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C H A P T E R
15
Henry Sanoff and Rotraut Walden
Abstract
Education reform has focused primarily on teaching methods and course content. As a result instructional materials have been updated and instructional methods improved. However However,, what has received too little attention is the physical environment in which education occurs. Highly qualified teachers do not want to work in outdated, un attractive facilities. Parents are much more discerning about which school their child will attend, including the physical appearance of the school and modern technology available. School systems have discovered that schools with “sick” internal physical environments environments have an adverse effect on student learning and teacher performance. There are a growing number of studies linking student outcomes whose physical environments environments support the educational process. Key Words. high-performance schools, post-occupancy evaluation, classroom design, green schools, building performance, health, learning, teaching, social beh avior, avior, well-being, fu ture directions
Introduction A gwg ug u g w u g f pp ugg bug p g g, , k y , p. y u bug g , quy , gg, , , pu, quy f u , y, , pyg (N R Cu, 2007). R w quy u z pp p uy p upp pub u (U, -M, & y, 2008). T g yg kw y bu pg b pb u u wy uy.
Historical Evolution of American School Buildings T py p p u y, u ( & R, 1987). Py g u wy b u by , p, , u g . T g p y’ p ’ p u w u p, w yp u . T b j ug p u C p - u C g 1840, ug w pg u 19 uy 20 uy, ug p u py u.
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- pub u x p 19 uy ( & R, 1987). u w uuy , ug ug - u g g u w pg u. T bug qu ppuy yby b u g , , bkgu (R, 1980). Dug pg p A bu uy py xp w w y wkp (y) u’ g w p puy. w y wk u w b u pu, w w y 20 uy. T , w, g pub u y pp g (P, 2003). Dug qu 20 uy, ppu gw u ubz, g b . I , y y pp, w u w. Bug g pz ug ju g g u pg w u, y yp uxy p w . T ju g w w pup g y g pz g g g pb g wg (Rb, 1992). Reform Pedagogy (1890–1932) Dug 19 uy, pg g up w U g qu pub u y. A pp pg w p - u, - w u w p g u by u. T b k y bug wu b p wu g , w bg u u 20 uy. T “u ” p uy uu pgg w 19 y 20 u (1890–1932) bg k g p “ ,” w , u, u (Ok, 1996, p. 39; . Bb, 2009).T pg
py u u Gg K P P Gy, M M Iy (1988), J Dwy (1916/1967) U . T g wk u p w p py by Gg K (1854–1932) wk ( Arbeitsschule ) . Bw 1890 1933, p “wk ” b yy pggy w “w .” K w y wk py b u wk u uy y. H w pp “bk g” u bg - y, u py u b, w jy u wu puu wk g u (b, 1999, p. 180; . Bb, 2009). P P (1854–1952) ug z u u u uy py ug w gz . H b pp p g u “b” gup u up g ubj p. Ty u w g gup, u y f g w wkg g. gz g f u , P g g uu , xb u p. Hw, P w y gz g, bu g g (Ok, 1996, p. 190). H p w u w . F , pp g “ g .” u w f y wk , bk, bj, u g b pb, ug u (. D ., 1999, p. 35). Ag P, y p p uy w “y g u , g , pu bk , guy g wy by .” A g g wu g “ppu x” (P, 1927, p. 7). T I py M M (1870– 1952) p ’ (case dei bambini ) 1900. w by b w g u, Sano, Walden
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w g wy b, u . H u ppy w by pp u -gu y - pp. H g y w bu ub p g gz g p . b b, y “ by p p u bg ug xp g p” (D ., 1999, p. 35; . Bb, 2009). J Dwy (1859–1952) ugg u b b b p, kg g p p wby u wu by g g w (Ax, 2000). My u b pg , bu u pg. Cquy, g U y g. I p bw I II, p yu u u pgg g, u, u k by yg p . I g p gz, w p u , p ppp , gg, , w x p. F w u (uy, p py) ug u p g xp . Hw, , w w g p, w j p . Te Progressive Movement Tugu uz (1945–1960), b w pu, pyp bug w yg pp w u p— u . T u y u , g, “y” pp b u bug wu qug uqu u p (y, 1975). Cuu, ggp, , g p w py p uy p u u u. Du bug u, u 278
uu w pggy, gz, p yu, py u. Dug p w g , xb, b p p uuy gg pg pggy. I 1959 J. Ly up pp p pzg y pg quy y u uu. C by N A y Pp, p u p y ug p. Ag p, y uu wu u 25 35 u g y wk. I u- p, y wu p p. T wu b u k. u f g y, p ugg puu pz u. Ag up, p w bug wu b p w wu b ug, w w u b ug. p xby w b b . T up p ugg g b xb ug b -gup u. T 1960 1970 bug w p u y ug y ’ p . T “p g” w u, fg g gz uu bug (B, 1972; b, 1973). T “bby b” 1960 g w ubub xp p w u bug. T u u pg y. Opp u w p xp. Op-p u g w pb ug yg p gup. Hw, p-g w pp y bug w p. T u f - g, w pz xb gupg u, uz u, p g , u b p u , , u ( & R, 1987). T p p ug by, u,
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, p, gup pj g u. Ty w yb “” g w wy p. Hw, p-g w p by p g. T w p p p u g w bug w y g ( & R, 1987). T, u u by pb g bug. Pb, u u w f y g, w xp w (y, 1975; Gup, 1991; f, 2002). My pg p-g ug g ug wy g (f, 2002). T ug bw u pp p. Aug u g y U xpg w u- u , pzg g ug uu g p , pb b ’ u g u’ u f p (Cu, 1999). School Size I 1970 80, U u bu y g . R w xp g w b bg b f u w p uuu. A pg g , p u p (Duk & u, 2001). T g w, g g, g g wu b bu pz . T w w ug , ub, bk , wk , g “I wu k b .” T u bg w g qu u 1980 y 1990 y b pu f g . T u, g g ub u, , , u g p bw g w (L & , 1995; k & Hwy, 1997). A uy by U Dp u u g , gu
, , pg b b w y g (Ryw, 1999). u k p pg w gu (MMu, p, & , 1994). Ty w , w p u g (P & Hgwu, 1987), u b b (k & Myby, 1992). Ag y . (2000), g uwg bgg . I, w ug , , , , b (. Lwb, Muy, Bw, & Löp, 1984). b upg bkgu pg py ug xp b u (y ., 2000, p. 2). Bk Gup y 1964 uy (. Hk & , 1997, p. 94) u k p , p g y ppu f k u. A p by Cg Cp’ Cu A Dp (1988) b xpg , p w u uu g u ppu. T g g w u 1990 w p by u p. g w g ug “ u” ( u g p u) g 200 300 u. I u, u w gz w w u . O p g w w w xg , gb p g uy (MAw & A, 2002). M y w pz uuu u , u g u , b wp w U , u bu w w u p g gz xb p ub b pj uppg u’ p. I g, f u u w p wk b wk Sano, Walden
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. T g w gg yu u , wg qu ppuy , pg pyg, , p , p u. u pp , u , , g g (Bk & Gup, 1964; Bu J, 2007; C, 1996; f, 2009), w py pb, , uy, ug u, p-u w (Fw & bg, 1991). Learning Environment Lg y g-g g b u xp. G g b u py bu , ju p g b u w-bu . Hw, wy p bug b p w g (, 1979). I u PIA uy (Pg I u A; Lk ., 2001; OCD, 2004), u , upy u, p w f p w p u kg, g , y T p “ ” g u u w qu w pz - g (w, G, & F, 1998). L Mguzz (1920–1994), p “Rgg” pggu, wg u : w u, bug “” (1984). Vu u w b b y u . b p g g, g p g, w p u ug uy p xg . A g u w bw p (. Lwb, 1996, p. 386; Gf, 2007). T u pu u p, y f py . -p bug p p uu, g bu g g . u 280
pb uu gb k uy u y. Gup (1978) p p g 14,000 u g kg 12 g. T u PIA uy b w kw uu u, 2003, 7,200 40,000 Gy w gu b u- , p y, p p wu p p u p. Dug , F My u R u b u p u u- . T y’ b p (f, 2001), b p w u gg g g u . T g p p u g. A uu g u b pp, u -gup wk, u, g by g, u g, uy (Jb, 1999; Lky, 2009). I g- g, g k p. T w u p u b u pg. T u w g, kg, pyg, . A p xby b u by u gup, , u, b pp (. Lky, 2000). User Evaluation of School Buildings B uu u, Az, Ju, kp, (1982) p y uy y g. I 1970, w ubj j , w by p y. T y (. M, 1979) b “” p pp. Ag Az ., u w x f p u k g xp . Bk’ p “b g” (Bk, 1968; gg, 1989) u Gup (1991; , 1985; ö, 1998) y py ( g u), (.g., ), b pg. Bk w yp p bw p. Gf (2007) p
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bw p u, py u g g, -gz . T ug u py- : xp, M (1979); A bg (1974); F F (1983); F, A, bg (1982). T u bu, w, ppy w f py xp b u ( Gup, 1991, p. 723). Iw, qu, -pyg g b p y, py by Hy f (. , 1999) u u u py . f (2002) ug uy, u, p, pp g bug p. A , p ug bug (2001). I 2001, F F Cu (FFC, 2001) p-upy u (PO) “ p yy ug p bug [ p] y b bu up . PO f u bug p u qu bug up, ug , y, uy, uy y, pyg , quy, .” (p. 1) A : “A PO b b p pup, PO y y g u g w bug [ p] p bu ( w w xp) w bug u w b . PO b ub p ug g , pg f gg g, wg p g, uppg bug g, kg u p p bug. PO g w p- u pg, pgg, p g” (FFC, 2001). yp u ug PO w, k, b b, uy. f g w y bug p up. School Condition T gwg bw quy y
u b p. Nuu u u p u y g p bw u . I g, u g w, b 5 17 p g z g ub bug (, 1999; & L, 1996). A uy wkg ub u py p g f , p y, g f , g g . Bug w p, , b bu w w bug. A p py f , ubquy p f g (Duk, 1988). w p, ppg p g p y u b. I 1979, pub w 141 pub u 21 pp p p . T y , MGufy (1982) p w , ug 97 pub u. Fwg uy p quy f u u. I -1990, A u g Ru L u “Pub” g pg Nw Yk. “J-k” bug w “u, pp” w “bg” by g w y. T u: w pu u, w p u, k ug . T u pygy w, xp, b b gg — f g— p g u , w, u, u g g (p://y./2011/06/---p-pub%2%80%99-u--g-g---u/). I y , w, bg p u’ x u, w by g u x u (Mk, 1996). (1985) w Sano, Walden
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ub pb f u u y pp. I uu u, u b pu, pu, p u yw g, y u g, y u , w g u bk, y u bu, y u g. Gf (2007) xp w u u. H pp ( b ) wk . I u u w ug w wy . I p p u y u p g u. Aug w u qu u uf p , py kp bu u kg p w p- bug. Ty p u u wk bg u k b by gu u, y y w by u, , y k gu k. u b, u xp. C p g— , bu g ; -y u u kg w y, bu ; uy w py w w ; b p by gup y p—pp w pg k. Visual Appearance Bug, g, yb u by w u . Py ybz qu, u, p, xp u. A y ybz ppuy, p, by, w uy , , , uu y ybz u pp uy. A uy Ry (1994; . 2004; F & Ry, 2010) p u gg p p by u . Appxy 600 yu w k bu p k w g uu , , . Ag uy, bug 282
p gu ( , y pp b y, u, , bu, ); u p u u , , pg p. T f uu pu bkgu b. Ry (2004) quy- xg p b buuy, ppgy, y, py f: (1) pg, (2) u, (3) w g bug’ , Ry (2004) A uy, g w g p w py bug (, 1999, 2004), G uy (Kku & HbMby, 1986), w u u bug. I Te Psychology o Vandalism, G (1996) u b uy by Pb Bx (1975), w bw w u quy w g ppy. w w z by x bug uug pygu. T g w w quy . w w u gy u w y bug (.g., bug, u) uug . O w g u, 81% u uup , u pk p . w w uuy b by gb bu y b , w k y w ppy. Classroom Design O u y y g, p g . y g g, bu g . A x u g y g ugg w g z by f y g -gup . xp y p, u qu b . -g qu y p w y p, w f ppu g f p w y pp (L & N, 2000). I p u’ y, wu u g g, , . O wu
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xp u g w k, g w ug g xbk. I, p , u wu b gg f g u . A y g ug -gup wk, u, g by g, uz g, g wu b u (Jb, 1999; Lky, 2009). u u by py y z. M bu, bug g, ugg bug g (Rb, 1972). T p w g w u b p g py. T w g bu p p pu g b. T wy g wk bu u u u u (G ., 1999). T p p, uu g, g py u g, b u w p. T g u , g bu , ug , u uy y. T u uu, w w u w u w p w w p. C g y, p ’ y. I up bu g-g p u. Classroom Seating T uu g g w by uuy u . T g u - w g p p up ’ . Cg w kg bu w u , H (1992) w w wu b k u w u wu w wk p. I , wu b wk p p g by gup f z, qu p -- , p w u u wk py. Mby u ’ p w y w u . u- w g
w u. T - , xp, g g gz (H, 2000). Aug u/ ppy (PI) b u u u (Dwy, 1916; F, 1970; Kb, 1982), y b bg bw PI u pp (MP) (Dy & up, 1991; k & B, 1993). y, u xp upp p w bgg, y pp uy p g (Bpy, 1987). R pg b f w f y p g ug wk p. u g ’ g u , bg w w w py u pgg w g, wkg w u - . T f : • H y pu upg ugg u w y wk • I w u ug wk p, wg u k p • H ub w u ug wk g, y k-, wk ug pb w u (Bpy, 1979) Classroom Privacy T pxy p k u up w p gg p up. b , ug, u b u. y u u py (Gf, 2007), w u u. My u (. Gf, 2007, p. 312) u g y gy f u’ p w y uk px g, wk gup, p k, w y uby, w g g p. Ju k y, u’ u p, w-bg, b. Tu, p w f p p g p (Bk, , B, & Oxy, 1973; . B, G, Sano, Walden
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F, & Bu, 2001, p. 263). Ag u MAw (1993), w w w w bg u . A u, u g w f w (H, Bk, & O’B, 1991). A uy by Mx, Fu, Hg (1999) p bw ub qu k by u g. T u w k qu w, w ug w u u u k -- . T, g g u u bw u. “ ” u b w pw, jub gg, ug, w p b uu. u pp by p ( & O, 1980). T “p-p ,” w p 1970 y A , y g u p g u (B, wz, & Zpuky, 1974; g, 1975). I p yp g u’ ’ py u uu. Lkw, yp u g w k y g . G . (1982) b w 20 25 u, u k y f (. b, 2001, p. 482). Ty u 15 w u u b g y g, ug u u, , p. Information echnology Classroom y 1900 gy, bgg w , , , , b bug g ; uy pu, b, MAR B b u u g. Hw, p u g bg uy g u pg, w p (, 2007). O g py upp g gy (O & Lpp, 2007; , 2007). Lg u b pg, p, g upp g . 284
T gwg p g pg ww. I gy u p u g k w uy. M u w g , u py, -, g. T b wkg bw uy p gy (I). , g, f-pu g u g ppuy. Ag y u , y Jp bu U up u (Ygw, 2009). F wp I pp u g, y I . y , wg u b : • p -g w I p • Ab g u • uu wk g gy • Dp u w uuu • P u u upp gy, .., -pu/fpu g , f, b, u (Ygw, 2009) Outdoor Environment y, py g wg. Lg k p y f k qu p. I , u’ u (.g., pygu) w b pygu (L, 1995), w p f g g qu (Fj & g, 1999; Fj, 2004). w k u , w x, b (. Gf, 2007; . y ., 2000). Lu (2008) p ug u pg xpy K–12 . H b A ’ “u- ,” w gy bg u. Lu bu u: g y, p’ g, u g, . Bu
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b xpg u w g u x w uug ppu u g py. u w w g u p y py w-bg, bu u pu. A 2006 C uy (Dy, B, & Lu, 2009), , u u w gu w u g w pyy , , w u, p w . Natural Materials, Niches, and Paths Ag MAw (1993; . F, 1998; & P, 1988; L, 1995; F & Ry, 2010), y pygu b w g w bu k g b. Hw pygu k p u w y u u? I u u u by p. Ay, y pygu y uu, xp, u pygu w u , u ’ y. M (1989) pp gg u u . A py ub w w u g . A pby pg y pygu u x g p u u g pb . I wy, quy b b . High-Performance Schools O pp u pb g g u g-p . T “g p,” “ub,” “g” u b z , xz p , bug, u p g (G & F, 2010). Aug y g, p u gby y. T w b u gby pp wg u bg . y U uggg bu w gg
g w g. G g w u w pg, g, g u, g bug k, y y gzg b g-p . Hg-p , g ub , g, u, b u-, y, b, , u, pb, y p . Ty p g. Ay, g-p u p ug u p bu u . F xp, pg u g u ub . A gg u pu u g -w uf u by u p yg u . G bw pp ug , bg u--f p bw bu bug f u, , f u. T f bu w y pp b , g ub b (B, 2004). p u , w, y pu u b pp w ug u. Qu p p. Hw, u pg y g u bug p p y p g, , puy u, , f, p u bu. Design Guides A y k p p u , y yg ( g) y gu w g, u, p/ . T u gp p ug gy, bu y y b ppp g u by y uy. I u k bu p g-p , u p pg uby, g, b, . Hw, , b w gu u x u . Sano, Walden
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u ub, w p gu u w u w pg gu; w, b pub. A, w w u pup pg gu u, yg ppu pg k (B, 2003). A u uy C u f 2001 p gy py . T Cb Hg P (CHP, pu “p”) gy y C by kg , , pg y g. T CHP wb g g wg 13 bu: “y, b, gy , , w , y p, , y p , bug , u, uy u, ug u, pb gg ” (CHP, 2005). G bj b ug gu Lp gy Dg (LD) g y bu py g . G gu w by g gg bug , g u, p u qup , p p. Ty u g gg qu p bj: • Lg pub p u pu p p • Pg bug z p k b u g g • Dgg g y pubg y w • Dgg gy gg y u xz u wb u • g x, bgb, y y z p w u w • Cg p up w b pu, g quy, gg, u G gu u qu bj u 286
ppp g u w g, u w ppp p u u p, u g p u p bug y (U G Bug Cu, 2007). Effects of Green Schools on Health and Performance T w-g, -b u g f g p u , p bu p g qu w. T , w, u x p bug u pz g g f p g (N R Cu, 2007). -b g uy pz p ug b u g p. T pp b ppu - u f p p f w-bg, p g p, u, y. ypy puu gp g y b g w u . T g up b ug g-p, g g, u bw x u, p, bug u, puy py yp, g u (Lbuk & Cy, 1994). u x u bw x u g (N R Cu, 2007). T p x y g g u, bu by u p u p k u u bu g 13 15. Tu, yug qu qu b u w quy w. A u, y pp pb x yug u (P & By, 2001). Hu pp p u p: pu, pu, uy, p (Kwk, 2000). Pp by p b u u g. T y b pu uy w y 80%
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up p b g u. T u f pu uy up puy, py u bug (Fg, 2000; ppä & Fk, 2005; y, 2004; g ., 2005). T u w puy pu g g (Fp ., 2004). T pu, w, uy w f quy wk pu by u. I g g w pu b 80 g F y p g. w, u w gu, p, b . u by gg y ub, g wk . u k “g g pp u – ” (Jg & , 1999, 2005). Hw, puy u gg p bw pu up puy (M & H, 2004). Bw 1999 2003, Hg-M Gup u u gg f ygg u p (N R Cu, 2007). I 1999 uy, w b y Og Cuy, C; , g; F C, C (Hg-M, 1999). T uy k bw u yg p by u’ . C x g y f b ju b (By, 2004). T u u b p ubqu uy. Ag u’ u y w u g gy f u g; u p , py ug u ug ww, w g u p, ky ug b g ; b u w u g u ug ww; w ww, u p gy f (Hg-M, 2003, p. x). Ty uz bg ww w gy qu b w b w
u p. Vb bg b w u ww wy qu p gy g, w b bg g, u p, k u wy g. (Hg-M, 2003, p. )
C gg y by w gg u (C, k, & , 1988; Jg & , 1999). L (1997) 53 u k g u u . y, k pub p gz, bg gy w g u g u u p u bu g pu y b y. C u p b. I y g g u bug, g u juy g-p g. T ub Bug Iuy Cu 30–40% g u ub g u p uz w . I g, g-p g u ygg, p , b quy, w u b g, p ub uy u, z p . T w puu g-p g u g, u p, -u, up bug p. “gy y” p 10 g pg u y (Ky, 2003). Pp ub g p u , u u u, g . School Trends pwu uy u p. Ty y upp u y , bu , u, , p b b uy. I b gu uu g uy’ y . u , w, u py w ug, w ug. A Sano, Walden
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u, uu b g, u g p, u up. Hw, w py w u u. y p u g bu w w , ug py pp u gy b. I , y w “k” py u by pp p k (, 2006). p p w quy bug p p. Cquy, gp x bw u’ w pg quy p pg . I bg u u b f u g g b; quy, qu w qu ppuy u. y U fg p bu . T -z-- pp guy ppg y g wy g g p u p bu w, w, w y . T, u g wy -w pg p quy w p uqu pg (, 2002). A p bu w , w y pz . Vy f y f w p w b u uu bug g (Bu, 2000). O w uu ugg w pp. I p, pz b g w b (Lky, 1999, 2009). T w pg g , , , k y (C, 1996). I, y w g w, xp, p gug ug w p jb k . I , u b upup, wg bg u w gu , b-yp xp y u yg py kg . T pz g , w g g 288
u, u p, -w- g, g u py ’ g, g ub wg pg p g g. A p . I w, uu w b g u upp p b u by uy gz bu. uy g b upp by ug p p , gwg p g g, g u y f p g . T w p ppuy w u ppp g y u . g u upp xp b b b uy. I u g, u w y uy bu xp bg uuu — w y b juy y p up . I y , wu b f w x y. T ky uu pg p xb pb p pb u . T pu ugg w y b f uu. Tug pby y b , x: w kw w pp (Nw u gy Cu, 2002). I k bu b p p gy g k p pub u, pp bk-- uu pb. T pp by kwgb p w y w u u p gug, ggpy, p u u. P w gy u gy u . u C Au, u bug, by ggg pu. gy w g u u k u w. T qu, pp, w pb w x, bu w u
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w gw w x. N kw, bu g u bu w u py uu, w k xpy y u , w uu p b g pu b . I qu bu u pup g. I gy u u u y uu, w w w u pby z p y b ub ? A w g y pp w w w w g. Cuy-b gup, up g, u ju w gup p . T g u z gg gwg p p pub-p pp. I g u y p y gy b kg bu p z. I w g g, u w xp w u b ky w gg gp. I y b y wy p g y pp g g kp u (u, 2002). pp g by g g g, u uu ppg , w by pg uy (N & T, 2007). Conclusion: Schools of the Future I qu uy, w Bb (2010) p , x w w qu bu “ uu.” Igy g u f u ppu k g p w g x, , gu, u xp gg w (. Lwb, 1993). I bug u w w b wk by (2009). A u U , Jp, Gy u 23 g bug 11 u 5 gz
ug bug. T wg u b w g uu (, 2009): • Bug g yy • A k p g quy, , u u by upy f u p, , pygu qup • Bug w p pj gup bu k py • A y w bw • gy u y py u bug • Dk wy qu gg • Lw g • C u g u • Dgg w g y w g , u p g kwg • w w-quy pub u ( qup, g uu, ), w , • If u u • N w b pp w b (kg , p, , p, .) • P bug , w • G k , u u , u w Nuu py bu u w . pp, w u p g k pp , bug u p. uu u (, 2009): • T g u k p kg • T p bg
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• T u bug by uy b u • T ppp p g u g g , u - pj-b g, g g, p, gup , ug g, u g x • D b u (u) w px, g w up 160 u gz ub u p • T u g u, u, u y 150 160 u f g g; ug g (Lky, 2009) • T u gy; LAN, LAN I g w p - xb, u g -gu g, () u • T u y y, ub, w-, ub bug • T ppuy py gu (gg, k, g, , , u, p , u, , .) u gy • T p u, g- gg • T xby uu u • A up wy f ppu py • T p pg py (p pu ; gup py -y ) • T p bg b xp w (. K üku & zu Lpp, 1992) I -z-- pp g, uu p w p g. Cy g u . Oppu p u p p g. y, g p b u, pg ppu pp u, , p. I , bug bg by u u, w 290
b p g py bu uu uby w bu ( ü-ug, 2004; Buk, 2001; g & D, 2001; K, 1994; Ry, 2009; , 2001; g & K üb, 2007; ü-ug, 2004; . Ag-A : Duk, 2000, 2007; Gf, 2007; f, 1994, 2002; & Lky, 2006). Future Directions D bu b by w pp w bug u. Ig bug by wy pb gg w upp. Fuu f u g u g k g pg p. y, bug p up’ pp u b g g bug p. T p u u, py y quy bug, g. T xp g upp pz, - g, u b- xb-z p, u wk p, w p b. Hw, y g, w gu by p. T gp bw w p upp g b uy x, puy bug y u upp y uu g . References Az, ., Ju, G.M., kp, M.A., & , G.. (1982). . I G. . (.), Environmental stress (pp. 224–255). Nw Yk: Cbg Uy P. Ax, R. (2000). Culture and pedagogy: International com parisons in primary education. Ox, UK: Bkw. A, G. J., & bg, H. J. (1974). Lg . I H. J. bg (.), Evaluating educational perormance (pp. 81–98). Bky, CA: MCu. Bk, R. G. (1968). Ecological psychology: Concepts and methods or studying the environment o human behavior. , CA: Uy P. Bk, R. G., & Gup, P. V. (1964). Big school, small school . , CA: Uy P. B, R. . (1972). Open education and the American school . Nw Yk: Ag. Bk, F. D., , R., B, J., & Oxy, B. (1973). Cg gy. Sociometry, 36, 514–525.
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