A PROJECT REPORT ON STUDY AND FABRICATION OF
FLEXIBLE ROAD DIVIDER SUBMITTED BY
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PROJECT GUIDE PROF. PROF. ------------------------------------- --
H.O.D. PRINCIPAL PROF PROF.---------------------
SHRI.SHRI.------------------------------
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING .
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200----200---
1
-------------------------------200----200--C E R T I F I C A T E
Cert Certif ifie ied d that that this this Repor eportt subm submit itte ted d by Shri/Ku -------------------R!""/S#$% N!. ----------------------------a student of FINAL FINAL YEAR of the course in ---- IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING as a part of Seminar / Project work as prescribed by the B!$r& !' T#(h)i($" E*$i)$%i!) for the subject -------------------------------- And that I
hae instructed/!uided him for the said work from time to time and I found him to be satisfactori"y pro!ressie# And that fo""owin! students were associated with him for his work. $oweer his Contribution was proportionate % 1. ------------------------------------------------- --------------
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).--------------------------------And that the said work has been assessed by me and I am satisfied that the same is upto the standard enisa!ed for the "ee" of the course. And that the said work may be promoted to the *+terna" *+aminer.
+NAME OF GUIDE , SIGN
,A*----------------,A*-----------------
+NAME OF H.O.D , SIGN
,A*-------------------,A*--------------------
+NAME OF PRINCIPAL PRINCIPAL , SIGN
,A*--------------------,A*---------------------
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--------- -------------------------- ( -- ) 200-----200--------
SUBMISSIO N I 0u"" ame2 Shri /Ku -----------------------R!""/ S#$% N!.-------------------- a student of FINAL YEAR of the course in DIPLOMA IN MECHANICAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING humb"y submit
that I hae comp"eted comp"eted from the Seminar Seminar / Project work as described described in this Report from from time to time by usin! my own ski"" ski"" and study between between the period period 0rom AUGUST 200 TO APRIL 200 as per the instruction / !uidance of ame of eacher2---------------------------------And that fo""owin! students were associated with me for this work. $oweer the teacher has appro approed ed 3uant 3uantum um of my contr contribu ibuti tion. on. And that that I hae hae not copied copied the Repor Reportt or it4 it4s an appreciab"e part from any other 5iterature in contraention of the academic ethics. 1. ------------------------------------------------- --------------
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,ate%--------------------- Si!nature of the Student2
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------DEFINATION OF PROJECT------
P => Planning before carring carring o!" "#e $or% R => O =>
Ra$ &a"erial re'!ire( for for "#e $or%
Organi)a"ion of "#e $or%
J
=>
E
=> E,"i&a"ion of &a"erial &a"erial re'!ire( in "#e $or%+
Join" effor" effor" *!" in "o "#e $or%+
C => Co,"ing of "#e $or%+ T
=> Tec#ni'!e, !,e( in *erfor&ing+
&
Acknowledgement 6e e+press esteemed !ratitude and sincere thanks to our worthy "ecturer !uide PROF. -------------- our ocabu"ary do not hae suitab"e words benefitin! to hi!h standard at know"ed!e and e+treme sincerity deiation and affection with they hae re!u"ar"y encoura!ed us to put heart and sou" in this work. 6e are a"so thankfu" to our H.O.D. PROF. ----------- whose adices and kind co-operation wrou!ht out throu!h discussion proide for comp"etion of this project and a"so thanks to our workshop superintendent and a"" the Assistants who he"ped a "ot for comp"etion of this project. 6e a"so coney !reat thanks to our $onorab"e Pri)(i$" ---------------- who he"ped a "ot for comp"etion of this project. 7ur parents and re"aties who a"ways bear with us in ery critica" situation hae contributed a !reat dea" in makin! this for us. As we !ie e+pression to our "oe and appreciation for them our heart infi"".
hankin!.
(
INDE N$# %h# %!i(
Sr.N!
1
A8SRAC
2
**, 07R PR79*C
S*5*CI7 70 PR79*C
3
IR7,:CI7 70 7-C7;*I7A5 **R<=
4
SOURCES OF ENERGY
5
6ORKING OF PROJECT
7
METHODOLOGY
8
LITERATURE SUR9EY
:
MACHINE DESIGN
10
MANUFACTURING
11
AD9ANTAGES , DISAD9ANTAGES
12
GENERAL GUIDELINE
1
MAINTENANCE
13
COST ESTIMATION
14
PRECAUTIONS , SAFETY
15
BIBLIOGRAPHY
P$#
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FIGURES SR NO. 1 2 3 ! " # $ % 1& 11 12 13
DESCRIPTION
PAGE NO
Set up flow diagram
CHAPTER-01 ABSTRACT
?
A road is an identifiab"e route way or path between p"aces. Roads are typica""y smoothed paed or otherwise prepared to a""ow easy trae"# thou!h they need not be and historica""y many roads were simp"y reco!ni@ab"e routes without any forma" construction or maintenance. raffic f"ows on the ri!ht or on the "eft side of the road dependin! on the country. In countries where traffic f"ows on the ri!ht traffic si!ns are most"y on the ri!ht side of the road roundabouts and traffic circ"es !o counter-c"ockwise and pedestrians crossin! a two-way road shou"d watch out for traffic from the "eft first. In countries where traffic f"ows on the "eft the reerse is true. About )& of the wor"d by popu"ation drie on the "eft and >> keep ri!ht. 8y roadway distances about 'B drie on the "eft and ?' on the ri!ht een thou!h ori!ina""y most traffic droe on the "eft wor"dwide.
Road construction re3uires the creation of a continuous ri!ht-of-way oercomin! !eo!raphic obstac"es and hain! !rades "ow enou!h to permit ehic"e or foot trae". and may be re3uired to meet standards set by "aw or officia" !uide"ines. he process is often be!un with the remoa" of earth and rock by di!!in! or b"astin! construction of embankments brid!es and tunne"s and remoa" of e!etation this may ino"e deforestation2 and fo""owed by the "ayin! of paement materia". A ariety of road bui"din! e3uipment is emp"oyed in road bui"din!. After desi!n approa" p"annin! "e!a" and enironmenta" considerations hae been addressed a"i!nment of the road is set out by a sureyor he Radii and !radient are desi!ned and staked out to best suit the natura" !round "ee"s and minimi@e the amount of cut and fi"".
*rosion and sediment contro"s are constructed to preent detrimenta" effects. ,raina!e "ines are "aid with sea"ed joints in the road easement with runoff coefficients and characteristics ade3uate for the "and @onin! and storm water system. ,raina!e systems must be capab"e of carryin! the u"timate desi!n f"ow from the upstream catchment with approa" for the outfa"" from the appropriate authority to a watercourse creek rier or the sea for draina!e dischar!e. A 8orrow pit source for obtainin! fi"" !rae" and rock2 and a water source shou"d be "ocated near or in reasonab"e distance to the road construction site. Approa" from "oca" authorities may be re3uired to draw water or for workin! crushin! and screenin!2 of materia"s for construction needs. he top soi" and e!etation is remoed from the borrow pit and stockpi"ed for subse3uent rehabi"itation of the e+traction area. Side s"opes in the e+caation area not steeper than one ertica" to two hori@onta" for safety reasons. 7"d road surfaces fences and bui"din!s may need to be remoed before construction can be!in. rees in the road construction area may be marked for retention. hese protected trees shou"d not hae the topsoi" within the area of the trees drip "ine remoed and the area shou"d be kept c"ear of construction materia" and e3uipment. Compensation or rep"acement may be re3uired if a protected tree is dama!ed. Duch of the e!etation may be mu"ched and put aside for use durin! reinstatement. he topsoi" is usua""y stripped and stockpi"ed nearby for rehabi"itation of new"y constructed embankments a"on! the road. Stumps and roots are remoed and ho"es fi""ed as re3uired before the earthwork be!ins. 0ina" rehabi"itation after road construction is comp"eted wi"" inc"ude seedin! p"antin! waterin! and other actiities to reinstate the area to be consistent with the untouched surroundin! areas. Processes durin! earthwork inc"ude e+caation remoa" of materia" to spoi" fi""in! compactin! construction and trimmin!. If rock or other unsuitab"e materia" E
is discoered it is remoed moisture content is mana!ed and rep"aced with standard fi"" compacted to EF re"atie compaction.
C'APTER(&2 NEED )OR PRO*ECT In our country due to increased payin! capacity adanced "ifesty"e and rapid"y !rowin! industria"i@ation the need H demand of transportation is increasin! day- by- day. he number of ehic"es ro""in! on the road is increasin! 1F
dai"y. $ence chances of accidents are increasin! whi"e crossin! the road especia""y by the chi"dren and o"d persons. So it became necessary to insta"" the road diider which is f"e+ib"e in nature. he basic road diider are those which is fi+ed and diide road in e3ua" part but the need of traffic is that in the pick hour one side of road is jam and other side of road is free out of traffic which causes uncomfortab"e to drier on both side. So we are !oin! to decide to desi!n and dee"op such a traffic contro" system in which diider it se"f make moab"e durin! pick hour diider is sifted portion of road to make re"ief to drie ehic"es. 6e know insu"ation of our system is coasta""y and difficu"t but once this system is insta"" prob"em of road traffic is so"ed.
C'APTER(&3 TYPES OF ROAD ;arious types of road are in use around the wor"d. Roads ran!e in si@e from priate drieways to the stereotypica" two-"ane hi!hway to hi!h capacity dua" carria!eway routes such as freeways motorways and hi!h-3ua"ity dua" carria!eways. he names associated with a particu"ar type of road ary around the wor"d and many 11
names are partia""y e3uia"ent but not e+act"y e3uia"ent to each other. As a resu"t the name !ien to a road in one country cou"d app"y to a different type of road in another country. ,etai"s for each road type are coered in the specific artic"es about each type of road. Road materials
Roads are constructed from many materia"s. he materia" used depends on "oca" conditions and other factors such as the amount of traffic the road is desi!ned for and the wei!ht of the ehic"es a""owed to use the road. Some of the materia"s used to bui"d roads inc"udes% •
Aspha"t concrete
•
8rick
•
Cobb"estone
•
Concrete
•
•
Ice road
Descriptive road terms
Some terms used to describe roads coer characteristics of the road and can be used on many types of roads. hese terms inc"ude% •
,ua" carria!eway a"so known as a diided hi!hway2
•
o"" road
Low capacity
5ow capacity roads are !enera""y "ow speed "oca" roads serin! a particu"ar i""a!e town nei!hborhood or city. hey proide access to and from roads desi!ned with hi!her capacities and for hi!her speeds. hey often a"so sere the broadest ariety 1'
of road users such as pedestrians automobi"es motorcyc"es trucks anima"s wa!ons and carria!es. his cate!ory inc"udes% •
A""ey
•
Arteria" road
•
Court
•
Cu"-de-sac
•
,rieway
•
0ronta!e road
•
5ane
•
Road
•
Street
High speed roads
Dost countries hae major roads of medium capacity that connect cities p"aces other routes or other si!nificant points of interest. hey may hae mu"tip"e "anes of traffic a median or centra" reseration between "anes of opposin! traffic and partia" access contro" ramps and !rade separation2. 7ften they are restricted to motori@ed ehic"es that can maintain hi!h speeds. $oweer they can a"so be as simp"e as a two-"ane shou"der"ess road. hese roads !o by names "ike% •
'J1 road
•
'J' road
•
$i!h-3ua"ity dua" carria!eway 1)
•
*+pressway
•
0arm to Darket Road
•
$i!hway
•
Parkway
•
Super two
High speed restricted access roads
Dost hi!h capacity roads are bui"t to a hi!her standard than !enera" purpose roads. In order to proide for hi!her traffic o"umes access is restricted to certain cate!ories of motori@ed ehic"es and "imited to a certain number of access points where !rade separations and ramps enab"e throu!h traffic to proceed without interruption. hese hi!h capacity routes are a"most a"ways diided. Multi Modal
Du"ti-moda" roads are a newer concept in which a dedicated $7; or carpoo" "ane is a"so set with "i!ht rai" tracks. his sin!"e "ane seres dua" purpose of proidin! priority to 8uses 5i!htrai" as we"" as carpoo"s.
1&
Ma"#e&a"ical "#eorie,
Some traffic en!ineers hae attempted to app"y the ru"es of f"uid dynamics to traffic f"ow "ikenin! it to the f"ow of a f"uid in a pipe. Con!estion simu"ations and rea"time obserations hae shown that in heay but free f"owin! traffic jams can arise spontaneous"y tri!!ered by minor eents G butterf"y effectsG2 such as an abrupt steerin! maneuer by a sin!"e motorist. raffic scientists "iken such a situation to the sudden free@in! of supercoo"ed f"uid.K)L $oweer un"ike a f"uid traffic f"ow is often affected by si!na"s or other eents at junctions that periodica""y affect the smooth f"ow of traffic. A"ternatie mathematica" theories e+ist such as 8oris Merner s three phase traffic theory. 8ecause of the poor corre"ation of theoretica" mode"s to actua" obsered traffic f"ows transportation p"anners and hi!hway en!ineers attempt to forecast traffic f"ow usin! empirica" mode"s. heir workin! traffic mode"s typica""y use a 1(
combination of macro- micro- and mesoscopic features and may add matri+ entropy effects by Gp"atoonin!G !roups of ehic"es and by randomisin! the f"ow patterns within indiidua" se!ments of the network. hese mode"s are then typica""y ca"ibrated by measurin! actua" traffic f"ows on the "inks in the network and the base"ine f"ows are adjusted accordin!"y. Econo&ic "#eorie,
Indias economic sur!e has resu"ted in a massie increase in the number of priate ehic"es on its roads oerwhe"min! the transport infrastructure. Shown here is a traffic jam in ,e"hi. Con!ested roads can be seen as an e+amp"e of the tra!edy of the commons. 8ecause roads in most p"aces are free at the point of usa!e there is "itt"e financia" incentie for driers not to oer-uti"i@e them up to the point where traffic co""apses into a jam when demand becomes "imited by opportunity cost. Priati@ation of hi!hways and road pricin! hae both been proposed as measures that may reduce con!estion throu!h economic incenties and disincenties. Con!estion can a"so happen due to non-recurrin! hi!hway incidents such as a crash or roadworks which may reduce the roads capacity be"ow norma" "ee"s. *conomist Anthony ,owns in his books Stuck in Traffic 1EE'2 and Still Stuck in Traffic 'FF&2 ar!ues that rush hour traffic con!estion is ineitab"e because of the
benefits of hain! a re"atie"y standard work day. In a capita"ist economy !oods can be a""ocated either by pricin! abi"ity to pay2 or by 3ueuein! first-come firstsere2# con!estion is an e+amp"e of the "atter. Instead of the traditiona" so"ution of makin! the GpipeG "ar!e enou!h to accommodate the tota" demand for peak-hour ehic"e trae" a supp"y-side so"ution2 either by widenin! roadways or increasin! Gf"ow pressureG ia automated hi!hway systems ,owns adocates !reater use of road pricin! to reduce con!estion a demand-side so"ution effectie"y rationin! demand2 in turn p"owin! the reenues !enerated therefrom into pub"ic 1>
transportation projects. Road pricin! itse"f is controersia" more information is aai"ab"e in the dedicated artic"e. Classification
Nua"itatie c"assification of traffic is often done in the form of a si+ "etter A-0 "ee" of serice 57S2 sca"e defined in the $i!hway Capacity Danua" a :S document used or used as a basis for nationa" !uide"ines2 wor"dwide. hese "ee"s are used by transportation en!ineers a s a shorthand and to describe traffic "ee"s to the "ay pub"ic. 6hi"e this system !enera""y uses de"ay as the basis for its measurements the particu"ar measurements and statistica" methods ary dependin! on the faci"ity bein! described. 0or instance whi"e the percent time spent fo""owin! a s"owermoin! ehic"e fi!ures into the 57S for a rura" two-"ane road the 57S at an urban intersection incorporates such measurements as the number of driers forced to wait throu!h more than one si!na" cyc"e. K&L Negative impacts
raffic con!estion detector in
It has been su!!ested by some commentators KwhoL that the "ee" of con!estion that society to"erates is a rationa" thou!h not necessari"y conscious2 choice between the costs of improin! the transportation system in infrastructure or mana!ement2 and the benefits of 3uicker trae". 7thers KwhoL "ink it "ar!e"y to subjectie "ifesty"e choices differentiatin! between car-ownin! and car-free househo"ds. Road infrastructure •
9unction improements
1?
o
o
Ramp si!na""in! drip-feedin! mer!in! traffic ia traffic si!na"s onto a con!ested motorway-type roadway
o
Reducin! junctions
5oca"-e+press "anes proidin! throu!h "anes that bypass junction on-ramp and off-ramp @ones
5imited-access road roads that "imit the type and amounts of drieways a"on! their "en!ths
•
Reersib"e "anes where certain sections of hi!hway operate in the opposite direction on different times of the day/ days of the week to match asymmetric demand. his may be contro""ed by ;ariab"e-messa!e si!ns or by moab"e physica" separation
•
Separate "anes for specific user !roups usua""y with the !oa" of hi!her peop"e throu!hput with fewer ehic"es2 o
8us "anes as part of a busway system
o
$7; "anes for ehic"es with at "east three sometimes at "east two2 riders intended to encoura!e carpoo"in!
S"u!!in! impromptu carpoo"in! at $7; access points on a hitchhikin! or payment basis
Darket-based
carpoo"in!
with
pre-ne!otiated
financia"
incenties for the drier
1B
! edit " #r$an planning and design
City p"annin! and urban desi!n practices can hae a hu!e impact on "ee"s of future traffic con!estion thou!h they are of "imited re"eance for short-term chan!e. •
•
Oonin! "aws that encoura!e mi+ed-use dee"opment which reduces distances between residentia" commercia" retai" and recreationa" destinations and encoura!e cyc"in! and wa"kin!2.
•
Carfree cities car-"i!ht cities and eco-cities desi!ned to e"iminate the need to trae" by car for most inhabitants. K(LK>L
•
ransit-oriented dee"opment are residentia" and commercia" areas desi!ned to ma+imi@e access to pub"ic transport.
Supply and demand
See a"so% ransportation ,emand Dana!ement
6idenin! works underway on the D'( motorway to increase the number of "anes. Con!estion can be reduced by either increasin! road capacity supp"y2 or by reducin! traffic demand2. Capacity can be increased in a number of ways but needs to take account of "atent demand otherwise it may be used more stron!"y than anticipated. Critics of the approach of addin! capacity hae compared it to Gfi!htin! obesity by "ettin! out your be"tG inducin! demand that did not e+ist before2.
K?LKBL
1E
Reducin! road capacity has in turn been attacked as remoin! free choice as we"" as increasin! trae" costs and times. Increased supp"y can inc"ude% •
Addin! more capacity at bott"enecks such as by addin! more "anes at the e+pense of hard shou"ders or safety @ones or by remoin! "oca" obstac"es "ike brid!e supports and widenin! tunne"s2
•
Addin! more capacity oer the who"e of a route !enera""y by addin! more "anes2
•
Creatin! new routes
•
raffic mana!ement improements see separate section be"ow2
Reduction of demand can inc"ude% •
Parkin! restrictions makin! motor ehic"e use "ess attractie by increasin! the monetary and non-monetary costs of parkin! introducin! !reater competition for "imited city or road space. KEL Dost transport p"annin! e+perts a!ree that free parkin! distorts the market in faour of car trae" e+acerbatin! con!estion.K1FLK11L
•
Park and ride faci"ities a""owin! parkin! at a distance and a""owin! continuation by pub"ic transport or ride sharin!. Park-and-ride car parks are common"y found at metro stations freeway entrances in suburban areas and at the ed!e of sma""er cities.
•
Reduction of road capacity to force traffic onto other trae" modes. Dethods inc"ude traffic ca"min! and the shared space concept.
•
Road pricin! char!in! money for access onto a road/specific area at certain times con!estion "ee"s or for certain road users 'F
o
GCap and tradeG in which on"y "icensed cars are a""owed on the roads. K1'L
A "imited 3uota of car "icences are issued each year and traded in a
free market fashion. his !uarantees that the number of cars does not e+ceed road capacity whi"e aoidin! the ne!atie effects of shorta!es norma""y associated with 3uotas. $oweer since demand for cars tends to be ine"astic the resu"t are e+orbitant purchase prices for the "icenses pricin! out the "ower "ee"s of society as seen Sin!apores Certificate of *ntit"ement scheme.K1)L o
Con!estion pricin! where a certain area such as the inner part of a con!ested city is surrounded with a cordon into which entry with a car re3uires payment. he cordon may be a physica" boundary i.e. surrounded by to"" stations2 or it may be irtua" with enforcement bein! ia spot checks or cameras on the entry routes. Dajor e+amp"es are Sin!apores e"ectronic road pricin! the 5ondon con!estion char!e system and the Stockho"m con!estion ta+.
•
Road space rationin! where re!u"atory restrictions preent certain types of ehic"es from driin! under certain circumstances or in certain areas. o
umber p"ate restrictions based on days of the week as practiced in seera" "ar!e cities in the wor"d such as AthensK1&L De+ico City and So Pau"o.K1(L In effect such cities are bannin! a different part of the automobi"e f"eet from roads each day of the week. Dain"y introduced to combat smo! these measures a"so reduce con!estion. A weakness of this method is that richer driers can purchase a second or third car to circument the ban. Kcitation needed L
o
Permits where on"y certain types of ehic"es such as residents2 are permitted to enter a certain area and other types such as throu!h'1
traffic2 are banned. K1(L 0or e+amp"e 8ertrand ,e"anoe the mayor of Paris has proposed to impose a comp"ete ban on motor ehic"es in the citys inner districts with e+emptions on"y for residents businesses and the disab"ed. K1>L •
Po"icy approaches which usua""y attempt to proide either strate!ic a"ternaties or which encoura!e !reater usa!e of e+istin! a"ternaties throu!h promotion subsidies or restrictions. o
Incenties to use pub"ic transport increasin! moda" shares. his can be achieed throu!h infrastructure inestment subsidies transport inte!ration pricin! strate!ies that decrease the mar!ina" cost/fi+ed cost ratiosK1?LK1BL and improed timetab"in!.K1ELK'FL
o
Cyc"in! promotion throu!h "e!is"ation cyc"e faci"ities subsidies and awareness campai!ns.K'1L he ether"ands has been pursuin! cyc"e friend"y po"icies for decades and around a 3uarter of their commutin! is done by bicyc"e. K''LK')L
o
e"ecommutin! encoura!ed throu!h "e!is"ation and subsidies. K'&L
o
7n"ine shoppin! promotion K'(LK'>L potentia""y with automated de"iery booths he"pin! to so"e the "ast mi"e prob"em and reduce shoppin! trips made by car.K'?L
Traffic management
:se of so-ca""ed Inte""i!ent transportation system which !uide traffic% •
raffic reportin! ia radio or possib"y mobi"e phones to adise road users
•
;ariab"e messa!e si!ns insta""ed a"on! the roadway to adise road users
•
ai!ation systems possib"y "inked up to automatic traffic reportin! ''
•
raffic counters permanent"y insta""ed to proide rea"-time traffic counts
•
Coner!ence inde+in! road traffic monitorin! to proide information on the use of hi!hway on-ramps
•
Automated hi!hway systems a future idea which cou"d reduce the safe intera" between cars re3uired for brakin! in emer!encies2 and increase hi!hway capacity by as much as 1FF whi"e increasin! trae" speeds Kcitation needed L
•
Parkin! !uidance and information systems proidin! dynamic adice to motorists about free parkin!
%ther associated •
Schoo" openin! times arran!ed to aoid peak hour traffic in some countries priate car schoo" pickup and drop-off traffic are substantia" percenta!es of peak hour traffic2. Kcitation needed L
•
Considerate driin! behaiour promotion and enforcement. ,riin! practices such as tai"!atin! and fre3uent "ane chan!es can reduce a roads capacity and e+acerbate jams. In some countries si!ns are p"aced on hi!hways to raise awareness whi"e others hae introduced "e!is"ation a!ainst inconsiderate driin!.
•
;isua" barriers to preent driers from s"owin! down out of curiosity often ca""ed Grubberneckin!G in the :nited States2. his often inc"udes accidents with traffic s"owin! down een on roadsides physica""y separated from the crash "ocation. his a"so tends to occur at construction sites which is why some countries hae introduced ru"es that motorway construction has to occur behind isua" barrier
')
•
Speed "imit reductions as practiced on the D'( motorway in 5ondon. 6ith "ower speeds a""owin! cars to drie c"oser to!ether this increases the capacity of a road. ote that this measure is on"y effectie if the intera" between cars is reduced not the distance itse"f. 5ow intera"s are !enera""y on"y safe at "ow speeds.
•
5ane sp"ittin!/fi"terin! where space-efficient ehic"es usua""y motorcyc"es and scooters ride or drie in the space between cars buses and trucks. his is howeer i""e!a" in many countries bein! perceied as a safety risk. K'BL
&y country 'ustralia
raffic durin! peak hours in major Austra"ian cities such as 8risbane Sydney and De"bourne is usua""y ery con!ested and can cause considerab"e de"ay for motorists. Austra"ians re"y main"y on radio and te"eision to obtain current traffic information.
ypica" traffic jam in So Pau"o downtown despite road space rationin! by p"ate number. Rua da Consola()o So Pau"o 8rasi". In 8ra@i" the recent records of traffic jams oer the major bi! cities are reco!ni@ed by pub"ic authorities as one of the main cha""en!es for So Pau"o Rio de 9aneiro 8e"o $ori@onte 8rasi"ia Curitiba and Porto A"e!re where due to the countrys
'&
economic bonan@a the automobi"e f"eets hae a"most doub"ed in seera" of these cities from 'FFF to 'FFB. Accordin! to ime Da!a@ine So Pau"o has the wor"ds worst traffic jams. K)FL In 'FFB the accumu"ated tai"backs hae reached in aera!e more than 1'F mi"es 1EF km2 durin! rush hours and on Day E 'FFB the historica" record was set with 1>> mi"es '>> km2 of accumu"ated 3ueues out of ('' mi B)( km2 bein! monitored. K)1L ,espite imp"ementation since 1EE? of road space rationin! by the "ast di!it of the p"ate number durin! rush hours eery weekday traffic in this 'F mi""ion city sti"" e+periences seere con!estion. Accordin! to e+perts this is due to the acce"erated rate of motori@ation occurrin! since 'FF) in So Pau"o the f"eet is !rowin! at a rate of ?.( per year with a"most 1FFF new cars bou!ht in the city eery day and the "imited capacity of pub"ic transport. he subway has on"y )B mi"es >1 km2 of "ines thou!h '' further mi"es are under construction or p"anned by 'F1F. *ery day many citi@ens spend between three up to four hours behind the whee". In order to miti!ate the a!!raatin! con!estion prob"em since 9une )F 'FFB the road space rationin! pro!ram was e+panded to inc"ude and restrict trucks and "i!ht commercia" ehic"es. K)'LK))L ! edit " New *ealand
ew Oea"and has fo""owed stron!"y car-oriented transport po"icies since after 6or"d 6ar II especia""y in the Auck"and area where about one third of the countrys popu"ation "ies2K)&L and current"y has one of the hi!hest car-ownership rates per capita in the wor"d after the :nited States. K)(L 8ecause of the ne!atie resu"ts con!estion in the bi! centres is a major prob"em. Current measures inc"ude both the construction of new road infrastructure as we"" as increased inestment in pub"ic transport which had stron!"y dec"ined in a"" cities of the country e+cept 6e""in!ton.
'(
#nited +ingdom
In the :nited Min!dom the ineitabi"ity of con!estion in some urban road networks has been officia""y reco!nised since the ,epartment for ransport set down po"icies based on the report Traffic in Towns in 1E>)% ,ven when everything that it is possi$ly to do $y way of $uilding new roads and e-panding pu$lic transport has $een done. there would still $e. in the a$sence of deli$erate limitation. more cars trying to move into. or within our cities than could possi$ly $e accommodated/K)>L.
he ,epartment for ransport sees !rowin! con!estion as one of the most serious transport prob"ems facin! the :M. K)?L 7n 1 ,ecember 'FF> Rod *ddin!ton pub"ished a :M !oernment-sponsored report into the future of 8ritains transport infrastructure. he *ddin!ton ransport Study set out the case for action to improe road and rai" networks as a Gcrucia" enab"er of sustained productiity and competitienessG. *ddin!ton has estimated that con!estion may cost the economy of *n!"and Q'' bn a year in "ost time by 'F'(. $e warned that roads were in serious dan!er of becomin! so con!ested that the economy wou"d suffer. K)BL At the "aunch of the report *ddin!ton to"d journa"ists and transport industry representaties introducin! road pricin! to encoura!e driers to drie "ess was an Geconomic no brainerG. here was he said Gno attractie a"ternatieG. It wou"d a""e!ed"y cut con!estion by ha"f by 'F'( and brin! benefits to the 8ritish economy tota""in! Q'B bn a year.K)EL
7n 0ridays in Ca"ifornia Interstate ( is often con!ested as 5os An!e"es residents trae" north for the weekend.
'>
#nited States
he e+as ransportation Institute estimated that in 'FFF the ?( "ar!est metropo"itan areas e+perienced ).> bi""ion ehic"e-hours of de"ay resu"tin! in (.? bi""ion :.S. !a""ons '1.> bi""ion "iters2 in wasted fue" and >?.( bi""ion in "ost productiity or about F.? of the nations <,P. It a"so estimated that the annua" cost of con!estion for each drier was appro+imate"y 1FFF in ery "ar!e cities and 'FF in sma"" cities. raffic con!estion is increasin! in major cities and de"ays are becomin! more fre3uent in sma""er cities and rura" areas. In 'FF( the three areas in the :nited States with the hi!hest "ee"s of traffic con!estion were 5os An!e"es ew =ork City and Chica!o. he con!estion cost for the 5os An!e"es area a"one was estimated at :SE.)'( bi""ion. K&FL 8etween 1EBF and 1EEE the tota" number of mi"es of ehic"e trae" increased by ?> percent.K&1L
K&'L
ationa" and
"oca"
hi!hway
construction pro!rams
hae
accommodated some but not a"" of this traffic !rowth. 0ene1uela
6hi"e most of the wor"d is troub"ed with hi!h !as prices ;ene@ue"a has the "owest !as price in the wor"d. hey pay F.FE? stron! bo"iars an e3uia"ent of F.F) cents per "iter or F.1' per !a""on. ;ene@ue"a has fi+ed their price of !aso"ine at this rate since 1EEB een thou!h it is estimated that the !oernment cou"d sae ) bi""ion do""ars a year by cuttin! )F minutes from the aera!e drie time. Oarhay Infante "eaes home short"y after (am on a )Fkm 1E mi"es2 drie to her job in the capita". If her journey !oes we"" she !ets there three-and-a-ha"f hours "ater. hree years a!o she cou"d !otten to Caracas in &( minutes on the motorway. Accordin! to Oarhay It !ets worse eery day.T o president has been ab"e to increase the price of !aso"ine due to protests that arise eery time there are ta"ks of doin! so. '?
( in true sense speed reducers) at the school building or Hospital building- side road or highway. If these speed breakers Yes! In true sense it is speed and ultimately breaker the opposing impact energy supplied by the hard speed breaker will apply massive thrust impact on the soft leaf spring and suspension system of the vehicle which perhaps may get broken. lso it may cause damage to the occupant goods or passengers. Hence we the group of our class found the need of designing and manufacturing such a system which will make the speed breaker somewhat fle"ible soft which will not damage the vehicle more also the impact energy being absorbed by the generation system will be utili#ed to convert it in to electricity rather than this hard impact transferring to damage the suspension. Here on working this group task we over-comed our following needs$•
we became able to have market survey
•
doped capability of designing a system by collecting necessary data. 'B
•
%earnt actual practical fabrication processes of the sub-components of the system.
•
&lanning the cost estimation ands budget.
•
'uties of a technician or an ngineer.
C'APTER(&3 PRO+,E- O) TRA))IC raffic con!estion has a number of ne!atie effects% •
6astin! time of motorists and passen!ers G opportunity costG2. As a non productie actiity for most peop"e con!estion reduces re!iona" economic hea"th. 'E
•
,e"ays which may resu"t in "ate arria" for emp"oyment meetin!s and education resu"tin! in "ost business discip"inary action or other persona" "osses.
•
Inabi"ity to forecast trae" time accurate"y "eadin! to driers a""ocatin! more time to trae" Gjust in caseG and "ess time on productie actiities.
•
6asted fue" increases air po""ution and carbon dio+ide emissions which may contribute to !"oba" warmin!2 owin! to increased id"in! acce"eration and brakin!. Increased fue" use may a"so in theory cause a rise in fue" costs.
•
6ear and tear on ehic"es as a resu"t of id"in! in traffic and fre3uent acce"eration and brakin! "eadin! to more fre3uent repairs and rep"acements.
•
Stressed and frustrated motorists encoura!in! road ra!e and reduced hea"th of motorists.
•
*mer!encies% b"ocked traffic may interfere with the passa!e of emer!ency ehic"es trae"in! to their destinations where they are ur!ent"y needed.
•
Spi""oer effect from con!ested main arteries to secondary roads and side streets as a"ternatie routes are attempted rat runnin!2 which may affect nei!hborhood amenity and rea" estate prices.
)F
C'APTER(&3 SE,ECTION O) T'E PRO*ECT engineer is always focused towards challenges of bringing ideas and concepts to life. herefore sophisticated machines and modern techni*ues have to be constantly developed and implemented for economical manufacturing of products. t the same time we should take care that there has been no compromise made with *uality and accuracy. In the age of automation machine become an integral part of human being. +y the use of automation machine prove it self that it gives high production rate than manual production rate. In competition market every one wants to increase their production , make there machine multipurpose. he engineer is constantly conformed to the challenges of bringing ideas and design into reality. ew machines and techni*ues are being developed continuously to manufacture various products at cheaper rates and high *uality.
)1
C'APTER (&" OR/ING O) PRO*ECT
he f"e+ib"e road diidin! project works on the princip"e of hi!h tor3ue dc motor and chain drie system in which we make a bo+ shaped casin! for entire moab"e assemb"y with & mm thick mi"d stee" p"ate. he diider assemb"y is mounded on chain drie which is ho"d between two set of sprocket mounted on shaft and pedesta" bearin! arran!ement. he chain drie system is drien by hi!h tor3ue dc !eared motor by separate chain drie mechanism. 6e make who"e assemb"y on separate p"ate for ease in maintenance of system.
)'
C'APTER &$ ,ITERAT0RE S0RE
IMPORTANCE OF SYSTEM
his system ery suitab"e for our country because we hae wide ran!e of road. State/:
ota" Road 5en!th
Area
Popu"ation
km2
s3.km2 mi""ion2
F
Road 5en!th km2 per 1FF per 1 mi""ion s3.km2
of popu"ation2
1(
)&E?
A H Is"ands
1''&
B'&E
Andhra Pradesh
1?'>>E
'?(F>B ?)
>)
')(&
Arunacha" Pradesh
1F'&F
B)?&)
1
1'
E)E&
Assam
>BF?E
?B&)B
'(
B?
'>E)
8ihar
B((>(
1?)B?? E(
&E
BEB
Chandi!arh
1?')
11&
1(11
'1'?
1
))
, H $ae"i
(1B
&E1
F
1F(
)F&?
,e"hi
'>(B'
1&B)
1)
1?E'
'1)'
?&(?
)B1&
'
1E>
(1FB
1))B(F
1E>F'& &>
>B
'BB)
$aryana
'?EF?
&&'1'
1E
>)
1&>?
$imacha" Pradesh
'E>1F
((>?)
>
()
&?()
9HM
1)F&'
'''')> E
>
1&FB
Marnataka
1&'?(&
1E1?E1 (F
?&
'B)E
Mera"a
1&1B(>
)BB>)
)>(
&(FE
Dadhya Pradesh
1EBE)>
&&)&&> ?>
&(
'>1?
Daharashtra
)(E'>'
)F?>EF BB
11?
&F?F
Danipur
1F?>F
'')'?
'
&B
&>?B
De!ha"aya
B)E1
''&'E
'
)?
)?BF
Di@oram
>E1F
'1FB1
1
))
?E&)
a!a"and
1)?)'
1>(?E
'
B)
BE?(
7rissa
'1F')B
1((?F? )(
1)(
>F1(
Pondicherry
')&)
&E(
1
&?)
')'F
Punjab
(B1(1
(F)>'
')
11(
'((F
Rajasthan
1)&>)'
)&'')E (1
)E
'>)B
Sikkim
1B)&
?FE>
'>
)(E>
)'
1
)&
ami" adu
'F(?F>
1)FF(B >F
1(B
)&1'
ripura
1&?'>
1F&B>
1&F
&'(>
:ttar Pradesh
')?)(B
'E&&11 1>1
B1
1&??
6est 8en!a"
??(?E
BB?('
B?
1F1E
&
?>
,ener Co"orado is one of the first imp"ementations of Du"ti-moda" "anes in orth America. In ,ener 5i!htrai" is run manua""y to preent any accidents. he second iteration of "i!ht rai" ca""ed the -R*U Project successfu""y imp"emented 1? mi"es of dua"-track "i!ht rai" bike path and a"so widened conentiona" roadways a"on! most major arteries in the ,ener Detro Area 8i! Idea for ransportation in 8an!a"ore - P"an for on Dotori@ed ransportation in 8an!a"ore 6hen peop"e refer to 8an!a"ore they immediate"y isua"ise the chaotic traffic scenario. A "ot of concern has been e+pressed oer the years on the con!estion issue with !oernment "aunchin! seera" schemes to improe its traffic 8ui"din! seera" Roads 0"yoers etc2 but a"as no so"utionVV Prob"em 8an!a"ore has appro+imate"y >.B mi""ion trips dai"y. :rban spraw" in years has increased the trip "en!ths which has resu"ted in decreasin! mode share of pub"ic transportation and increase in priate automobi"es. he prob"em is not insufficient roads as made out by the authorities but the priority !ien to improe ehicu"ar f"ow rather than improin! peop"e moements. he transportation share is near"y 'F of the 8an!a"ores "anduse which simu"ates internationa" practice. han why so much con!estionW )(
As per my estimate 8an!a"ore "oses out near"y 'FB mi""ion Rs per day due to con!estion A ery Conseratie *stimate2. he root cause for con!estion can be known from the fact that the BB of tota" ehic"es constitute on"y two whee"ers and four whee"ers which contribute on"y )E of tota" rips. So"ution It is ery surprisin! to know that near"y '( of trips are made in ran!e of 1-( km. ear"y &F of those trips are made by motorised share Cars/8ikes2. 6e need to e"iminate those trips by usin! non motorised transportation such as by wa"kin! cyc"in! etc. Proide Pedestrian 0aci"ities. 8an!a"ore "acks !ood pedestrian faci"ities. Pedestrians hae to compete with ehic"es hawkers and encroachment to !ain space. It is fact that near"y &F of peop"e ki""ed in accidents in 8an!a"ore are pedestrians. Improin! footpaths are ery economica" way of sustainab"e transportation which we often ne!"ect. he pedestrian crossin!s are ery rare to find in 8an!a"ore roads. In fact you may find more number of f"yoers in 8an!a"ore than !rade separated pedestrian faci"ities. Authorities need to improe footpaths/ proide pedestrian faci"ities at war footin!. Proide Cyc"in! 0aci"ities Cyc"in! as a mode of transport is irtua""y non-e+istent in 8an!a"ore "ess than '2. 8an!a"ore has near"y &??B() cyc"es. Such a "ar!e number of cyc"es does not transform into trips on roads basica""y due to "ack of faci"ities "ess than 1( operationa" trips2. If proper faci"ities such as cyc"e tracks are proided by the authorities than the mode share has the potentia" to improe in 8an!a"ore. It can a"so be dee"oped as a feeder to pub"ic transportation by proidin! sma"" parkin! faci"ities near prominent bus stops. Internationa""y the City-8ike System is the new )>
bi! thin!. It ino"es proision proision of city bikes with proper infrastructure infrastructure month"ymonth"yannu annua" a""y "y-f -fee ees2 s2 with with see seera ra"" park parkin in! ! "ots "ots pro proid ided ed by the the pri priat atee part party y. It is considered to be the best option to demotorise thus hain! a sustainab"e city. raffic con!estion is a condition on networks that occurs as use increases and is characteri@ed by s"ower speeds "on!er trip times and increased 3ueuein! 3ueuein!.. he most common e+amp"e is the physica" use of roads roads by by ehic"es. 6hen traffic demand is !reat enou!h that the interaction between ehic"es s"ows the speed of the traffic stream con!estion is incurred. As demand approaches the capacity of a road or of the intersections a"on! the road2 e+treme traffic con!estion sets in. 6hen ehic"es are fu""y stopped for periods of time this is co""o3uia""y known as a traffic jam. Con!esti Con!estion on caused caused by eacuees f"eein! $urricane Rita. Rita. raffic in a"" "anes of the hi!hway is trae"in! in the same direction. raffic con!estion occurs when a o"ume of traffic or moda" sp"it !enerates sp"it !enerates demand for space !reater than the aai"ab"e road capacity. here are a number of specific circum circumsta stance ncess which which cause cause or a!!ra a!!raate ate con!es con!estio tion# n# mo most st of them them reduce reduce the the capacity of a road at a !ien point or oer a certain "en!th or increase the number of ehic"es re3uired for a !ien throu!hput of peop"e or !oods. About ha"f of :.S. traffic con!estion is recurrin! and is attributed to sheer wei!ht of traffic# most of the rest is attributed to traffic incidents road works and weather eents. K1L Speed and f"ow can a"so affect network capacity thou!h the re"ationship is comp"e+ raffic research sti"" cannot fu""y predict under which conditions a Gtraffic jamG as opposed to heay but smooth"y f"owin! traffic2 may sudden"y occur. It has been found that indiidua" incidents such as accidents or een a sin!"e car brakin! heai"y in a preious"y smooth f"ow2 may cause ripp"e effects a cascadin! fai"ure2 fai"ure 2 which then spread out and create a sustained traffic jam when otherwise norma" f"ow mi!ht hae continued for some time "on!er. K'L
)?
CHAPTER 4 MATERIAL MATERIAL SELECTION SELECTIO N
he proper se"ection of materia" for the different part of a machine is the main objectie in the fabrication fabrication of machine. machine. 0or a desi!n en!ineer it is must that he be fami"iar fami"iar with the effect effect which the manufacturin! process and heat treatment hae on the properties of materia"s. he Choice of materia" for en!ineerin! purposes depends upon the fo""owin! factors% 1. Aai"ab ai"abi"i i"ity ty of the materia materia"s. "s. '. Suitabi"ity Suitabi"ity of of materia"s materia"s for the the workin! workin! condition condition in serice. ). h hee cost cost of of mat mater eria ia"s "s.. &. Physica Physica"" and chemi chemica" ca" prope properti rties es of mater materia". ia". (. Dechanic Dechanica" a" properti properties es of materia materia". ". he mechanica" properties of the meta"s are those which are associated with the abi"ity of the materia" to resist mechanica" forces and "oad. 6e sha"" now discuss these properties as fo""ows% 1. Stren!th Stren!th % It is is the abi"ity of of a materia" materia" to to resist resist the e+terna""y e+terna""y app"ied forces '. Stre Stress% ss% 6itho 6ithout ut break breakin! in! or yie"d yie"din! in!.. h hee inte interna rna"" resist resistanc ancee offe offere red d by a part part to an e+terna""y app"ied force is ca""ed stress. ). Stiffn Stiffness% ess% It is the abi"ity abi"ity of materia materia"" to resist resist deformatio deformation n under stresses. stresses. he he modu"es modu"es of e"asticity of the measure of stiffness. &. *"asti *"asticity city%% It is the property property of a materia" materia" to re!ain its ori!ina ori!ina"" shape after after deformati deformation on when the e+terna" forces are remoed. remoed. his property is desirab"e for materia" materia" used in too"s and machines. It may be noted that stee" is more e"astic than rubber. (. P"astic P"asticity ity%% It is the property property of a materia" materia" which which retain retain the deforma deformation tion produce produced d under "oad permanent"y. his property of materia" is necessary for for!in! in stampin! ima!es on coins and in ornamenta" work. )B
>. ,ucti ,ucti"i "ity ty%% It is the the prope propert rty y of a mate materia ria"" enab"i enab"in! n! it to be drawn drawn into wire wire with with the app"ication of a tensi"e force. A ducti"e materia" must be both stron! and p"astic. he ducti"ity is usua""y measured by the terms percenta!e e"on!ation and percent reduction in area. he ducti"e materia"s common"y used in en!ineerin! practice are mi"d stee" copper a"uminum nicke" @inc tin and "ead. ?. 8ritt"eness% 8ritt"eness% It is the property property of materia" materia" opposite opposite to ducti"e. It is the Property of breakin! of a materia" with "itt"e permanent permanent distortion. 8ritt"e materia"s materia"s when subjected to tensi"e "oads snap off without !iin! any sensib"e e"on!ation. Cast iron is a britt"e materia". B. Da""e Da""eab abi"i i"ity ty%% It is a speci specia" a" case case of ducti ducti"i "ity ty which which permit permitss mate materia ria"" to be ro""e ro""ed d or hammered hammered into thin sheets a ma""eab"e materia" shou"d be p"astic but it is not essentia" to be so stron!. he ma""eab"e materia"s common"y used in en!ineerin! en!ineer in! practice are "ead "ead soft stee" wrou!ht iron copper and a"uminum. E. o ou!hn u!hness% ess% It is the propert property y of a materia materia"" to resist the fractu fracture re due to hi!h impact impact "oads "oads "ike hammer hammer b"ows. b"ows. he tou!hness tou!hness of the materia" materia" decreases decreases when it is heated. heated. It is measured by the amount of absorbed after bein! stressed up to the point of fracture. his property is desirab"e desirab "e in parts subjected to shock an impact "oads. "oads . 1F. Resi"ience% Resi"ience% It is the property of a materia" to absorb ener!y ener!y and to resist rock and impact "oads. It is measured by amount of ener!y absorbed per unit o"ume within e"astic "imit. his property is essentia" for sprin! materia". 11. Creep% 6hen 6hen a part is subjected to a constant stress at hi!h temperature temperature for "on! period of time it wi"" under!o a s"ow and permanent deformation ca""ed creep. his property is considered in desi!nin! interna" combustion en!ines boi"ers and turbines. 1'. $ardness% It is a ery important important property property of the meta"s and has a wide erity erity of meani meanin!s n!s.. It embra embrace cess many many diff differe erent nt prope properti rties es such such as resis resista tance nce to wear wear scratchin! deformation and mach inabi"ity etc. It a"so means the abi"ity of the meta" to cut another meta". he hardness is usua""y e+pressed in numbers which are dependent on the method of makin! the test. he hardness of a meta" may be determined by the fo""owin! test. a2 8rin 8rine" e""" hardn hardnes esss test test b2 Rockwe"" hardness test c2 ;icker ;ickerss hardness hardness a"so a"so ca""ed ca""ed diamond diamond pyramid2 pyramid2 test and and d2 Shar Sharee sca" sca"er eros osco cope pe..
)E
he science of the meta" is a specia"i@ed and a"thou!h it oerf"ows in to rea"ms of know"ed!e it tends to shut away from the !enera" reader. he know"ed!e know"ed!e of materia"s materia"s and their properties is of !reat si!nificance for a desi!n en!ineer. he machine e"ements shou"d be made of such a materia" which has properties suitab"e for the conditions of operations. In addition to this a desi!n en!ineer must be fami"iar with the manufacturin! processes and the heat treatments hae on the properties of the materia"s. In desi!nin! the arious part of the machine it is necessary to know how the materia" wi"" function in serice. 0or this certain characteristics or mechanica" properties most"y used in mechanica" mechanica" en!ineerin! practice are common"y determined determined from standard tensi"e tests. In en!ineerin! practice the machine parts are subjected to arious forces which may be due to either one or more of the fo""owin!. 1. *n *ner er!y !y tran transm smit itte ted d '. 6ei!ht i!ht of mach machin inee ). 0ric 0ricti tiona ona"" resis resistan tance ce &. Inert Inertia ia of rec recipr iproca ocati tin! n! part partss (. Chan Chan!e !e of of tem tempera peratu ture re >. 5ack 5ack of of ba"a ba"ance nce of moi moin! n! parts parts he se"ection of the materia"s depends upon the arious types of stresses that are set up durin! operation. he materia" se"ected shou"d with stand it. Another criteria for se"ection of meta" depend upon the type of "oad because a machine part resist "oad more easi"y than a "ie "oad and "ie "oad more easi"y than a shock "oad. Se"ection of the materia" depends upon factor of safety which in turn depends upon the fo""owin! factors. 1. Re"i Re"iab abi"i i"itie tiess of prop propert ertie iess '. Re"i Re"iab abi"i i"ity ty of of app" app"ie ied d "oad "oad ). he certaint certainty y as to to e+act e+act mode mode of of fai"ur fai"uree &. he e+tent e+tent of of simp" simp"ify ifyin! in! assum assumpti ptions ons (. h hee e+te e+tent nt of of "oca "oca"i "i@e @ed d >. he e+ten e+tentt of initia" initia" stresse stressess set up durin! durin! manufa manufactur cturin! in! ?. he e+tent e+tent "oss "oss of "ife "ife if fai" fai"ure ure occur occurss B. he e+ten e+tentt of "oss "oss of prope property rty if if fai"ure fai"ure occurs occurs
M$%#ri$" u#&
&F
Mi"& %##" R#$!);
1. Di"d stee" is readi"y aai"ab"e in market '. It is economica" to use ). It is aai"ab"e in standard si@es &. It has !ood mechanica" properties i.e. it is easi"y machinab"e (. It has moderate factor of safety because factor of safety resu"ts in unnecessary wasta!e of materia" and heay se"ection. 5ow factor of safety resu"ts in unnecessary risk of fai"ure >. It has hi!h tensi"e stren!th ?. 5ow co-efficient of therma" e+pansion PROPERTIES OF MILD STEEL;
D.S. has a carbon content from F.1( to F.)F. hey are easi"y wie"dab"e thus can be hardened on"y. hey are simi"ar to wrou!ht iron in properties. 8oth u"timate tensi"e and compressie stren!th of these stee" increases with increasin! carbon content. hey can be easi"y !as we"ded or e"ectric or arc we"ded. 6ith increase in the carbon percenta!e we"d abi"ity decreases. Di"d stee" sere the purpose and was hence was se"ected because of the aboe purpose BRIGHT MATERIAL;
It is a machine drawned. he main basic difference between mi"d stee" and bri!ht meta" is that mi"d stee" p"ates and bars are for!ed in the for!in! machine by means is not for!ed. 8ut the materia"s are drawn from the dies in the p"astic state. herefore the materia" has !ood surface finish than mi"d stee" and has no carbon deposits on its surface for e+trusion and formation of en!ineerin! materia"s thus !iin! them a !ood surface finish and thou!h retainin! their meta""ic properties
&1
C'APTER (&% -AC'INE DESIGN
Machine design INTRODUCTION
he subject of DAC$I* ,*SI< dea"s with the art of desi!nin! machine of structure. A machine is a combination of resistance bodies with successfu""y constrained re"atie motions which is used for transformin! other forms of ener!y &'
into mechanica" ener!y or transmittin! and modifyin! aai"ab"e desi!n is to create new and better machines or structures and improin! the e+istin! ones such that it wi"" conert and contro" motions either with or without transmittin! power. It is the practica" app"ication of machinery to the desi!n and construction of machine and structure. In order to desi!n simp"e component satisfactori"y a sound know"ed!e of app"ied science is essentia". In addition stren!th and properties of materia"s inc"udin! some metro"o!ica" are of prime importance. Mnow"ed!e of theory of machine and other branch of app"ied mechanics is a"so re3uired in order to know the e"ocity. Acce"eration and inertia force of the arious "inks in motion mechanics of machinery ino"e the desi!n.
CONCEPT IN M.D.P.
Consideration in Dachine ,esi!n 6hen a machine is to be desi!ned the fo""owin! points to be considered% i2 ypes of "oad and stresses caused by the "oad. ii2 Dotion of the parts and kinematics of machine. his dea"s with the iii2 type of motion i.e. reciprocatin! . Rotary and osci""atory. i2
Se"ection of materia" H factors "ike stren!th durabi"ity wei!ht corrosion resistant we"d abi"ity machine abi"ity are considered. &)
2 0orm and si@e of the components. i2 0rictiona" resistances and ease of "ubrication. ii2 Conience and economica" in operation. iii2
:se of standard parts.
i+2 0aci"ities aai"ab"e for manufacturin!. +2 Cost of makin! the machine. +i2 umber of machine or product are manufactured.
GENERAL PROCEDURE IN MACHINE DESIGN
he !enera" steps to be fo""owed in desi!nin! the machine are as fo""owed.
i2
Preparation of a statement of the prob"em indicatin! the purpose of the machine.
ii2
Se"ection of !roups of mechanism for the desire motion.
iii2
Ca"cu"ation of the force and ener!y on each machine member.
i2
Se"ection of materia". &&
2
,eterminin! the si@e of component drawin! and sendin! for manufacture.
i2
Preparation of component drawin! and sendin! for manufacture.
ii2 Danufacturin! and assemb"in! the machine.
,C <*AR*, D77R
&(
,*SI< 70 ,C D77R Power of motor X Y $.P X ?&> + .'( X 1B>.( - m /s Rpm of motor X 1BFF rpm 7ut put rpm re3uired X '&rpm Da+ "oad X 1FF k! X 1FF + E.B1 X EB1 Da+ "oad transported X 1'Fk! X 1'F+ E.B1 X 11?? umber of sta!e in !ear bo+ X ' Ratio of !earin! X1 % ?&.B
CA5C:5AI7 07 0IA5 SP**, H 7RN:* 70 S=S*D
Power of motor
X
P
X
1B>.( watt.
'Z P X ---------------->F 6here [ Rpm of motor
X
1BFF
[or3ue transmitted 'Z + 1BFF + 1B>.( X --------------------->F
X F.EBE-m
X EBE.E -mm
X EEF -mm &>
CA5C:5AI7 70 7RN:* 78AI 8= <*AR 87U In put tor3ue of !ear bo+ X EEF - mm In put rpm of !ear bo+ X 1BFF rpm or3ue H rpm obtain at !earin! B1 rpm 6orm whee" out put X && teeth
, X &> mm
1BFF rpm Dain motor shaft X B spira"
As reduction ratio is 1%'' So 7ut put rpm of !ear bo+ is
' X 1 / ''
'
'
X
1BFF '' X
B1.B rpm &?
' X B' rpm
7RN:* A <*AR 87U 7: P: 1
' X
'
1
1BFF
X
B' +
+
+ EEF
X 1BFF + EEF B'
X '1?)1 -mm
' X '1?)1-mm 5oad of system X 1FF k! X 1FF + E.B1 X EB1 Da+ "oad transported X 1'Fk! X 1'F+ E.B1 X 11??
7A5 57A, X EB1 J 11?? X '1(B
6e know X 0 + R So '1?)1 X 0 + &> / ' 0 X '1?)1 + ' \ &> 0 X E&&.B 0 X E&( / E.B1 X E> k!
&B
As out put of !earin! system is insufficient to "ift the tota" "oad of )FF k! so further more speed reduction is re3uired to increase the tor3ue a"ue. 6e use spur !earin! hain! reduction ratio X 1 % ).& So tor3ue at out put speed of spur !earin! As reduction ratio is 1%).& ,X1>mm X 1F
,X>F mm X )&
' X 1 / ).&
'
X
B' ). &
'
X
'
X '& rpm
'&.1 rpm
7RN:* A <*AR 87U 7: P: 1
' X
'
1
B' '&
X
+ '1?)1 &E
+
+
X B' + '1?)1 '&
X ?&'&?.(B -mm
' X ?&'&B -mm or3ue X force + distance or3ue X force + radius of out put !ear ?&'&B X 0 + >F /' 0 X ?&'&B + ' / >F 0 X '&?&.(E 0 X '&?( 0 X '&?( / E.B1 X '('.' k! 0 X '(' k! his 0orce ;a"ue Is Sufficient So ransmission Is Safe.
FORCE RE
SO OUTPUT FORCE OF SYSTEM F= 242 > Fr ? F
As out put force is more than re3uired force a"ue so desi!n of transmission system is safe.
DESIGN OF CHAIN DRI9E (F
6e know RASDISSI7 RAI7 X O' / O1 X '/1 X )F/)FX 1 0or this transmission ratio number of teeth on pinion sprocket is in the ran!e of )( to '( so we se"ect number of teeth on pinion sprocket as )F teeth. So O1 X O' X )F teeth S,L,CT2%N %3 42TCH %3 S4R%C+,T
he pitch is dicided on the basis of RPD of sprocket. RPD of pinion sprocket is aeiab"e in norma" condition it is X ?' rpm 0or this rpm a"ue we se"ect pitch of sprocket as 1'.?mm from tab"e. P X 1'.?mm CA5C:5AI7 70 DIID:D C**R ,ISAC* 8*6** SPR7CM*S
$* RASDISSI7 RAI7 X O' / O1 X )F/)F X 1 which is "ess than ). So from tab"e MINIMUM CENTER DISTANCE X C4 J )F to (F mm 2
6here C4 X
,c1 J ,c' '
C4 X
11' J 11' '
C4 X 11' mm
DIID:D C**R ,ISAC* X 11' J )F to (F mm 2 DIID:D C**R ,ISAC* X 1(F mm
CALCULATION OF 9ALUES OF CONSTANTS ./ .0 .1 .2 .3 .4
5oad factor M1 X 1.'( 5oad with mi"d shock 2 (1
F$(%!r '!r &i%$)(# r#u"$%i!) K2 = 1.24 @ Fi*#& (#)%#r &i%$)(#
0actor for center distance of sprocket M) XF.B 0actor for position of sprocket M& X 1 5ubrication factor M( X 1.( periodic2 Ratin! factor M> X 1.F sin!"e shift2
C'LC#L'T2%N %3 0'L#, %3 3'CT%R %3 S'3,T5
0or pitch X 1'.? H speed of rotation of sma"" sprocket X ?' rpm 0AC7R 70 SA0*= X B.(( CA5C:5AI7 70 ;A5:* 70 A5576A85* 8*ARI< SR*SS 0or pitch X 1'.? H speed of rotation of sma"" sprocket X ?'rpm A5576A85* 8*ARI< SR*SS X '.B? k! / cm ' X '.B? ] EB1 / 1FF X'B /mm'
C'LC#L'T2%N %3 C%,332C,NT %3 S'6 +
0or hori@onta" position coefficient of sa! M X > CA5C:5AI7 70 DAUID:D *SI7 7 C$AI As we know ma+imum tor3ue on shaft X ma+ X 1B + 1F) -mm 6here 1 X ension in ti!ht side ' X ension in s"ack side 717' X center distance between two shaft 0rom fi!. Sin ∝ X R1 - R'
717'
Sin ∝ X 1FF - )F >>F Sin ∝ X F.1 ('
∝ X > T% 32ND θ θ X 1BF ^'∝ 2 U ).1&/1BF θ X 1BF ^']> 2 U ).1&/1BF θ X '.E rad
we know that 1/' X eµθ 1/' X eF.)( + '.E 1 X 1.1 ' 6e hae X 1 ^ ' 2 U R 1BFFF X 1.1 ' ^ ' 2 U 1FF ' X 1BFF 1 X 1.1 U 1BFF 1 X 1EBF So tension in ti!ht side X 1EBF 6e know Stress X force / area Stress induced X 1EBF/ ).1& ] B ' / & 2 Stress induced X )E.&1 /mm' As induced stress is "ess than a""owab"e desi!n of chain is safe .
CALC5LATION OF MINIM5M 6REA.ING LOAD OF CHAIN Ca"cu"ation of chain e"ocity X ).1&]p2 / >FFFFSin 1BF / O12 2 X ).1&]?'2 / >FFFFSin 1BF / )F2 X F.F)(m / sec 6e know ()
N X ]?(]n] Ms / 6here X rpm of sma"" sprocket N X minimum breakin! "oad of chain ; X chain e"ocity .n X a""owab"e factor of safety Ms X M1]M']M)]M&]M(]M> N X ?']?(]B.((]1.B?( / F.F)( N X '&?))E'.B> k!f As minimum "oad bearin! capacity is much more than app"ied "oad so desi!n of chain is safe.
DESIGN OF SHAFT 8*,I<% he materia" forces that are dee"oped on any cross section of the shaft !ie rise to stresses at eery point. he interna" or resistin! moment !ies rise to so ca""ed bendin! stresses. 7RSI7% 6hen the shaft is twisted by the coup"e such that the a+is of the shaft and the a+is of the coup"e coincides the shaft is subjected to pure torsion and the stresses at any point of cross section is torsion or shear stresses. C7D8I*, 8*,I< A, 7RSI7% (&
In practice the shaft in !enera" are subjected to combination of the aboe two types of stresses. he bendin! stresses may be due to fo""owin! 1.
6ei!ht of chain H sprocket
'.
Pu"" of chain
).
*ccentric Dountin!
&.
Disa"i!nment
he torsiona" moement on the other hand may be due to direct or indirect twistin!. hus any cross-section of the shaft is subjected simu"taneous"y of both bendin! stresses and torsiona" stresses. Shaft is made up of D.S SA* 1F&F hain! Sut X >BF Dpa H Syt X )BFDpa. 5en!th of shaft X >'F mm his shaft has two support p"aced at e3ua" distance from center $ori@onta" force X ?1).&> ;ertica" force X '>? ;ertica" force X 1BFFF
$7RIO7A5 57A, ,IA
1BFFF (F(mm
((
A
C
11(mm
8
>'Fmm
Ra X )))E
Rb X 1&>>1
Ra J Rb X 1BFFF akin! moment about A Rb + >'F X 1BFFF + (F( Rb X 1BFFF + (F( >'F
Rb X 1&>>1.'E Ra J Rb X 1BFFF Ra X 1BFFF - Rb Ra X 1BFFF ^ 1&>>1 Ra X )))E CA5C:5AI7 70 DAUID:D 8*,I< D7D* 6e see ma+imum bendin! moment occur at point C Da+ bendin! moment X Ra + (F( Da+ bendin! moment X )))E + (F( Da+ bendin! moment X 1>B>1E( mm
(>
Da+imum bendin! moment X 1>B>1E( -mm Da+imum tor3ue X '&B>F -mm App"y !uest theory of fai"ure ma+ ' J Dma+ '
*3ua"ent tor3ue X
'&B>F ' J 1>B>1E( '
*3ua"ent tor3ue X
*3ua"ent tor3ue X
1>B>1E( ^ mm
:sin! tortion formu"a e
X
Z/1> + ds) + fs
1>B>1E(X Z /1> + )F ) + fs induced fs induced X?> / mm '
_ EF / mm'
As induced stress is ery "ess in torsion desi!n of shaft is safe ,*SI< 70 C-S*CI7 Dateria"% - D.S. he ertica" co"umn channe" is subjected to bendin! stress (?
Stress !ien by X` D/I X fb / y In aboe e3uation first we wi"" find the moment of inertia about + and y A+is and take the minimum moment of inertia considerin! the channe" of IS5C ?( + &F si@e.
" X &F tX(
8 X ?(
b X >(
6e know the channe" is subject to a+ia" compressie "oad In co"umn section the ma+imum bendin! moment occurs at channe" of section D X Rc + 5/' D X 1BFFF + ()F/' D X &??FFFF -mm 6e know fb X D/O O X t " + b J b '/>22 O X ( &F + >( J >( '/>22 (B
O X ))F& mm) ow check bendin! stress induced in C section
fb induced X D/O fb induced X &??FFFF /))F& X 1&.&) / mm ' As induced stress a"ue is "ess than a""owab"e stress a"ue desi!n is safe. fb X Permissb"e bendin! stress X 1'F / mm fb induced _ fb a""owab"e $ence our desi!n is safe. DESIGN OF 6ELDED JOINT OF CHANNEL %
he we"ded joint is subjected to pure bendin! moment . so it shou"d be desi!n for bendin! stress. 6e know minimum area of we"d or throat area
A X F.?F? + s + " 6here
s X si@e of we"d " X "en!th of we"d
A X F.?F? + ( + ?( J &F J )( J (B J)( 2
A X F.?F? + ( + '&)
A X B(E mm'
(E
8endin! stren!th of para""e" fi""et we"d
P X A + fb
fb X BF / mm '
As "oad app"ied at the end of channe" joint is 1BFFF . So moment !enerated at the we"ded joint is
D XP + 5 X 1BFFF+ ?( X 1)(FFFF ^ mm
we know fb X D /O
O X 8$) ^ bh) ----------------------
>$
&F + ?() ^ )( + (B ) OX
-----------------------------------
> + ?(
O X 'FEB'&
Ca"cu"atin! induce stress dee"oped in we"ded joint
fb induced
X 1)(FFFF / 'FEB'& >F
X >.&) /mm ' As induce stress is "ess then a""owab"e stress the desi!n is safe.
C'APTER( 1& -AN0)ACT0RING he process of conersion of raw materia" in to finished products usin! the three resources as Dan machine and finished sub-components. Danufacturin! is the term by which we transform resource inputs to create :sefu" !oods and serices as outputs. Danufacturin! can a"so be said as an intentiona" act of producin! somethin! usefu" . he transformation process is Shown be"ow-
Input out put
*"ement :sefu" product Dateria" Products ,ata Mnow"ed!e *ner!y Serices ;ariab"e cost
Conentiona" process
ransformation Dachines Interpretation Ski"" 0i+ed cost
Reenue
>1
It s the phase after the desi!n. $ence referrin! to the those a"ues we wi"" p"an he arious processes usin! the fo""owin! machines%i2
:niersa" "athe
ii2
Di""in! machine
iii2
i2
Power saw
2
,ri"" machine
i2
*"ectric arc we"din! machine
FABRICATION AND OPERATION SHEET
NAME OF THE PART
SHAFT
MATERIAL
BRIGHT STEEL
SR.7.
1.
,*AI5
D/C.
775
7P*R.
:S*,
:S*,
Darkin! on
-
ACC*S
-
-
D*A.IS.
Sca"e
shaft '.
).
Cuttin! as
Power
$ock saw
9i! H
per dw!
hack saw b"ade
fi+tures
0acin! both
5athe
Sin!"e
Chuck
side of shaft
machine
point
Sca"e ;ernier ca"iper
cuttin! >'
too" urnin! as
&.
-
-
-
-
;ice
-
per dw! si@e 0i""in! on
(.
0"at fi"e
both end
COMPONENT; FRAME MATERIAL;-
M.S. PLATE
1
SR. 7
1
'
)
,*SCRIPI7 70 7P*RAI7
Cuttin! the p"ate of & mm thick in to "en!th as per dw! Cuttin! the s"ot on top p"ate piece as per dw! 0i"in! operation can be performed on cuttin! side and brin! it in
DAC$I* :S*,
C:I<
D*AS:R*D*
ID*
Stee" ru"e
1(min.
Stee" ru"e
1(min.
ry s3uare
1( min.
8ench ice
0i"e
>)
perpendicu"ar C.S.
&
6e"d the p"ate to the re3uired si@e as per the drawin! ,ri""in! the frame at re3uired points as per the drawin!.
(
*"ectric arc we"din! machine Radia" dri"" machine
-------
ry s3uare
'F min
wist dri""
;ernier ca""iper
1F min.
COMPONENT; SPROKET MATERIAL;-
M.S
SR. 7
,*SCRIPI7 70 7P*RAI7
DAC$I* :S*,
C:I<
D*AS:R*D*
ID*
1
ake standard sproket as per desi!n
------
----------
-------------
---------
'
0ace both side 5athe of hub portion machine
Sin!"e
;ernier ca"iper
1( min.
;ernier ca"iper
'F min.
point cuttin! too"
)
$o"d it in three jaw chuck H bore inner dia as per shaft si@e
5athe
Sin!"e
machine
point cuttin! too" >&
&
Cut key way as per dw!
S"ottin! machine
(
0i""in! burrs
0"at fi""
Sin!"e point cuttin! too" ---------
;ernier ca""iper
1F min.
----------------
( min.
COMPONENT; MOTOR BASE MATERIAL;-
M.S
1
SR.NO.
OPERATION
MACHINE
TOOL/GAUGE
TIME
1.
Cut D.S. p"ate of &mm thickness of re3uired dimensions.
$and "eer Stee" ru"e cuttin! machine
1( min.
'.
It is bent at its ed!es
$and press
8endin! dies
'F min.
).
6e"d at bottom p"ate ed!e
6e"din! machine
6e"din! rod
1F min.
&.
Corners are rounded off
-----------
$and !rinder
1F min. >(
(.
It is coated with red o+ide and then after painted
Air compressor
Red o+ide and !reen paint
'F min
TI-E ACCO0NTING -AC'INING TI-E ESTI-ATION( his machining cost estimation gives us time re*uire to machine a particular component on machine. his gives us an estimation of how much time will be re*uired to hire the machine for that particular component. his is done for all components e"cept standard parts.
PROCED0RE )OR CA,C0,ATING -AC'INING TI-E ) fter the machining time has been calculated including allowance for each component because a component can have more than one operation to be carried out. Hence rates of machine are different. /) he machining time is calculated using standard working rates. 0) he time re*uired to manufacture a given component on a machine is multiplied by machine rate to give machine cost. >>
1) he estimation of machining cost for total number of components gives us machining cost estimation. 2) 3achining time of components are estimated in order to know total manufacturing cost of component. otal time includes basic time , various other factors which are taken into consideration , they are $ ) 4p time , down time
5 67 of basic time.
ransportation time
5 6 minutes.
8entrime time
5 /6 minutes
Inspection time
5 /6 minutes
9ther allowances taken into consideration are $ ) &ersonal allowance
5 27 of basic time
/) :ati*ue allowance
5 ;7 of basic time
0) 8ontingency allowance 5 27 of basic time
TI-E ANA,SIS ) urning 9peration he machinin! time in a "ather work can be ca"cu"ated for particu"ar operation. If speed of job food H "en!th of job is known as 9.C. ime taken for comp"ete cut
5 min 5s"n ob .l 5 %ength of >ob to be m=ced +) ?haping operation
>?
If "en!th of cuttin! stokes breadth of job feed H cuttin! speed are known time re3uired to comp"ete job may be ca"cu"ated as#
5 % @ + ( A m)=666 B C " ?.
5 ime re*uired to complete cut in min
%
5 %ength of table travel to complete cut in mm
?D
5 :eed per tooth in mm
D
5 o.of teeth of cutter
.n
5 o.of revolutions of cutter per minute ') 'rilling operation
3achining time in drilling operation can be determined by formula.
5 =sr " n mm.
5 3achining time in min.
.l
5 %ength of travel of drill per min.
.n
5 o.of revolutions of drill in mm. >B
.sr
5 :eed per revolution of drill in mm.
) Erinding operations. ime taken for grinding operation is given by
5 li=sd " np " k
5 %ength of longitudinal travel
.sd
5 %ongitudinal feed in mm=revolutions
.np
5 ?peed of workpiece in rpm.
.k
5 8oefficient depending on the specific grade of accuracy , class of surface finished (F 5 .0 to .;)
TI-E RE40IRED )OR -AC'INING TI-E CO-PONENTS ) :rame ngle measuring
5 06 min
ngle cutting
5 12 min
5 /6 min
otal time
5 G2 min
/) %inkage 3easurement
5 2 min
8utting
5 2 min A 6 min 5 /2 min
'rilling
5 /6 min
5 6 min
otal time
5 ;6 min
>E
0) +earing seat :acing
5 /6 min
urning
5 /2 min
'rilling
5 6 min A /6 min 5 06 min
+oring
5 /6 min
otal time 5 G2 min 1) +ush :acing
5 /6 min A /6 min 5 16 min
urning
5 /6 min A 06 min A 6 min 5 6 min
'rilling
5 /6 min A /6 min 5 16 min
+oring
5 /2 min
otal time
5 2 min
2) ?haft :acing
5 /6 min A /6 min 5 16 min
urning
5 6 min A 6 min 5 /6 min
otal time
5 6 min
) 8asing 8utting
5 /6 min
+ending
5 16 min
'rilling
5 06 min
Biveting
5 /2 min
otal time
5 2 min
;) ?lots 8utting
5 2 min
3illing 5 6 min ?F
+oring
5 2 min
otal time
5 /6 min
) Best plates 8utting +ending
5 2 min 5 6 min
welding
5 /2 min
otal time
5 26 min
G) Bollers 8utting
5 /6 min
grinding
5 /2 min
welding
5 /6 min
otal time
5 2 min
-ET'OD ST0D 3ethod of the study is the systematic recording , critical "amination of e"isting , proposed ways of doing work as a means of developing , applying easier , more effective methods , reducing costs. O+*ECTIES5 () he improvements of processes , procedures. (/) he improvements of factory shop , work place. %ayout , design of plat , e*uipment. (0) conomy in human effort. (1) Improvements in the use of materials machines , manpower. (2) he development of better physical working environment. RECORDING TEC'NI40ES ?1
he ne"t step in basic procedure after selecting the work to be studies is to record all the facts relating to e"isting methods. P0RPOSE O) RECORDING () o enable the process to be clearly understood. (/) o present the e"isting facts for analogs. ),O PROCESS C'ARTS :low process chart is defined as a graphic representation of all storages occurring during a process or procedure which includes information considered
necessary for analysis such as time re*uired *uantity , distance moved etc. TPES O) ),O PROCESS C'ART (a) man type $ It records what the worker does. (b) material type$ It records what happens to the materials. (a) *uipment type$ It records how the e*uipment is used. :low process chart gives a complete picture at what is being done , helps the man to understand the facts , their relationship to one another. O+*ECTIE O) ),O PROCESS C'ART () o visuali#e the complete se*uence of events occurring in process. (/) o study the events in a systematic way for the complete analysis of the manufacture of the component part for the following purposes. (a) o improve the layout (b) o improve material handling (c) o reduce delays. (d) o diminutive combine or re-arrange the events in a systematic way. ?'
(0) o submit the proposals to managements in a form which can be easily understood. (1) o guide supervisors , operators regarding detailed operating instructions. ccording to the nature of >ob being studies , purpose for the record is re*uired.
6A7 C'ARTS Outli8e pro9e:: 9;art :low process chart $ man type :low process chart $ material type :low process chart $ e*uipment type 6+7 C'ARTS u:i8g time :9ale i)
multiple activity chart
ii)
simo chart
iii)
&.3..?. chart
6 C7 DIAGRA-S INDICATING -OE-ENTS < -ODE,S i)
:low diagrams
ii)
?tring diagrams
iii)
8ycle graph
iv)
8hromo cycle graph
v)
ravel chart
(0) o compare between two or more alternative methods. (1) o select operations for a detailed study.
:ollowing chart shows the method study chart for manufacturing different ?)
9b>ects $-
?Y3+9%? 8ICIY
&B'93I' B?4%
9peration
It indicated main steps in a process method or procedure.
Inspection
Inspection is an act of checking for correctness of the *uantity or *uality of the items.
ransport
his indicates a movement of workers 3aterials or e*uipment from place to place. 'elay occurs when something stops the process , product waits for ne"t event.
'elay (temporary storage) ?torage
It indicates when any ob>ect is internationally retained in a state or location , removal of the ob>ect re*uires proper authori#ation.
8hange of operation
It indicates change of operation or process.
9peration cum ransportation
"ample J rticles are being painted as they are transported by the chain conveyor. Inspection "ample J powder milk tin is being cum 9peration weighed.(inspection) s it is filed. +oth the events occur simultaneously.
FLO6 PROCESS CHARTS @MATERIAL TYPE
12 PART M.S.Ch$))#"
SR. 7. 1 '
,ISCRIPI7 70 ACI;I= Inspection of raw materia" Raw materia" ?&
&
purchasin! Darkin! and cuttin! of materia" Chan!e of operation
(
Chamferin! the ed!es
>
Inspection of finished an!"es Stora!e
)
?
4'RT 7 D.S.P5A* 0RAD*
SIO* ^ AS P*R $* ,RA6I<
Sr.o.
Actiities
1. '. ). &. (. >. ?. B. E. 1F. 11. 1'. 1). 1&. 1(. 1>
Raw Dateria" Doed to m/c shop Cuttin! aken to we"din! m/c. 6eddin! Doed to surface !rinder
?(
C'APTER(11 ADANTAGES AND DISADANTAGES :ollowing are the different advantages and disadvantages of :%@I+% B9' 'ICI'B unit.
ADANTAGES $:ollowing are the various advantages$) It is easy for maintenance. /) It re*uires very no skill or no skill for itKs operation being the self activated. 0) It is multi-purpose. 1) ?o many installation locations having #ero scarcity but ampleness of the space.
DISADANTAGES(
) it re*uired periodical maintenance ?>
/) special road construction is re*uired to be designed 0) he system becomes trouble some in rainy season.
C'APTER -AINTENANCE M$i)%#)$)(#;-
o machine in the unierse is 1FF maintenance free machine. ,ue to its continuous use it is under!oin! wear and tear of the matin! and s"idin! components. A"so due to the chemica" reaction takes p"ace when the materia" comes in the contact with water makes its corrosion. $ence it is re3uired to rep"aced or repaired. his process of repairin! and rep"acin! is ca""ed as maintenance work.
AUTONOMOUS MAINTAINENCE ACTI9ITY;-
12 Conductin! initia" c"eanin! H inspection. '2 *"iminate sources of dirt debris e+cess "ubricants etc. )2 Improe c"eanin! maintainabi"ity. &2 :nderstand e3uipment functionin!. (2 ,ee"op inspection ski""s. >2 ,ee"op standard check"ists. ?2 Institute autonomous inspection. B2 7r!ani@e and mana!e the work enironment. E2 Dana!e e3uipment re"iabi"ity. ??
C5AIR C5*AI< 5:8RICAI< A,9:SD* ISP*CI7
CLEANING
6hy c"eanin! W Preent or e"iminate contamination. 0ind ways to simp"ify the c"eanin! process. 0aci"itates throu!h inspection when done by know"ed!eab"e operators and \ or maintainers.
CLEANING IS INSPECTION.
C"ean e3uipment thorou!h"y
5ook at and touch eery area on the e3uipment
,etect deterioration and defectie parts in e3uipment
Identify difficu"ties to c"ean areas
0ree e3uipment from contamination
Remarkab"e sources of contamination
orma" 7r abnorma"
*+pose hidden defects
CLEANING PROCESS
6hat to "ook for when c"eanin!. •
Dissin! part
•
6ear ?B
•
Rust and corrosion
• oise •
Cracks
•
Proper a"i!nment
•
5eaks
•
P"ay or s"oppiness
9ISUAL AIDS TO MAINTAIN CORRECT E
•
Datch marks on nut and bo"ts
•
Co"or markin! of permissib"e operatin! ran!es on dia"s and !au!es
•
Darkin! of f"uid type and f"ow direction of pipes
•
Darkin! at open / c"osed position on a"es
•
5abe"in! at "ubrication in"ets and tube type
•
Darkin! minimum / ma+imum f"uid "ee"s
•
5abe" inspection se3uences
ADJUST , MINOR REPAIR
Dinor repairs if •
rained
•
*+perienced
•
Performs safety
•
Simp"e too" re3uired
• ot "on!er than 'F/)F minutes
?E
CHRONIC DEFECTS
C$R7IC 57SS*S
57SS IS :R*C7<IS*,
57SS IS R*C7<IS*, CRONIC DEFECTS
Remedia" action unsuccessfu"
Remedia" action Can not be taken
Remedia" action is not taken
E
1. Restore obious deterioration throu!hout. '. *stab"ish p"an se"ect pi"ot area determine bott"eneck. ). Study and understand the production process. &. *stab"ish !oa"s for improement. (. C"arify the prob"em co""ect the reference manua"s contact resources. >. Conduct ea"uation throu!h such techni3ues as RCD ana"ysis 0D*CA 0A Root cause fai"ure ana"ysis2. ?. ,etermine improement priorities costs and benefits. B. *+ecute improement in pi"ot area standardi@e techni3ue and document what you hae done. E. Donitor resu"ts and optimi@e based on those resu"ts. 1F. Imp"ement p"ant wide
E
BF
7peration with the proper standard procedure. 0ai"ure preention. 0ai"ure reso"ution. Inspection. *3uipment up keep. C"eanin!. 5ubricatin!. 5i!htnin! fasteners. Dinor repairs. roub"e shootin!.
C'APTER = 1 COST ESTI-ATION he machine too" desi!ner must furnish the mana!ement with an idea of how much too"in! wi"" cost and how much money the productions methods sae oer a specified run. his information is !enera""y furnished in a form of cost worksheets. 8y referrin! to the cost worksheets the fina" cost of machine is ca"cu"ated. B1
Cost estimation is defined as the process of forecastin! e+penses that are incurred to manufacture a product. hese e+penses take into account a"" e+penditure ino"ed in desi!nin! and manufacturin! with a"" the re"ated serice faci"ities such as materia" hand"in! heat treatment and surface coatin! as we"" as portion of !enera" administratie and se""in! costs.
NEED OF COST ESTIMATION ;
12
,etermine the se""in! price of a product for a 3uotation or contract so as to ensure a reasonab"e profit to the company.
'2
Check the 3uotations supp"ied by the endors.
)2
,ecide whether a part or assemb"y is economica" to be manufactured in the p"ant or is to be purchased from outside.
&2
,etermine the most economica" process or materia" to manufacture a product.
(2
Initiate means of cost reduction in e+istin! production faci"ities by usin! new materia"s which resu"t in sain!s due to "ower scrap "oss and reised methods of too"in! and processin!.
>2
o determine standards of production performance that may be used to contro" costs.
B'
ELEMENTS OF COST ENCOUNTERED IN THE PROJECT ;
he cost encountered in this project are materia" cost "abour cost cost of standard parts desi!nin! cost and cost of indirect e+penses.
1
DESIGN COST ; he desi!nin! cost is ca"cu"ated by considerin! the amount taken by the desi!ner if so2 and the cost of desi!nin! materia" +
2
MATERIAL COST ; he materia" cost can be ca"cu"ated by findin! the tota" o"ume of the materia" used and the wei!ht of the materia". 0or ca"cu"ation the a"ue and the wei!ht the fo""owin! procedure is adopted %
a2
In actua" procedure there are some ho"es and shapes cut. 8ut they are considered to be so"id whi"e ca"cu"ation the tota" o"ume of materia" used.
b2
6hi"e ca"cu"ation the o"ume the trian!"e shaped parts and the shaped parts are considerin! as rectan!u"ar or s3uare p"ates.
c2
he wei!ht of the parts is ca"cu"ation by mu"tip"yin! the tota" o"ume and the density of the materia" D.S.2 which is e3ua" to ?.?>>>(+1F ^) M!/Cc.
d2
he tota" cost can be obtained by mu"tip"yin! the tota" wei!ht by the rate of materia".
B)
A
RA6 MATERIAL , STANDARD MATERIAL COST
SR NO
PART NAME
RATE
TOTAL
1
FRAME MILD STEEL PLATE 3
40/ >
100>
4000
2
MOTOR
1800
1
1800
SHAFT
44/>
8
330
3
SPROKET
8/%##%h
72
475
4
CHAIN
00/ M
M
:00
5
PEDESTAL BEARING
40
3
1300
7
CHAIN SPROKET SET
300
1
300
8
CHANNEL
30/ >
4
200
:
SPRING
140
1
140
10
DI9IDER
200
1
200
11
ELASTOMER
240
1
240
12
NUT BOLT 6ASHER
--------
-------
240
1
12 9 CON9ERTOR
40
1
40
13
6ELDING ROD
4 /(
24
124
14
COLOUR
00/"i%
0.74 "i%
224
TOTAL
-----/-
B&
B DIRECT LABOUR COST
Sr.)!. 1. 2. . 3. 4. 5. 7. 8. :. 10.
R$%# #r
O#r$%i!)
H!ur
Tur)i)
10
140
1400
Mi""i)
2
140
00
Dri""i)
7
100
700
6#"&i)
15
174
2800
Gri)&i)
50
180
T$i)
30
120
Cu%%i)
8
30
20
G$ (u%%i)
8
40
300
A#"
2
100
200
P$i)%i)
2
100
200
TOTAL
5720/-
h!ur
A!u)%
INDIRECT COST B(
Tr$)!r%$%i!) (!% = 400/C!!"#)% , "uri($)% = 100/Dr$i) (!%
= 400/-
Pr!#(% r#!r% (!%
= 2000/-
TOTAL INDIRECT COST = 2100/-
TOTAL COST R$ M$%#ri$" C!% S%& P$r% C!% Dir#(% L$!ur C!% I)&ir#(% C!% T!%$" (!% !' r!#(%
= ----- 5720 2100
T!%$" (!% !' r!#(%
= ------ /-
B>
CHAPTER 14 PREACUTIONS , SAFETY MEASURES
:ollowing precautions and safety measures are taken to make our creation a grand success.
PRECA0TION$) the spring tension in the top plate of road divider plate should be ad>usted uniformly /) the alignment of chain drive arrangement should be properly done. 0) 'o not allow the vehicle to touch divider 1) he system should be robustly designed.
SA)ET -EAS0RES$-
) 'o not touch the top plate when the vehicle is passing by. /) 'o not touch the open wires of the transmission system.
C'APTER(1" B?
