of some animals

the quality of being efficient

(or efficiency apartment) a minimal often furnished apartment, similar to a studio apartment (UK: compare bedsit)

the letter L

an elevated railway (as that of Chicago or the now-defunctThird Avenue El in New York City)

elevator

flap on the back of an aeroplane used to control pitch moving belt to transport grain, hay bales, etc.

elk

moose (Alces alces), the largest species of deer

engaged (adj.)

in use – of a toilet/bathroom stall (US: occupied; but the opposite is vacant in both); of a telephone line (US & UK also: busy), hence engaged tone (US: busy signal)

English

platform or cage moved vertically in a shaft to transport people and goods to various floors in a building (UK: lift) building for grain storage (in full grain elevator) (UK: silo)

wapiti (Cervus canadensis), the second largest species of deer

committed; involved in something betrothed

of or pertaining to England the English language

(adj.) the foot-pound[citation second system of units needed] (UK: Imperial) English (n.) spin placed on a ball in cue sports (UK: side)

one who operates an engine, esp. a locomotive (UK: engine driver)

engineer

a technician or a person who mends and operates machinery

one employed to design, build or repair equipment practitioner of engineering

entrée

starter (q.v.) of a meal (traditionally, the course served between the fish and the joint, but now used for any starter)

(usu. "the entrée") right main course of a meal of entry, insider-type access

estate

any defined area of real property, as in housing estate (US:subdivision), council estate (US: housing project)

grounds of a large piece of real property which features amansion and

or trading estate (US: industrial park) car with van-shaped body (US: station wagon)

evergreen

beautiful landscaping property left by a deceased person

non-deciduous, a nondeciduous plant eternally youthful, new etc.

(n.) branchlets or sprigs of an evergreen tree, usually a conifer such as pine, spruce or fir, often used as a Christmas decoration wrapped around humanmade structures

[edit]F

Word

faculty

British English meanings

Meanings common to British and American English

division of a university, dealing with a specific group of disciplines (e.g. faculty of arts)

fag

cigarette (slang) * male homosexual; vulgar slur (short for faggot) (in England; obs.) young public schoolboy who acted as a servant for older pupils drudgery, chore ("it is such a fag – I come back tired to death" – J. Austen)

faggot

kind male homosexual; vulgar of meatball (see faggot slur (see faggot (slang)) (food)), bundle of sticks, usu. for use as firewood (old-fashioned; often spelled fagot), old musical instrument similar to the bassoon (often

American English meanings

academic staff of a school, college or university

In American English "fag" always has the pejorative meaning of male homosexual. Use of the Americanism in the media has rendered it contextually understood by Britons.

spelledfaggott)

fall

to become pregnant. (Either as in 'I fell pregnant' or as in 'She fell for a baby.');

descend or tumble autumn become sick, come down with an illness ("he fell ill") (uncommon in US) prove attractive ("fall for someone", "fall in love")

fancy (v.)

(v.) exhibit a fondness or preference for something; exhibit an interest in or willingness to: date/court someone, commit some act, or accept some item of trade

US colloq. equiv. of "to fancy" is "to like" something or someone (or regarding tastes and preferences, "to love"); "fancy" as a verb is now used in the US almost solely by UK ex-pats, but was once oft-used by Southern gentility (landed gentry)

fancy dress

a costume worn to impersonate a well-known character, animal etc., typically at a fancy dress party (US: costume party)

(colloq.) "formal" wear (usu. tuxedos for men and ball gowns for women.)

fanny

vagina (slang), vulva (vulgar slang) (fanny about or fanny around, vulgar slang) to mess about or procrastinate ("Stop fannying about and hit it with the hammer")

buttocks (colloquial); hence fanny pack (UK: bum bag)

featherbed bed or mattress stuffed with feathers (usually 2 words) (v.) to pamper, to spoil

to require that more workers are hired than are needed, often by agreement with trade unions

quilt, or comforter, stuffed with feathers for use on top of the mattress (but underneath a sheet and the sleeping person) (UK: mattress topper)

fender

a fire screen a cushioning device to

fender (vehicle): the part of an automobile, motorcycle or other

protect the side of a boat, vehicle body that frames a wheel well (UK: mudguard orwing) ship, or dock a frame fitted in front of a vehicle (locomotive or automobile) to absorb shock (UK: bumper – see Bumper (automobile))

fifth

ordinal number 5 one of five equal parts into which something is divided

bottle of spirits ("a fifth of bourbon"), traditionally 1/5 of a US gallon, now the metric nearequivalent of 750 mL to "plead the Fifth (Amendment)", i.e. refuse to testify against oneself in an incriminating manner

filth

(the filth) the police (derogatory slang)

first degree

dirt, disgusting substance obscene material the least serious category of burn (see article)

first floor (of a building)

the floor above ground level (US: second floor)

fit (adj.)

(of a person) attractive, sexy (slang)

(of a person) in good physical condition suitable for some purpose (usu. followed by for or to)

fix (v.)

to make firm, fasten, or attach *(the original sense, no longer very common in US) to set or arrange (as a date) *("A time has been fixed")

to repair (orig. US) to sterilise (an animal) to manipulate usually underhandedly ("To fix a fight by paying a boxer to take a dive.")

flapjack

flat oat cake (US: granola

the most serious category of a crime; of murder, carries a lifetime prison- or death-sentence (also informal murder one; see article) the floor at ground level (often, but not always, the same floor as a building's lobby) (UK: ground floor)

to adjust or prepare, esp. food or beverage *("I'll fix you a sandwich") (esp. South) to get ready ("I'm fixing to retire") [9] to get even with (someone) (fix up) to provide pancake

bar) flannel

a cloth for washing the face or body (US: washcloth)

particular type of fabric/material used for the manufacture of trousers or suits, but more commonly recognised in America as a fabric used in warm winter night clothes and sheets

flat

(n.) self-contained housing unit (US: apartment) (adj., of a battery) discharged, exhausted, dead

(adj.) level and smooth structured at a single level, not hierarchical

(n.) a flat tyre/tire * an apartment that occupies the entire floor of a small building (upstate New York and San Francisco); used also in phrases such as railroad flat

a type of footwear an about-face or U-turn (UK a type of electronic circuit also: about-turn), as in politics

flip-flop

fluid ounce (fl. oz.)

liquid measure equal to 28.41 millilitres

liquid measure equal to 29.57 milliliters

flyover

elevated road section (i.e. long road bridge, US: overpass)

ceremonial aircraft flight (UK: flypast) an elongated left-turn ramp passing over or under the wholehighway interchange Flyover country is a term for (unsophisticated, poor, rural) middle America, as distinct from the 'coasts'.

football

(usually) Association football (US: soccer). Less frequently applies to Rugby football (espec. Rugby union in English private schools).

American football

footpath

a paved strip for a narrow trail suitable pedestrian use, especially only for foot traffic along the side of a road

(US: sidewalk) forty (40)

forward

one who plays in a forward position in rugby, i.e. one who takes part in scrums.

2

the number 40

a 40-acre (160,000 m ) parcel of land, specifically one sixteenth of a section, constituting the smallest unit of agricultural land commonly surveyed ("back 40", "front 40"). an undeveloped plot of land (as on a farm, ranch, etc.) of unspecified size. in an urban or youth setting, "a 40-ounce beer".

an area to the front

a position in basketball, nowadays split into power forwards, who tend to play closer to the basket, and small forwards, who tend to either shoot from the perimeter or drive from the perimeter to the basket.

an outgoing disposition a position in football (soccer) in front of midfielders a collective term for the ice hockey players whose main role is to score goals, consisting of two wingers and acentre/center next after third (e.g. the fourth person, fourth floor)

fourth

A musical interval

fringe

arrangement of locks of hair on the forehead (US: bangs)

one of four equal parts into which something is divided (UK & US sometimes also quarter, q.v.). (proper noun, used with the) short for The Fourth of July(America's Independence Day)

the outer area of (rare vulgar; chiefly 1980s) vulva something ("He's gonna get some fringe.") a decorative border e.g. q.v., US: trim on clothing holding an extreme political position ("lunatic fringe")

(or smock-frock) outer habit of monks and friars garment formerly common (also frock coat) a style in rural Europe, see also overall of gentleman's jacket or

frock

(also short frock) indoor garment for children and young girls *

coat, cut at knee length, usually worn as an outer garment.

a woman's dress or gown (dated) * frog

French person (insulting slang)*

full stop

punctuation mark used at the end of a sentence, sometimes used in speech for emphasis ("Whom does he support? Arsenal, full stop!") (US: period, q.v.)

furnace

an amphibian

(Slang) A US Navy SEAL. Shortened from "Frog soldier" the state of automobiles barely moving in heavy traffic (also, a [10] "dead stop")

large hearth or container principal domestic heat source in for heating or melting central heating. (UK:boiler) metal, usually for an industrial process

[edit]G

Word

British English meanings

Meanings common to British and American English

American English meanings

gagging

(especially as in gagging choking for it) desperate, especially fighting the urge to vomit for sex (colloquial) ("that was so disgusting, I was gagging")

gallon

4.54609 litres (about 6/5 of US gallon)

3.78541 litres (about 5/6 of UK gallon)

gangbanger

a participant in a "gang

gang member; group

bang", a group sex activity

garage (see alsopronunciation differences)

fuel filling station, e.g. "a Texaco garage" (also petrol station, US: gas station) a genre of music

garden (n.)

area around a residential structure (US: yard)

rapist

place where vehicles are repaired building attached to or in the grounds of a residence for storing a car

(parking garage) building serving as a public parking facility (UK: multistorey car park or just multistorey)

area within a yard (land) for growing plants or vegetables (UK:vegetable garden, vegetable patch)

garnish

(n. (v.)) (to add) decorative or (v.) to take (as a savory touches to (food or debtor's wages) by drink) legal authority (v.)to furnish

gas

state of matter (see gas) natural gas

geezer

gangster, man (esp. Cockney)

give way

to give the right of way (to vehicles, pedestrians, [11] etc.); hence give way sign (US: yield [the right of way] sign)

gasoline, hence gas station (UK: petrol) gas pedal (UK: accelerator) flatulence air trapped in the stomach or intestines (UK: wind)

old person (derogatory; UK: old geezer [not derog.])

to retreat; to break down

glaze

general term for thin shiny coatings applied to food, painted surfaces, clayware, etc.; a glossy surface

a slippery coating of ice (also known as sleet, q.v.); a stretch of ice

gob

(n.) mouth; (v., slang) to spit

lump

a large amount ("gobs of") (slang—little used since the 1940s) a sailor

go down (fig.)

to leave a university (as Oxford) to come down (with an illness)

to be accepted or remembered (e.g. go down in history) to fail, esp. of a computer go down on, to engage in oral sex

to go on, happen (often a major event, e.g. a drug bust "it's going down right now!" or "it went down last week". But also used as a greeting, "What's going down?")

goods

items to be transported (as useful objects or services; by railway) ("a goods train") products; merchandising; (US & UK also: freight) personal property incriminating evidence ("we have the goods on him")

gooseberry

supernumerary third person a green hairy summer fruit (Ribes hirtellum in the USA), preventing a couple from courting (US: third wheel) (Ribes grossularia in Europe)

governor

boss (sometimes shortened a local official to guv'nor), colloquial

the top official in a US state

government

the cabinet or executive branch (US: the administration) the political party supporting the cabinet in parliament

the collective agency through which government is exercised (UK: the state) all such individual agencies (UK:

the act or office of governing

the public sector)

grade (education) a level of music (n. & v.) teacher's examination ("Guitar grade assessment of a student's work (UK alsomark) 4". Usually refers to ABRSM.

level or year of a student in elementary, middle, or high school ("in 10th grade") (UK equiv.: year); hence grader, a student in a specified grade ("a 10th grader") (grade school, the grades) elementary school see also Grade Point Average

grade (other)

(n.) a rating, degree, or level; (v.) to lay out in grades [US meaning generated grade separation and the idiommake the grade]

(n.) slope, gradient, or elevation; also ground level ("at grade", "over grade"); hence grade crossing (UK: level crossing) (v.) to level (as a roadbed), hence grader, construction machine for doing this *

graduate (v.) (education) graduate (adj.) (education)

to finish university with a degree relating to a student at the point of gaining, or who has recently completed, a degree

to move from a lower to higher stage; to effect change in steps; to mark with units of measurement or other divisions.

to finish studying at any educational institution by passing relevant examinations relating to a student taking a higher degree (UK equiv.: "postgraduate"), e.g. graduate school

graft

hard work

to join or connect two separate but similar items (typically in biology, especially medicine and

a form of politicaleconomic corruption

horticulture)

grass

an informant (often to the police) (to grass on) to tell on somebody (US: to squeal)

green ground cover marijuana

grammar school

a type of secondary school, normally a selective state funded school

grill

to cook directly under a dry to question intensely heat source (US: broil) (informal).

elementary school (less common today)

to interrogate.

the floor at ground level (US usu.: first floor)

ground floor (of a building)

guard

grazing; to feed (livestock) with grass (UK: at grass, to put out to grass)

the official in charge of a to watch over for security railway train (US & now UK one who guards also:conductor) a protective device

to cook over a gas or coal fire (UK and US: barbecue) a flat cooking surface a restaurant (freq. as "bar and grill") lower of two floors that are each at a different ground level due to sloping terrain (UK: lower ground floor) military division used to help the country after a disaster

one of two positions

in (American) football,

in basketball, usually players

one of two offensive

who are the best ball-

positions on either

handlers and shooters.

side of the center or a

Usually smaller than the

defensive position

forwards or center. Most

across from the center

common division is

(nose-guard)

between point guards (playmakers) and shooting guards (more often score-first). guff

extraneous or useless things, ideas, or

nonsense, insolent

paperwork/documentation; also to break wind ("Have you guffed, Dr Watson?")

talk, back talk

gum

cement consisting of a sticky substance that is used as an adhesive (US usually: glue)

a type of confectionery composed of chicle used for chewing the soft tissue around the teeth, or to chew something with no teeth (also, gum at)

gutted

disappointed and upset (informal)

past tense of gut: eviscerated; plundered; despoiled; made powerless or ineffectual (of a building) stripped of interior structure, leaving only frame and exterior walls (e.g.by fire)

gyro

(see also giro)

gyroscope

a sandwich, the Greek gyro, more familiar to Americans than the similar Turkish döner kebab, which is more common in Britain

[edit]H

Word

British English meanings

Meanings common to British and American English

haberdasher a dealer in small items and accessories, as for sewing; hence haberdashery (US: notions)

half

half pint of beer, cider or lager fifty percent/0.5 a single measure of whisky or times. other distilled spirit (used mostly in Scotland, derived from the Scots

American English meanings

a dealer in men's apparel and accessories; hencehaberdashery

word 'hauf')

halfway house

a place where victims of child abuse, orphans or teenage runaways can stay, a shelter

drug rehabilitation or sex offender centre. (Archaic) An inn halfway between two towns, still seen in many pub names.

hamper

large basket for food (especially picnic hamper, Christmas hamper)

to impede or hinder

hash

number sign, octothorpe (#) hashish (US: pound sign). Also 'to make a Hash (food), beef hash' of something is to mess it up. and other ingredients mashed together into a coarse paste

highway

(chiefly in official use) public road; see Highway Code

hike

hire

(highway robbery) something too expensive; see alsohighwayman

basket for clothes that need washing (UK: Linen basket orlaundry basket)

main road (as between cities) (divided or dual highway) a road with two roadways and at least four lanes (UK: dual carriageway, motorway) (highway post office) in the past, a bus transporting mail that was sorted en route

a usu. an increase in amount (as in recreational walk wages) * (to take a hike) to go away (also used as a command)

to rent moveable property (e.g. a to employ, recruit a person who is recruited car) *; rental * (hire purchase) a purchase carried

out over time by making regular payments (US: installment plan)

hob

the flat top surface of a cooking stove (US: cooktop) a part of a fireplace an elf

trouble (as in "raising hob" – chiefly US) (UK has less common "playing hob")

hock

a German wine ("down their fourand-twenty throats went four-andtwenty imperial pints of such rare old hock" – Charles Dickens) (US: Rhine wine) Hocktide, an ancient holiday

hock (zoology)

hockey

hockey played with a ball on grass hockey played on hockey played on ice with a puck (field hockey) * (ice hockey) * a hard surface (e.g. concrete) or indoors

hog

(dialect) a yearling sheep

hole-in-thewall

automated teller machine, cash machine (informal)

to take more than one's fair share of something (road hog) motorist who holds up other traffic by driving slowly or out of lane; any bad driver

pawn (n. & v.) ("I can borrow a dime from the barber, an' I got enough junk to hock for a blowout" – Jack London); prison (both from Dutch) * debt the end of a smoked ham * to hock-a-loogie, to spit (esp. mucus as opposed to saliva).

adult pig motorcycle, especially a large one such as a HarleyDavidson (derived from Harley Owners Group, a club for Harley-Davidson motorcycle owners.)

a small, out-of-the-way place, as a restaurant, with a negative connotation. However, often used to preface a compliment, e.g. "just a hole-in-the-wall place you've never heard of, but they

serve the best steak in the city."

holiday

see Bank holiday (often pl.) time taken off from work, school, etc., including the period between school terms (US: break, vacation) recreational trip away from home (US: vacation)

day when people are generally exempt from work, school, etc.

see Federal holidays in the United States (the Holidays) the days comprising Christmas and New Year's Day (and Hanukkah), and often also Thanksgiving(used esp. in the phrase "happy Holidays")

festival, whether or not generally entailing a public holiday: "Halloween is my favorite holiday" home

(noun): condition of domesticity, or one's permanent and regular shelter, but not the physical structure or property.

In AmE widely used also to mean the physical structure and property, and references to them, e.g., "home loans", "homeowners", and "tract homes". This usage is overwhelmingly predominant in commercial language and public discourse, e.g. "the home mortgage crisis".

home run

final part of a distance, final effort a success (from needed to finish (US:homestretch) baseball)

(also homer) a four-base hit in baseball (slang) sexual intercourse; more s.v. base

homely

(of a house) comfortable, cozy, rustic (US: homey) (of a person) home-loving, domesticated, house-proud

(only used of a person) plain, ugly

hood

the folding fabric top on a convertible car (US: convertible top)

head covering forming part of a garment component of academic regalia

hinged cover over the engine in a car (UK: bonnet) a contraction of neighborhood, especially regarding a poor neighborhood short for hoodlum, a tough, destructive young man, or

generically any criminal hoo-ha

argument

female genitalia

hooker

in rugby football, the player position in the centre front of the scrum

prostitute (informal) *

hooter

steam whistle or siren in a factory or other large workplace sounded as a signal for beginning or ceasing work car horn nose

(hooters) female breasts (vulgar slang)

hull

(Hull) Kingston-upon-Hull, a large city in the north-east of England*

the outer skin of a ship, tank, aeroplane, etc.

the seed-case of various edible plants (maize, nuts, etc.) (v.t.) to remove the seed-case from (a nut, etc.) hulled (adj.) (of a nut, etc.) having the seed-case removed (UK: shelled)

hump

a state of depression (dated) ("to be in a hump") a state of annoyance ("to get the hump") a traffic calming tool ("a speed hump") *(US & UK: speed bump) to move a heavy load by human effort a short distance

a rounded mass sticking out from its surroundings (v., vulgar slang) engage in sexual intercourse, animals breeding or trying to breed see also Glossary of rail terminology

(n. & v.) (to make) a vigorous effort ("hump yourself", "to get a hump on") (regional) (n.) a mountain barrier to be crossed (as by air) (hump day) Wednesday

[edit]I

Word

icebox

British English meanings

Meanings common to British and American English

American English meanings

cabinet containing ice for refrigerator food refrigeration

Zea mays (historical or technical; usually, UK maize orsweetcorn, US corn, q.v.)

Indian corn

indicator

direction-indicator light on a vehicle (US: turn signal)

inspector (police)

lowest supervisory rank above sergeant (rough US equivalent:lieutenant)

intern

replacement

international

interval

inventory

A particular variety of maize/corn, with multicolored kernels, used for decorations

one that indicates

senior rank in some police departments (rough UK equivalent: superintendent)

(v.) to confine (as during a war, or to a hospital) (adj., archaic) internal

(n.) one (as a graduate or college student) temporarily employed for practical training, e.g. in the science, engineering, or technology fields; esp., in the medical field, a physician (rough UK equivalent: houseman) in their first year of postgraduate training (v.) to work as an intern

Pertaining to or common Foreign, not from the USA. to more than one ("International version of software for country xxx", in British English country. this is a contradiction in terms.)

break between two performances or sessions, as in theatre (US: intermission)

a gap in space or time; see interval (music), interval (mathematics), interval (time)

(esp. New England, also spelled intervale) low-lying land, as near a river (US also bottomland)

itemisation of goods or the stock of an item on hand in a objects (of an estate, in a store or shop building, etc.) the process of producing an inventory in a store or shop (UK:stocktaking)

IRA

Irish Republican Army [not abbreviated in U.S. without context]

Individual Retirement Account

[edit]J

Word

British English meanings

Meanings common to British and American English

American English meanings

jab

an injection with a hypodermic needle, as in the case of an inoculation (US: shot)

(informal) to stab, thrust, or penetrate. biting remark, sarcasm. a straight punch used in various martial arts

janitor

an officer in a Masonic Chapter (specialist language)

a person employed to oversee the cleaning and security of a public building, e.g. a school.

a person employed to oversee the cleaning and security of a building (UK: caretaker, especially for private residences; for schools etc. janitor is also used in the UK)

jelly

a fruit flavoured dessert set with gelatin (US: JellO(trademark) ) a type of condiment, e.g. mint jelly

a clear or translucent preserve made from the liquid of fruits boiled in sugar and set with pectin, specifically without pieces of fruit (e.g. 'crab apple jelly')

(occasionally) fruit preserve with fruit pieces (UK: Jam)

Jesse

(often as Big Jesse, derogatory insult for a man) Non-macho, effeminate, sometimes gay.

A male name (uncommon in the UK). A shortening of the female name Jessica.

jock

a Scotsman or a Scottish Terrier (Scottie) (slang) a private soldier (slang) (UK: squaddie)

slang term for an athlete slang term for the undergarment called an athletic supporter or jockstrap

joint

piece of meat for carving * (slang) hand-rolled cigarette containing cannabis and tobacco

connection between two objects or bones an establishment, especially a disreputable one ("a gin joint"; "let's case the joint") (slang, orig. US)

(slang) hand-rolled cigarette containing only cannabis (slang) prison ("in the joint")

jolly

very (informal) (as in jolly good)

happy; jovial

jug

any container with a handle and a mouth or spout for liquid (US: pitcher)

(jugs) breasts (slang)

large container with a narrow mouth and handle for liquids (similar to UK pitcher)

jumper

a knitted upper body garment (US: sweater)

jump shot in basketball Non-permanent electrical connection, especially on a PCB

pinafore dress jump suit

just

(When used at the end of a sentence, as in: "I survived, but only just") barely

fair, equitable merely, simply, exactly, barely (when used before word it modifies)

[edit]K

Word

kebab

British English meanings

commonly a döner kebab (sometimes doner or donner kebab), strips of meat (usu. lamb or chicken) cooked by being heated on a revolving device and served stuffed in a pita bread (In the US, the Greek varieties souvlaki or gyro are better known than the Turkish döner)

Meanings common to British and American English

(often spelled "kabob" in the US) meat served on a skewer together with onions, tomatoes, etc. (e.g. shish kebab)

American English meanings

keen

eager or intent on, example: he is keen to get to work on time.

keeper

a curator or a goalkeeper

desirable or just right, example: "peachy keen" – "That's a pretty keen outfit you're wearing." (slang going out of common usage)

one that keeps (as a type of play a gamekeeper or a in American warden) football ("Quarterback keeper") a person well-suited for a successful, usu. romantic, relationship. (Don't let him go—he's a keeper) something of significance ("that's a keeper"). Can be used in many contexts. Often used in sports fishing to refer to a fish not released.

kit

clothing, esp. a sports uniform (e.g. football kit)

any of various sets a group of person or of equipment or objects ("the whole kit tools and (ca) boodle/billing") a set of parts to be assembled, e.g. into a scale model

kitty

affectionate term for a housecat

piggy bank vagina (vulgar slang) ("Singin' 'hey diddle collective source of diddle' with your kitty in the middle" – funds (esp. for a Aerosmith, Walk this group of people) Way)

kleenex

specific brand of disposable paper handkerchief

any disposable paper handkerchief (from tradename, example of

(Kleenex)

knickers women's underwear (US: panties) or men's underwear (US:briefs) knob

The penis, or specifically the glans (slang, vulgar) ("polishing the knob" * )

a Genericized trademark) knickerbockers

a rounded door handle fool, idiot, dimwitted person

knock over

to tip over something

to rob (esp. a store, slang) ("He knocked over a gas station.")

to cause an object to fall over. knock up

to practise before tennis to awaken or summon by knocking

to prepare quickly ("Knock us up something to eat" — L.M. Alcott) to impregnate, esp. unintentionally* (slang, sometimes vulgar)

[edit]L

Word

British English meanings

Meanings common to British and American English

American English meanings

ladder

a run (vertical split) in the fabric of tights

a vertical or inclined set of rungs or steps.

lavatory

toilet

closet in passenger washbasin, place for washing vehicles (e.g. trains) containing a toilet and washbasin/sink.

lay by (v.), (n.) roadside parking or (v.) to lay aside

(n.) a last cultivating in the growing of a

lay-by (n.) rest area for drivers

to stow

crop (v.) to cultivate (a crop) for the last time

lead

(rhyming with "speed") to guide through a cable (US: cord), or a dog's leash

(n.) a clue or potential source of information (esp. in context of journalistic investigation) *

leader

newspaper editorial main violin in an orchestra (US: concertmaster) see also Leader of the Opposition

one who leads

a pipe for carrying water ("rain water leader")

lecturer

the entrylevel academic rank at a university (below Senior Lecturer, Reader, and Professor)

someone who gives a lecture

lemonade clear, carbonated, lemon-flavoured drink similar to Sprite and7 Up (lemon and lime flavoured)

let

to rent out (as real property, and denoting the transaction from the owner's perspective); Tenants "take" or "rent" the property being let. *("rooms to let") (n.) the act of renting; rented premises (let out) to reveal

levee

non-carbonated drink made by mixing lemon juice, sugar, and water (UK: traditional lemonade)

allow, give (let out) to end (of school, meetings, etc.) permission. leave (as in let him be or let it be) ease (as in let up on the accelerator) indicate (as in don't let on) a first bad serve which is allowed to be retaken, as in tennis, table tennis, and volleyball

an early a reception in afternoon assembly hel honour of a

an embankment on a river (as the Mississippi River)

d by the King or Queen, particular person to which only men were admitted (Always levée, with accent)

the steep bank of a river, or border of an irrigated field (esp. Southern & Western US) a landing place or quay

mechanical take advantage of a capability (business) advantage of a lever the use of debt finance (UK: gearing)* knowledge not immediately revealed to be used to one's advantage *

leverage

liberal (politics)

a person who generally a person who holds a person who advocates modern supports the ideas of the political ideals liberalism; see alsoLiberalism in the the UK Liberal of Liberalism. United States for historic background Democrats, a centre left-party

life preserver

a type of weapon for self-defence (US: blackjack)

lift (n.)

platform or cage moved vertically in a shaft to transport people and goods to various floors in a building (US:elevator)

ride as a passenger an elevation in mood, "I got a lift just in a vehicle (as in, to talking with her." give someone a lift) item placed in shoe to increase the height of the wearer, normally plural (lifts, elevator shoes)

line

(see also track)

a breadthless length a group of persons, usually waiting for something, arranged in order of arrival (UK: queue) a lie, short for a line of bull a phrase used for hitting on women, short for pickup line to hit a line drive (a hard straight shot) in baseball

liquor

the broth resulting from the prolonged cooking of meat or vegetables. Green liquor is traditionally served with pie and mash in the East End of London

life vest, personal flotation device (UK: lifebelt or lifejacket)

a distilled beverage * (hard liquor) strongly alcoholic beverage; spirits (liquor store) retail establishment selling liquor (usu. for consumption off the premises) (UK similar: off-licence) ("I held up and robbed a hard liquor store" – Paul Simon) (malt liquor) a type of beer with high

alcohol content the state of a firearm with bullets or shells in its firing chamber. bearing a load. (slang; of a person) rich

loaded

lolly

Frozen water-based dessert on a stick (US: popsicle).

lounge

a room for relaxation and entertainment in a house (lounge bar) part of a pub

love (in informal term of addressin address g people) loveseat

lox

(short for lollipop) candy on a stick.

(a lot) a great deal a number of things (or, informal, people) taken collectively fate, fortune a prize in a lottery (the lot) the whole thing

lot

a seat which accommodates two people facing in opposite directions. Can be wooden or padded.

drunk or high

a measured plot of land; a portion of land set for a particular purpose ("a building lot"), e.g. for parking ("parking lot") or selling ("used car lot") automotive vehicles. But also a "vacant lot" a film studio

a room for a bar relaxation in a public place

beloved person, darling (often a term of endearment) a two-seater couch

liquid thin-sliced smoked salmon, commonly oxygen (engineering consumed on bagels;Yiddish from German 'Lachs', ) salmon.

Luck out

To be unlucky

To be lucky

lugs (n.)

ears (lugholes)

a small projection (engineering)

a lug nut fastens a wheel to the hub, (UK wheel nut). a "big lug" is usually a term of endearment for a large shy, goofy man.

lumber

(n.) disused items (as furniture)*; hence lumber room (v.) to encumber (as with such items) ("I was lumbered with work")

(v.) to move awkwardly or heavily ("he lumbered out the door")

(n.) timber that has been sawed and (partly) prepared forconstruction or woodworking; hence lumberyard (UK:timberyard), lumb er camp, lumberjack, lumberman, lumber wagon, lumber town, etc. (v.) to log and prepare timber to make a rolling sound (dated)

lush (slang; of a person)

attractive (usu. used by luxuriant women in reference to men – principally West Country)

an alcoholic *especially female

Conversation Practice 1. Practice telling your partner or classmates about your daily activities.

For example, Every day I get up at _____o'clock. Then, I eat my breakfast. I go to work/class at _____ o'clock. I usally finish work/class at _____o'clock. In the evenings, I like to watch television. I always go to bed at 10:30 p.m. 2. Ask your partner about his/her daily activities.

Example Where do you work? I work at Penny's. When do you (usually) start work? At 9:00 (a.m.) I finish at 5:00 (p.m.)

What do you do after school? I play soccer with my friends. Or sometimes I go shopping with my mom. 3. Talk about someone else's daily activities. Remember to use the -s form of the verb for third person (singular).

Example Tyra usually gets up at 7:30. Then she takes a shower and brushes her teeth. . . Cory and Lori are twins. They live in Omaha. They ride the bus to school every day.

I am John.

I am a student of St. Andrew‟s High School.

I am working in Microsoft Corporation.

I am doing business.

I am looking for a job.

I am a housewife.

He is my father.

She is my mother.

He is my elder brother.

This is my younger brother.

She is my elder sister.

She is my younger sister.

He is my grandfather.

She is my grandmother.

He is my neighbour.

He is my classmate.

He is my colleague. How are you?

How is life?

How are things?

How is your married life?

Fine.

I am fine.

Pretty well.

Fantastic.

Fit as a fiddle.

I am fine.

What about you?

Fine.

How about you?

I am fine and you?

How is your father?

How is your mother?

How is your brother?

How is your sister?

He is fine.

Oh, well.

He is doing fine.

How is everybody?

How is everybody at home?

Everybody is fine.

All are fine. May I know your name?

Your name please?

Your good name please?

What's your name?

I am Mary.

I am Miss. Catherine.

I am Mrs. Obama.

What are you?

What do you do?

Where do you work?

Where are you working?

I am working in Google.

I am working as a Advertising Agent.

What is your father?

What is he?

Where does he work?

He is working in MSN – USA.

He is working as a software engineer in WIPRO.

He is a software engineer in WIPRO. Where do you live?

Where are you living?

Where is your residence?

I live in London.

I am living in London.

I am residing at London.

Where are you from?

Where do you come from?

Which is your native town?

You belong to which place?

I am from Chicago.

I come from Chicago.

My native town is Chicago.

I belong to Chicago.

Where does he live?

Where do they live?

He lives at Paris in France.

They live in at Paris in France.

What is your qualification?

How far have you studied?

I am an Engineer.

I have done my B.S. of Engineering.

I am a graduate in Engineering.

I am a post graduate in Medicine.

I have completed my M.S.

I have studied unto Graduation.

I had my school education in London.

I had my schooling in London.

I did my college studies in Washington. Could you tell us something about your family?

Ours is a large family.

Ours is a small family.

Ours is a large joint family.

Ours is an orthodox family.

Ours is a modern, liberal family.

There are eight members in our family.

There are four members in our family.

We are six people at home. My father, my mother, my two sisters and a brother besides myself.

I have two brothers and a sister.

We are two brothers and a sister at home.

I have three brothers and two sisters. What type of person are you?

I am frank.

I am bold.

I am rather shy.

I am friendly.

I am reserved by nature.

I am very strict.

I am outspoken.

I am always positive.

My father is very honest.

My brother is very adamant.

My sister is very innocent.

My mother is very affectionate.

My friend is very reliable You belong to which place?

Which is your home town?

I belong to New York.

I am a native of Washington.

How far is it from Chennai?

It is about 300 kms from Chennai.

How many hours drive?

It's about 8 hour journey by road.

About 8 hours journey by road.

How is the weather like?

The weather is hot.

The weather is rather hot.

What is the major occupation of the people?

What do the people do there?

The major occupation of the people is agriculture.

What language is spoken there?

What language do they speak there?

They speak Tamil.

People speak Tamil.

Tamil is spoken there.

The new house is very convenient.

The house is spacious.

The house is commodious.

The house is roomy.

The house is big.

The house is beautiful.

The house is lovely.

When are you moving to the new house?

Are you letting out your house?

How about water?

There is no water problem at all.

There is plenty of water.

There is scarcity of water.

There is a well but the water is brackish.

The water is hard.

The water is soft. I feel happy.

I feel shy.

I feel hungry.

I feel thirsty.

I feel sleepy.

I feel tired.

I feel giddy.

I feel guilty.

I feel feverish.

I feel powerful.

I don't feel like eating anything.

I don't feel like talking to anybody.

I don't feel like going out.

I don‟t' feel like watching T.V.

I don't feel like walking fast. What is your name?

My name is Raja.

What are you?

I am a professor of English in University of Wisconsin.

What is your father?

He is a Business Man.

Where do you live?

We are living in Wisconsin.

You belong to which place?

I belong to Chennai.

How far is it from Mumbai?

Chennai is 2000km from Mumbai.

How is the weather like?

It is always sunny there.

What is the major occupation of the people there?

Agriculture is the major occupation of the people there in.

What language is spoken there?

Tamil is spoken there.

What is your educational qualification?

I am a B.E. graduate.

Where did you have your school education?

I did my school education in Chicago.

Could you tell me something about your family?

Ours is a joint family.

We are six persons.

My father, my mother, my grand father, my grand mother, my sister and myself.

What type of person are you?

I am friendly person.

Very good.

Attend to the phone.

Arrange the books in order.

Bolt the door.

Bring them here.

Bear in mind.

Call them in.

Okay, come to the point.

Do the home work.

Eat slowly.

Forget the past.

Give it to them.

Hide it up somewhere.

Keep your word.

Listen to me.

Lock the door.

Mind your tongue.

Mind your business.

Mind the steps.

Make a note of it.

Meet me tomorrow. Get up.

Wake him up.

Get dressed quickly.

Switch off the T.V.

Keep the change.

Remind me.

Return it safely.

Reduce the volume.

Remember the date.

Put on your shirt.

Send him out.

Meet them in person.

Note the address.

Pay the bill.

Show him around the city.

Throw it out.

Take them with you.

Take these tablets for three days.

Read them aloud. Don't disturb me.

Don't talk about that.

Don't waste my time.

Don't go there.

Don't move with them.

Don't ask me anything.

Don't talk to me.

Don't cry.

Don't shout.

Don't make noise.

Don't quarrel with him.

Don't eat too much.

Don't beat about the bush.

Don't move.

Don't make me angry.

Don't beat him.

Don't tell lies.

Don't rush me.

Don't confuse me.

Don't get angry.

Don't keep the door open.

Don't spend all the money.

Don't think that you are clever. Is he your relative?

Is it Welcome group of companies?

Is it number 17?

Is the seat vacant?

Is it your first visit to Chennai?

Is the shop open?

Is he at home?

Is it true?

Is there anybody inside?

Is she your sister?

Is your wife employed?

Is it Jolarpet?

Is it 8-3 coach?

Is your friend in London?

Is he a teacher?

Is it useful? Are you ready?

Are you free now?

Are you Mr. Murthy?

Are you angry with me?

Are you afraid of them?

Are you tired?

Are you married?

Are you employed?

Are you interested in that?

Are you awake?

Are you aware of that?

Are you a relative of Mr. Mohan?

Are you not well?

Are they your relatives?

Are they from abroad?

Are the shops open?

Are you satisfied now?

Are you joking? What is your aim in life?

What is your hobby?

What day is today?

What date is today?

What station is it?

What is your sister's name?

What is his name?

What is your opinion?

What are you?

What is the name of that girl?

What do you think of him?

What do you do on Sundays?

What do you want?

What did you say?

What did he ask you?

What did you buy?

What do you do?

What did you do?

What will you do?

What are you doing?

What have you decided? Where are you coming from?

Where are you now?

Where are my books?

Where do you live?

Where did you meet him?

Where have you kept the book?

Where is he working now?

Where are you buying the vegetables?

Where do you buy the vegetables?

Where is your brother now?

When is your birthday?

When is the next train?

When are you going to Delhi?

When did you return from Mumbai?

When did you meet him last?

When did you join this course?

When will they come?

When are you completing the computer course?

Who is he?

Who is that man standing over there?

Who are you?

Who are you to command me?

Who said?

Who told you?

Who switched off the light?

Who asked you?

Who called you?

Who will help you?

Who told you that I was not well?

Whom do you suspect?

With whom did you come?

Whom did you come with?

Which is your home town?

Which is your bag?

Which one do you want?

Which colour do you like?

Which bus goes to Thiruvallur?

Which game do you like? Cricket or Tennis.

Whose book is this?

Whose mistake is it?

Whose handwriting is this? Why is he dull?

Why is the train late?

Why are you late?

Why are you laughing?

Why are you shouting like this?

Why are you getting angry unnecessarily?

Why are you staring at me?

Why are you asking me?

Why are you telling me all this?

Why do you always wear blue shirts?

Why do you worry?

Why did you beat him?

Why did you resign the job?

Then, why did you call me?

Why did you go there?

Then, why did you ask me to come?

Why did you spend all the money?

Why did you behave like that?

Why didn't you apply for the job?

Why didn't you inform me? Is he binding a book?

Is he bringing a file?

Is he buying fruits?

Is he giving the book?

Is he learning English?

Is he paying the fee?

Is he running?

Is she calling you?

Is she writing a letter?

Is she cutting a tree?

Is she reading a novel?

Is she calling your sister?

Is she going to Delhi?

Is the bus corning?

Is it raining?

Is the machine working?

Is he taking your cell phone?

Is your mother preparing food?

Is Chitra calling Priya?

Is Gayathri waiting for you?

Is Shyamala residing here?

Is Ravi singing a song?

Is Ashwin giving a lecture?

Is Maran taking your pen?

Is Mala telling a story?

How is your friend Suresh?

How is the movie?

How is it?

How do you manage?

How do you know that?

How do you find the course?

How do I know that?

How often do you go there?

How did you reach there?

How did you get there?

How did they escape?

How did you locate the house?

How did you convince them?

How many rooms are there in that house?

How many brothers do you have?

How much is it?

How long will you wait?

How far is Salem from here? Thank you.

Thanks a lot.

Thank you so much.

Thank you very much.

You have been a great help. Thank you very much.

Thank you very much.

I will never forget your timely help.

It was nice of you to arrange everything at a short notice.

I don't know how to thank you.

I really don't know how to express my thanks to you.

I am very grateful to you.

I don't find words to express my thanks to you.

Thank you for reminding me.

Thanks for calling.

That's OK.

That's alright.

No problem.

Don't mention it.

You are welcome.

Hey..... How dare you talk to me like that?

Were you out of your mind to do such a thing?

Stop telling me what to do and mind your business.

Are you trying to make a fool of me?

I have come to the end of my patience.

Don't try my patience.

What the hell do you want?

You are always complaining about something.

What the devil are you doing there?

Do you think you are very smart?

Do you think I am not aware of it?

Behave yourself, otherwise I will neck you out.

How are you concerned with my affairs?

Get out of my sight.

Go to hell.

Get lost.

Don't lose your temper.

Keep cool.

Keep yourself cool. Don't worry. Everything will go off well.

There is no need to worry.

Stop worrying. Everything will be alright.

It was nobody's fault. Why do you worry?

Look. There is nothing to get nervous about.

Everybody makes mistakes sometimes you know.

Forget it. Anyone can make a mistake.

I am sure it was not your fault and everybody knows it.

Nothing like that will happen again. Don't worry.

Why fear when I am here?

Why fear as long as I am with you?

Don't worry. I too have the same problem.

Tears don't solve any problem.

There is always a solution to any problem.

Through thick and thin I will stand by you.

Rain or shine, I will stand by you.

Whatever is destined to happen, will happen.

Life is not suffering all the time.

Nothing can be achieved by feeling depressed like this. What time do you get up in the morning?

I get up at 6.30.

I get up at 5.15.

What do you have in the morning? Coffee or tea?

Normally, I have tea in the morning.

Which newspaper do you read?

I read the Times.

I buy the Hindu as well.

Do you have time to read the paper in the morning?

Yes. I have.

No. I have a very busy schedule in the morning.

I just go through the headlines.

What do you have for your breakfast?

Mostly idlis, sometimes dosa or pongal.

When do you leave for office?

I leave at 9.15.

How do you go to office?

I go by train.

I go by bus.

I go by scooter.

I go by cycle.

When do you return home?

I return home at 6.30.

When do you go to bed?

I go to bed at 10.30. Did you type the letter?

Did he come here yesterday?

Did you lock the door?

Did you switch off the T.V.?

Did you get my letter?

Did you receive my letter?

Did it rain there?

Did anybody come?

Did he say anything?

Did you go to office yesterday?

Did you call me?

Did I give you the balance?

Did I ask you?

Did you reach there on time?

Did you get there on time?

Did you return the book?

Did he ask you anything about that?

Did you understand this lesson?

Frequently Used Sentences in English : Day - 28

Did he come?

When did he come?

Where did he come?

How did he come?

Why did he come here?

With whom did he come?

When did he come?

He came here last week.

He came here yesterday.

Where did he come?

He came here.

He came to my office.

How did he come?

He came by bus.

He came by car.

Why did he come?

He came to meet my father.

He came to my office to ask for money.

He just made a courtesy visit.

With whom did he come?

He came along with his wife.

He came here alone. Will they come here?

When will they come?

Are they coming here tomorrow?

What are you going to do?

When are you completing the work?

When are you going to get married?

Are you going with them?

When are you going to vacate the house?

How long are you going to stay there?

What are you going to do next?

How will you manage?

How are you going to manage?

When is the manager returning from Trichy?

Will it rain today?

When are you leaving for Madurai? They are giving the bonus next week.

I am leaving for Salem tomorrow night.

They are vacating the house next month.

Next week my cousin is coming from Mumbai.

I have to take her to Kumbakonam.

My friend Surya is getting married next month.

I am leaving for Bangalore tonight and I will be back after 10 days.

You just wait there. I will come and pick you up.

I will take you there one day.

I think it will rain today.

I hope they will win.

It is already 8.30. I don't think they will come.

Hereafter I won't go with them.

They won't mistake me.

Nobody will believe that.

They will not listen to me. Where do you keep your books? I keep my books here.

Where do you buy your dresses? I buy my dresses in T.Nagar.

Where do you wait for him? I wait for him at the station.

Where do you look for him? We look for him at the library.

Where do you have your bank account? I have my bank account in Trichy.

Where do they want you to come? They want me to come to Madurai.

Where do I ask Sita to wait? You ask Sita to wait in her office.

Where do I come from? You come from Ooty.

Where do you come from? We come from Salem.

Where do they send this parcel to? They send this parcel to Kanyakumari. I like reading books.

I like getting wet in the rain.

I like walking in the morning sun.

I like listening to music.

I like travelling by train.

I like playing cricket.

I like watching T.V.

I like people who are frank.

I like people who speak the truth.

I like people who work hard.

I don't like travelling by crowded buses.

I don't like waiting in queues.

I don't like watching the T.V. serials.

I don't like sitting idle.

I don't like your going there.

I don't like your telling lies.

I have a scooter.

I have some books.

We have a Maruthi Car.

I have Ford Car.

I have two brothers.

I have three sisters and a brother.

I have a lot of friends here.

I have office tomorrow.

I have college today.

I have a meeting today.

We have a function at home tomorrow.

We have some guests at home.

I have a car.

He has a car.

She has a car.

She has two children.

He has office today.

Sujatha has school tomorrow.

He has a friend in Mumbai. I have no time.

I don't have time.

He has no time.

He doesn't have time.

I have no office today.

They have no school tomorrow.

I have no problem.

I have no objection.

Excuse me. Do you have a spare ticket?

Sir, do you have any extra tickets?

Excuse me. Do you have change for Rs.500?

Do you have a one rupee coin?

Dad, do you have office tomorrow?

Do you have school today?

Does she have any problem?

Do you have a pen?

Don't you have a pen?

Don't you have school today?

Don't you have change?

Do you have any doubt?

Frequently Used Sentences in English : Day - 35

Sir, could I park my scooter here?

Could I use your phone?

It is very hot inside. Can I open the windows?

Can I borrow this Look for a day?

May I have a word with you, sir?

Sir, can I go home early today? I have some guests at home.

Can I leave my bag here?

Yes. You can.

By all means.

Yes. Certainly.

Oh. Sure!

No problem.

I don't mind.

I don't mind it at all.

I am sorry.

Sorry. You can't.

It's ok with me, but you must ask the M.D.

Can we go to the practice now? Ask him to come tomorrow.

Ask Ramesh to wait for sometime.

Ask him to bring the book.

Ask Ravi to finish the home work.

Ask Sheela to shut up.

Ask him to bring his father tomorrow.

Ask Sekar to go to the bank.

Ask him to bring the files.

Ask him to wait till I come.

Ask your friend Surya to meet me tomorrow.

Ask him not to go there.

Ask them not to wait for me.

Ask that man not to shout.

Ask the children not to get wet in the rain.

Ask my mother not to worry about me.

Frequently Used Sentences in English : Day - 37

I didn't ask you to go there.

I didn't ask them to come here.

I don't know why they have come.

I didn't ask you to spend all the money.

I didn‟t ask you to wait for me.

Did I ask you to go there?

Did I ask you to resign the job?

Did I ask you to keep the door open?

Did I ask them to wait?

I asked you to come yesterday, but you didn't come.

I asked you not to go there. Did you listen to me?

I asked you several times not to believe them, but you didn't listen to me.

I have asked you several times not to keep anything on the T.V., but you never listen to me.

Have I ever asked you to work on Sundays? Wait for sometime.

My friend Ravi has a scooter.

I will ask him to drop you.

I will ask them to wait.

I will ask him to meet you tomorrow at 5 o'clock.

I will ask him to call you up

I will ask her to cook today.

I will ask him to get you something to eat.

I will ask Ramesh to reserve two tickets.

Shall I ask them to come tomorrow?

Shall I ask him to call you up?

Shall I ask them to wait?

Sir. Mr. Siva is on leave today.

Shall I ask Mr. Hari to go to the bank?

Shall I ask Sheela to send the email?

Shall I ask Mrs. Geetha to use the CD instead of floppy? Sir, Mr Arunkumar called.

He has asked you to call him at his residence.

Hey Sundar, the manager has asked you to go to the bank.

Sir. Mr. Gupta called.

He has asked you to meet him at his office tomorrow.

My teacher has asked me to bring all the books today.

My friend has asked me to give this letter to you.

Your friend Sundar called. He has asked you to come to the Regal theatre at 6.30.

Mahesh called and said Mr. Surya had come from Mumbai. He has asked you to meet him at Welcome hotel room no.302.

Hey Nagaraj. The manager has asked you to wait till he returns.

An important meeting is going on. The M.D. has asked us not to allow anybody inside.

Mr. Varadharajan has asked us to attend the meeting without fail.

Our Master has asked us to utter all the sentences.

 Daddy, somebody came from your office. He said that he wanted to talk to you something important.

 Ravi came here yesterday. He said that he would be leaving for Madurai this Monday.

 Mala rang up this morning. Her sister is getting engaged this Friday. She asked us to be there by 4 o'clock.

 Your tuition miss called. She said that there would be no class tomorrow.

 Your aunt called this morning. She has asked you to come to her house tomorrow.

 Dad... Our driver Kumar rang up. He said that his mother was not well. He could not come today.

 There was a call from Vasanthi. She said that her mother-in-law had come, so she would not be coming to temple tomorrow.

 The grocer came this morning. He said that a part of last month's bill is still due. And he asked us to clear it this month.

 The postman came again today. He said that if we didn't collect the parcel by tomorrow, it would be sent back.

Does he act well?

Does he add wealth?

Did she ask me?

Do I adopt a child?

Is computer an advanced Technology?

Does he advantage a lot?

Do they advertise a lot?

Does the govt. allot houses?

Did the H.M announce the holiday?

Did she appeal?

Does the sun appear?

Was I appointed?

Does he approve the idea?

Does the boy arise?

Did he arrange a function?

Did the police arrest him?

Did he attempt?

Does he attend the function?

Do you avoid me?

Did I get clarity in my doubt?

Did he combine the sentences?

Will you meet me?

Does he complain?

Did he award him?

Did I bargain with the Vendor?

Does the dog bark?

Does he bathe in hot water?

Does he beat me?

Does he befit always?

Does she behold me?

Does she bind the grains?

Does the dog bite?

Does the bomb blast?

Does the water boil?

Did he borrow a pen?

Did he servant bow?

Does the enemy bowl him? If you had called me, I would have come there.

If you had told me, I would have waited for you.

If he had asked me, I would have given it to him.

If I had been awake, I would have caught the thief.

They came all the way to invite you.

You should have attended the wedding.

You should have told me yesterday.

You should have replied to his letter.

I should have joined this course last year.

Whatever it may be, you should not have beaten him.

I should not have wasted my time.

You should not have talked like that.

It was my mistake.

I should not have invited them to the party.

You could have come by auto.

I could have come by auto, but who would pay the fare? On which platform is the Brindavan Express?

What time does the Brindavan Express leave?

Has the Brindavan left?

Has the Brindavan arrived?

Will the train halt at Arakkonam?

When does the train reach Bangalore?

Why is the train delayed?

Where is the ticket counter?

Where is the reservation counter?

Is reservation available for 16th on Brindavan?

What is the waiting list number?

Could you allot a seat near the window?

Can I get the return ticket here?

Sir, how much would I lose if I cancelled the ticket?

It is very cold.

Would you mind closing the window?

Sir, have we crossed Jolarpet?

Sir, I am to get down at Ambur.

Could you wake me up if you are awake?

Sir, it's midnight. Please switch off the light. I feel sleepy. When is the next flight to Delhi?

Is there a Jet Airways Flight to Delhi?

When does it land at Mumbai?

When is the Sahara Flight from Delhi expected?

Sir, I must be in Delhi this evening to attend an important meeting.

If I miss it, I stand to a great loss. Please help me out sir.

Sir, I have to be in Delhi by this evening before 5.30.

I need your help in this regard.

Where is the immigration check counter?

May I take the passport please?

How much US dollars (or British Pounds) will I get?

Where to check-in for Indian Airlines flight to Delhi?

I'll handover some of my stuff to my friend. I'll be back.

Where do I collect my baggage?

Where to ask for prepaid taxi?

Can I keep this with me as hand baggage? Which bus goes to Gandhi Nagar?

Does this bus go to Gandhi Nagar?

What all buses go to Gandhi Nagar?

Is the bus that just left Gandhi Nagar bus?

When is the next bus to Gandhi Nagar?

Which bus has just left?

Does this bus go via Ashok Nagar?

Sir, I am to get down at Gandhi Nagar.

Would you mind telling me when we get there? I am new to this town.

Sir, would you mind keeping this bag under the seat?

Sir, please get me a ticket to Gandhi Nagar.

Sir, would you mind moving a bit.

It is very congested here.

Conductor, you haven't paid the balance. I am to get down at the next stop.

 Where can I get the application form for opening SB account?  Can I have an application form for SB Account please?

 Whom should I meet to open the account?

 Is introduction a must?

 Sir, I am new to this town. I am working in Kaveri chemicals. This is my identitycard. Will this card do to open the account?

 How many photos are needed?

 What is the minimum amount to be deposited to open an account?

 What is the minimum balance I should keep to have cheque book facility?

 Where can I collect the pass book?

 Do you have ATM facility?

 What are your working hours?

 Do you work on Sundays?

 Last week I deposited a cheque. Has the amount been credited to my account?

Is it S.M. Travels?

Is it Prasad's residence?

Is it John‟s residence?

Can I speak to Mr. Suresh, please?

Could I speak to Mr. Suresh please?

Can I speak to Mr. Obama?

Could I speak to Mr. Johnson?

Please connect me to Extension 2434.

Please put me to Extension 2434.

May I know who is speaking?

May I know who is calling?

I am Ravi calling from Madurai.

I am Clinton calling from London.

I am Adjani calling from Mumbai.

I am Kala calling from Mother Computer Graphics.

I am Kala from Mother Computer Graphics.

Can I speak to Mr. Suresh please?

Yes, speaking. Just a minute please.

Just a moment please.

Please hold on.

Would you please hold on?

Sir, there is a call for you.

Sir, Mr. Ravi is on the line.

Sir, he is speaking over the other line.

He is on the other line.

Sir, he is out of town and he will be back only next week.

He is on leave.

He has gone out.

Sir, he has gone home for lunch.

When is he expected?

When will he be back?

He is out of town.

When is he returning?

He is on leave.

When is he reporting for duty?

Just a minute please. I'll find out whether he is available.

Can I speak to Mr. Sultan?

Sir, nobody is here by that name.

Sir, nobody by that name here. Any message please?

Can I take any message?

Anything to convey?

Would you like to leave any message?

Shall I ask him to call you back?

Shall I ask him to contact you?

Please tell him that Suresh called.

Ask him to call me as soon as he returns.

He is not available. Would you like to speak to his assistant?

He is not available. I'll be glad to help you.

Please ask him to call my residence.

He knows my number.

Ask him to call me. He has my number.

Your number please.

Can I have your number please?

May I know your number please?

I am Saravanan calling from Singapore. Would you please call Mr. Raja your neighbour? Excuse me madam, May I come in?

Please do.

I am Mrs. Radha. I have come here regarding my son Mahesh's admission in your school.

I am Mrs. Clinton.

I would like to admit my son John in your school.

I would like to admit my daughter Mary in your school.

You want to admit your son in which standard?

I want to admit him in sixth standard.

How old is your son?

He is 10 years old.

Where did he study earlier?

He studied in Bharathiar School, Chennai.

He studied in St. Andrew‟s School.

Why is he leaving that school?

His father has been transferred to this/place.

Have you taken a TC from the old school?

Of course Madam I have it here. Does the school work this Saturday?

Could I meet the class teacher?

I would like to meet the class teacher.

I got a letter from the H.M. asking me to meet him.

I am Mrs. Radha, mother of Suresh.

How is Suresh studying?

I have come to enquire about my son's performance in the class. How is he doing?

When will the school be over today?

When does the vacation start?

How has he done at the exams?

How has he performed in the exams?

When do you reopen the school?

Have you announced the entrance test results?

When is the last day for paying the fees?

When is the sports day?

Where is it going to be held?

Do you have a school bus?

Is he coming regularly?

Is he regular to the classes? What are your working hours?

When is your weekly off?

Does Mr. Pandian coming from K.K. Nagar work here?

Is Mr. Sadhasivam still working here?

What is your manager's name?

Where is his residence?

Where is your godown?

Where is your warehouse?

Sir, I am a paper supplier. It seems you wanted some papers. Whom should I meet in this connection?

Do you have your branch in Erode?

Who are your bankers?

How long is he on leave?

Sir, I am Ramesh Kumar from Alpha Agencies. We were informed that our cheque is ready. Whom should I meet to collect the cheque?

Who does your printing job?

How is your manager? Is he a Keralite?

In which department is Latha working?

How many people work here?

Is your office fully computerised? Doctor, I have a severe headache.

I have a bad cold.

I have a sense of giddiness.

I have a dull feeling.

There is a numb feeling in the leg.

I feel feverish.

I have a burning sensation in the eyes.

I have a bitter taste in the mouth.

I have mouth sores.

I don't have a good appetite.

I have a very bad earache.

My throat is a bit dry.

Doctor, my weight has picked up again.

Should I take these tablets before the meal or after the meal?

How long should I take this medicine?

Doctor, what is the problem with me?

What exactly is the disease?

Is it serious?

What should be my diet?

How long should I take rest?

Can I take rice and curd?

Can I travel?

When can I get the medical report?

When can I collect the X-ray?

Can I go to work next week?

How much should I pay? What is your name?

What is your father?

Which is your home town?

Could you tell us something about yourself?

I am a graduate in commerce.

I am a B.Com., graduate.

I am a B.Sc., graduate.

I have done my B.Sc.,

Sir, I am basically a commerce graduate and I have completed my advanced diploma in computers.

Sir, I am a commerce graduate with a diploma in computer applications.

Sir, I have done my B.Com. and now I am doing my computer course.

Have you any previous experience?

Sir, I have three years of experience in computer accounting.

Sir I have five years of experience in Editing.

I have put in three years of service in Film Making.

I am afraid, I have no experience.

You have no experience at all. How do you expect us to give you the job?

Sir, I agree with you I have no experience. But I am a fast learner sir.

I pickup very fast. I become experienced in just a very short period. How do you think that you are fit for the job?

Sir, I have necessary qualifications and a lot of experience in this field, so I think I am fit for this job.

Sir, this is not new to me and I have three years of experience in this field.

Sir, I have been in the field of marketing for 5 years. I like the job that involves marketing. And I am good at it.

Are you working anywhere at present?

Yes, sir. I have been working in Microsoft for the last seven years.

Why do you want to leave your present job.

I want to leave the job for better prospects.

Sir, I am basically a science graduate, but am working as an accountant and the job is not to my taste, so I am looking for a new job.

I am looking for a challenging job sir. I would like to buy a doll within USD $ 20.

I am looking for a gift, may be a doll within USD $ 20.

Can you suggest a nice gift for a two year old female child?

How much does it cost?

How much is it?

Do you have metal chiffon saree?

Have you got designer saree?

What is the difference between these two?

Where can I collect the material?

Can I return the chudidhar if it doesn't fit?

Don't you have it in shades of blue?

I bought this shirt yesterday.

Here is the bill.

Can I have a replacement?

Is there nobody here at this counter? I have been waiting for half an hour.

I would like to meet the manager. I have a complaint to make.

Please pack it up neatly. Sorry I am late. I missed the bus.

I apologise. It was my mistake.

I apologise for talking to you like that.

I am afraid, I can't come on Sunday.

I am sorry it is wrong number.

I am sorry I am late.

It's okay.

I could not return the book yesterday. I am so sorry.

It doesn't matter, but don't make it a habit.

I am sorry. I forgot to post the letter.

No problem. You can post it tomorrow.

I am sorry. I have broken the cup.

That is okay. It sometimes happens like that.

I am sorry. I have disturbed you.

No, not at all.

I am terribly sorry. This is all entirely my fault.

Okay, it doesn't matter, but don't let it happen again. Can you complete the work in two days?

I may go to Delhi tomorrow.

It might rain today.

You had better consult your father.

You had better carry something with you to eat.

You may feel hungry on the way.

You should rather have milk than coffee.

I would rather go hungry than eat this food.

I must return this book today.

You must not come in with your shoes on.

He has to appear for an entrance test.

You should read a lot.

You should take care of your health.

You ought to wear a helmet while travelling.

The police ought to control the traffic.

You are supposed to complete the work by this evening.

Why don't you do some computer course?

Can you learn to speak English just in 60 days?

Why not with the help of this site? Do you have a computer at home?

Do you have internet connection?

Can I have your e-mail Id?

How frequently do you check your mail?

Have you received my e-mail?

My floppy drive is not working properly and at times my computer keeps freezingup.

Do you know any hardware engineer?

I think a virus has infected our computer.

Are you familiar with DTP and Multimedia?

Is there any browsing centre close by?

Come to the chat room on Sunday at 3. I'll be online.

Can you write it on a CD for me?

Is it a copy righted CD?

Do I require installation for opening the CD?

On what format have you sent the file?

Visit this site if you want more information.

Please visit our site.

You are welcome to visit our site. Please come.

Nice of you to make it.

Very nice to have you here.

I am glad that you have come.

I am pleased to have you here.

Please be seated.

Please have your seat.

Make yourself comfortable.

Would you like something to drink?

Shall we adjourn for dinner?

Shall we start?

I think it is time for dinner, shall we?

Please help yourself.

Please try this dish.

It is quite tasty.

Would you like second serving?

You seem to be a poor eater, why so?

Thank you for attending the party.

It was a nice evening.

It was so nice of you to have brought your family.

It was a nice evening.

It was kind of you to have invited me.

I really enjoyed it. This is your first lesson in your learning process. Bring in a note-book and a pen. You may need them to take down notes for your future reference. Taking down notes will help you pay focused attention on what you learn. It is strongly suggested that you had better take down notes of what you learn in every lesson. Let us start with the Units of English. What is called a UNIT? A Unit is a basic part, many of which bring out the whole. Units make a word or a sentence complete. How many Units are there in English? There are FIVE UNITS.

1. Letter 2. Word 3. Phrase 4. Clause 5. Sentence All these five Units make a sentence or a paragraph a meaningful one. Let us see these Units of English individually. 1. Letter: There are twenty six letters in English language. They are: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y and Z . These letters have been written in Capital forms. The same letters can also be written in Small forms. They are: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y and z. All these twenty-six letters are collectively called ALPHABET. So the alphabet of English language has twenty-six letters. These twenty-six letters can be classified into two groups. They are: I. Consonants b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y and z. are calledCONSONANTS. That means there are 21 consonants. II. Vowels a, e, i. o and u are called VOWELS. That means there are five vowels. 2.Word: A word converts the group of letters into a meaningful one. A word plays a pivotal role in the Units of English. A word is a group of letters with a meaning.

Ball, nation, ocean, boy, courage, install, save and organization are words. The word ball is having four letters b..a..l..l. The word organization is having twelve letters o..r..g..a..n..i..s..a..t..i..o..n. In this way all the words are collective forms of few letters. Every word carries a meaning. Let us see few more words which we use regularly in our daily lives.

Grammar : Parts of Speech This section on Parts of Speech is your second lesson. Remember the first lessonso that this lesson will be very clear for understanding. You saw in the first lesson that the words are very important in the formation of sentences. The words constitute the Parts of Speech. The words used in English are divided into eight parts accordingto the functions carried out by those words in a sentence. Those EIGHT PARTS are: 1. Noun 2. Verb 3. Adjective 4. Adverb 5. Pronoun 6. Preposition 7. Conjunction 8. Interjection All these parts of speech have their own roles in the formation of sentences. In the following lessons, we can see all these parts of speeches indepth. Now,let us see these eight parts one by one briefly. 1.Noun: A noun is a word used as a name of a person, place, thing,

state, quality, activity, action etc... Examples: • Mr. John is our English teacher. In this sentence the words “Mr. John” and “teacher” are nouns. • Harvard University is the oldest University. In this sentence the words “Harvard” and “University” are nouns. • Lions live in forest. In this sentence the words “Lion” and “forest” are nouns. • He is my best friend. In this sentence, the words “He” and “friend” are nouns. London, New Delhi, Himalaya, philosophy, beauty, car, road, Management, science, school, students, books, Mrs. Raman, tree, mango, fruits and flowers are few of the nouns. Few other nouns are ball, town, bill, boy, child, hospital, hotel, home, hall, fame, college, road, fruit, computer etc… The another part in the parts of speech is To know more about Noun a. Noun-Types

b. Noun-Gender c. Noun-Number d. Noun-Functions e. Noun-Cases 2.Verb: A verb is a word used to express an action or state. Examples:

• She wrote a letter. In this sentence, the word “wrote” indicates what she did. So the word “wrote” (write) is a verb. • New York is big city. In this sentence, what is now the city “New York” is indicated by the word “is”. So the word “is” is a verb. • The child played in the hall. Here in this sentence, “what the child did” is indicated by the word “played”. So the word “played” (play) is a verb. Few other verbs are talk, walk, speak, kill, elect, eat, conclude, confess, convene, collect, go, freeze, pass, communicate, learn etc… To know more about Verb a. Verbs b. Verb-Be 3.Adjective: An adjective is word used to add something to the meaning of a noun. Examples: • He is a brave boy. In this sentence, “what kind of boy is he” is answered by the word “brave”. So the word “brave” is an adjective. • They are perfect people. In this sentence, “what kinds of people are they” is answered by the word “perfect”. So the word “perfect” is an adjective. Few other adjectives are beautiful, tall, shy, courteous, ugly, short, long, lengthy, costly, calm, nice etc… To know more about Adjectives 4.Adverb: An adverb is a word used to add something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Examples: • He worked the sum quickly. Here, whether he worked the sum slow or quickly is answered by the word “quickly”. So

the word, “quickly” is an adverb. • This flower is very beautiful. Here the word “very” is used to add more meaning to the word “beautiful”. That means the flower is more beautiful.So the word “very” is an adverb. • She pronounced the word quite correctly. Here the word “quite” is used to add meaning to the word “correctly”. So the word “quite” is an adverb. Few other adverbs are wonderfully, nicely, fast, beautifully, honestly, freely, slightly, healthily, calmly etc… Many of the adverbs end with -ly as stated above. But it is not a condition. The next part in the parts of speech is To know more about Adverbs 5.Pronoun: A pronoun is word used instead of a noun. Examples: • Raman is boy. He is going to school. Of these sentences, in the second sentence, the word “he” is used to indicate “Raman”. So the word “he” is a pronoun. • The students refuse to take their meals. They want to meet the warden. Of these sentences, in the second sentence, the word “they” is used to indicate “the students”. So the word “they” is a pronoun. There are only seven pronouns. They are he, she, it, I, we, they and you. Other pronouns are their variations.

To know more about Pronouns 6.Preposition: A preposition is word used with a noun or a pronoun to show how the person or thing denoted by the noun or pronoun stands in relation to something else. Examples:

• There is cow in the garden. Here the word “in” is preposition. • He is in the play-ground. Here the word “in” is a preposition. • They are coming to your office. Here, the word “to” is a preposition. • The fruits are behind the leaves. Here the word “behind” is preposition. Few other prepositions are away, from, on, towards, till, until, unless, under, of etc… The next part in the parts of speech is To know more about Prepositions 7.Conjunction: A conjunction is word used to join words or sentences. Examples: • Ram is a student. John is a student. Ram and John are students. Here the word “and” is used to join the two words Ram & John. So the word “and” is a conjunction. • I ran fast, but missed the train. The word “but” is a conjunction. Few other conjunctions are or, either…or, not only, so that, still, else, since, so, after etc… To know more about Conjunctions 8.Interjection: An interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feelings. Examples: • Hurrah! I have own the game. • Alas! She is dead. In these sentences, the words “hurrah” and “alas” are used to express the sudden feelings of those who use these sentences.

These are the only eight parts of speech.We have seen these parts of speeches only briefly.

Subject Object Predicate Subject Object Predicate is the combination of three words which form any sentence. SUBJECT: Subject is the person or a thing who or which carries out the action of the verb. Examples: • Mr. Clinton is teaching Algebra to the students. • Monkeys are playing around in the garden. In the first sentence, the action is “teaching”. That action is carried out by Mr. Clinton. So, “Mr. Clinton” is the subject of the verb. In the second sentence, the action is “playing”. That action is carried out by the monkeys. So, “The monkeys” is the subject of the verb. The subject of sentence may be a simple noun or a simple pronoun as in the following sentences. Examples: 1. Oxygen is essential for life on earth. 2. John F. Kennedy was elected as US President in 1960. 3. Honesty is the best policy. 4. Horses are majestic animals. 5. When students travel to US, they usually go by air. The subject may be also noun-phrase as in the following cases. Examples: 1. The Earth revolves around the sun. 2. Borrowed-garments never fit well. 3. All matter is destructible. 4. No man can serve two masters. 5. The greatest similarity between India and China is that they both have huge population. The subject may also be an infinitive or an infinitive phrase as in the following sentences.

Examples: 1. To err is human, but to forgive is divine. 2. To retreat was difficult; to advance was impossible. 3. To seek admission in a US college is the purpose with which I take TOEFL. 4. To bribe a public servant is a penal offence. 5. To score high marks in this examination means to have bright future. The subject may be gerund or a gerund phrase as in the following sentences.Examples: 1. Reading French is easier that speaking it. 2. Looking after children requires patience. 3. Hunting of tigers was a favorite sport of Indian Kings. 4. Bribing of public servant is a penal offence. 5. Scoring high marks in this examination is not as easy as you think of. The subject may be a full subordinate clause as in the following cases. Examples: 1. How he reached home after the accidents was mystery to himself. 2. Why the people voted against the ruling party can be easily explained .3. What the minister spoke was not audible because of the failure of the microphone. 4. Where the prisoners went after escaping from jail was not known to the police. 5. How he scored high marks is open secret.

A sentence may also have “it” as the subject as in the following sentences. Examples: 1. It was raining heavily when I reached home. 2. It was in 1970 that man first landed on moon. 3. It is possible that scientists will one day release the energy that is stored in water. 4. It was already dark when they started studying. 5. It is not he who came here as invigilator.

OBJECT: The object is the person or a thing upon whom or upon which the action of the verb is carried out. Examples: • Monkeys are destroying the garden. In this sentence the action is “destroying”. That action is carried by the monkeys. But the action (destroying)is carried upon the garden. So “Monkeys” is theSUBJECT and “GARDEN” is the object of the verb. • Mr. Clinton is teaching Algebra to the students. In this sentence, the action is “teaching”. That action is carried out by Mr. Clinton. That action is carried upon „Algebra‟. So “Mr. Clinton” is the SUBJECT of the verb whereas “algebra” is the OBJECT of the verb. The word “The students” is the INDIRECT OBJECT of this sentence. PREDICATE: The predicate in a sentence is what tells about what a person or a thing does or did or what happened to a person or to a thing? The predicate must (1) agree in number with subject, (2) have the correct tense and (3) be in the proper voice {active or passive}. Examples: • Monkeys are destroying the garden. In the above sentence, the word “monkeys” is subject. Whereas the phrase “are destroying” is the predicate.And the word “the garden” is the object. • Mr. Clinton is teaching Algebra to the students In the above sentence, the word “Mr. Clinton” is the subject. The phrase “is teaching” is the predicate. The words “Algebra & The students” are objects. Words (or participles) such as “coming”, “eating”, can not form full predicates of a sentence. Similarly, Phrases (or infinitives) such as “to come”, “to eat” also can not form full predicates of a sentence. Phrases involving participles and infinitives with auxiliary verbs such as “will to come”, “will to go”, “may expecting”, “must starting” etc… can not form the predicates of the sentence.

Grammar : Verb and Subject

Verb and Subject should agree with each other. The verb in every sentence must agree with the subject in person and in number. Let us see how the subjects modify the verbs. 1. When two or more subjects are connected by “and”, the verb is plural. Examples: • He and I are good friends. • Oxygen and Hydrogen combine to produce water. • Peter, Raja and Harry are classmates. In these sentences, you can see how perfectly "Verb and Subject" agree with each other. 2. If two singular nouns refer to the same person, the verb must be singular. Examples: • The poet and novelist is dead. (That means that the same person is a poet and a novelist) • The secretary and cashier was present. (That means the same person was a secretary and cashier) Note: To find out whether the two words refer to the same person or two different persons, look at the article or possessive adjective. If there are two articles or possessives, there are two different persons. In that case, the verb must be in plural. 3. If two singular subjects express one idea then the verb may be singular. (Plural verb also permitted) Examples: • Slow and steady wins the race. • The long and short of the problem is this. • The horse and carriage is waiting. 4. If we get the word “each” and “every” before singular subjects, the verb is singular. Examples: • Every member was ready to speak. • Each day and each hour has its work to be done. • Every man, woman and child has to be looked after. In these sentences, you can see how perfectly "Verb and Subject" agree with each other.

5. Two or more singular subjects connected by or,nor, either…or, neither…nor take singular verb. Examples: • His gather or he is expected here. • Either he or his brother might have done this. • Neither he nor they were present. • Neither they nor he was present. • Neither laziness nor dishonest is going to help you. 6. When the subjects, connected by or, nor, either…or, neither…nor, are of different numbers. The verb must be plural and the plural subject must be put just before the verb. Examples: • Mr. Gobi or his brothers have to do this. • Neither the boy nor his parents were present. • Either the principal or the Professors might have the decision. • Neither the head clerk nor the assistant clerks have taken the matter to the manager. In these sentences, you can see how perfectly "Verb and Subject" agree with each other. 7. When the subjects connected by or, nor, either…or, neither…nor are of different persons. The verb agrees in person with the subject that comes just before it. Examples: • He or I have to be there. • I or he has to be there. (Between this sentence and the above sentence, the above sentence is preferable) • Either he or you are mistaken. • Neither you nor I am to be blamed. 8. When subjects which are different in person or number or both are connected by „and‟, the verb is plural. Examples: • He and I are friends.

• You and I are responsible for this. • My father and I work in the same office. • He and his friends have come. • You and he are class-mates. In these sentences, you can see how perfectly Verb and Subject agree with each other. 9. For a collective noun, usually a singular verb is used, but when the individuals in the group are taken into consideration, a plural verb is used. Examples: • The committee meets tomorrow. • The committee was divided in its views. • There is a large number of boys in this group. • A number of boys have given their names to participate in this competition. • The crew of ship was efficient. • The crew were arrested. 10. Few nouns which are plural in forms but singular in meaning take singular verb. Examples: • The news was false. • Mathematics is an interesting subject. • The wages of sin is death. In all the sentences given above, you can see how perfectly Verb and Subject agree with each other.

Grammar : Noun-Types In this lesson we are going to see only Noun-Types. Other parts will be dealt with in the following lessons. What is NOUN? A Noun is a word used as a name of a person, place, thing, state, quality, activity, action etc... Examples:

• Mr. John is our English teacher. In this sentence the words Mr. John and teacher are Nouns. • Harvard University is the oldest University. In this sentence the words Harvard and University are Nouns. • Lions live in forest. In this sentence the words Lion and forest are Nouns. • He is my best friend. In this sentence, the words He and friend are Nouns. London, New Delhi, Himalaya, philosophy, beauty, car, road, Management, science, school, students, books, Mrs. Raman, tree, mango, fruits; flowers are few of the Nouns. Nouns can be classified into four Noun-Types. The Noun-Types are: i. Proper noun: A proper noun is the name given to a particular person. Mr.Peter, Hemingway, Kennedy, London, Italy, Mango and California are Proper Nouns. Examples: • Italy is a developed country. In this sentence, Italy is a Proper Noun. • Mr. Clinton is good administrator. In this sentence, Mr. Clinton is a proper noun. • Ford is a car producing company. In this sentence, the word Ford is a proper noun. ii. Common noun: A common noun is a name given in common to persons and things belonging to the same species. Examples: • Italy is a developed country. In this sentence, Italy is a proper noun. • A developed country has more responsibilities. In this sentence the word country is a common noun which could be used for other countries like India, England, Germany, Brazil etc…

Man, woman, city, fruit, tree, river, book, hotel, country, mountain are common nouns which we use in our day-to-day lives. Another type in Noun-Types is Common Noun. iii. Collective noun: A collective noun is the name given to a collection or group of persons or things taken as a single group or entity. Examples: • A herd of cows is crossing the road. • A fleet of ships is sailing deep along the western coast. • Army is called to rescue the boy caught in the flood. In these sentences the words herd, fleet and army are collective nouns. Herd means a group of cattle. Fleet means a group of ships. Few other collective nouns are police, gang, galaxy, family, team etc… iv. Abstract noun: An abstract noun is the name given to a quality or action or state which we can understand but we can not touch and see. Examples: • Kindness is expected of everyone. • Laughter heals many deceases. • Sleep regenerates our energy-system. • Music is a product of harmony. In these sentences, the words kindness, laughter, sleep and “music” are abstract nouns which we could only understand but could not see or touch. Other abstract nouns are quality, goodness, beauty, mercy, youth, movement, slowness, length, humility, truth, depth, wisdom, pride, sanity, vacancy, novelty, justness, justice, height, life, excellence, occupation, action, seizure, defense, hatred,

protection, choice, flattery, death, service, thought, advice, obedience, vanity, bravery, strength, cruelty, freedom etc… We believe that You have clearly understood the Noun-Types and their usages.It is better for you to spend some more time on this section Noun-Types so as to become a better qualified person to move on. Other sections on Nouns are here.

Grammar Noun-Gender The Noun-Gender tells us about the sex of the noun. In Grammar-Nouns, there are FOUR GENDERS. 1. Masculine gender: A noun is said to be in the Masculine gender if it refers to a male character or member of a species. Man, lion, hero, boy, king, horse and actor are nouns of masculine gender. Example: • A boy is playing in the play-ground. • Hero of the movie is not a native of this country. In these sentences the words “boy” and “hero” are masculine-gender nouns. The next in the Noun-Gender is feminine gender. 2. Feminine gender: A noun is said to be in the feminine gender if it refers to a female member of a species. Woman, lioness, heroine, girl, mare, niece, empress, cow and actress are few of the feminine-gender nouns that we use. Example: • A girl is playing in the play-ground. • Heroine of the movie is not a native of this country. In these sentences the words “girl” and “heroine” are feminine-gender nouns. The next in the Noun-Gender is common gender. 3. Common gender:

A noun is said to be in Common gender if it refers to a member of species which can be a male or a female. Child, student, friend, applicant, candidate, servant, member, parliamentarian and leader are few of the common-gender nouns. Example: • A child is playing in the play-ground. • A Parliamentarian should have command over his language. In these sentences the words, “child” and “parliamentarian” are nouns of commongender. The next in the Noun-Gender is neuter gender. 4. Neuter gender: A noun is said to be in the neuter gender if it refers to a member of a species which is neither a male nor a female. Normally nouns referring to lifeless objects are in neuter nouns. Chair, table, tree, star, mountain, street, book, car, school, paper, pencil and computer are few of the neuter nouns which We use regularly. Example: • • • •

Computer has brought about drastic changes in our lives. Tree is cleansing the air. Stars are not visible in the day-time. Books are our best friends.

In these sentences the words, “computer”, “tree”, “stars” and “books” are the neutergender nouns.

NOTE: a. Collective nouns, even if they refer to living-beings, are used as neuter-nouns. Example: i. The army is doing its task. ii. The police are called to manage the situation. In these sentences the nouns (army and police) refer to only living-beings. But they are used only as neuter-nouns. b.Objects noted for their power, strength, and violence are used as Masculine gender nouns.

The sun, summer, time, death etc… are masculine-gender nouns. Example: i. The sun is so scorching now that we can not go out now to face him without an umbrella. ii. The death is cruel. He is as certain as tomorrow. In these sentences the words “sun” and “death” have been used as Masculine-gender nouns. c. Objects noted for their beauty, gentleness and grace are used as feminine-gender nouns. The moon, the earth, spring, charity etc… are feminine-gender nouns. Example: i. The moon is so bright at this time that she induces romantic mood in us. ii. The earth is patient. Her beauty is spoiled day-by-day. The masculine-genders and their respective feminine-genders have been given below for your reference. Masculine genders-----Feminine genders 1. Bachelor----- Spinster 2. Bachelor----- Maid 3. Bullock----- Heifer 4. Dog----- Bitch 5. Drone------ Bee 6. Horse----- Mare 7. Nephew----- Niece 8. Jew----- Jewess 9. Wizard----- Witch 10. Heir----- Heiress 11. Manager----- Manageress 12. Poet----- Poetess 13. Shepherd----- Shepherdess 14. Benefactor----- Benefactress

15. Hunter----- Huntress 16. Negro----- Negress 17. Emperor----- Empress 18. Traitor----- Traitress 19. Prince----- Princess 20. Lion----- Lioness 21. Bull----- Cow 22. Ox----- Cow 23. Mayor----- Mayoress 24. Tiger----- Tigress 25. Actor----- Actress 26. Host----- Hostress 27. Uncle----- Aunt 28. Monk----- Nun 29. Gentleman----- Lady 30. Duck----- Duchess

Grammar : Noun-Cases NOUN-CASES is another topic which comes under NOUN. The CASE of a noun tells us about the position of that noun in a sentence. In English there are FIVE CASES. They are: • • • • •

Nominative case Objective case (or Accusative case) Dative case Possessive case (or Genitive case) Vocative case

All these five Cases have been explained in detail below. Are you going as you wish in the process of learning Grammar? Take a breath. This section of Noun-Cases will simplify your process. 1. Nominative case:

A noun is said to be in the Nominative case if it is the subject of a verb. (SUBJECT is the person or the thing who or which carries out the action of the verb in the sentence) Examples: • Mr. Ram is an intelligent boy. Mr. Ram is a proper noun in Nominative case. • The painter paints the portraits. The painter is a common noun in Nominative case. • I am buying vegetables for my family. “I” is a pronoun in Nominative case. These examples carry another term "pronoun" which is a word used to represent a noun. For example: I, We, You, He, She, it and they are the seven pronouns. There are only seven pronouns. Only other variations of these seven pronouns are there. Those variations can be used in place of the nouns. The next one in the Noun-cases is: 2. Objective case (or Accusative case): Nouns or pronouns are said to be in Objective cases if they are the direct objects of verbs or if they are the objects of preposition. (Direct object is the person or the thing upon whom or upon which the action of the verb is carried out). Examples: • I met your sister. “Your sister” is in objective case. • The vendors sell mangoes. “Mangoes” is in objective case. • The book is on the table. “Table” is in objective case. It is object of the preposition „on‟. • This is one of my policies. “Policies” is in objective case. It is object of the preposition „of‟. The next one in the Noun-cases is: 3. Dative case:

A noun is said to be in dative case if it is the Indirect object of the verb. (Indirect object of the verb is the noun for whom or for which the action of the verb is carried out). There should not be a preposition before the indirect object because in that case it will be the object of that preposition. Examples: • The teacher gave the students few exercises. “Students” is in dative case. It is the indirect object of the verb „give‟. • The Postman brought me a letter. “Me” is in dative case. • Get him a pen. “Him” is in dative case. The next one in the Noun-cases is: 4. Possessive case (Genitive case): A noun is said to be in possessive case, if it denotes possession or ownership. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case is governed by the noun that follows it. Examples: • This is your pencil. (“Your” is in possessive case. • It is our idea. “Our” is in possessive case. • John‟s sister has been hospitalized. “John‟s” is in possessive case. The last one in the Noun-cases is: 5. Vocative case: A noun or a pronoun is said to be in Vocative case if it is used to call (or to get the attention of) a person or persons. Examples: • Mr. Bill, students are waiting for you in the main hall. “Mr. Bill” is in vocative case. • You there, stand up. “You” is in vocative case. • Brother, a letter for you. “Brother” is in vocative case.

• Chairman, all the letters are posted two days ago. “Chairman” is in vocative case. The nouns do not change their forms in the Nominative and Objective cases. But few pronouns change their formsbetween Nominative and Objective cases. Nominative case ________Objective case_________ Possessive case 1. I __________________ me__________________ my 2. We_________________us____________________our 3. You________________ You___________________your 4. He_________________ him____________________his 5. She_________________her_____________________her 6. It___________________it_______________________its 7. They_________________them______________________their How do you feel about this Noun-Cases? Other section, waiting for you, will also be as simple as this section of Noun-Cases.

Grammar : Noun-Number There are two numbers in Noun-Number: Singular and Plural. 1. Singular: When we speak about one person and one thing, we use the noun in singular form. Single means one. Plural means many. Examples: a. A man is smoking within the premises. b. A group of cows is called Herd. c. Joy is what we want in our lives. d. Church is the worshipping-place of Christians. e. This chair is made of plastic. In these sentences, the nouns man, group, joy, church and chair are in singular forms.

Joy, run, wife, knife, army, hero, ox, life, loaf, baby, city and tooth are few singularnouns which we use. We have seen the singular form of Noun-Number. The Noun has various dimention in its usages. The same Noun can be used in different manner in different contexts. Let us go to the next form of Noun-Number. 2. Plural: When we speak about more than one person and one thing, we use the noun in plural form. Examples: a. Few men are standing in the foyer. b. The groups of cows, coming back to their sheds, are not milch cows. c. These chairs are made of plastic. d. Children should be given proper guidance. e. Keep the knives in a safe place. In these sentences, the words men, groups, chairs, Children and knives are pluralnouns. Joys, runs, wives, knives, armies, heroes, oxen, lives, loaves, babies, cities and teeth are few singular-nouns which we use. How to form plural from singular? 1. By suffixing s to the singular-noun. Examples: • Joy-joys • Run-runs • Chair-chairs • Radio-radios • Canto-cantos • Momento-momentos • Dynamo-dynamos • Piano-pianos 2. By suffixing es to the singular-noun Examples:

• Glass-glasses • Bench-benches • Bush-bushes • Church-churches • Watch-watches • Buffalo-buffaloes • Negro-negroes • Hero-heroes • Echo-echoes • Mango-mangoes • Potato-potatoes Noun-Number is another part under Noun. 3. By changing the last letter y into ies. Examples: • Baby-babies • Lady-ladies • Story-stories • City-cities • Army-armies 4. By changing the inside vowel of the singular. Examples: • Man-men • Woman-women • Foot-feet • Tooth-teeth • Goose-geese 5. By suffixing en to the singular.

Examples: • Ox-oxen • Child-children 6. By changing f or fe into ves. Examples: • Thief-thieves • Life-lives • Wife-wives • Calf-calves • Knife-knives • Wolf-wolves • Leaf-leaves • Shelf-shelves Exceptions: • Chief-chiefs • Roof-roofs • Gulf-gulfs • Safe-safes • Proof-proofs • Hoof-hoofs

7. Singular-nouns from foreign languages retain their original plural. Examples: • Erratum-errata • Index-indices • Radius-radii

• Formula-formulae (or formulas) • Axis-axes • Basis-bases • Criterion-criteria • Memorandum-memoranda • Terminus-termini (or terminuses) • Hypothesis-hypotheses • Cherub-cherubim (or cherubs) • Parenthesis-parentheses 8. By suffixing s to the main word in a compound word. Examples: • Commander-in-chief……..commanders-in-chief • Son-in-law………………sons-in-law • Step-son…………………step-sons • Maid-servant…………….maid-servants • Passer-by………………..passers-by • Man-servant……………..men-servant • Man-servant……………..man-servants 9. Special cases. a. Few nouns which end in s are used in singular form. Examples: News, Mathematics, Physics, politics, innings etc… b. Few collective nouns, though they are in singular forms, are used in plural forms. Examples: Poultry, Cattle, People, gentry etc…

c. Few nouns have the same forms both in singular and plural forms. Examples: Sheep, deer, swine, cod etc… d. Few nouns are used only in the plural forms. Examples: Trousers, scissors, spectacles, drawers, thanks, billiards, draughts, annals, tidings etc… e. Few nouns have two different forms in plural. But the two forms have differentmeanings. Examples: • Brother………….Brothers (sons of same parents) Brethren (members of a society) • Cloth………….....Cloths (pieces of cloth) Clothes (items of cloth) • Fish………………Fish (more than one of same variety)Fishes (of different varieties) • Genius……………Geniuses (persons of great talent)Genii (spirits) • Index……………..Indexes (tables of contents)Indices (signs used in algebra) 10.Few nouns have different meanings in the singular and in the plural: Examples: • Advice (counsel)………….advices (information) • Air (atmosphere)………….airs (artificial manners) • Good (morally correct)……goods (merchandise) • Force (strength)…………...forces (troops) • Physic (medicine)………….physics (a branch of science) • Wood (portion of tree)……woods (a grove of trees) 11.Few nouns have one meaning in singular but two or more meanings in plural. Examples: Custom (habit)…………………………customs (habits & taxes collected on imports

Quarter (one fourth & a direction)………quarters (fourth parts, living places & directions) Effect (result)…………………………...effects (results & property) 12.Letters, numbers and other symbols form their plural by adding an apostrophe ands. Examples: • Write your i‟s and l‟s clearly. • Add two 8‟s and six 4‟s. These are various kinds of Noun-Number. That means a Noun can be classiffied by the number of units that the Noun denotes.

Grammar : Noun-Functions A noun or a pronoun can perform five functions. Those five noun-functions are: 1.It can be THE SUBJECT of a verb. Examples: • Mr. Ram leads the team. “Mr. Ram” is the subject of the verb „leads‟. • He is writing. “He” is the subject of the verb „is writing‟. • The monkeys destroyed the garden. “The monkeys” is the subject of the verb „destroyed‟. • The children are playing joyfully. “The children” is the subject of the verb „are playing‟. The second one in Noun-functions is: 2. A noun or a pronoun can be THE DIRECT or INDIRECT OBJECT of a verb. Examples: • I took the book. “Book” is the direct object of the verb „took‟. • The Government will take the decision.

“The decision” is the direct object of the verb „will take‟. • A herd of elephants is crossing the river. “The river” is the object of the verb „is crossing‟. • He gave me the news. “Me” is the direct object and “news” is the indirect object of the verb „gave‟. The third one in Noun-functions is: 3. A noun or a pronoun can be THE OBJECT OF PREPOSITION. Examples: • I saw him in his office. “Office” is the object of preposition „in‟. • The girl returns from school. “School” is the object of prepositin „from‟. • The meeting will be held at short notice. “Notice” is the object of preposition „at‟. • The children are shouting at the stray dogs. “Dogs” is the object of preposition „at‟. The fourth one in Noun-functions is:

4. A noun or a pronoun can be DESCRIPTIVE OF ANOTHER NOUN OR A PRONOUN. That means that the noun can be in apposition with another noun. The word “apposition” means “placed side by side” Or “placed parallel to” Examples:

• I, the president of this association, will take the decision. “The President” is in apposition with „I‟. • Mr. Ram, the captain, scored only fifty points. “The captain” is in apposition with „Mr. Ram‟. • You, the eldest son of your parents, should assume all the responsibilities ofyour family. “Son” is in apposition with „You‟. • Everest, the highest peak in the world, is 29000 feet high.

“Peak” is in apposition with „Everest'. • One of the most of US Presidents, Abraham Lincoln was known for his ready wit. “One of the most famous of US Presidents” is said to be used in apposition with the subject of the sentence “Abraham Lincoln”. • Mahatma Gandhi, father of the Indian nation, led a non-violent struggle to attain independence from the British. “Father of the Indian nation” is in apposition with “Mahatma Gandhi”. Examples: 1. The House of Commons, The Mother of Parliamentarians, has been the scene of many scintillating debates between leading orators. 2. The greatest playwright of all times, William Shakespeare wrote not only plays but also sonnets and other poems. Examples: 1. The office is closed. Here, the noun “office” is used as the subject. 2. My friend is the manager of this company. Here the noun “manager” is used as the object. 3. Pickwick-papers, a novel, was written by Charles Dickens. Here the noun “novel” has been used in apposition With Pickwick-papers. 4. Mr. K.R.Narayanan, the ex-president of India, is a fine gentleman. The noun-phrase “the ex-president of India has been used in apposition with Mr. K.R.Narayanan. 5. I met your friend yesterday. The noun “your friend” has been used as “object” of the verb “met”.

Grammar : Pronoun

A pronoun is a word that is used to represent a noun. Pronoun means for-a-noun. Example-1: • Ramu is not a member of this organization. In this sentence the word Ramu is the name of a person. So Ramu is a noun. When we

write about the same person in the following sentence, we use the wordHe. • So, he could not attend the meeting meant only for the members. In this sentence the word he represents Ramu. He is a pronoun. Example-2: Sri Lanka is a big island. It has many tourist-attractions. In these sentences, Sri Lanka is a noun. It is a pronoun. Example-3: • I do not know why he did not continue his studies. It is a mystery for many of us. In these sentences, the phrase why he did not continue his studies is noun but in phrase form. It is a pronoun. Example-4: Oxygen is essential for life on earth. It is a purifying element. • In these sentences, the word oxygen is a noun. The word it is pronoun. There are seven types of pronouns. They are: 1. Personal 2. Reflexive 3. Demonstrative 4. Indefinite 5. Distributive 6. Relative 7. Interrogative Let us see one by one. 1. Personal : There are only seven personal pronouns. They are He, She, It, They, You, We and I. Here we use the word you to indicate both the singular and plural forms. Here we use the pronoun they to indicate the plural form of both neuter gender and masculine or feminine gender.

SINGULAR PRONOUNS: I, He, She, It and You. PLURAL PRONOUNS: We, They and You. Examples: • Mr. Gandhi, why not you seek his help? Here the word you is used to indicate only Mr. Gandhi (singular). See another sentence. • Students, you have to be assembled at the Lawtey hall by 11pm. Here the word you has been used to indicate the students (plural). Examples: • Mr. Clinton is the Chairman of this company. He has gone to Paris to attend a meeting. Here, Mr. Clinton is noun and he is pronoun. • Mrs. Clinton is the author of the book Why not you?. She has been nominated to the Nobel Prize for her book. Here Mrs. Clinton is noun whereas the word she is pronoun. • This University was founded in 1907. Then it had only 75 students. Here the University is noun whereas it is pronoun. • The students of this university participated in the foot-ball competition. They have won the competition. Here, the students of this university is noun whereas They is pronoun. • Mr. John, why can not you take more training in this field? Here Mr. John is noun whereas you is pronoun. • We, the natives of England, will support you for your humanitarian approach. Here, the natives of England, is noun whereas we is pronoun. • I, the father of the child, will attend the parents-meet scheduled to be held on 13th of this month. Here the father of this child is noun whereas I is pronoun. The pronoun it is used to indicate only the neuter gender.

Tree, lion, river, sky, book, car, computer and language can be denoted by the pronoun it. Al these seven Personal Pronouns as such are called Nominative forms ofPersonal Pronouns. All these seven Personal Pronouns have their own Possessive forms of Personal Pronouns. Mine( I ), ours(we), his(he), hers(she), its(it), yours(you) and theirs(they). Examples: • This book is not mine. • That house of hers is beautiful. • That is the college of ours. • This book is his. All these seven Personal Pronouns have their own Accusative forms of Personal Pronouns. Me( I ), us(we), you(you), him(he), her(she), it(it) and them(they). Examples: • He gave a book to me. • The presents are meant for you and her. • The Dean warned all of them. • He gave us his house to stay for ten days as he went to Tokyo. I, we, you, he, she, it and they are the seven personal pronouns. Because, they stand for the three-persons. i. The person speaking ii. The person spoken to iii. The person spoken of The pronouns I and we, which denote the person or persons speaking, are said to be Personal Pronouns of the FIRST PERSON. The pronoun you, which denotes the person or persons spoken to, is said to be a Personal Pronoun of SECOND PERSON. YOU is used both in the singular and in the plural. The pronouns, he, she, it, and they which denotes the person or persons spoken of, are said to be Personal Pronouns of THIRD PERSON.. The following are the different forms of the personal pronouns.

A.FIRST PERSON: I and We are First Persons. Nominative forms: • I will come to your house today evening. • We will do our best to get the job. Possessive forms: • That book is mine. • That University is ours. Accusative forms: • He gave me a five-rupee note. • He called on us. B.SECOND PERSON: You is the only SECOND PERSON. Nominative Form: • You are our best friend. • You are welcome. Possessive form: • That suitcase in brown cover is yours. Accusative form: • We gave you your room-key. C. THIRD PERSON: He, She, They and It are THIRD PERSONS. Nominative forms: • • • •

He is a student of this University. She is learning French. They are from Japan. It is my home-town.

Possessive forms: • • • •

That book That book That book Japan is a

is his. is hers. is ours. workaholic country. The growth that it has attained is its.

Accusative forms: • • • •

They gave him an award. They praised her for her splendid performance. People voted us to power. We thanked them. A cow is giving us ten liters of milk a day. We feed it properly.

These are the only seven pronouns. The pronouns that you are going to see under other different-types of Pronouns as mentioned below are various forms of these seven pronouns only. 2. Reflexive (or Emphatic pronouns): The pronouns which are used to reflect upon the person or persons or thing or things which the pronouns represent are called reflexive pronouns. Himself, herself, itself, themselves, yourself, yourselves, ourselves and myself are the reflexive pronouns. Examples: • Mr. John himself called on us two days back. • Mrs. Clinton herself came forward to contest the election to the post of Presidency of this association. • Students themselves went out of the class-room in protest against the increases in the admission fees. • You yourself can not cut you hair. • You yourselves can organize a meeting to seek the opinions of all the students. • We ourselves will come to your seeking your support. • I motivated myself. The singular form of the pronoun you has its reflexive form yourself. The plural form of the pronoun you has its reflexive form yourselves. 3. Demonstrative : This, that, those, and these are the demonstrative pronouns. Examples: • I want only this book. • Those incidents changed his mind drastically. • These people are not qualified to attend the training program. • That train is not the one for which we are waiting. 4. Indefinite :

These pronouns refer to persons or things in general. One, many, all, some, somebody, someone, few, many, others, nobody, everybody etc… are the indefinite pronouns. Examples: • Somebody crossed the road. • Nobody came forward to assume responsibilities. • Few candidates did not attend the interview. • All are welcome. • One has to be wise enough to live peacefully. • Anybody can do that. In these sentences the indefinite forms have been used only in general. Those forms do not represent anybody in particular. 5. Distributive : The pronouns which are used to indicate all the members of the representative group are called distributive forms. Each, everyone, either and neither are the distributive forms. Examples: • Each one of you will be given a chance. • Everyone, present here, should take their dinner. • Either of you can take the matter to the chairman. • Neither of you is qualified to attend the final. 6. Relative : The pronouns which are used as conjunctions are called relative pronouns. Who, what, that, which and where are relative pronouns. Examples: • The pronouns which are used as conjunctions are called relative pronouns. In this sentence, the word which has been used to represent those pronouns used as conjunctions. That which is in relative form. • The University which gave me admission is a very good University.

• Mr. Kobe who is a native of London is not the owner of this car. • What you did is my problem. • A grove of trees that is at the outskirts of the city is for sales. 7. Interrogative : The interrogative forms of the pronouns are used here. Whom, which, whose, what and that are interrogative pronouns. Examples: • Mr. Kodak whom we are searching for is a native of Japan. • Mrs. Goosd whose son is studying in Harvard has been hospitalized.

Grammar : Verbs

Verbs are the word denoting actions or states. Examples: • Mr. Hales takes the class today morning. What does Mr. Hales do today morning? He takes the class. The action he is doing is “taking” the class. So the action is denoted by the word “takes”. In that case that word “takes” is the verb. • The Students write their examination in the Lawtey hall. Here, the word “write” is the verb. • The university disqualified him. Here, the word “disqualified” is the verb. • His friends refused to support him when he was in critical moments. Here, the word “refused” is the verb. The verbs can be classified in different methods. There are four types of verbs.

1. Transitive verbs. A transitive verb is the verb which takes an object. 2. Intransitive verb. An intransitive verb is a verb which does not take an object. 3. Auxiliary verb: A verb which helps another verb to form its tense, voice or mood is called an Auxiliary verb. 4. Modal verbs: The following verbs are called Modal verbs:. Shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, must, ought and dare are called modal verbs. Let us see them individually. 1. Transitive verbs: Examples: • Mr. Hales takes the class today morning. By this sentence, Mr. Hales takes the class. Here……… The word “Mr. Hales” is the noun. The word “the class” is the object. The word “takes” is the verb. Only when all the three words are there, the whole sentence becomes complete and meaningful. In case the object word is not there, the sentence “Mr. Hales takes” conveys no meaning and the sentence does not become complete. In that case “what does Mr. Hales take?” is not clear. So only when the verb “takes” gets an object, the meaning behind the verb “takes” becomes complete. That means the verb “takes” needs an object to make itself complete. Such a verb which needs an object is called transitive verb.

That means the action of the verb is transmitted to another noun or another thing. • They brought the suitcase two days back. Here the verb “brought” (bring) needs an object to become meaningful. What was brought? The suitcase was brought by them. So the verb “bring” (brought) is a transitive verb. • • • • • • •

My father has written a book which may interest you. We are crossing the river by a boat. The child is reading English poems clearly. An uncivilized man killed John Kennedy. She created this structure for our proposed-house. My teacher gave me a pen before I entered the exam-hall. They sell their properties.

In all the seven sentences given above, the respective verbs “write”, “cross”, “read”, “kill”, “create”,“give” and “sell” need their respective objects to make the sentences meaningful. So, all these verbs are transitive verbs. Few other “Transitive verbs” are: build, carry, begin, bear, eat, choose, eat, find, forget, feed, drink, deal, cling, give, grind, have, hold, make, ride, lend, know, learn, win, steal, weave, shut, spread etc… 2. Intransitive verbs. As stated above, an intransitive verb is the verb that does not take an object. Examples: • He laughed loudly. In this sentence, the verb “laughed” does not need an object to complete the sentence. So the verb “laugh” is an intransitive verb. • I daily wake up at 5am. Here the verb “wake” does not need an object for completing itself. So the verb “wake” is an intransitive verb. • The ball fell down.

The verb “fell” (fall) is an intransitive verb. • They are sitting on their cars. The verb “sitting” (sit) is an intransitive verb. • The river is winding through the forest. Here the verb “winding” (wind) is an intransitive verb. Few verbs go, fall, die, sleep etc are exclusively intransitive. Few more “Intransitive verbs” are: swim, stand, sit, sink, smite, shine, run, rise, lie, leave, kneel, grow etc… Notes: 1. Many Transitive verbs can be used as Intransitive verbs as well. Examples: a. They fought their enemies. (Transitive verb). They fought fiercely. (Intransitive verb). b. He spoke the truth. (Transitive verb). He spoke to me. (Intransitive verb). c. The peon rings the bell. (Transitive verb). The bell rings continuously. (Intransitive verb). d. He walks. (Transitive verb). The hostler walks the horse. (Intransitive verb). e. Birds fly in the air. (Transitive verb). The observatory flies balloon to study weather. (Intransitive verb). f. The bulb broke. (Transitive verb). The students broke the glass. (Intransitive verb). Another type of verb is called “Auxiliary verb”. 3. Auxiliary verb: A verb which helps another verb to form its tense, voice or mood is called an Auxiliary verb. Have, be(am,are,was and were) and do are usually used as auxiliary verbs, they can be used as Main verbs as well.

Examples: • I have few urgent works. (Main) They have done very well in the examinations. (Auxiliary) • God is in Heaven. (Main) He is liked by all. (Auxiliary) • The man does his work quietly. (Main) Did he come here? (Main) 4. Modal verbs: The following verbs are called Modal verbs. Shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, must, ought and dare are called modal verbs. SHALL: When “shall” is used in the second or third person, it has the force of a command, a promise, a thread, determination, certainty… i. You shall not go out without my permission. ii. He shall get my help. iii. She shall be punished for his mistake. iv. He shall apologize for his behavior. v. No man shall take this way. WILL: When “will” is used in the first person, it can express (in addition to the future tense) willingness, a promise, a threat, determination… i. I will help you. ii. I will be there in your wedding. iii. I will not allow him to go. iv. I will not miss this opportunity. MAY: “May” has the force of possibility and permission. In the past tense “might” is used.

i. He may come here. ii. You may go now. iii. I believed that he might be honest. CAN: “Can” has the force of ability and permission. i. He can do this work easily. ii. She can go home. iii. Everyone can learn this subject. MUST: “Must” has the force of compulsion, necessity, determination, duty, certainty of belief, inevitability… i. Everybody must attend this function. ii. I must go urgently. iii. I must have full freedom. iv. A minister must be honest. v. She must be made to talk like this. vi. This building must be demolished in near future. OUGHT: “Ought” indicated duty or moral obligation. i. You ought to be careful. ii. As the secretary I ought to have attended that meeting. This verb “ought” must be followed by “to”. DARE: “Dare” conveys the force of challenge or the courage to do a thing. i. He dare not oppose me. ii. The prime Minister dared the opposition to prove the charge. NEED: “Need” has the force of necessity or obligation.

When this verb “need” is used to mean obligation in the negative or interrogative form, „s‟ is not added to need in the third person singular(present tense). i. She need not come here. ii. It need not be white in the Shirt. iii. He need not have educational qualifications. For you attention please: The list of verbs is long one. Every sentence will have a noun and a verb(predicate as well). For your kind attention, few verbs have been given below. 1. arise 2. bear 3. beat 4. behold 5. bid 6. bite 7. blow 8. break 9. begin 10. become 11. bind 12. bleed 13. build 14. burn 15. carry 16. catch 17. cling 18. come 19. deal

20. creep 21. do 22. draw 23. drink 24. eat 25. fall 26. feed 27. feel 28. fight 29. find 30. fling 31. flee 32. forbid 33. forget 34. forsake 35. freeze 36. get 37. give 38. grind 39. have 40. hold 41. kneel 42. know 43. lay 44. lead 45. learn 46. leave 47. lend 48. lie

49. loose 50. make 51. mean 52. meet 53. pay 54. read 55. rid 56. ride 57. ring 58. run 59. rise 60. see 61. set 62. shoot 63. sling 64. slit 65. speak 66. slay 67. shake 68. shed 69. slide 70. spin 71. split 72. spring 73. stand 74. wed 75. write

Grammar : The Verb Be

The Verb Be is a very important but peculiar verb in English. The Verb Be can be used as a main verb as well as an “auxiliary verb. Examples: • I am in London. In this sentence, the verb “am” has been used as a main verb. • I am a qualified candidate. In this sentence, the verb 'am' has been used as an auxiliart verb.Whereas the main verb is “qualify”. It has other forms when it is used as an indicator of tense of the verb. They are: Is, was, am, are and were. Examples: • He is a teacher. (main verb) • He was sent out of the meeting hall for his ill-behaviors. ( was” is auxiliary verb and the main verb is “send”) The Verb Be is a very important but peculiar verb in English. It takes the followingforms in the Principal forms. Present tense …………………….Past tense………………..Past Participle Be................................................................Been Am.......................................was................. Is.......................................was................. Are......................................were................ So, “be”, “been”, “is”, “was”, “are” and “were” are the only different forms of the verb “be”. Examples: Many forms of the Verb-Be have beed used here. i. Be careful. ii. Be kind to others.

iii. I am the secretary of the association. iv. He is a kind man. v. They are social workers. vi. She was a good companion. vii. The books were available. viii. She has been the secretary for two years. ix. You are not a member of this organization. You can form your own sentences using the various forms of the Verb-Be. Note: The Verb Be can be used as a main verb and as an “auxiliary verb. Main verb: Examples: i. The child is very cute. ii. It was six o‟clock. iii. There were many people. iv. They are the people whom we are looking after. v. I am a student of that college. vi. Be careful. Auxiliary verb: Examples: The Verb Be is used as auxiliary verb as follows. i. I am working here. ii. She is doing her work quietly. iii. The train was running late. iv. The women were working in the field. Note: Unlike the other verbs, the verb “be” can not be split in the interrogative and negatve forms of sentences. We use it as follows.

Negative: Examples: i. I am not your enemy. ii. He was not responsible for the accident. iii. The people were not excited. Interrogative: Examples: i. Where is the building? ii. How was the film? iii. Were all the materials available? Note: The verbs “do” and “have” can be used as main verb and auxiliary verb. Main verb: Examples: i. I do a lot of exercises. ii. He does his work rather carelessly. iii. I have no difficulty. iv. They had a solution to this problem. v. She has no compassion for others. Auxiliary verb: Examples: i. I do not know anybody here. ii. She does not love him. iii. I have seen this film. iv. A plan has been prepared. Examples: i. I do not have an answer to your question. (auxiliary verb) ii. The committee has submitted the report. (auxiliary verb) iii. They are investigating into the matter. (auxiliary verb)

iv. The matter is urgent. ( main verb) v. He has done a lot of research. (auxiliary verb) vi. All the candidates were present. ( main verb) vii. She does all the work herself. ( main verb) viii. The boy did not bring his book. (auxiliary verb) ix. I had applied for the job. (auxiliary verb) x. Our manager has been ill for quite some time. (auxiliary verb)

Adjective

An adjective is a word that tells us something about a noun. A noun may have many attributes. Boy is a noun. That boy may be tall or short, intelligent or fool, educated or uneducated, rich or poor. What is the quality of that boy? In order to express the quality of that boy, we have to use an adjective. "That boy is a rich boy". In this sentence, the word “rich” indicates that the boy is a rich boy. That means that the boy has a lot of money. Those words which tell us about the quality of the nouns (which might have been used either as the subject or the object) are called adjectives. • America is a country. • America is a rich country. (“rich” is an adjective) • Nile is a river. • Nile is a long river.(“long” is an adjective) • Harvard is the name of a university. • Harvard is the name of the oldest university. (“Oldest” is an adjective) • She is a student. • She is a beautiful student. (“Beautiful” is an adjective) • Water is an element. • Water is one of the essential elements. (“essential” is an adjective)

Other sentences written with adjectives: • London is a large city. • Jacob is an honest man. • We have had enough exercises. • There has not been sufficient rain this year. • The hand has five fingers. • Most boys like cricket. An adjective will come before a noun. It will not come before a verb. 1. Adjectives of quality: Good, honest, old, big etc… Examples : • Their good performance in their final examinations gave them what theyexpected. • Mr. Antonio is an honest policeman. • Our Chairman is an old man. • The big temple might have been constructed a long time back. • Their excellent presentation bagged them the first prize.

2. Adjectives of quantity: Little, some, much, enough etc… Examples : • I know little about music. • Adding some sugar will make the coffee tastier. • We have enough study-materials for the forth-coming examinations. 3. Definitive numeral adjectives: One, two, three, four, five, six, seven etc..

Examples : • One student came forward to become a leader of this class. • Two children make a perfect family. • Four subjects of “Management Studies” are very difficult. • Ten employees have resigned their jobs. 4. Indefinite numeral adjectives: All, no, many, few, several etc… Examples : • All the employees have to be here by 10am tomorrow. • No one will be exempted from paying the monthly due. • Few birds have become extinct. • It rained several days continuously. 5. Distributive numeral adjectives: Each, every, either, neither etc… Examples : • Each one of you should support this cause. • I mean that every employee has stake in the growth of this company. • Either of you should take care of your child. • Neither of you can go away from other. 6. Demonstrative adjectives: This, that, these, those, such etc… Examples : • This dog is ours. • That gentleman donated his fortunes to a charitable trust. • These flowers are not for sales.

7. Interrogative adjectives : What, which, whose, when etc… Examples : • What happened after I came out of the house is not known to me. • Which team won the match is not our problem. • Whose child is this is a mystery. 8. Adjectival Phrase: Sometimes a phrase may be used as an adjective. In that case the phrase is called adjectival phrase. Very often this adjectival phrase appears after the noun that it qualifies. In the following sentences, the adjectival phrases are colored blue. Examples : • The chief lived in house built-of-stone. • A friend in need is a friend indeed. • A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. • He was a student of great promise. 9. Adjectival Clause: Often a full-clause may add meaning to a noun in which case it is known as an adjectival clause. In the following sentences the adjectival clauses are colored blue. Examples : • Nehru was a statesman whom everyone responded. • The house which caught fire is in the street. • John is the boy who broke the window.

Adverb

An Adverb will modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Examples: • The deer runs very fast. (The word “fast” is an adverb which modifies the verb “run”) • The mango is a very sweet fruit. (The word “very” is an adverb which modifies the adjective “sweet”) • Philips speaks quite clearly. (The word “quite” is an adverb which modifies the adverb “clearly”) • He runs fast. (The adverb “fast” modifies the verb “run”) • I write slowly. (The adverb “slowly” modifies the verb “write”) • The boy speaks clearly. (The adverb “clearly” modifies the verb “speaks”) The most common adverbs are those which answer the questions when, where, how, and why. 1. Adverbs may indicate time. Examples: Now, before, soon, yesterday, never, formerly etc… 2. Adverbs may indicate frequency. Examples: Often, twice, again, frequently, seldom etc…

3. Adverbs may indicate place. Examples: Here, there, everywhere, up, backward etc… 4. Adverbs may indicate manner. Clearly, hard, soundly, slowly, sadly etc… Note-1: If the work of the adverb is performed by a phrase, that adverb (phrase) is called adverbial phrase. Examples:

• He lived in this house for nearly twenty years. • I stood on the bridge at midnight. • They sat for a while on the bench. • I thank you with all my heart. Note-2: A full-clause may also do the job of an adverb. In that case such a clause is called adverbial clause. Examples: • When you finish the work, you may go home. • Before you go, bring me some water. • I have left the book where I can find it again. • Since you were not there, I spoke to your brother. • If it rains, we shall stay at home. • Unless you work hard, you will fail in the test. • Emma is older than she looks. • He had come while I was out. • If he were rich, he would probably help us. • The sum is so simple that everyone can solve it. • Though he is poor, he is honest. • The earth is bigger than the moon.

Conjunction

Conjunction is word or a phrase which connects two words or two phrases or two clauses or two sentences.

The Conjuctions are.... 1. and 2. or 3. either...or... 4. for 5. but 6. also 7. neither...nor... 8. only 9. after 10. because 11. if 12. so...that... 13. that 14. as 15. when 16. while 17. till Examples: • You and he should attend the function. (The word “and” is connecting two other words you & he) • He and I are good friends. (The word “and” is connecting two other words HE& I) • Pay the fees or you will not be admitted. (The word “or” is connecting two sentences “Pay the fees” & “You will not be admitted) 1. A preposition may connect two words: Examples:

• Jack and Jill come up the hill. • We bought a book as well as a pen. • You could find clean air not in the city but in the village. • He will conduct either you or me. • They offer not only coffee but also tea. • You should be here when our Chairman arrives. • I will not attend mobile-phone calls while driving my car. • He has to study till he becomes thorough in the subject. • We are waiting here for you only. • Not only Shirts but also pants are sold here. 2. A preposition may connect two phrases: Examples: • The police have to find out not only who committed this crime but also how this crime was executed in this day-light. • A big-lorry in blue color as well as a car in white color went into this village one by one. 3. A preposition may connect two main clauses: Examples: • The 1973 oil-price adjustment checked the runaway consumption trend, but it was the 1979-increase that reversed it. • J.W.Jeffrey, a retired University of London professor, conducted a thorough economic assessment of British nuclear plants and concluded that nuclear plant is considerably more expensive than coal-fired power. • My father spent ten years to create a chemical solution, which, if used in agricultural lands, will give very high yields, but he expired before he started manufacturing in bigscale.

4. A preposition may connect a main and a subordinate clause:

Examples: • If our generation persists in mining the soil so that we may eat, many of our children and their children may go hungry as a result. • Whereas the 60% of the trees in France had been affected by acid rain in 1982, 75% of them were suffering in 1983. • Because the last bus already left, we had to take a taxi. • If the business goes on losing money, we will have to close it down. • I shall get my air ticket to USA as soon as I receive the visa. • What do you propose to do after you complete your graduation? • The plane will not take off until the fog clears. 5. Coordinating conjunctions: The conjunctions which coordinate two words are called coordinating conjunctions. The following conjunctions are called Coordinating conjunctions: 1.and 2. but 3. for 4. or 5. nor 6. also 7. only 8. till Examples: • Mr. John and Mr. Rams are the only invitees to meet the Prime Minister. • The whole country is waiting for the results of this international-tournament. • We have to be here in London till we are acquainted by the court. 6. Subordinating conjunctions:

A word introducing a subordinate clause is called subordinating clause. The following conjunctions are called subordinating conjunctions: 1. after 2. because 3. if 4. that 5. though 6. although 7. till 8. before 9. unless 10. as 11. when 12. while 13. how 14. until Examples: • You can come to the function after you finished your work. • They have scored low marks in English because she did not study well. • All of you are welcome if you have the entrance-tickets. • It is not known how he bought this car at this rate. • Your father has got you a motor-bike that is eight-year-old. • He was not admitted to that college though he has scored very high marks in the entrance. • Her boy-friend postponed her marriage-proposal till he started his own business.

• You can not get a new telephone connection before 1st of next month. 7. Compound conjunctions: There will be few words in every conjunction of this type. 1. in order that 2. in order to 3. on condition that 4. even if 5. so that 6. provided that 7. as though 8. in as much as 9. as well as 10. as if Examples: • He comes to this function on condition that we should leave him by 8pm. • London is so big that you can not go by walk to reach your office. • You as well as your father can go by the train. • You will not catch your train even if you take a taxi now.

Grammar : Preposition

Preposition is a word that is used with a noun or a pronoun or a verb to explain their relation with another noun or pronoun. There are two types. 1. Simple prepositions:

Examples: 1. A bird is on the tree. 2. I am fond of music. 3. The man was standing under the tree. 4. He runs after money. 5. I have to go to London to meet him. 6. Do not look at Sun at noon. 7. He is from your office. 8. One of you has to attend the meeting. 9. Go out. 10. You have to study English till you become a master of it. 11. He, with his friends, has gone to hotel to celebrate his birthday. In the above sentences, the simple ones are colored red. Few others are: By, in, of, off, on, through, up, with, from, after, about, above, across, amidst, among, around, before, behind, below, within, between, inside, outside, without, beside, etc… 2. Phrasal prepositions: A phrasal verb is formed by combining a verb with a preposition. According to, agreeable to, along with, away from, in addition to, in course of, in favor of, in honor of, in order to, in spite of, with reference to, with regard etc… Nouns, verbs, adjectives and participles are often combined with prepositions such as Noun + Preposition, Verb + Preposition, Adjective + Preposition, and Participle + Preposition. Each combination has a separate meaning, sometimes totally different from the meaning of the main verb. Examples: 1. Every citizen should abide by the laws of his country.

2. This lake abounds in fish. 3. Rajeev Gandhi started his Prime Ministership with abundance of goodwill of Indians. 4. Why were you absent from class yester day? 5. When I entered the room, I found my grandfather absorbed in deep thought. 6. The Judge refused to accede to the request of the accused to release him on bail. 7. I regret that your proposal is acceptable to me. 8. Gupta is well-known to politicians and has a ready access to a number of ministers. 9. The Engineer was accused of taking a bribe from the contractor. 10. Are you acquainted with this neighborhood? 11. The accused was acquitted of the charge of perjury? 12. You have to adapt yourself to changing times. The Phrasal ones in the above sentences are colored blue. (Quite often as in this case-12, the main verb and the preposition may be separated by other intervening words)

NOTE: One can give thousands of examples. There is no grammatical rule to describe why a particular preposition is used along with a particular word to convey a particular meaning. These combinations have come out of mere conventions and usages. You would yourself be using such phrases in your writings and speeches without your even being aware of them. There are two ways, a preposition can be used. The first is as in the following phrases: Examples: 1. On the table 2. In the year 3. With his friend 4. From the village 5. At the post office 6. Between the books

7. Underneath the table‟s In sentences such as mentioned above, the preposition is written before the noun that governs it. That is why it is called pre-position. Few prepositions are in the forms of two-words, three-words, four-words. According to, in addition to, The second way in which a preposition is used is after a verb, adjective or adverb. Few are followed by or preceded by a certain words to provide a fixed meaning. Examples: 1. Go after 2. Endow with 3. Participate in 4. Divide into 5. Confine to 6. Abstain from 7. Conform to 8. Affection for 9. Pity towards 10. Alliance with 11. Acquaintance with 12. Distrust of 13. Result of 14. Access to 15. Opposition to 16. Incidental to 17. Deficient in 18. Acquainted with 19. Delighted with 20. Accused of

21. Fond of 22. Anxious about 23. Grateful for 24. Tantamount to 25. Sympathy for 26. Sure of 27. Surrender to 28. Suspect of 29. Stick to 30. Ready for 'In', 'at', and 'on' have similar meanings, but there are conventions about their usages. “IN” is used before large places such as a country, state or city. Examples: 1. In India 2. In Texas 3. In New York “ON” is used before middle sized places such as a road, train, plane, ship etc… Examples: 1. On Mount road 2. On Parliament road 3. On the East coast “AT” is used to denote an exact spot. Examples: 1. At the door 2. At 7 O‟clock “IN” is also used to denote a very small place I was staying in a room at Door No.43 on Anderson Street in Boston on East coast in Massachusetts State in USA. There are three conventional uses of these three ones in regard to time also.

“IN” is used before the year and month. “ON” is used before the day and date. “AT” is used before actual time. That accident happened at 7.30pm on 7th March in 1989. The correct phrasal forms to denote specific times of the day are: Examples: 1. At dawn 2. In the morning 3. At noon 4. In the afternoon 5. At dusk 6. At night The preposition “between” must be used when referring to two things or persons. Examples: 1. The problem between Jack and Jill was solved by their parents. 2. This train is playing between New York and Chicago. When more than two things or persons are involved, the correct preposition to be used is “among”. Examples: 1. Among all the students in this class, John is the most intelligent. 2. He dose not show partiality among his three children 3. There is not a good understanding among the Parliamentarians of the ruling party. Examples: 1. Buttercups are avoided by the grazing animals because of the bitter juices. 2. By the time Columbus arrived at America in 1492, other Europeans had already reached the New York. 3. In times of war, people must take precautions against not only actual violence but also acts of sabotage. 4. Between Stephen and his sister, the latter is the taller one.

5. Despite the road block, the police allowed us to enter the restricted area to search for our friends.

Articles

Three words are used as articles. They are: 1. a 2. an 3. the Of these, a and an are indefinite articles. Because, the indefinite-articles are used to indicate not any specific object or subject in the sentence. “The” is the only definite article The definite article is used to indicate a specific object or subject in the sentence. 1. Indefinite articles: Examples: • A man is standing at the corner of the road. • An apple a day keeps the doctor away. • He demolished a temple in the next town. • What he needed was an umbrella. • We need a building to set an office for our company. • He gave me an onion. • An honor of this type is what everybody dreams to get. Uses of the Indefinite articles: I. The indefinite articles are used before a singular countable noun. Examples:

• We want to construct a house for us. • A ball costs only few cents.

• A boy was born to the couples two days back.

II. “An” is used before a word beginning with a vowel (or a vowel sound). Examples: • He gave me an onion. • An ass is leaping into your field. • An enemy need not be far away from you. He may be beside you. • An orange is what you have to take to overcome thirsty. • Before you go out in the winter season, please remember to take an umbrella with you. III. “A” is used before a word beginning with a consonant. Examples: • A cat is running behind the rat. • We need a man to safeguard our car. • A hole in the boat will endanger its safety. IV. “An” is used before the word beginning with „h‟ in case the „h‟ is silent in pronunciation. Examples:

• An hour is a long time for the students who take this examination. • An honor of this type is what everybody dreams to get. (A vowel sound) • It is difficult to find an honest policeman. • The train was late by an hour.

V. “A” is used before the words beginning with a vowel which is pronounced like the „y‟ in young. Examples: • The employees of this company formed a union. • A European is better placed to reach the Oxford University than an Asian.

• The government decided to set a university in this area of the country. • The ornithologist has written about a unique bird. VI. When the word „such‟ is applied to countable things, the indefinite article is used after „such‟. Examples: • Mr. Ram is an honest man. You can not find such a man. • He confused everybody with his witty talk. Such a blunder is rare to find in our lives. VII. “A” is used in expression like: Examples: • A few students came forward to organize this function. • A little sugar should be added to this coffee. • A certain number of books have been sold off by the authorities of this library. VIII. The indefinite article is used when a singular noun stands for a whole group or species. Examples: • A cow is a useful animal. • A dog is a faithful animal.

NOTE: Countable noun is the noun which can be counted as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6…. Five animals, seven students, eight stars, ten countries etc… So, animals, stars, students, colleges, computers, countries, books and boats are countable nouns. Uncountable nouns are the nouns which can not be counted. Time, rice, sky, sugar, soil, water, honesty, virtue and wisdom are the nouns which can not be counted. So, they are called uncountable nouns. 2. Definite articles: Examples: • The lion is a majestic animal.

• The boy who is standing there is my nephew. • The Andamans belong to India. • The book that you wanted is not in this book-stall. • The girl is not an Indian. • You are welcome to the function. Uses of definite articles: The definite articles “the” is used as follows. Examples: i. To refer to both countable nouns and uncountable nouns. • The book is costly one. • The pen is what He sells in his shop. • The news is not sweet for our ears. • The river is going through our city. ii. To refer to a particular person or thing or one already mentioned in the sentence.

Examples: • There is a chair but the chair is broken. • The book that you want is not available in this library. • The President arrived by a special plane. iii. To refer to a singular noun that represents a whole class. Examples:

• The elephant is a huge animal. • The scientist is a useful person to the society. The definite article “the” is used: iv. With superlatives: Examples: • The highest mountain is Mount Everest.

• This is the best book on Ornithology. • The darkest night has its own dawn. v. With ordinals: Examples: • The tenth student in the last row has to stand up. • The first man who arrives will be given a prize. vi. Before musical instruments: Examples: • He can play the flute. • We have master the key-board at the early stage. vii. Before the adjective when the noun is implied: Examples: • The downtrodden (people) will vote him to power. • The intelligent (students) will answer this question. • The poor (people) will not agree to this policy. viii. Before names of unique of their kind. Examples: • The Sun is the source of all forms of energies. • The Sky looks beautiful every night. • The earth is the example of patience. • The sea is the birth-place of many rare fishes. NOTE:

The two words “Man” and “Woman” in the general sense do not take any article. Man (not “The Man”) is the only animal that has intelligence.

ix. To refer to rivers, seas, oceans, groups of islands, mountains, ranges trains etc… Examples: • The Frontier mail will arrive in time. • The Bay of Bengal is tsunami affected ocean. • The Andaman is a part of India. x. To refer to Holy books. Examples: • The Bhaghavat Gita is the sacred book of Indian. • The Koran is a book of wisdom. • The Bible is an age-old book.

NOTE: “The” is not used when the author name of the book is used as follows. Examples: • Valmiki‟s Ramayana is one of the Epics of Hindus. (Not “Valmiki‟s the Ramayana)

xi. To refer to a noun when it is preceded by an adjective. Examples: • The immortal Keats has created many books of their own classes. • The great Alexander followed Buddhism. xii. To refer to the superlative degrees. Examples: • The highest mountain is Mount Everest. • The tallest man in our class is Mr. Oats. • Ms. Sharma is the most beautiful girl in this state. xiii. To refer to the people of a Country but not to their language. Examples:

o The French people are civilized people. o The English Men are sensitive to this issue. xiv. Before an adjective when the qualified noun is not mentioned. Examples: • The strong should not oppress the weak. • He works for the down-trodden. xv. In certain expression like… Examples: • The more you work, the more you earn. The omission of articles: The uses of articles should be avoided in few sentences to make the sentences meaningful. I. To refer to proper noun. Examples: • New Delhi is the capital of India. (Not “The New Delhi”) • Nile is one of the longest rivers. (Not “The Nile”) II. Before Abstract nouns when they are used in a general sense. Examples:

o Truth always triumphs. (Not “The Truth”) o Suspicion should be based on evidence. (Not “The Suspicion”) o Honesty is the best policy. o Wisdom is the gift of heaven. o Virtue is its own reward III. Before material nouns. Examples: o Silver is not as costly as Gold. (Not “The Silver”) o Cotton is grown in several parts of India. (Not “The Cotton”)

IV. Before languages: Examples: • We are learning English. • He has planned to study French. • They speak Hindi at home. V. Before plural countable nouns when they are used in general sense. Examples: o Children prefer playtimes. o Computers offer various job-opportunities. o Cars are sold like hot-cakes. VI. Before names of relations: Examples: • Father is the head a family. • Son should shoulder the responsibility of the family. • Daughter-in-law is nothing but a daughter.

Gerund

GERUND is the “continuous form of a verb”. Read this sentence. . Smoking is prohibited here. The word “smoking” is formed from the verb smoke by adding –ing. You can see that here in this sentence, the word “smoking” does the function of a subject (Noun). So, it is a Verb-Noun. That is called Gerund. On many occasions the “continuous form of the verb” can be used as a noun. “Smoke” is the simple present-tense form.

“Smoked” is the past-tense form of the verb “smoke”. “Smoking” is the continuous form of the verb “smoke”. Those continuous forms of many verbs can be used as nouns. Those nouns are called “verbal nouns”. “GERUND” is one of the two verbal nouns. The other verbal noun is “Infinitive”. We have seen the “Infinitive” in another section. Let us see “Gerund” now. A gerund is that form of the verb which ends in –ing and has the force of a noun and a verb. 1. A gerund is used as the subject of a verb. Examples: • Smoking is prohibited here. • Reading improves your knowledge. • Running behind a running-car is dangerous. • Walking alone is what he likes the most. • Buying vegetables in that market is a difficult affair. • Following others is not advisable. You can easily see that the subjects in all these sentences are in gerund forms. 2. A gerund is used as an object of a verb. Examples: • Begin reading the book. • I like going for a walk. • They prefer buying online rather offline. 3. Object of a preposition. Examples: • My neighbor is good at breeding dogs. • I am fond of eating sweets. • Before entering the room, please remove your foot-wear.

4. Complement of a verb. Examples: • What I detest the most is drinking alcohol. • Seeing is not believing. 5. A gerund is used in the following construction. Examples: • Nehru did a lot of reading. • We used to do a lot of writing when we were at school. 6. Only a gerund is used after the following verbs. Confess, imagine, finish, practice, hinder, excuse, forgive, drop, stop, prevent, mind etc… Examples: • Stop talking nonsense. • I could not help admiring the picture. • He did not mind waiting. • I can not imagine his doing like this. • They could not prevent her coming to the function. 7. Few verbs of sensation take the gerund-forms if the action of the verb is in progress. Examples: • I saw him doing that work. • She felt an insect going up her leg. • Have you ever heard a bird talking? NOTE-1: Compare the following two sentences. 1. We expected his being admitted into the university. 2. We expected him being admitted into the university.

In the first sentence, the word preceding the gerund “being” is “his”. This is in the possessive case. While, in the second sentence, the word preceding the gerund “being” is “him”. This is in the objective case. Both the sentences are correct to convey the same meaning. So, we can use either possessive case or objective case before gerunds. Examples: All depends on John/John‟s coming in time. Your future depends on your uncle/your uncle‟s meeting your educational expenses. I do not mind his/him sitting on this table. They insisted on my/me being present in the function. NOTE-2: As both the gerund and infinitive have the force of noun and a verb, they have the same uses. Thus, in many sentences either of them may be used without any special difference in meaning. Examples: Teach me to swim. (Infinitive) Teach me swimming. (Gerund) Both these sentences convey the same meaning. To forgive is better than to punish. (Infinitive) Forgiving is better than punishing. (Gerund) Both these sentences convey the same meaning. Exercises: i. He is interested in becoming a politician. ii. Imagine crossing the river. iii. We saw the lady running up the stairs. iv. A professor has to do a lot of reading. v. I do not like your risking your life.

vi. Would you mind helping me? vii. I suggest his taking up the job immediately. viii. I do not deny his speaking well. ix. Do not postpone your learning Hindi. x. Speaking to your child few minutes a day will develop the rapport between your child and you.

Infinitive

Eat, read, write, go, get, speak, walk, smile, cry and laugh are few of the verbs in the "infinitive" forms. When the preposition “to” is placed before such a verb, that verb is called “full infinitive”. To eat, to read, to write, to go, to get, to speak, to walk, to smile, to cry and to laugh are few of the "full-infinitive" forms. This type of the noun is called verbal-noun. This verbal-noun is called “Infinitive” which has the features of both a verb and a noun. There is another type of verbal-noun. That type is called “Gerund” which we have seen in another section. An “infinitive” can be used differently. 1. It can be used as the subject of the verb. Examples: To swim is good for health. To eat too much makes one fat. To go for walk early in the morning is advised by the doctors. To read means to grow. 2.It can be used as the object of the verb. Examples: I forget to tell you an important matter. All of you begin to work.

The doctor has come to check you up for blood-pressure. 3. The following verbs take only the infinitive as the object. Afford, appear, arrange, care, chance, come, dare, decide, fail, determine, happen, hurry, manage, mean, offer, pretend, promise, prove, refuse, seem, trouble, undertake, wish etc… Examples: I can not afford to pay so much. The man pretended to be innocent. The thief managed to escape. We have undertaken to do the job. How dare you do it? They refused to pay the bill. She offered to go alone. We are determined to complete the project. 4. The following verbs take only an infinitive as an object, but also are used in the ways as given below. Ask, like, choose, want, intent, mean, hate, beg, love, expect, wish etc… a. Subject + verb + infinitive Examples: My sister loves to sing. I like to view few television shows. They hate to borrow money form the bank. Mr. Ramah expected us to help him when he was in London. She chose to stay away from the program. Our Professor asked us to come back after 6pm today. b. Subject + verb + object + infinitive Examples: My sister likes my mother to sing. They begged me to help him. The committee chose me to sing in the function.

My father wished me to succeed in the competition. 5. The following verbs take only the verb + object + infinitive construction. Allow, advice, cause, compel, encourage, force, instruct, invite, oblige, order, permit, persuade, press, request, teach, tell, tempt, warn etc… Examples: Do not allow him to interfere with his work. The circumstances forced him to tell a lie. I warned him not to take up that job. They permitted me to take the exam without my hall-ticket. My teacher taught us how to calculate the profit. Our father forced us to continue our studies. He was tempted to take sweets every day. 6. The infinitive without “to” is used after the verbs “make” and “let”. Examples: Let him go. Make them do the job very well. 7. The full infinitive is used with the “be” verb to indicate commands or agreements or plans. Examples: Everybody is to wear a full suit. Nobody is to touch these things without permission. They are to be married next week. The committee is to meet next month to discuss this matter. 8.It is used in the following construction. For + object + infinitive Examples: It is not for me to advice you. Is the road safe enough for the driver to take the bus on it? 9.It is used in the place of clauses.

Examples: Tell him what to do? She does not know who to approach? Can you tell me how to stop the bleeding? So in these ways the infinitives can be used as nouns in the sentences. Note-1 The word „to‟ is frequently used with an infinitive. But „to‟ is not the essential part or sign of an infinitive verb. After few verbs (let, need, make, see, bid, hear, dare), we use the infinitive without „to‟. Examples: • You need not come to the function. • The Doctor can make him walk in a month of time. • How dare you open the door! • I did not see him do that. • They will not let you go out. • She bade me go. • I have not heard a bird sing. Note-2 The word „to‟ need not be added after 'had better', 'had rather', 'would rather', 'sooner than' and 'rather than'. Examples: • You had better leave now. • I had rather walk than take rest. • They would rather leave the show than see the dull-movie. • They will come late rather than stay at home.

Grammar : Participle

Participle is a word used to add extra meaning to the sentence.

Examples: 1. Hearing the noise, the boy woke up. Here, the boy woke up is a fact. But why did he wake up? He woke up because he heard the noise. In order to add extra meaning to the sentence, the phrase hearing the noise has been added. The word hearing is formed from the verb hear and governs an object. The word hearing qualifies the noun boy as an Adjective does. The word hearing, therefore, partakes of the nature of both a verb and anAdjective and is called PARTICIPLE. It may be called a Verbal Adjective. The word, which partakes of the nature of both a verb and an Adjective, is called PARTICIPLE 2. I saw an elephant carrying a pack of Vegetables on its back. In this sentence, the word „carrying‟ qualifies the noun elephant. So „carrying‟ is a participle. Here as well as in the above sentence, the participles are in the continuous forms (hearing & carrying) of their verbs (hear & carry). This type of participle is called PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 3. Being the eldest son, John had to shoulder all the responsibilities of his family after his father died. In this sentence, the word „being‟ qualifies the pronoun „John‟. That is a Present Participle. 4. Driven by hunger, He stole a piece of bread. In this sentence, the word „driven‟ qualifies the noun „he‟. You see that the word is not in the Present Participle form. This type of participle is called PAST PARTICIPLE. 5. Deceived by his friends, he lost all his properties. In this sentence also the word „deceived‟ is a Past Participle. 6. Having elected him President, the people gave him the royal support. In this different sentence the phrase „having elected‟ qualifies the noun „people‟. But this phrase is neither Present participle nor Past Participle. This phrase indicates an action which came to an end in the near past.

This type of participle is called PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 7. Having come of age, John entered into partnership with his father. In this sentence, the phrase „having come‟ is a Perfect Participle.

So, there are three types of Participles. A. Present Participle B. Past Participle C. Perfect Participle Let us see few more examples in each of these three participles. A.Present Participle: Examples: • • • • •

Going up the stairs, the boy fell down. Working all day, I was fatigued. Not knowing my way, I asked the Policeman. Mounting his horse, the bandit rode off. Seeing the Sunshine, I threw open the window.

B.Past Participle: Examples: • • • • •

Encouraged by his wife, he persevered. Enchanted by the whole scene, I lingered on my voyage. We saw few trees laden with fruits. Blinded by smog, we lost our way. Experienced for a decade, I prepared the manual in a minute.

C.Perfect Participle: Examples: • Having failed in the first attempt, he made no further attempts. • Having lost my certificates, I applied for the duplicates. • Having gained the truth, He remained calm.

Grammar : Voice

There are TWO TYPES of Voices in English language. They are: 1.Active voice.

2. Passive voice. When we express an idea giving importance to the doer, the sentence is written in the active form. That means that the „doer of the action‟ is active. • He wrote a letter. When we express an idea giving importance to the action rather than to the doer, the sentence is written in the passive form. That means that the „doer of the action‟ is not active but passive. • A letter was written by him. In passive form, the verb will be in past participle form. “Write” is Present tense form of the verb. “Wrote” is past tense form of the verb “Written” is past participle form of the verb Since “a letter” was singular form, it is followed by singular-past tense verb “was”. Let us see one by one: 1.Active voice. As we saw already, when we express an idea giving importance to the doer, the sentence is written in the active voice. In active voice the verb is controlled by the subject. The object in the active voice becomes the subject in the passive voice. The subject in the active voice becomes the object of the preposition “by” in the passive voice. Examples: • He helped them in their studies. • They invite me. • The boys pluck flowers. • I take the responsibility. • BHEL exports boilers. • My mother prepares delicious foods. • We expect you. • The Prime Minister inaugurated the conference.

• They boycotted the function. • The C.B.I. will investigate this crime. 2.Passive voice. When we express an idea giving importance to the action rather than to the doer, the sentence is written in the passive voice. In passive voice the verb is controlled by the object. The object in the active voice becomes the subject in the passive voice. The subject in the active voice becomes the object of the preposition “by” in the passive voice. Only the past-participle of the main verb is used in the passive verb (along with the helping verb). Examples: I. They treat me very well. (Active voice) II. He treats me very well. (Active voice) In the example-I, the subject is in plural form (they). So the verb (treat) is used in accordance with that. But in the example-II, the subject is in singular form (he). So the verb (treats) is used in accordance with that. Let us see the Passive voices of these sentences. Examples: I. I am treated very well by them. II. I am treated very well by him. In both these sentences, the verbs are modified only by the singular Pronoun “I”, not by the subjects of the sentences. • He damages the flowers. (Active voice) • The flowers are damaged by him. (Passive voice) In this example, in Active voice the verb (damages) is controlled by the singular form of the subject (he). In passive voice, the verb (are damaged) is controlled by the plural form of the object (they). Examples: • They tell the story. (Active voice) • The story was told by them. (Passive voice)

• He helps us. (Active voice) • We are helped by him. (Passive voice) • We take him seriously. (Active voice) • He was taken seriously by us. (Passive voice) Let us see the passive voices of the sentences given under the active voicesection above. • He helped them in their studies. (Active voice) • They were helped by him in their studies. (Passive voice) • They invite me. (Active voice) • I am invited by them. (Passive voice) • The boys pluck flowers. (Active voice) • The flowers were plucked by the boys. (Passive voice) • I take the responsibility. (Active voice) • The responsibility was taken by me. (Passive voice) • BHEL exports boilers. (Active voice) • Boilers are exported by BHEL. (Passive voice) • My mother prepares delicious foods. (Active voice) • Delicious foods were prepared by my mother. (Passive voice) • We expect you. (Active voice) • You are expected by us. (Passive voice) • The Prime Minister inaugurated the conference. (Active voice) • The conference was inaugurated by the Prime Minister. (Passive voice) • They boycotted the function. (Active voice) • The function was boycotted by them. (Passive voice) • The C.B.I. will investigate this crime. (Active voice) • This crime will be investigated by the C.B.I. (Passive voice) Passive voice is also used when the doer of an action is unknown or is very obviously known. Examples: • The local politician has been murdered.

• It is not known who murdered the local politician. • The ship was wrecked. • It is obvious that the ship can be wrecked only by wind or water. Only transitive verbs (verbs which take objects) can be put in the passive voice. Examples: • He laughed. This sentence does not have its passive voice form. Because, the verb (laugh) is only an intransitive verb. • Clanton killed his friend. This sentence has its passive voice form. (His friend was killed by Clanton) Because the verb (kill) is transitive a verb. Examples: The sentences in BLACK are in active voice where as the sentences in GREEN are in passive voice. 1.He pesters me a lot. I am pestered a lot by him. 2.The opposition criticizes the government for everything. The government is criticized for everything by the opposition. 3.The people expect the government to reduce the prices. The government is expected by the people to reduce the prices. 4.My neighbor teaches me Hindi. I am taught Hindi by my neighbor. 5.The collector goes through every file carefully. Ever file is gone through by the collector carefully. 6.Our teacher gives a lot of home-work. A lot of home-work is given by the teacher. 7.Children like chocolate very much. Chocolate is liked very much by the children.

8.This factory produces consumer-goods. Consumer goods are produced by this factory. 9.They met me. I was met by them. 10.I posted the letters. The letters were posted by me. 11.The Chief Minister rejected the demand of the opposition. The demand of the opposition was rejected by the Chief Minister. 12.He helped me a lot in this matter. I was helped a lot by him. 13.Few months ago, India tested nuclear devices. Nuclear devices were tested by India few months ago. 14.Lost month I sent an application for a new phone connection. An application for a new phone-connection was sent by me lost month. 15.They will accept his plan. His plan will be accepted by them. 16.I will contact your boss directly. Your boss will be contacted by me directly. 17.The police will arrest the culprits within a week. The culprits will be arrested by the police within a week. 18.The Government will soon take a decision in this matter. A decision in this matter will be taken by the government. 19.The workers are loading the Lorries. The Lorries are being loaded by the workers. 20.I am writing a novel. A novel is being written by me. 21.They are considering me for the post. I am being considered by them for the post. 22.The secretary is preparing the annual report. The annual report is being prepared by the secretary.

23.They were signing the documents. The documents were being signed by them. 24.I was teaching English in the college. English was being taught by me in the college. 25.The workers were demanding bonus. Bonus was being demanded by the workers. 26.The doctor was examining the patient. The patient was being examined by the doctor. 27.They have consulted me. I have been consulted by them. 28.You have made a mistake. A mistake has been made by you. 29.The company has made good profits. Good profits have been made by the company. 30.The bank has sanctioned the loan. The loan has been sanctioned by the bank. 31.We have booked all the rooms in the hotel. All the rooms have been booked by us. 32.The Chairman had denied him the right to vote. He had been denied his right to vote by the Chairman. 33.Somebody has disfigured the statue of the leader. The statue of the leader has been disfigured by somebody. 34.I could have solved this problem easily. This problem could have been solved easily by me. NOTE: It is not sufficient to know how to change the voice form of the sentence fromactive voice to passive voice. The Active voice should be used when the „doer of the action‟ is to be made prominent. The Passive voice should be used when the „action‟ or the „person acted upon‟ is to be made prominent.

Grammar : Passive Voice There will be two Passive Voice sentences for the sentences with two nouns. There are few verbs which take two objects, a Direct object and an Indirect object. For such sentences, there will be two forms in Passive Voice sentences. 1. Verbs with two objects: Examples: • I gave him five rupees. (Active voice) • Five rupees were given to him by me. (Passive Voice) • He was given five rupees by me. (Passive Voice) • She has told me the truth. (Active voice) • I was told the truth by her. (Passive Voice) • The truth was told to me by her. (Passive Voice) • They lent me their car. (Active voice) • I was lent a car by them. (Passive Voice) • A car was lent to me by them. (Passive Voice) • The Government has sent him a message. (Active voice) • He was sent a message by the government. (Passive Voice) • A message was sent to him by the government. (Passive Voice) 2. Imperative sentences (Commands and requests) There is special formula for changing the imperative sentence into passive voice. • Please open the door. (Active voice) • Let the door be opened by you. (Passive Voice) Here the sentence in active-voice has been changed into a sentence in passive-voice. Please understand the formula which has been followed to change the active-voice to passive-voice. “Let” is used to convert the active voice sentence into a passive voice sentence. Examples: • Do not mistake me. (Active voice) • Let me not be mistaken. (Passive Voice) • Cut your nails. (Active voice) • Let your nails be cut. (Passive Voice) • Do not ignore my suggestions. (Active voice)

• Let not my suggestions be ignored. (Passive Voice). These sentences have been changed into passive voice sentences by adding "let". 3. With Modal verbs: The verbs can, could, may, might, and must are known modal verbs. As per the following methods these sentences with these verbs are changed into passive voice. Examples: • You can take the book. (Active voice) • The book can be taken by you. (Passive Voice). • Everybody must obey the rules. (Active voice) • The rules must be obeyed by everybody. (Passive Voice). • They might have studied their lessons. (Active voice) • Their lessons might have been studied by them. (Passive Voice). • He may not accept this plan. (Active voice) • This lesson may not be accepted by him. (Passive Voice). 4. Phrasal verbs: Few verbs, with certain meanings are always used with prepositions. In such situations the prepositions should not be omitted in the sentences. Examples: • We are looking at the game. (Active voice) • The game is being looked at by us. (Passive Voice). • The fire-brigade put out the fire. (Active voice) • The fire was put out by the fire-brigade. (Passive Voice). • The Government will set up a factory. (Active voice) • A factory will be set up by the government. (Passive Voice). 5. With IT: In few sentences, instead of a word or a phrase, a clause may be the object of a verb. In such cases there are two ways of changing the sentences into the passive voice. A. By making the clause itself as the subject in the passive voice. Examples:

• I hope that he will realize his mistake. (Active voice) • That his mistake will be realized is hoped by us. (Passive Voice). • I expected that they would take up the matter. (Active voice) • That the matter would be taken up by them was expected by me. (Passive Voice). B. By substituting the clause with pronoun it. Examples: • The Romans expected that they would conquer Carthage. (Active voice) • It was expected by the Romans that Carthage would be conquered by them. (Passive Voice). • We have learned that you have secured the first rank. (Active voice) • It has been learned by us that the first rank has been secured by you. (Passive Voice). Exercises:

• The grandmother was telling her grandchildren an interesting story. (Active voice) • An interesting story was being told by the grandmother to her grand children. (Passive Voice). • Her grand children were being told an interesting story by their grandmother. (Passive Voice).

• The postman brought you a parcel. (Active voice) • A parcel was brought to you by a postman. (Passive Voice). • You were brought a parcel by the postman. (Passive Voice).

• I have taught the class the first lesson. (Active voice) • The first lesson was taught by me to the class. (Passive Voice). • The class was taught the first lesson by me. (Passive Voice).

• The office has sent her a message. (Active voice) • A message has been sent to her by the office. (Passive Voice). • She has been sent a message by her office. (Passive Voice).

• The waiter brought us the menu card. (Active voice) • The menu card was brought to us by the waiter. (Passive Voice). • We were brought the menu card by the waiter. (Passive Voice).

• They are offering you another chance. (Active voice) • You are being offered another chance by them. (Passive Voice). • Another chance is being offered to you by them. (Passive Voice).

• He had told me a lie. (Active voice) • I had been told a lie by him. (Passive Voice). • A lie had been told to me by him. (Passive Voice).

• I gave her your message. (Active voice) • She was given your message by me. (Passive Voice). • Your message was given to her by me. (Passive Voice).

• Who taught you Sanskrit? (Active voice) • Sanskrit was taught to you by whom? (Passive Voice). • You were taught Sanskrit by whom? (Passive Voice).

• Sign these documents. (Active voice) • Let these documents be signed. (Passive Voice).

rees of Comparison Degrees of Comparison are used when we compare one person or one thing with another. There are three Degrees of Comparison in English. They are: 1. Positive degree. 2. Comparative degree. 3. Superlative degree. Let us see all of them one by one. 1.Positive degree. When we speak about only one person or thing,We use the Positive degree. Examples: • This house is big. In this sentence only one noun “The house” is talked about. • He is a tall student. • This flower is beautiful.

• He is an intelligent boy. Each sentence mentioned above talks about only one noun.

The second one in the Degrees of Comparison is... 2.Comparative degree. When we compare two persons or two things with each other, We use both the Positive degree and Comparative degree. Examples: a. This house is bigger than that one. (Comparative degree) This house is not as big as that one. (Positive degree) The term “bigger” is comparative version of the term “big”. Both these sentences convey the same meaning. b. This flower is more beautiful than that. (Comparative) This flower is not as beautiful as that. (Positive) The term “more beautiful” is comparative version of the term “beautiful”. Both these sentences convey the same meaning. c. He is more intelligent than this boy. (Comparative) He is not as intelligent as this boy. (Positive) The term “more intelligent” is comparative version of the term “intelligent”. Both these sentences convey the same meaning. d. He is taller than Mr. Hulas. (Comparative) He is not as tall as Mr. Hulas. (Positive) The term “taller” is comparative version of the term “tall”. Both these sentences convey the same meaning. The third one in the Degrees of Comparison is... 3.Superlative degree:

When we compare more than two persons or things with one another, We use all the three Positive, Comparative and Superlative degrees. Examples:

a. This is the biggest house in this street. (Superlative) This house is bigger than any other house in this street. (Comparative) No other house in this street is as big as this one. (Positive) The term “biggest” is the superlative version of the term “big”. All the three sentences mean the same meaning. b. This flower is the most beautiful one in this garden. (Superlative) This flower is more beautiful than any other flower in this garden. (Comparative) No other flower in this garden is as beautiful as this one. (Comparative) The term “most beautiful” is the superlative version of the term “beautiful”. All the three sentences mean the same meaning. c. He is the most intelligent in this class. (Superlative) He is more intelligent than other boys in the class. (Comparative) No other boy is as intelligent as this boy. (Positive) The term “most intelligent” is superlative version of the term “intelligent”. Both these sentences convey the same meaning. d. He is the tallest student in this class. (Superlative) He is taller than other students in this class. (Comparative) No other student is as tall as this student. (Positive) The term “tallest” is superlative version of the term “tall”. Both these sentences convey the same meaning.

*Degrees of Comparison are applicable only to Adjectives and Adverbs* *Nouns and verbs do not have degrees of comparisons* He is the tallest student in the class. The term “tallest” is an adjective. Among the members of the group, Mr. Clinton speaks most effectively. The term “effectively” is an adverb. All the terms used in the above-examples are either adjectives or adverbs. We have seen all the three Degrees of Comparison. Let us see their models. Model -1: “The best”: Examples: i. This is the best hotel in this area. No other hotel is as better as this on in this area. No other hotel is as good as this one in this area. ii. Unemployment is the most serious problem facing our country. Unemployment is more serious than any other problem facing our country. No other problem facing our country is as serious as unemployment. Model-2: “One of the best”: Examples: i. Calcutta is one of the largest cities in India. Calcutta is large than most other cities in India. Very few cities in India are as large as Calcutta. ii. Satin Tendulkar is one of the best batsmen in the world. Satin Tendulkar is better than most other batsmen in the world. No other batman in the world is as good as Satin Tendulkar. Model-3: “Not the best”: Examples:

i. This is not the best solution to the problem. ii. This is not better than few other solutions to this problem. iii. Other solutions to this problem are not as good as this one. ii. New York is not the largest city in America. New York is not bigger than many other cities in America. Few other cities in America are at least as large as New York. Few adjectives and adverbs get their Comparative forms by simply getting “more” before them. And their superlative terms, by getting “most” before them. Examples: Beautiful..........more beautiful..........most beautiful Effective……….more effective………most effective Effectively………more effectively……….most effectively Enjoyable………….more enjoyable……….most enjoyable Useful……………….more useful………..most useful Different………..more different…………most different Honest………..more honest…………..most honest Qualified…………more qualified…………most qualified Few adjectives and adverbs get their Comparative forms by simply getting “er” after them and their superlative terms, by getting “est” after them. Examples: Hard……………..harder……………..hardest Big……………….bigger…………….biggest Tall……………..taller……………tallest Long………………longer………………longest Short……………..shorter……………….shortest Costly…………………costlier……………costliest Simple………………….simpler………….simplest

Degrees of Comparison add beauty and varieties to the sentences.

Interjection

An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling or emotions. Examples: • Hello! What are you doing here? • Alas! He is dead. • Hurrah! We have own the game. • Ah! Have they gone? • Oh! I got such a fright. • Hush! Do not make a noise. Mt child is sleeping. Such words Hello, Alas, Hurrah, Ah, Oh and Hush are used to express the emotions or sudden feelings. The words of Interjection may be used to express joy, grief, surprise or approval. • In case of Joy the following words are used. Hurrah, Huzza etc… • In case of Grief, the following words are used. Alas, Oh my god etc… • In case of Surprise, the following words are used. Ha, What etc… • In case of Approval, the following words are used. Bravo, Your goodness etc… These words are used only to express the sudden feelings. They will be noticed that they are not grammatically related to the other parts of the sentence. Few other groups of words are also used to express the sudden feelings. Ah me, for shame, Well done, Good gracious etc…

Grammar : Mood

MOOD is the mode or manner in which the action denoted by the verb is represented.

We usually use a verb to make a statement of fact or ask a question. Examples: • I write a letter to my parents every month. • May I know your name, please? But a verb can be used to express a command. Examples: • Stand up. • Come here. • Pay your fees. At the same time, a verb can be used to express a supposition. Examples: • If I were the Prime Minister of this country, I would reduce the income-tax ceiling. • If you were I, you would do the same thing. These different modes or manners in which a verb can be used to express an action are called MOODS.This word comes from the Latin word „modus‟ which means manner. There are three moods in English. 1. Indicative mood. 2. Imperative mood. 3. Subjunctive mood. 1. Indicative mood: This type is used just to indicate the fact or to raise a question as follows. i. To make a statement of fact. Examples: • • • • • • • • • • •

We purchase the news-paper daily. My daughter goes to school by train. This university has more than 20,000 students. Your letter was posted yesterday. You are great. He is an intelligent student. Mr. Clinton is the Chairman of this company. This road has been blocked due to repairing works. Our tour program stands cancelled. I could not move out of my office today due to heavy work. All are welcome.

ii. To ask a question. Examples:

• • • • • • •

Where do you purchase your news-paper? How are you? Where is your brother? What did happen to your car? Who is your music master? Why can not you come with us now? Is this your pen?

iii. To express a supposition that is assumed as a fact. Examples: • If he is the leader of this group, he deserves to be rewarded. (Assuming as a fact that he is the leader) • If my brother goes to Japan, he will get me this ROBOT. (Assuming as a fact that my brother goes to Japan) • If you come to this university for your higher education, you will reach the top level. (Assuming as a fact that you come to this University). A verb which makes a statement of fact or asks a question or expresses a supposition which is assumed as fact is in the indicative mood. 2. Imperative mood: This type is used to express i. A command: Examples: • • • • • • • •

Get up. Go out. Come here. Wait for your boss. Close the doors. Kneel down. Follow him. Read quickly.

ii. An exhortation. Examples: • • • •

Take care of your health. Be aware of pick-pockets. Try your level best to score the maximum marks. Take this test once.

iii. An entreaty or prayer. Examples: • Bless us. • Have mercy upon us. • Forgive me.

A verb which expresses a command, an exhortation, an entreaty or prayer is in the Imperative Mood. 3.Subjunctive mood: This occurs in two occassions. a.Present Subjunctive Mood. b.Past Subjunctive Mood. a. The Present Subjunctive Mood occurs i. In few traditional phrases where it expresses a wish or a hope. Examples: • God blesses you. • God saves the king. • Heaven helps us. ii. To express a desire, an intention or a resolution. Examples: • I move that Mr. Clinton be appointed the next president of the organization. • It is suggested that the Mount road be closed for a week for the maintenance work. • They preferred that the annual subscription be increased to $250.00. b. The Past Subjunctive Mood occurs i. After the verb wish to indicate a situation which is unreal or contrary to fact. Examples: • I wish I were a millionaire. (The fact is I am not a millionaire) • I wish this car belonged to me. (The fact is this car does not belong to me). ii. After if, to express improbability or unreality in the present. Examples: • If I were you, I would have got admission into this university. (The fact is I am not you) • If we started now, we could reach the town by 11pm. (But the fact is we could not start now) iii. After as if/as though, to express improbability or unreality in the present. Examples: • He orders me about as if I were his wife (But I am not) • He walks around as though he were drunk. (But he is not)

Grammar : Sentence

A Sentence is a group of clauses or words, conveying a complete meaning. Examples: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Today is not a holiday. What a beauty she is! Sun is only a star. You have to master the language ENGLISH to do e-commerce. We can assemble after 8pm.

These are sentences which convey complete meanings. There are four kinds of Sentences. They are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Declarative or Assertive Sentences Interrogative Sentences Imperative Sentences Exclamatory Sentences

Let us see one by one. 1.Declarative Sentences: These sentences simply make statements or assertions. Examples: • • • • • • • •

They are my friends. This is not my ball. Tell your friends that you will join them after 6pm. He is not in town now. Her mother is ill. A child is crying in the backyard. We are members of this organization. It belongs to him.

2.Interrogative Sentences: These sentences are used to ask questions. Examples: • • • •

How are you? Where are you? What do you do? Where is your brother?

• What did happen to your car? • Why can not you become a member of this organization? • Where do you live? 3.Imperative Sentences: These Sentences are used to express commands or request or entreaties. Examples: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Get up. Go out. Come here. Wait for your boss. Close the doors. Kneel down. Follow him. Read quickly. Be aware of pick-pockets. Try your level best to score the maximum marks. Take this test once again. Bless us. Have mercy upon us. Forgive them. Take care of your health.

4.Exclamatory Sentences: These Sentences are used to express strong feelings. Examples: • • • •

How cold the night is! What a shame! Alas! He is dead. Hurrah! You have come early.

These are the only four types of sentences that we come across in our daily lives.

Grammar : Tense

The tense of a verb indicates the time of an action or event. The word “tense” comes from Latin word tempus which means time. Read the following sentences. 1.I write the letter now. 2.I wrote the letter yesterday.

3.I shall write the letter tomorrow. The first sentence says that I write the letter at this moment. That means that the time of the action of writing the letter is now. This sentence is in present tense. The tense which refers to the present time is said to be in present tense. The second sentence says that I wrote the letter yesterday. That means that the time of the action of writing the letter is yesterday. This sentence is in past tense. The tense which refers to the past time is said to be in past tense. The third sentence says that I shall write the letter tomorrow. That means that the time of the action of writing the letter is tomorrow. This sentence is in future tense. The tense which refers to the future time is said to be in future tense. There are four forms of tenses in each one of the three tenses. The four forms of present tense are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Simple Present tense. (We write a letter now) Present continuous tense. (We are writing a letter) Present perfect tense. (We have written a letter) Present perfect continuous tense. (We have been writing a letter)

The four forms of past tense are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Simple past tense. (We wrote letter) Past continuous tense.(We were writing a letter) Past perfect tense. (We had written a letter) Past perfect continuous tense. (We had been writing a letter)

The four forms of future tense are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Simple future tense. (We will write a letter) Future continuous tense. (We will be writing a letter) Future perfect tense. (We will have written a letter) Future perfect continuous tense. (We will have been writing a letter)

That means that there are twelve tenses in total. They are: 1. Simple present tense. 2. Simple past tense. 3. Simple future tense. 4. Present continuous tense. 5. Past continuous tense.

6. Future continuous tense. 7. Present perfect tense. 8. Past perfect tense. 9. Future perfect tense. 10. Present continuous tense. 11. Past prefect continuous tense. 12. Future perfect continuous tense. Using the verb “write” and the pronoun “we”, let us form all these twelve tenses. The following sentences can be related one by one as per the order mentioned in the above-stated sentences. 1. We write a letter now. 2. We wrote a letter yesterday. 3. We will write a letter tomorrow. 4. We are writing a letter now. 5. We were writing a letter yesterday. 6. We will be writing a letter tomorrow. 7. We have written a letter now. 8. We had written a letter yesterday. 9. We will have written a letter tomorrow. 10. We have been writing a letter. 11. We had been writing a letter yesterday. 12. We will have been writing a letter tomorrow.

Grammar : Present Tense

As we have seen already, the Present Tense is used when the verb refers to the present time. There are four forms in the Present Tense. They are:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Simple Present Tense. Present Continuous Tense. Present Perfect Tense. Present Perfect Continuous Tense.

Let us see one by one. 1.Simple Present Tense: The Simple Present Tense is used i. To indicate a habitual action. Examples: • • • •

He drinks tea every morning. My father gets up at 6am everyday. I go to college regularly. The College celebrates its founder‟s day on 7th June every year.

ii. To express general truth. Examples: • The Sun rises in the east. • Two twos give four. • Honey is sweet. iii. To express a future event that is part of a fixed timetable. Examples: • The match starts at 10am. • When does this shop reopen? • The next train arrives at 7.45am. iv. To introduce a quotation. Examples: • Keats says, „A thing of beauty is joy for ever‟. • Bible says, „To forgive is divine‟. 2.Present Continuous Tense: The Present Continuous Tense is used i. For an action going on at the time of speaking. Examples: • • • •

She is writing a letter. He is walking along the road. They are discussing this problem. We are playing foot-ball.

3.Present Perfect Tense: The Present Perfect Tense is used i. To indicate activities that completed in the near past. Examples: • • • •

He has just gone out. They have earned goodwill. We have deposited the mount with a local bank. The child has gone to bed.

4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense: This Present Perfect Continuous Tense is used for an action which began at some time in the past and is still continuing. Examples: • • • •

They have been building this bridge for the last seven months. He has been working in this company for a long time. They have been playing cricket since 5pm. I have been writing a novel for the last one year.

These are the four forms of Present Tense.

Grammar : Past Tense

As we have seen already, the Past Tense is used when the verb refers to the past time. There are four forms in the Past Tense. They are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Simple Past Tense. Past Continuous Tense. Past Perfect Tense. Past Perfect Continuous Tense.

Let us see one by one. 1.Simple Past Tense: This Simple Past Tense is used i. To indicate an action completed in the past. It often occurs with adverbs or adverb phrases of past time. Yesterday, last year, ten-years back, few days ago, a week ago etc… are adverbs or

adverb phrases of past time. Examples: • • • •

The College reopened yesterday. My friends left few minutes back. I posted the letter last week. He came to power seven years ago.

ii. To indicate an action completed in the past. (Without the adverb of past time) Examples: • • • •

I went to the post office. They gave me this clock. The train left the station. He defeated her in the Chess competition.

iii. To indicate the past habits. Examples: • When I was a student, I carried a bag with me. • He was a fan of this musician. • He had always two cars with him. 2.Past Continuous Tense: This Past Continuous Tense is used to denote an action going on at some time in the past. Examples: • When I reached the city, it was getting darker. • The light went out when I was reading. • He was playing chess when I saw him. 3.Past Perfect Tense: i. This Past Perfect Tense is used to describe an action completed before a certain moment in the past. Examples: • He met me in Tokyo in 1989. We had known each other last ten years before. • I had played Tennis for ten years before 1999. ii. When two actions happened in the past, Past Perfect Tense should be used to indicate the action which happened earlier. Examples: • When I reached the station, the train had left. • When I prepared all the materials for the application, the deadline had gone. 4.Past Perfect Continuous Tense:

This Past Perfect Continuous Tense is used to indicate an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued up to that time. Examples: • I met him on 7th June 1998. At that time he had been writing a novel. • We prepared this project in 2005. At that time we had been working on another project.

Future Tense

As we have seen already, the Future Tense is used when the verb refers to the Future time. There are four forms in this Tense. They are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Simple Future Tense. Future Continuous Tense. Future Perfect Tense. Future Perfect Continuous Tense.

Let us see one by one. 1.Simple Future Tense i. This Simple Future Tense is used to talk about things which we can not control. Examples • • • • •

He will be sixty this December. It will be Christmas in a week. You may know your exam-results in month. The Post man will come by 11am. They will post you at New York.

ii. This Simple Future Tense can be used to talk about what we believe will happen in the future. Examples • • • •

I think India will win the match. We believe that he will score the highest marks. Probably, the train will arrive in time. It is expected that they will get married.

iii. This Tense can be used to indicate what we have planned to do in the future. Examples • I will go to USA for my higher education.

• She will stay back at her home. • Since it is raining, I will take an umbrella. • Since the Manager is busy, I will wait for him. 2.Future Continuous Tense This Future Continuous Tense is used to talk about action which will be in progress at a time in the future. Examples • When I get home, my dog will be waiting for me at gate. • This day next year, I will be writing my annual examinations. • When you come here tomorrow, your parents will be waiting for you. 3.Future Perfect Tense This Tense is used to indicate an action which might have completed by a certain time in the future. Examples • • • •

I might have completed my studies by 2010. The train might have reached Chicago by 11pm. By the end of this year, I will have worked in this company for twenty long years. This month next year, we will have inaugurated our own office in Washington.

4.Future Perfect Continuous Tense This Tense is used to indicate action which will be in progress over a period of future time and will end in the future. Examples • By this October, I will have been living in this house for twenty-five years. This Tense is very rarely used.

Types of Sentences Grammar Index : 2

There are four types of sentences which can be reported in these two types of speeches.

Statements or Assertive Sentences : Sentences which say or state something are called statements or assertive sentences. In this type of sentences, facts and information are reported.

Examples :

 He bought a car.

 They have come to meet you.

 I am the leader of this group.

 She will take her exam today.

 2 and 5 add to 7.

 India is a developed nation.

 USA is the super power.

 GMAT is must to apply to a business school.

Interrogative Sentences : Sentences that are used to ask questions are called interrogative sentences.

Examples :

 Why are you late?

 Who is your father?

 Who is the new student?

 How are you?

 How old are you?

 When will he come?

 Where is our boss?

 When will the school reopen?

Imperative Sentences : Sentences which express order, command, request, advice or suggestion are called imperative sentences.

Examples :

 Do what I say.

 Do not move.

 Arrest him.

 Punish her.

 Walk 5 kms a day.

 Take more fruits.

 Sit down.

 Stop doing it.

Exclamatory Sentences : Sentences which express some strong feelings or emotions such as sorrow or joy or surprise or wonder or contempt are called exclamatory sentences.

Examples :

 What a beautiful girl!

 How lovely flowers these are!

 How silly boys you are!

 What a lovely flower this is!

 Hey, they're my parents! Be Form Verbs Grammar Index : 2

Be Form Verbs : Present Tense Forms :

Am Is Are

Be Form Verbs : Past Tense Forms :

Was WereHow to use USED TO?

How to use USED TO? :

Strong – stressed DO is used to strengthen or support another verb. He never smokes. ___________ You are wrong. He does smoke. I did see him after all. Do be seated. Do stop that noise!

The modal DARE means be brave enough. He daren‟t speak to her. He doesn‟t dare to speak to her. How dare you disobey me? He didn‟t dare to say anything. DARE may be used either as a special verb or as an ordinary verb…….either without or with DO, DOES and DID. When used with DO, DOES and DID, it is followed by the infinitive with or without to.

USED TO refers to past habits. It shows that something often happened in the past but does not happen now. I used to live there when I was a boy. I used to go home on Saturday (but now I no longer do so.) Ganesh used to come here every day (but he doesn‟t now.)

Question and negatives are formed either with DID or without DID. The did-forms are more informal. Did you use to play football at school? (Less usual : used you to play…………?) She used not to be so foregetful. She didn‟t use to be so foregetful.

How to use DARE?

How to use DARE? :

Strong – stressed DO is used to strengthen or support another verb. He never smokes. ___________ You are wrong. He does smoke.

I did see him after all. Do be seated. Do stop that noise!

The modal DARE means be brave enough. He daren‟t speak to her. He doesn‟t dare to speak to her. How dare you disobey me? He didn‟t dare to say anything. DARE may be used either as a special verb or as an ordinary verb…….either without or with DO, DOES and DID. When used with DO, DOES and DID, it is followed by the infinitive with or without to.

USED TO refers to past habits. It shows that something often happened in the past but does not happen now. I used to live there when I was a boy. I used to go home on Saturday (but now I no longer do so.) Ganesh used to come here every day (but he doesn‟t now.)

Question and negatives are formed either with DID or without DID. The did-forms are more informal. Did you use to play football at school? (Less usual : used you to play…………?) She used not to be so foregetful. She didn‟t use to be so foregetful.

The Special Uses of DO

The Special Uses of DO :

Strong – stressed DO is used to strengthen or support another verb. He never smokes. ___________ You are wrong. He does smoke. I did see him after all. Do be seated. Do stop that noise!

The modal DARE means be brave enough. He daren‟t speak to her. He doesn‟t dare to speak to her. How dare you disobey me? He didn‟t dare to say anything. DARE may be used either as a special verb or as an ordinary verb…….either without or with DO, DOES and DID. When used with DO, DOES and DID, it is followed by the infinitive with or without to.

USED TO refers to past habits. It shows that something often happened in the past but does not happen now. I used to live there when I was a boy. I used to go home on Saturday (but now I no longer do so.) Ganesh used to come here every day (but he doesn‟t now.)

Question and negatives are formed either with DID or without DID. The did-forms are more informal. Did you use to play football at school? (Less usual : used you to play…………?) She used not to be so foregetful. She didn‟t use to be so foregetful.