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1. FORM AND STRUCTURE
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader
1.1.1 1.1.1
FORMALISM
Victor ictor Shklo Shklovsk vsky: y: from from ‘Art ‘Art as Tech Techniq nique’ ue’
‘Art is thinking in images.’ This maxim, which even high-school students parrot, parrot, is neverthe nevertheles lesss the starti starting ng point point for the erudite erudite philolog philologist ist who is beginnin beginningg to put together together some kind of systema systematic tic literary literary theory The idea,
Poetic imagery is a means of creating the strongest po As a method it is, depending upon its purpose, neith effective than other poetic techniques; it is neither more than ordinary or negative parallelism, comparison, re structure, hyperbole, the commonly accepted rhetorica those methods which emphasize the emotional effect (including words or even articulated sounds). [...] Poe one of the devices ofvote poeticonlanguage. Sign up to this title If we start to examine the general laws of perceptio Useful habitual, becomes Notituseful perception becomes automatic. all of our habits retreat into the area of the uncons one remembers the sensations of holding a pen or of spe lan for the first first tim and compa that that
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader he avoids the accepted names of its parts and instead names corresponding parts of other objects. For example, in ‘Shame’, Tolstoy ‘defamiliarizes’ the idea of flogging in this way: ‘to strip people who have broken the law, to hurl them to the floor, and to wrap on their bottoms with switches’, and, after a few lines, ‘to lash about on the naked buttocks’. Then he remarks: Just why precisely this stupid, savage means of causing pain and not any other - why not prick the shoulders or any part of the body with needles, squeeze the hands or the feet in a vise, or anything like that? I apologize for this harsh example, but it is typical for Tolstoy’s way of pricking the conscience. The familiar act of flogging is made unfamiliar both by the description and by the proposal to change its form without
Such constructions as ‘the pestle and the mortar’, or ‘ infernal regions’ ( Decameron Decameron), are also examples of t defamiliarization in psychological parallelism. Here, t the perception of disharmony in a harmonious contex parallelism. The purpose of parallelism, like the imagery, is to transfer the usual perception of an object a new perception - that is, to make a unique semantic m In studying in this its phonetic Signpoetic up to speech vote on title and lexical st in its characteristic distribution of words and in the cha Useful Nottheuseful compounded structures from words, we find every trademark trademark - that is, we find material material obviously obviously creat automatism of perception; the author’s purpose is to which results from that deautomatised perception. A
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader make a comparison of tales according to their components. The result will be a morphology (i.e., a description of the tale according to its component parts and the relationship of these components to each other and to the whole). What method can achieve an accurate description of the tale? Let us compare the following events: 1. A tsar gives an eagle to a hero. The eagle carries the hero away to another kingdom. 2. An old man gives Suenko a horse. The horse carries Suenko away to another kingdom. 3. A sorcerer gives Ivan a little boat. The boat takes Ivan to another kingdom. 4. A princess gives Ivan a ring. Young men appearing from out of the ring
thesis of this work, subject to further development and v The sequence of functions is always identical.
1.1.3 Mikhail Bakhtin: from ‘ The The Prehistory of Novelistic D
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Useful Not useful [...] Five different stylistic approaches to novelistic observed: (1) the author’s portions alone in the novel is, only direct direct words of the the author more more or less corr I
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader All these types of stylistic analysis to a greater or lesser degree are remote from those peculiarities that define the novel as a genre, and they are also remote from the specifis conditions under which the word lives in the novel. They all take a novelist’s language and style not as the language and style of a novel but merely as the expression of a specific individual artistic personality, or as the style of a particular literary school or finally as a phenomenon phenomenon common to poetic poetic language language in general. general. The individual individual artist artistic ic person personali ality ty of the author author,, the litera literary ry school school,, the genera generall characteristics of poetic language or of the literary language of a particular era all serve to conceal from us the genre itself, with the specific demands it makes upon language and the specific possibilities it opens up for it. As a result, in the majority of these works on the novel, relatively minor stylistic variations variations whether individual or characteristic of a particular
As an infant’s dream, as the moon[...].6
(a development of the final comparison follows). The The poe poeti ticc imag images es (spe (speci cifi fica call llyy the the meta metaph ph repres represent enting ing Lensky’ Lensky’ss ‘song’ ‘song’ do not here here have have significance at all. They cannot be understood as the di of Pushkin himself (although formally, of course, the c character that of the author). ‘song’ is Sign up to Here vote Lensky’s on this title own language, in its own poetic manner. Pushkin’s Pushkin’s direc dire Not we useful sUseful of Lensky’ Lensky’s ‘song’ ‘song’ - which find as well well in t completely different [6. 23, 1]: Thus he wrote gloomily and languidly [...] .
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader taken in intonational quotation marks within the system of direct authorial speech (postulated by us here), that is, taken as if the image were parodic and ironic. Were we to discard intonational question marks and take the use of metaphors here as the direct means by which the author represents himself, we would in so doing destroy the novelistic image [obraz] of another’s style, that is, destroy precisely that image that Pushkin, as novelist, novelist, constructs constructs here. Lensky’ Lensky’ss represent represented ed poetic poetic speech speech is very distant from the direct word of the author himself as we have postulated it: Lensky’s language functions merely as an object of representation (almost as a material thing); the author himself is almost completely outside Lensky’s language (it is only his parodic and ironic accents that penetrate this ‘language of another’). [...]
itself serves as the object of representation. Novelistic d criticizing itself. In this consists the categorical distinction between straight-forward genres genres - the epic poem, the lyric and conceived). All directly descriptive and expressive mea of these genres, as well as the genres themselves, beco the novel an object of representation within it. Under dramatic novel every ever y direct strictly dramatic Sign up toword vote-onepic, thislyric, title strictly or lesser degree made into an object, the word itself be Useful [ogranicennij ] image, oneNot thatuseful quite often appears r framed condition. The basic tasks for a stylistics in the novel are, there specific images of languages and styles; the organizatio
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader peoples, cultures and languages - it is still full of echoes of this ancient struggle. In essence this discourse always developed on the boundary line between cultures and languages. The prehistory of o f novelistic discourse is of great interest and not without its own special drama. In the prehis prehistor toryy of nov noveli elisti sticc discou discourse rse one may observe observe many many extremely heterogeneous facts at work. From our point of view, however, two of these factors prove to be of decisive importance: on of these is laughter , the other polyglossia polyglossia [mnogojazycie]. The most ancient forms for representing language language were organized by laughter - these were originally nothing more than the ridiculing of another’s language and another’s direct discourse. Polyglossia and the interanimation of languages associated with it elevated these forms to a new artistic and ideological level, which made possible the genre of the novel.
genres of ‘epic poem’ the parodic epic ‘War between Frogs’ 7. This is an image of the Homeric style . It is pre the true hero of the work. We would have to say the s include Virgil Virgil travesti8. One could likewise not include sermons joyeux9, in the genre of the sermon, or parodic ‘Ave ‘Ave Marias’ in in the genre of the prayer and so forth. All these parodies on genres and generic styles (‘lang great andSign diverse world verbal up to voteofon thisforms title that ridicule th seri seriou ouss word word in all all its its gene generi ricc guise guises. s. This This Not Useful we considerably richer than areuseful accustomed to believ methods available for ridiculing something are highl exhausted by parodying and travestying in a strict sens for making fun of the straightforward word have as y
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader impoverished and limited conceptions of the nature of the parodying and travestying word were then retroactively applied to the supremely rich and varied world of parody and travesty in previous ages. The import importanc ancee of parodi parodic-t c-trav ravest estyin yingg forms forms in world world litera literatur turee is enormous. Several examples follow that bear witness to their wealth and special significance. Let us first take up the ancient period. The ‘literature of erudition’ of late antiquity - Aulus Gellius11, Plutarch12 (in his Moralia), Macrobius13 and, in particular, Athenaeus14 - provide sufficiently rich data for judging the scope and special character of the parodying and travestying literature of ancient times. The commentaries, citations, references and allusions made by these ‘erudites’ add substantially to the fragmented and random material on the ancient world’s literature of laughter that has survived.
The works of such literary scholars as Dietrich 15 and others have prepared us for more correct assessme significance of parodic-travestying forms in the verbal times. It is our conviction that there never was a single strictl genre, genre, no singl singlee type of direc directt discour discourse se philosophical, religious, ordinary o rdinary everyday - that parodying anduptravestying its owncomic-iro Sign to vote ondouble, this title What is more, these parodic doubles and laughing reflec Useful Not word were, in some cases, justuseful as sanctioned by trad canonized as their elevated models. I will deal only very briefly briefly with the problem of drama’, that is, the satyr play18 In most instances th
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader were writers writers of satyr plays as well, and Aeschylus, Aeschylus, the most serious serious and pious of them all, an initiate into the highest Eleusinian Mysteries, was considered by the Greeks to be the greatest master of the satyr play. From fragments of Aeschylus’ satyr play The Bone-Gatherers’ 20 we see that this drama gave a parodic, travestying picture of the events and heroes of the Trojan War, and particularly the episode involving Odysseus’ quarrel with Achill Ach illes es and Diomed Diomedes, es, whe where re a stinki stinking ng chambe chamberr pot is thrown thrown at Odysseus’ head. It should be added that the figure of ‘comic Odysseus’, a parodic travesty of his high epic and tragic image, image, was one of the most popular figures of satyr plays, of ancient Doric farce and pre-Aristophanic comedy, as well as of a whole series of minor comic epics, parodic speeches and disputes in which the comedy of ancient times was so rich (especially in southern Italy
laughter and with images from the material life of the bo The figure of the comic Hercules was extremely po Greece but also in Rome, and later in Byzantium (where the central figures in the marionette theatre). Until q figure lived on in the Turkish game of ‘shadow pup Hercules is one of the most profound folk images fo simple heroism, and had an enormous influence on all o When taken together withonsuch Sign up to vote thisfigures title as the ‘comic O ‘comic ‘comic Hercul Hercules’ es’,, the ‘fourt ‘fourthh drama’ drama’,, which which was Useful Not useful to trilogy, conclusion the tragic indicates that the litera of the Greeks did not view the parodic-travestying rewo myth as any particular profanation or blasphemy. It is the Greeks were not at all embarrassed to attribute the
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader perceived against a backdrop of a contradictory reality that cannot be confined within their narrow frames. The direct and serious word was revealed, in all its limitations and insufficiency, only after it had become the laughing image of that word - but it was by no means discredited discredited in the process. Thus it did not bother the Greeks to think that Homer himself wrote a parody of Homeric style. [...] These parodic-travestying forms prepared the ground for the novel in one very important, in fact decisive, respect. They liberated the object from the power of language in which it had become entangled as if in a net; they destroyed the homogenizing power of myth over language; they freed consciousness from the power of the direct word, destroyed the thick walls that had imprisoned consciousness within its own discourse, within its own language. A distance arose between language and reality that was to prove
lead to the appropriate knowledge of one’s own langua contin continue ue the quo quotat tation ion,, for it primar primarily ily concer concer understanding one’s own language in purely cognitive l understanding that is realized only in the light of a differ not one’s own; but this situation situation is no less pervasi imagination is conceiving language in actual artistic pr in the process of literary creation, languages interanima of the o objectifySign precisely side one’s own (and up tothat vote onofthis title inner form, form, that that pert pertai ains ns to its its worl worldd view view, its inner useful Useful Not accentuated system inherent in it. For the creating litera existing in a field illuminated by another’s language, it system of its own language that stands out, nor is features features of its its own morpholog morphologyy nor its own own abstr
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader degree) outside the centralizing and unifying influence of the artistic and ideological ideological norm establishe establishedd by the dominant literary language. language. The literary-artistic consciousness of the modern novel, sensing itself on the border between two languages, one literary, the other extraliterary, extraliterary, each of which now knows heteroglossia, also senses itself on the border of time: it is extraordinarily sensitive to time in language, it senses time’s shifts, the aging and and renewing renewing of langua language, ge, the past past and the the future future - and all in in language. [...]
1.1.4 E.M. Forster: from Aspects of the Novel
It is when he comes to criticism - to a job like the pr be so pernicious, because he follows the method of having his equipment. He classes books before he has u them.; that is his first crime. Classification by chronolo before 1847, books written after it, books written The novel in the reign of Queen Anne, the pre-novel, novel of the future. Classifica Classification tion by subject matter literatureSign of Inns, beginning with Tom Jones; the litera up to vote on this title Movement, beginning with Shirley; the literature of De Usefulto The Not usefulthe literature of Crusoe Blue Robinson Lagoon; of all, though the Open Road runs it pretty close; the li (perhaps (perhaps the most devoted of the Home Counties); Counties); im serious though dreadful branch of inquiry, only to be pu
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader 2. THE STORY Yes - oh dear yes - the novel tells a story. That is the fundamental aspect without which it could not exist. That is the highest factor common to all novels, and I wish that it was not so, that it could be something different melody, or perception of the truth, not this low atavistic form. We are all like Scheherazade’s husband, in that we want to know what happens next. That is universal and that is why the backbone of a novel has to be a story. Some of us want to know nothing else - there is nothing in us but primeval curiosity, curiosity, and consequently our other literary judgements are ludicrous. And now the story can be defined. It is a narrative of events arranged in their time seque dinner coming after breakfast, breakfast, Tuesday
We may divide characters into flat and round. Flat called ‘humorous’ in the seventeenth century, and are types, types, and someti sometimes mes carica caricatur tures. es. In their their pur constructed constructed round a single idea or quality: when there factor in them, we get the beginning of the curve towar really flat character can be expressed in one sentence su desert Mr Micawber.’ One great advantage of flat Sign up to vote on characters this title is that they are whenever they come in - recognized by the reader’s reader’s e Not notes usefulthe recurrence Useful by the visual eye which merely recurrence of a A second advantage is that they are easily remembe afterwards. They remain in his mind as unalterable fo th not ch d by ci sta th
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader story. And his book The Craft of Fiction examines various points of view with genius and insight. The n ovelist, he says, can either describe the characters from outside, as an impartial or partial onlooker; or he can assume omniscience and describe them from within; or he can place himself in the position of one of them and affect to be in the dark as to the motives of the rest; or there are certain intermediate attitudes. Those who follow him will lay a sure foundation which I cannot for a moment promise. This is a ramshackly survey and for me the whole intricate question of method resolves itself not into formulae but into the power of the writer to bounce the reader into accepting what he says - a power which Mr Lubbock admits and admires, but locates at the edge of
they have rather over-stressed it. I do not myself think as a proper mixture of characters characters - a problem which t against also. And the novelist must bounce us; that is im
1.1.5toWayne Booth: Sign up voteC.on thisfrom titleThe Rhetoric of Fict
Useful Not useful Why is it that an episode 'told' by Fielding can stri realized than many of the scenes scrupulously 'show James or Hemingway ? Why does some authorial com
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader relax our standards a little and encourage the novelist to go back to concocting what James called 'great fluid puddings'. There may be room, in the house house of ficti fiction, on, even even for forml formless ess puddi puddings ngs - to be read, read, presumably, presumably, in one's slack hours or declining years. But I should not like to find myself defending them as art and on the ground that they are formless. But are we faced with such a simple and disconcerting choice as the champions of showing have sometimes claimed? Does it, after all, make sense to set up two ways of conveying a story, one all good, the other all bad; one all art and form, the other all clumsiness and irrelevancy; one all showing and rendering and drama and objectivity, the other all telling and subjectivity and preaching and inertness? Allen Tate seems to think that it does. 'The action,' he says of a passage from Madame Bovary - and it is an excellent pa 'the action is not stated from the point of view view of
be taught to observe this fourth 'unity.' But we also the process they have not necessarily learned to write go know only this, they know how to write fiction fiction that w perhaps more 'early modern' than late, but still modern yet to learn, if they know only this, is the art of c dramatize dramatize fully fully and what to curtail, curtail, what to summa heighten. And like any art, this one cannot be learned f [...] Sign up to vote on this title As he writes, he [the author] creates not simply an Useful Not useful 'man in general' but an implied version of 'himself’ that the implied authors we meet in other men's works. To has seemed, indeed, that they were discovering or creat they wrote. As Jessamyn West says, it is sometimes 'on
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader aspects of the narrator is quite accurate, 'Persona,' 'mask,' and 'narrator' are sometimes used, but they more commonly refer to the speaker in the work who is after all only one of the elements created by the implied author and who may be separated from him by large ironies. 'Narrator' is usually taken to mean the 'I' of a work, but the 'I' is seldom if ever identical with the implied image if the artist. 'Theme,' 'meaning,' 'symbolic significance,' 'theology,' or even 'ontology' - all these have been used to described the norms which the reader must apprehend in each work if is to grasp it adequately. Such terms are useful for some purposes, but they can be misleading because they almost inevitably come to seem like purposes for which the works exist. [...] Our sense of the implied implied author author include includess not only only the extrac extractab table le meanings but also the moral and emotional content of each bit of action
a much narrower matter, and consequently it will no satisfied only with a term that is as broad as the wo capable of calling attention to that work as the produ evaluating person rather than as a self-existing thing. Th chooses, consciously or unconsciously, what we read; w ideal, literary, created version of the real man; he is th choices. It is only byup distinguishing between Sign to vote on this title the author and h that we can avoid pointless and unverifiable talk about orUseful inNot 'sincerity' ' seriousness' theuseful author. Because Ford M of Fielding and Defoe and Thackeray as the unmediate novels, he must end by condemning them as insince every reason to believe that they write 'passages of vi
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader interest. The author is limited only by the range of human interests. [...] The values which interest us, and which are thus available for technical manipulation in fiction, may be roughly divided into three kinds. (1) Intell Intellec ectua tuall or cognit cognitive ive:: We have, have, or can be made made to have, have, strong strong intellectual curiosity about ‘the facts’, the true interpretation, the true reasons, the true origins, the true motives, or the true about life itself. (2) Qualitative: We have, or can be made to have, a strong desire to see any pattern or form completed, or to experience a further development of qualities of any kind. We might call this kind ‘aesthetic’, if to do so did not suggest that a literary form using this interest was necessarily of more artistic value than one based on other interests. (3) Practical: We have, or can be made to have, a strong desire for the success or failure of those we love or hate, admire or detest; or we can be made to hope for or fear a
large large measur measuree of concur concurren rence ce is anothe anotherr thing. thing. disagr disagreem eement ent here here is striki striking. ng. But it is partly partly remember the distinction we have made between the re implied author, the second self created in the work. The Faulkner Faulkner and E.M.Foster E.M.Foster,, as they go about making addresses or writing their essays, are indeed of only p me as I read their novels. But the implied author someoneSign with up whose beliefs all title subjects I must large to vote ononthis enjoy his work. Of course, the same distinction must Useful Notvery useful often myself as reader and the different self who g bills, repairing leaky faucets, and failing in generosity only as I read that I become the self whose beliefs must author’s. Regardless of my real beliefs and practices, I
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader speculative system and to win readers of all camps. Shakespeare is the preeminent example. [...] But this is far from saying that great literature is compatible with all beliefs. Though Shakespeare seems, when looked at superficially, to ‘have no beliefs’, though it is indeed impossible to extract from the plays any one coherent philosophical or religious or political form formul ulat atio ionn that that will will sati satisf sfyy all all read reader ers, s, it is not not diff diffic icul ultt to list list innumerable norms which we must accept if we are to comprehend particular plays, and some of these do run throughout his works. It is true that these beliefs are for the most part self-evident, even commonplace but that is precisely because they are are acceptable to most of us. [...] We seldom talk in these terms about great literature only because because we take them for granted or because they seem old-fashioned. Only a maniac, presumably would side with Goneril and Regan against Lear It is only
1.2
THE NEW CRITICISM
1.2.1 Cleanth Brooks: from ‘The Formalist Formalist Crit
Here are some articles of faith I could subscribe to: evaluatio That literary criticism is a description and an Sign up toconcern vote on titleis with the probl That the primary concern of this criticism kind of whole which the literary work forms or fails Useful Not useful relation of the various parts with each other in building u That the formal relations in a work of literature m certainly exceed, those of logic.
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader In the first place, to make the poem or the novel the central concern of criticism has appeared to mean cutting it loose from its author and from his life as a man, with his own particular hopes, fears, interests, conflicts, etc. A criticism so limited may seem bloodless and hollow... In the second place, to emphasize the work seems to involve severing it from those who actually read it, and this severance may seem drastic and therefore disastrous. After all, literature is written to be read. Wordsworth's poet was a man speaking to men[...] Moreover, if we neglect the audience which reads the work, including that for which it was presumably written, the literary historian is prompt to point out that the kind of audience that Pope had did condition the kind of poetry that he wrote. The poem has its roots in history, past and present. Its place in the historical context simply cannot be ignored.
performed quite as validly for the poor work as for th may be validly validly performed for any kind of expression expression well as literary. On the other hand, explorations of the various reading has received also takes the critic away from the work int the history of taste. The various imports of a given w worth studying[...]But such work, valuably and necessa to be distinguished from on a criticism Sign up to vote this titleof the work itse crit critic ic,, beca becaus usee he want wantss to crit critic iciz izee the the work work Useful Nots useful assump assumptio tions: ns: (1) he assume assumes that that the relevant relevant intention is what he actually got into his work; that is, h author's intention as realized is the ‘intention’ that coun what he was conscious conscious of trying to do, or what he n
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader proves the value of the work from the author's ‘sincerity’ (or the intensity of the author author's 's feelin feelings gs as he compos composed ed it)[.. it)[...] .] Ernest Ernest Heming Hemingway way's 's statement in a recent issue of Time magazine that he counts his last novel his best is of interest for Hemingway's biography, but most readers of Across the River and Into the Trees Trees would agree that it proves nothing at all about the value of the novel - that in this case the judgement judgement is simply pathetically inept. We discount also such tests for poetry as that proposed by A. E. Housman - the bristling of his beard at the reading of a good poem. The intensity of his reaction has critical significance only in proportion as we have already learned to trust him as a reader. reader. Even so, what it tells us is something about Housman - nothing decisive about the poem. It is unfortunate that this playing down of such responses seems to deny
A literary work is a document and as a document ca terms of the forces that have produced it, or it may be force in its own right. It mirrors the past, it may infl These facts it would be futile to deny, and I know of n deny them. But the reduction of a work of literature to i constitute literary criticism; nor does an estimate of literature is more than effective effective rhetoric applied applied to true for mea we couldSign agreeupupon a philosophical yardstick to vote on this title ideas and even of we could find some way that tr useful of the rhetori forUseful theNot counting determining effectiveness
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader poet succeded in doing it, then the poem itself shows what he was trying to do. And if the poet did no succeed, then the poem is not adequate evidence, and the critic must go outside the poem - for evidence of an intention that did not become effective in the poem. ‘Only one caveat must be borne in mind,’ mind,’ says an eminent eminent intention intentionali alist st in a moment moment whe whenn his theory theory repudiates itself, ‘the poet's aim must be judged at the moment of the creative act, that is to say, by the art of the poem itself.’ 3. Judging a poem is like judging a pudding or a machine. One demands that it work. It is only because an artifact works that we infer the intention of an artificer: ‘A poem should not mean but be.’ A poem can be only through its meaning - since its medium is words words - yet it is, simply is, in the sense that we have no excuse for inquiring what part is intended or meant. Poetry is a feat of style by which a complex of meaning is handled
the most important illustration. As a poetic practice al appear to be in some recent poems an extreme corollar intentionalist assumption, and as a critical issue it chal to light in a specia speciall way the basic basic premis premisee of in following instance from the poetry of Eliot may serve practical implications of what we have been saying. In E of J. Alfred Prufrock,’ toward the end, occurs the line: a certain mermaids singing, to on each,’ this bears Sign up toeach vote thisand title line in a Song by John Donne, ‘Teach ‘Teach me to heare Merm Usefulacquainted Nottouseful that for the reader a certain degree with D critical question arises: Is Eliot's line an allusion to Don thinking thinking about Donne? Is Eliot thinking thinking about Donne there are two radically different ways of looking for
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader would answer that he meant nothing at all, had nothing at all in mind - a sufficiently good andwer to such such a question - or in an unguarded moment might furnish a clear and, within its limit, irrefutable answer. Our point is that such an answer to such an inquiry would have nothing to do with the poem ‘Prufrock’ ; it would not be a critical inquiry. Critical inquiries, unlike bets, are not settled in this way. Critical inquiries are not settled by consulting the oracle.
1.2.4 W. K. Wimsatt Wimsatt and M. Beardsley: from ‘The Affective Fallacy’ Fallacy’
kind kind of emotiv emotivee ‘meani ‘meaning’ ng’ which which is ‘condi ‘conditio tional nal suggestiveness of a sign’, the main drift of his argumen meaning meaning is something something noncorrelat noncorrelative ive to and indepe (or cognitive) meaning. Thus, emotive ‘meaning’ is sai changes in descriptive meaning. And words with the meaning are said to have quite different emotive ‘mea and ‘liberty’, for example, Stevenson believes to have the sameSign descriptive meaning, but opposite up to vote on this title emotive ‘me [...] Or one may cite the word series in Bentham’s cla Useful Not useful : ‘humanity, Motives’ goodwill, partiality’, ‘frugality, p avaric avarice’. e’. Or the other other standa standard rd exampl examples es of ‘Anima ‘Animals ls sweat, sweat, men perspi perspire, re, women women glow glow.’ ‘I obstinate, he is pigheaded.’ Or the sentence ‘There shou
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader Aesthetics Ogden, Richards, and Woods listed sixteen types of aesthetic theory, of which at least seven may be described as affective. Among these the theory of Synaesthesis (Beauty is what produces an equilibrium of appetencies) was the one they themselves espoused. This was developed at length by Richards in his Principles of Literary Criticism. [...] An even more advanced grade of affective theory, that of hallucination, would seem to have played some part in the neo-classic conviction about the unities of time and place, was given a modified continuation of existence in phrases of Coleridge about a ‘willing suspension of disbelief’ and a ‘temporary half faith’, and may be found today in some textbooks. The hypnotic hypothesis of E. D. Snyder might doubtless be invoked in its support. support. At this form of affective affective theory theory is the least theoretica theoreticall in detail, has the least content, and makes the least claim on critical intelligence, so,
of persons subjected to a given moving picture. But, as in his Science and Criticism points out: ‘Students have an ‘emo ‘emoti tion on’’ at the the ment mentio ionn of the the word word ‘m galvanomete galvanometerr indicated indicated no bodily bodily change change whate report reported ed no emotio emotions ns at the mentio mentionn of ‘prost ‘prost galvanometer gave a definite kick.’ Thomas Mann and of a movie movie weeping weeping copiously copiously - but Mann Mann narr ‘Art is a support Sign of hisup view that movies are not Art. to vote on this title gap between between various levels of psychological e useful Useful Not recognition of value remains wide, in the laboratory or o [...] Tennyson’s Tennyson’s ‘Tears, idle tears’, as it deals with an e speaker at first seems not to understand, might be specially emotive poem. ‘The last stanza,’ says Bro
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader The more specific the account of the emotion induced by a poem, the more nearly it will be an account of the reasons for emotion, the poem itself, and the more reliable it will be as an account of what the poem is likely to induce in other - sufficiently informed - readers. It will will in fact supply the kind of information which will enable readers to respond to the poem. [...] [...] Poetry is characteri characteristic stically ally a discorse discorse about both emotions emotions and objects, or about the emotive quality of objects. The emotions correlative to the objects objects of poetry poetry become become a part part of the matter matter dealt dealt with - not communicated to the reader like an infection or disease, not inflicted mechanically like a bullet or knife wound, not administered like a poison, not simply simply d by letive letive gri rhythm rhythm but
unhallowed’. Again, certain objects partly obscured in appreciation in another, and partly through the efforts of true that they suddenly arrive out of nothing. The patho exam exampl ple, e, is not not a crea creati tion on of our time, time, thou though gh humanitarianism, because it has slogans, may suppose felt by by Shakespeare Shakespeare or Southampton - and may no debt to Shakespear Shakespeare. e. ‘Poets,’ ‘Poets,’ says Shelley Shelley,, ‘are the at lea legislators of the world.’ And it may Sign up to vote on this titlebe granted been leading expositors of the laws of feeling. feeling.30 Useful Not useful field among the Zunis [...] [...] The field worker worker Zunis or the N informant so informative as the poet or the member of quote its myths.31 In short, though cultures have chang and explain.
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader global science of verbal structure, poetics may be regarded as an integral part of linguistics. [...] Unfortunate Unfortunately ly the terminolog terminological ical confusion confusion of ‘literary ‘literary studies’ with ‘criticism’ tempts the student of literature to replace the description of the intrinsic values of a literary work by a subjective, censorious verdict. The label ‘literary critic’ applied to an investigator of literature is as erroneous as ‘grammatical (or lexical) critic’ would be applied to a linguist. Syntactic and morphologic research cannot be supplanted by a normative grammar, and likewise no manifesto, foisting a critic’s own tastes and opinions on creative literature, may act as substitute for an objective scholarly analysis of verbal art. This statement is not to be mistaken for the quietist principle laissez faire faire; any verbal culture of laissez culture involves involves programmat programmatic, ic, planning, mative mative end Yet wha whatt is cle t dis iminat imination ion mad
CODE
Each of these factors factors determines determines a differen differentt funct func Althoug Althoughh we distin distingui guish sh six basic basic aspect aspectss of however, hardly find verbal messages that would fulfil The diversity lies not in a monopoly of some one functions but in a different hierarchical order of func structureSign of a up message depends to vote on thisprimarily title on the predo But even though a set ( Einstellung Einstellung ) toward the refere towar towardd theUseful CONTEX CONTEXT T Not - useful brief briefly ly the so-ca so-calle lle ‘denotative ‘denotative’, ’, ‘cognitive ‘cognitive’’ functio functionn - is the leading leading messages, messages, the accessory accessory participatio participationn of the other f messages must be taken into account by the observant li
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader messag messages es from from the phrase phrase Segodnja (‘This evenin evening’) g’),, by Segodnja vecerom vecerom (‘This diversifying its expressive tint. He made a list of some forty emotional situations, then emitted the given phrase in accordance with each of these situations, which his audience had to recognize only from the changes in the sound shape of the same to words. [...] Orientation toward the ADDRESSEE, the CONATIVE CONATIVE function, finds its purest grammatical expression in the vocative and imperative, which syntactically, morphologically and often phonemically deviate from other nominal and verbal categories. The imperative sentences cardinally differ from the declarative sentences: the latter are and the former are not liable to a truth test. When in O’Neill’s play The Fountain, Nano, ‘(in a fierce tone of command),’ command),’ says ‘Drink!’ - the imperative cannot be challenged challenged by the question ‘is it true or not?’ which may be, however, perfectly well
There are messages primarily serving to establish, discontinue communication, to check whether the chann do you hear me?’), to attract the attention of the interloc his continued attention (‘Are you listening?’ or in Shak ‘Lend ‘Lend me your ears!’ ears!’ - and on the other other end of the This set for CONTACT, CONTACT, or in Malinowski’s terms PHAT may be displayed by a profuse exchange of ritualized fo commu dialoguesSign withup thetomere prolonging votepurport on thisoftitle 33 Parker caught eloquent examples: ‘‘Well, here we ar Not useful we?’ we are,’ sheUseful said, ‘Aren’t ‘I should say we were,’ Here we are.’ ‘Well!’ she said. ‘Well!’ he said, ‘well.’ ‘ start and sustain communication is typical of talking bir function of language is the only one they share with hu
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader sophomore?’ persist the interrogator innocent of school vocabulary. ‘ A .’ All these equational sophomore is (or means) a second year student .’ sentences convey information merely about the lexical code of English; their function is strictly metalingual. Any process of language learning, in particular child acquisition of the mother tongue, makes wide use of such metalingual operations; and aphasia may often be defined as a loss of ability for metalingual operations. We have brought up the six factors involved in verbal communication except the message itself. The set ( Einstellung ) toward the MESSAGE as such, focus on the message for its own sake, is the POETIC function of language. This function cannot be productively studied out of touch with the general problems problems of language, language, and, on the other hand, the scrutiny scrutiny of language requires a thorough consideration of its poetic function. Any
consists of three monosyllables and counts three diphth them symmetrically followed by one consonantal phon The make-up of the three words presents a variation phonemes in the first word, two around the diphthong one final consonant in the third. A similar dominant noticed by Hymes in some of the sonnets of Keats. trisyllabic formula ‘I like/ Ike’ rhyme with each other, the two Sign rhyming words fully up to voteison thisincluded title in the first o /layk/-/ayk/, a paronomastic image of a feeling which to useful Not object. BothUseful cola alliterate with each other, and the alliterating words is included in the second: /ay/-/ayk image image of the loving loving subjec subjectt envelo enveloped ped by the bel second poeti function function of this electional electional catch catch
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader PHATIC METALINGUAL What is the empirical linguistic criterion of the poetic function? In particular, particular, what is the indispensable feature inherent in any piece of poetry? To answer this question we must recall the two basic modes of arrangement used in verbal behaviour, selection and combination. If ‘child’ is the topic of the message, the speaker selects one among the extant, more or less similar, nouns like child, kid, youngster, tot, all of them equivalent in a certain respect, and then, to comment on this topic, he may select one of the semantically semantically cognate verbs - sleeps, dozes, nods, naps. Both chosen chosen words combine in speech chain. The selection is produced on the base of equivalence equivalence,, similarity similarity and dissimilar dissimilarity ity,, synonymity synonymity and antonymity antonymity,,
nonsyllabic phonemes. Any syllable contains a syllabic interval between two successive syllabics is in some lan others overwhelmingly carried out by marginal, nonsyll the so called syllabic versification the number of syllab delimited chain (time series) is a constant, whereas nonsyll nonsyllabi abicc pho phonem nemee or cluste clusterr betwee betweenn every every two metrical chain is a constant only in languages with and, furt occurrence of up nonsyllabics syllabics Sign to vote onbetween this title verse systems where hiatus is prohibited. Another m Usefula uniform usefulmodel is the avo toward Notsyllabic tendency syllables at the end of the line, observable, for instanc songs. The Italian syllabic verse shows a tendency to tr vowels unseparated by consonantal phonemes as on
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader mutually opposed as more and less prominent. This contrast is usually carried out by syllable nuclei, phonemically long and short. But in metrical patterns like Ancient Greek and Arabic, which equalize length ‘by position’ with length ‘by nature’, the minimal syllables consisting of a consonantal phoneme and one mora vowel are opposed to syllables with a surplus (a second mora or a closing consonant) as simpler and less prominent syllables opposed to those that are more complex and prominent. The question still remains open whether, besides the accentual and the chronemic verse, there exists a ‘tonemic’ type of versification in languages where differences of syllabic intonations are used to distinguish word meanings (15). In classical Chinese poetry (3), syllables with modulations (in Chine tsé ‘defle ‘deflecte ctedd tones’ tones’)) sed to the modula modulated ted
‘rhythm’. ‘rhythm’. A variation variation of verse instances within a giv strictly distinguished from the variable delivery instance to describe the verse line as it is actually performed’ is the synchronic and historical analysis of poetry than it its recitation in the present and the past. Meanwhile t and clear: ‘There are are many performances performances of the same among themselves in many ways. A performance is poem itself, there anyon poem, Signif up to is vote thismust title be some kind of This sage memento of Wimsatt and Beardsley belon ofUseful Not[...]useful essentials modern metrics. No doubt, verse is primarily a recurrent ‘figure always always,, but never never unique uniquely ly.. Any attemp attempts ts to tio met allite alliterat ration ion rhy to
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader Saviour and simultaneously acts as a subjective message of the poet Charles Wesley to his readers. Virtually any poetic message is a quasiquoted discourse with all those peculiar, intricate problems which ‘speech within speech’ offers to the linguist. The supremacy of poetic function over referential function does not oblite obliterat ratee the refere reference nce but makes makes it ambigu ambiguous ous.. The doub doublele-sen sensed sed message finds correspondence in a split addresser, in a split addressee, and besides in a split reference, as it is cogently exposed in the preambles to fairy tales of various peoples, for instance, in the usual exordium of the Majorca storytellers: ‘Aixo era y no era’ (It was and it was not) (9). The repetitive repetitiveness ness effected effected by imparting imparting the equivalence equivalence principle principle to the sequence makes reiterable not only the constituent sequences of the poetic message but the whole message as well. This capacity for reiteration
Caesar is achieved by Shakespeare’s playing on gramm and constructions. Mark Antony lampoons Brutus’s sp the alleged alleged reasons reasons for Caesar’s Caesar’s assassinat assassination ion into fictions. Brutus’s accusation of Caesar, Caesar, ‘as he was ambit ambi undergoes successive transformations. First Antony red quotation which puts the responsibility for the stateme quoted: ‘The noble Brutus // Hath told you [...].’ Wh referenceSign to Brutus put on intothis opposition up to isvote title to Antony’s an adversative ‘but’ and further degraded by a conc useful toUseful Not reference the alleger’s honour ceases to justify t repeated with a substitution of the merely copulative ‘a previous causal ‘for’, and when finally put into malicious insertion of a modal ‘sure’ :
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader But here I am to speak what I do know. The most effective device of Antony’s irony is the modus obliquus obliquus [indirect method] of Brutus’s abstracts changed into a modus rectus [direct method] to disclose that these reified attributes are nothing but linguistic fictions. To Brutus’s saying ‘he was ambitious’, Antony first replies by transferring the adjective from the agent to the action (‘Did this in Caesar seem ambitious?’), then by eliciting the abstract noun ‘ambition’ and converting converting it into a subject subject of a concrete concrete passive construction construction ‘Ambition should be made of sterner stuff’ and subsequently to a predicate noun of an interrogative sentence, sentence, ‘Was ‘Was this ambition?’ - Brutus’s appeal ‘hear me for my cause’ is answered by the same noun in recto, the hypostatized subject of an interrogative, active construction: ‘What cause withholds you
My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar, And I must pause till it come back to me. [...]
1.3.2 Roman Jakobson: from ‘ The The metaphoric and meton
Sign up vote on title and diverse, b The varieties ofto aphasia arethis numerous between theUseful two polar types just described. Every Not useful consists disturbance disturbance consists in some impairment, impairment, more or less
37 Jakobson’s Jakobson’s seminal discussion of metaphor and metonym
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader the facul faculty ty for select selection ion and substi substitut tution ion or for combin combinati ation on and contexture. The former affliction involves a deterioration of metalinguistic operations, while the latter damages the capacity for maintaining the hierarchy of linguistic units. The relation of similarity is suppressed in the former, the relation of contiguity in the latter type of aphasia. Metaphor is alien to the similarity disorder, and metonymy to the contiguity disorder. The development of a discourse may take place along two different semantic lines: one topic may lead to another either through their similarity or throug throughh their their contig contiguit uityy. The metaphor metaphoric ic way would be the most most appropriate term for the first case and the metonymic way for the second, since since they they find find their their most most conden condensed sed expre expressi ssion on in metaph metaphor or and metonymy respectively. In aphasia one or the other of these two processes is restricte restrictedd or totally totally blocked blocked an effect effect which which makes makes the study study of
contiguity. In mani manipul pulat atin ingg thes thesee two two kinds kinds of conn connec ec contiguity) in both their aspects (positional (positional and seman combining, and ranking ranking them - an individual exhibits his verbal predilections and preferences. In verbal verbal art the intera interacti ction on of these these two ele pronounced. Rich material for the study of this relations soryy in verse verseSign patter patterns whi ch on requir reqthis uireetitle a compul compulsor upnstowhich vote adjacent lines, for example in Biblical poetry or in t Useful nNot some extent, the Russian Russia oraluseful traditions. traditions. This prov crit criter erio ionn or what what in the the give givenn spee speech ch comm comm corresponde correspondence. nce. Since Since on any verbal verbal level level syntactic, and phraseological either of these two re
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader is by no means confined to verbal art. The oscillation occurs in sign systems other than language38. A salient example from the history of painting is the manifestly metonymical orientation of cubism, where the object is transformed into a set of synecdoches; the surrealist painters resp respond onded ed with with a pate patentl ntlyy meta metaph phor oric ical al atti attitu tude de.. Ever Ever sinc sincee the the productions of D. W. Griffith, the art of cinema, with its highly developed capacity for changing the angle, perspective, and focus of ‘shots’, has broken with the tradition of the theater and ranged an unprecedented variety of synecdochic ‘close-ups’ and metonymic ‘set-ups’ in general. In such motion pictures as those of Charlie Chaplin and Eisenstein,39 these devices in turn were overlayed by a novel, metaphoric ‘montage’ with its ‘lap dissolves’ dissolves’ - the filmic filmic similes.40 The bipolar structure of langauge (or other semiotic systems) and, in
To indicate the possibilities of the projected compara choose an example from a Russian folktale which empl a comic device: ‘Thomas is a bachelor; Jeremiah is u ). Here the predicates in the tw xólost; Erjoma nezenat ). are associated by similarity: they are in fact synonymou both clauses are masculine proper names and hence similar, while on the other hand they denote two contigu same tale, created tovote perform identical Sign up to on this titleactions and thus of synonymous pairs of predicates. A somewhat modif usefulwedding song Usefuloccurs inNot same construction a familiar wedding guests is addressed in turn by his first name ‘Gleb is a bachelor; Ivanovic is unmarried.’ While bo are again synonyms, the relationship between the two
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader metonymical bent, an examination of the literary manner Uspenskij had employed as a young writer takes on particular interest. And the study of Anatol Ana tolij ij Kamegu Kamegulov lov,, who analyz analyzed ed Uspens Uspenskij kij’’s style, style, bears bears out our theore theoretic tical al expect expectati ations ons.. He shows shows that that Uspens Uspenskij kij had a partic particula ular r penchant for metonymy, and especially for synecdoche, and that he carried it so far that ‘the reader is crushed by the multiplicity of detail unloaded on him in a limited verbal space, and is physically unable to grasp the whole, so that the portrait is often lost.’ 42 To be sure, the metonymical style in Uspenskij is obviously prompted by the prevailing literary canon of his time, late nineteenth-century ‘realism’ ; but the personal stamp o f Gleb Ivanovic made his pen particularly suitable for this artistic trend in its extreme manifestations and finally left its mark upon the verbal aspect of his mental illness.
magic’.44 This bipartition is indeed illuminating. Non most part, the question of the two poles is still neglecte scope and importance for the study of any symbolic be verbal, and of its impairments. What is the main reason Similarity in meaning connects the symbols of a meta symbols of the language referred to. Similarity connec term term with with the term term for which it is substi substitut tuted. ed. the res constructing a metalanguage to interpret tropes, Sign up to vote on this title more homogenous means to handle metaphor, whereas Not useful Useful easily on a different principle, defies interpretation. T comparable to the rich literature on metaphor 45 can be c of meto metonym nymyy. For For the the same same reas reason on,, it is gene gene antici antici is closel closel linked linked with with metaph metaph whe
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader
1.3.3 A. - J.Greimas: from Structural Semantics 46
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After defining the folktale as a display on a temporal line of its thirty-one functions, Propp raises the question about the actants, or the dramatis personae, as he calls them. His conception of the actants is functional: the characters are defined, according to him, by the ''spheres of action’ in which they participate, these spheres being constituted by the bundles of functions which are attributed to them [...] The result is that if the actors can be established within a tale-occurence,
the semantic description (which is made from the ‘situa be decomposed into the action of actants). Finally, Finally, we f inventory of actants (which he calls, according to tra terminology, functions). [...] Souriau's inventory is presented in the following mann Lion ..............the oriented thematic Force Sun ....... .......... ...... ....... the Repre Represen sentat tative ive of the wished wished orientingSign Valueup to vote on this title Earth ............. virtual Recipient of that Good (that for Useful Not useful working) Mars .............. the Opponent Libra .............. the Arbiter, attributer of the Good Moon ............. the Rescue, the doubling of one of the p
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader produce a model with three actants. actants. In a narrative of the type of The Quest fot the Holy Grail, on the contrary, contrary, four actants, quite distinct, are articulated in two categories: Subject Object
Hero Holy Grail
Sender God Receiver Mankind [...] It is much more difficult to be sure of the categorical articulation of the other actants if only because we lack a syntactic model. Two spheres of activity, however, and, inside those, two distinct kinds of functions are
drama. What it also striking is the secondary charac actants. In a little play on words, we could say, thinking form form by which which we design designate atedd them them (for (for exampl exampl [opposant ]: ] : i.e. i.e. the the ‘oppo ‘oppone nent nt’) ’),, that that they they are are ‘par ‘parti tici cipa pant nts,’ s,’ and not the the true true acta actant ntss of the Participles are in fact only adjectives which modify su same way that adverbs modify verbs. [...] We would the possible of Signsay upthat to vote on this particularizations title convey first the relationship between the actants ‘subjec Useful as Notofuseful then be manifested a class variable constituted b investments. Thus, with great simplification, it could be said th philosopher of the classical the relationship
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader 1.3.4 Gérard Genette: from ‘Frontiers of Narrative’ 47
We have here a new division, of very wide scope, since it divides into two parts of roughly equal importance the whole of what we now call literature. This division corresponds more or less to the distinction proposed by Émile Benveniste between narrative (or story story) and discourse, except that Benveniste includes in the category of discourse everything that Aristotle called direct imitation, and which actually consists, at least as far as its verbal part is concerned, of discourse attributed by the poet or narrator to one of his characters. Benveniste shows that certain grammatical forms, like the pronoun ‘I’ (and its implicit reference ‘you’), the pronominal
events seem to narrate themselves.’ [...] In discourse, someone speaks, and his situation in speaking is the focus of the most important signification Benveniste forcefully puts it, no one speaks, in the moment do we ask ourselves who is speaking, where, w in order to receive the full signification of the text. But it should be added at once that these essences discourseSign so defined are almost netitle ver to befound in t up to vote on thisnever any text: there is almost always a certain proportio Not of useful , aUseful discou discourse rse, certai certainn amount amount discou discourse rse in nar symmetry stops here, for it is as if both types of expr different differently ly affecte affectedd by the contaminat contamination: ion: the inser elements in the level of discourse is not enough to ema
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader general observation, the slightest adjective that is [a] little more than descriptive, the most discreet comparison, the most modest ‘perhaps,’ the most inoffensive of logical articulations introduces into its web a type of speech that is alien to it, refractory as it were. In order to study the detail of these sometimes sometimes microscopi microscopicc accidents, accidents, we would need innumerabl innumerable, e, meticulous analyses of texts. One of the objects of this study would be to list and classify the means by which narrative literature (and in particular the novel) has tried to organize in an acceptable way within its own lexis, the delicate relations maintained within it between the requirements of narrative and the needs of discourse. [...] The only moment when the balance between narrative and discourse seems to have been assumed with a perfectly good conscience, without either scruple or ostentation, is obviously in the nineteenth century, the
1.3.5 Gérard Genette: from ‘Structuralism and Literary
In a new chapter of La Pensée sauvage, Claude Lév mythical thought as ‘a kind of intellectual bricolage’ bricolage is to make use of materials and tools that, u engineer, for example, were not intended for the task there is another intellectual activity, peculiar to more ‘de to vote on this title almost word to whichSign this up analysis might be applied criticism, more particularlyNot literary criticism, which d Useful useful from of criticism formally other kinds by the fact that mater material ialss - writin writingg - as the works works with with which which it criticism or musical criticism are obviously not express
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader orient orientati ation on of such such human human scienc sciences es as lingui linguisti stics cs or anthro anthropol pology ogy is whether criticism is being called upon to organize its structuralist vocation explicitly in a structural method. My aim here is simply to elucidate the meaning and scope of this question, suggesting the principal ways in which structuralism could reach the object of criticism, and offer itself to criticism as a fruitful method. Literature being primarily a work of language, and structuralism, for its part, being preeminently a linguistic method, the most probable encounter should obviously take place on the terrain of linguistic linguistic material: material: sounds, sounds, forms, words, and sentences constitute the common object of the linguist and the philologist to such an extent that it was possible, in the early enthusiasm of the Russian Formalist movement, to define literature as a mere dialect, and to envisage its study as an annex of general dialectology.
expression in general cannot, in fact, reject the analys between code and message. [...] The ambition of confined to counting feet and to observing the repetition must also attack semantic phenomena which, as Mall consti constitut tutee the essenc essencee of poetic poetic langua language, ge, and problems of literary semiology. semiology. In this respect one of th fruitful directions that are now opening up for literary be the structural study ‘large Sign up to voteofonthethis titleunities’ of disco framework framework - which linguist linguistics ics in the strict strict sense sense cann Useful Notstudy useful [...] thus sentence. One would systems from a mu generality, such as narrative, description, and the othe literary expression. There would then be a linguistics translinguistics, since the facts of language woul
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader Apparently, structuralism ought to be on its own ground whenever criticism abandons the search for the conditions of the existence or the external determinations determinations - psychological, social, or other - of the literary literary work, in order to concentrate its attention on that work itself, regarded no longer as an effect, but as an absolute being. In this sense, structuralism is bound up with the general movement away from positivism, ‘historicizing history’ and the ‘biographical illusion’, a movement represented in various ways by the critical writings of a Proust, an Eliot, a Valéry, Russian Formal Formalism ism,, French French ‘thema ‘thematic tic critic criticism ism’’ or Ang Anglolo-Ame Americ rican an ‘New ‘New Critic Criticism ism’. ’. [...] [...] Any analys analysis is that that confin confines es itself itself to a work work without without consid consideri ering ng its source sourcess or motive motivess wou would, ld, theref therefore ore,, be implic implicitl itlyy structuralist, and the structural method ought to intervene in order to give to this immanent study a sort of rationality of understanding that would
which imposes itself when the object is different, a transform ourselves. We also become the ethnologists o if we set ourselves at a distance from it.’ Thus the relation that binds structuralism and herm might might not be one of mechan mechanica icall separa separatio tionn and e complementarity: on the subject of the same work, herm might speak the language of the resumption of meanin speec recreation, andupstructural that of distant Sign to vote criticism on this title reconstruction. They would thus bring out complement Useful would Not dialogue be and their alluseful the more fruitful, on c could never speak these two languages at once. In a criticism has no reason to refuse to listen to the new structuralism can obtain from the works that are appa
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader 1.3.6 Tzvetan Todorov: from ‘Definition of Poetics’
To understand what poetics is, we must start from a general and of course a somewhat simplified image of literary studies. It is unnecessary to describe actual schools and tendencies; it will suffice to recall the positions taken with regard to several basic choices. Initially there are two attitudes to be distinguished: one sees the literary text itself as a sufficient object of knowledge; the other considers each individual text as the manifestation of an abstract structure. (I herewith disreg disregard ard biogra biographic phical al studie studies, s, which which are are nor litera literary ry,, as well well as journalistic writings, which are not ‘studies’.) These two options are not, n ot, as we shall see, incompatible; we can even say that they achieve a
espouses the forms of the work so closely that the two a in a certain sense, every work constitutes its own best de If interpretation was the generic term for the first ty which we submit the literary text, the second attitude re be inscribed within the general context of science. science. which the ‘average literary man’ does not favor, we inte the degree of precision this activity, achieves (a prec relative)Sign than to upthe to general vote onperspective this title chosen by the a no longer the description of the particular work, the Useful but Not useful meaning, the establishment of general laws of wh text is the product. Within this second attitude, we may distinguish se first glance very remote from one another. Indeed, we
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader literature itself. Poetics is therefore an approach to literature at once ‘abstract’ and ‘internal’. It is not the literary work itself that is the object of poetics: what poetics questions are the properties of that particular discourse that is literary discourse. Each work is therefore regarded only as the manifestation of an abstract and general structure, of which it is but one of the possible realizations. Whereby this science is no longer concerned with actual literature, but with a possible literature, in other words with that abstract property that constitutes the singularity of the literal phenomenon: literariness. The goal of this study is no longer to articulate a paraphrase, a descriptive resume of the concrete work, but to propose a theory of the structure and functioning of literary discourse, a theory that affords a list of literary possibilities, so that existing literary works appear as achieved
language formulated at the beginnings of ‘structuralism Which Which leads leads us to specif specifyy the relati relations ons bet linguistics. [...] [L]iterature is, in the strongest sens product of language. (Mallarmé had said: ‘The book, the letter. [...]’.) For this reason, any knowledge of lan interest to the poetician. But formulated this way, th poetics and linguistics less than it does literature poetics and languages. Signall upthetosciences vote onofthis title Now, no mo the only science to take literature as its object is linguis Not useful Useful exists today) the unique science of language. Its object i lingui linguisti sticc struct structure ure (phono (phonolog logica ical, l, gramma grammatic tical, al, exclusion of others, which are studied in anthropology, in ‘philo ‘philo hy of lan ge’ Hen tic mig
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader even though it be quite new to him. Without this implicit knowledge, this internalized grammar, the sequence of sounds does not speak to him. We are nevertheless inclined to say that the phonological and grammatical structure and the meaning are properties of the utterance, and there is no harm in that way of speaking so long as we remember that they are properties of the utterance only with respect to a particular grammar. Anothe Ano therr gramma grammarr wou would ld assign assign diffe differen rentt proper propertie tiess to the sequen sequence ce (according to the grammar of a different language, for example, it would be nonsense). To speak of the structure of a sentence is necessarily to imply an internalized grammar that gives it that structure. We also tend to think of meaning and structure as properties of literary works, and from one point of view this is perfectly correct: when the sequence of words is treated as a literary work it has these properties. But
it is much more obvious that understanding depends system. But the time and energy devoted to literary tr and universities indicate that the understanding of litera on experience and mastery. Since literature is a secon system which has language as its basis, a knowledge take one a certain distance in one’s encounter with lit may be difficult difficult to specify specify precisely precisely where underst depend on one’s supplementary knowledge Sign up to vote on this title of literature of drawing a line does not obscure the palpable dif Useful Notofuseful understanding the language a poem, in the sens provide a rough translation into another language, and poem. If one knows French, one can translate Mallarmé transl translati ation on is not a themat thematic ic synthe synthesis sis it is not
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader done: // Where Where the Youth Youth pined away with desire, / And the pale Virgin Virgin shrouded in snow / Arise from their graves, and aspire / Where my Sunflower wishes to go. But there is some distance between an understanding of the language and the thematic statement with which a critic concludes his discussion of the poem: ‘Blake’s dialectical thrust at asceticism is more than adroit. You do not surmount Nature by denying its prime claim of sexuality. Instead you fall utterly into the dull round of its cyclic aspirations.’ How does one reach this reading? What are the operations which lead from the text to this representation of understanding? The primary convention is what might be called the rule of significance: read the poem as expressing a significant attitu attitude de to some some proble problem m concer concerning ning man and/or and/or his relati relation on to the universe. The sunflower is therefore given the value of an emblem and the
competent reader. That achievement requires acquainta of literature and in many cases some form of guidan effor effortt devote devotedd to litera literary ry educat education ion by genera generatio tio teachers creates a strong presumption that there is learned, and teachers do not hesitate to judge their towards a general literary competence. Most would cla good reason, that their examinations are designed not si whetherSign theirup students readtitle variousset works to votehave on this acquisition of an ability. [...] useful is to bring it wi Useful Not To assimilate or interpret something order which culture makes available, and this is usuall about it in a mode of discourse which a culture takes by various in structuralist writ
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader Becket Beckettt shows, shows, we can can always always make make the meanin meaningle gless ss meanin meaningfu gfull by production of an appropriate context. And usually our contexts need not be so extreme. Much of Robbe-Grillet can be recuperated if we read it as the musings or speech of a pathological narrator, and that framework gives critics a hold so that they can go on to discuss the implications of the particular pathology in question. Certain dislocations in poetic texts can be read as signs of a prophetic or ecstatic state or as indications of a Rimbaudian ‘dérèglement de tous les sens’. To place the text in such frameworks is to make it legible and intelligible. When Eliot says that modern poetry must be difficult because of the discontinuities of modern culture, when William Carlos William argues that his variable foot is necessary in a post-Einsteinian world where all order is questioned, when Humpty-Dumpty tells Alice that ‘slithy’ means ‘lithe’ and ‘slimy’, all are
is observed not as a finished, closed product, but as progress, ‘plugged in’ to other texts, other codes (this i and thereby articulated with society and history in wa determinist but citational. We have then to distinguish structural analysis and textual analysis, without here w them enemies: structural analysis, strictly speaking, is to oral narrative (to myth); textual analysis, which is is appli attempting to up practise practi in the following follow ing pages, Sign tose vote on this title 52 written narrative. Usefuldoes analysis Textual Textual not Not try touseful describe the structure o a matter of recording a structure, but rather of pro structuration of the text (a structuration which is displac reader throughout history), of staying in the signifyi
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader nor even to literature in general; rather it touches on a theory, a practice, a choice, which are caught up in the struggle of men and signs. In order to carry out the textual analysis of a narrative, we shall follow a certain number of operating procedures (let us call them elementary rules of manipulation rather than methodological principles, which would be too ambitious a word and above all an ideologically questionable one, in so far as ‘method’ too often postulates a positivistic result). We shall reduce these procedures to four briefly laid out measures, preferring to let the theory run along in the analysis of the text itself. For the moment we shall say just what is necessary to begin as quickly as possible the analysis of the story we have chosen. 1 We shall cut up the text I am proposing for study into contiguous, and in general very short, segments (a sentence part of a sentence, sentence, at most a
rise. By meaning, it is clear that we do not mean the words or groups of words which dictionary and gra knowledge of the French language, would be sufficient mean mean the connot connotati ations ons of the lexia, lexia, the seconda seconda connotation meanings can be associations (for exam description of a character, spread out over several sen only one connoted signified, the ‘nervousness’ of tha though the word not on figure the level of denotati Sign up does to vote thisattitle be relations, resulting form a linking of two points in Useful Not useful far action sometimes sometimes apart, apart, (an begun here can be much further on). Our lexias will be, if I can put it lik possible sieves, thanks to which we shall ‘cream connotations.
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader once infinite and structured. I think that these remarks are sufficient for us to begin the analysis of the text (we must always give in to the impatience of the text, and never forget that whatever the imperatives of study, the pleasure of the text is our law). The text which has been chosen is a short narrative by Edgar Poe, in Baudelaire’s Baudelaire’s translation: - ‘The Facts in the Case of M. M. Valdemar’ Valdemar’ - 55. My choice - at least consciously, consciously, for for in fact it might be my unconscious which made the choice - was dictated dictated by two didactic considerations: considerations: I needed a very short text so as to be able to master entirely the signifying surface surface (the succession succession of lexias), lexias), and one which was symbolically symbolically very dense, dense, so that the text analysed analysed would touch us continuously, continuously, beyond all particularism: who could avoid being touched by a text whose declared ‘subject’ is death?
A final word, which is perhaps one of conjuration, exo are going to analyse is neither lyrical nor political, it love nor society, it speaks of death. This means that particular censorship: that attached to the sinister. persuaded that any censorship stands for all others: outside all religion lifts at once the religious interdict a one. [...] Sign up to vote on this title Analysis of lexias 1-17 [...] Useful Not useful (1) - ‘The Facts Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar’ Valdemar’ - [ de M. Valdemar] The function of the title has not been well studied
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader the enigma is already already announced; we should should note that the English English says: The Facts in the Case [...]-: the signified which Poe is aiming at is of an empiri empirical cal order order,, that that aimed aimed by the French French transla translator tor (Baude (Baudelai laire) re) is hermeneutic: the truth refers then to the external facts, but also perhaps to their meaning. However, this may be, we shall code this first sense of the lexia: ‘enigma, position’ (the enigma is the general name of a code, the position is only one term of it). (b) The truth could be spoken without being announced, without there being a reference to the word word itself. If one speaks of what is going to say, say, if language is thus doubled into two layers of which the first in some sense caps the second, then what one is doing is resorting to the use of a metalanguage. There is then here the presence of the metalinguistic code.
‘Valdemar’. In a lot of stories Poe uses simple Christia Eleonora, Morella). The presence of the ‘Monsieur’ effect of social reality, of the historically real: the hero forms part of a definite society, society, in which he is supplied We must therefore note: social code. [...] [...] At this point we reach the moment in the narrative going toSign takeup uptothevote textual analysis on this title again, lexia b Interrogation III and the beginning of the analysis to fol usefulintervenes: this is Notdeath’ term of the Useful sequence ‘medical of M. Valdemar (101-102). Under hypnosis, M. Valde dead, medically speaking. We know that recently, recently, with t of organs, the diagnosis of death has been called into q
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader structure (i.e. the presence of the lexia in an actional sequence) the connot connotati ation on of the words words (‘I am dead’) dead’) is of inexhau inexhausti stible ble richne richness. ss. Certainly there exist numerous mythical narratives in which death speaks; but only to say: ‘I am alive’. There is here a true hapax57 of narrative grammar, a staging of words impossible as such: I am dead. Let us attempt to unfold some of these connotations: (i) We have already extracted the theme of encroachment (of life on death); encroachment is a paradigmatic disorder, a disorder of meaning; in the life/death of paradigm, the bar is normally read as ‘against’ (versus); it would suffice to read it as ‘on’ for encroachment to take place and the paradigm to be destroyed. That’s That’s what happens here; one of the spaces bites unwarrantedly into the other. The interesting thing here is that the encroachment occurs at the level of language. The idea that, once dead, th
Printemps, Printemps, and who has gone to her hairdresser’ hairdresser’s, s, the metaph metaphori orical cal into into the liter literal, al, precis precisely ely for impossible: the enunciation ‘I am dead’, is literally forec sleep’ remained literally possible in the field of hypn then, if you like, scandal of language which is in questio (iii) There is also a scandal at the level of ‘language’ the level of discourse). In the ideal sum of all the poss language, theup link theon first Sign to of vote thisperson title (I) and the at precisely the one which is radically impossible: it is the Notthe useful ofUseful blind spot language which story comes, very What is said is no other than this impossibility: th descriptive, it is not constative, it delivers no message o enunciation. In a sense we can say that we have here a
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader third term; it is not a two-faced entity, but a term which is one and new. [...] Other commentaries are possible, notably that of Jacques Derrida 61. I have limited myself to those that can be drawn from structural analysis, trying to show that the unheard-of sentence ‘I am dead’ is in no way the unbel unb elie ieva vabl blee utte uttera ranc nce, e, but but much much more more radi radica call llyy the the impo impossi ssibl blee enunciation. Methodological conclusions The remarks remarks which which will will serve serve as conclu conclusio sionn to these these fragm fragment entss of analys analysis is will will not necess necessari arily ly be theore theoretic tical; al; theory theory is not abstra abstract, ct, speculative: the analysis itself, although it was carried out on a contingent
Although all the codes are in fact cultural, there is yet we have met with, which we shall privilege by callin code: it is the code of knowledge, or rather of huma public opinions, of culture as it is transmitted by the and in a more general and diffuse form, by the whole of several of these cultural codes (or general sub-code cultural code): the scientific code, which (in our story and once once bySign the up princi principle s of exp mentat tation ion to ples vote onexperi thiserimen title medical deontology; the rhetorical code, which gathers Useful useful Not rules of what is said: coded forms of narrative, coded f (the (the announc announceme ement, nt, the résumé résumé,, etc.); etc.); metali metali (discourse talking about itself) forms part of this code; code: ‘dating’, which seems natural and objective to us
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader comm communi unica cati tion on shoul shouldd here here be unde unders rsto tood od in an econ econom omic ic sens sensee (communication, circulation of goods). The symbolic field (here ‘field’ is less inflexible than ‘code’) is, to be sure, enormous; the more so in that here we are talking the word ‘symbol’ in the most general possible sense, without being bothered by any of its usual connotations; the sense to which we are referring is close to that of psychoanalysis: the symbol is broadly that feature of language which displaces the body and allows a ‘glimpse’ of a scene other than that of the enunciation, such as we think we read it; the symbolic framework in Poe’s story is evidently the transgression of the taboo of death, the disorder of clas classi sifi fica cati tion, on, that that Baud Baudel elai aire re has has tran transl slat ated ed (ver (veryy well well)) by the the ‘empiètement’ (‘encroachment’) (‘encroachment’) of life on death (and not, banally, of death on life); the subtlety of the story comes in part from the fact that the
anecdote: for example, they allow us to resume it (w called the argument, a word which is at once logical and One last code has traversed our story from its begin enigma. We have not had the chance to see it at work, only analysed a very small part of Poe’s story. The co gather gatherss those those terms terms throug throughh the string stringing ing-to -toget gether her narrative sentence) an enigma is posed, and which, aft make upSign the piquancy of on the this narrative, up to vote title the solution un of the enigma enigmatic tic (or hermen hermeneut eutic) ic) code code are wel Useful Not useful we example, have to distinguish the positing of th notation whose meaning is ‘there is an enigma’) from t the enigma (the question is exposed in its contingency) enigma is posed in the [French] title itself (the ‘truth’
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader the textual analysis we have attempted to practise here. The textile metaphor we have just used is not fortuitous. Textual analysis indeed requires us to represent the text as a tissue (this is moreover the etymological sense), as a skein of different voices and multiple codes which are at once interwoven and unfinished. A narrative is not a tabular space, a flat structure, it is a volume, a stereophony (Eisenstein placed great insistence on the counterpoint of his directions, thus initiating an identity of film and text): there is a field of listening for written narrative; the mode of presence of meaning (except perhaps for actional sequences) is not not deve develo lopm pmen ent, t, but but ‘exp ‘explo losi sion on’’ [écl [éclat at]: ]: cal cal for for cont contac act, t, communication, the position of contracts, exchange, flashes [éclats] of references, glimmerings of knowledge, heavier, more penetrating blows, coming from the ‘other scene’, that of the symbolic, a discontinuity of
sentence very often refers to two codes simultaneous being able to choose which is the ‘true’ one (for exam code and the symbolic code): what is specific to the te the quality of a text, is to constrain us to the undecidab In the name of what could we decide? In the author’ narrative gives us only an enunciator, a performer caug production. In the name of such and such challengeable, carried offon bythis history Sign up to vote title(which is not to useles useless: s: each each one partic participa ipates tes,, but only only as one vo Useful isNot Undecidability volume). not useful a weakness, but a struc narration: there is not unequivocal determination of the utterance, several codes and several voices are there, Writing is precisely this loss of origin, this loss of ‘mot
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader 1.4.1 Jacques Derrida: from ‘Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences’ 62
We need to interpret interpretations more than we interpret things. (Montaigne) Perhaps something has occurred in the history of the concept of structure that could be called an ‘event’, if this loaded word did not entail a meaning which itit is precisely the function function of structural - or structuralist structuralist - thought to reduce or to suspect. Let us speak of an ‘event’, nevertheless, and let us use quotations marks to serve as a precaution. What would this event be then? Its exterior form would be that of a rupture and a redoubling.
contents, elements, or terms is no longer possible. A permutation of the transformation of elements (which struct structure uress enclos enclosed ed within within a struct structure ure)) is forbid forbid permutation has always remained interdicted (and I am deliberately). Thus it has always been thought that the c definition unique, constituted that very thing within while governing the structure, escapes structurality. Thi thought Sign concerning couldtitle say thatthe center up to structure vote on this within the structure and outside it . The center is at useful totality, andUseful yet, since theNot center does not belong to t part of the totality), the to tality has its center elsewhere the center. center. The concept of centred structure structure - altho coherence itself, the condition of the episteme as philos
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader the center. Successively, and in a regulated fashion, the center receives different forms or names. The history of metaphysics, like the history of the West, West, is the history of these metaphors and metonymies. Its matrix - if you will pardon me for demonstrating so little and for being so elliptical in order to come more quickly quickly to my principal theme - is the determination of Being as presence in all senses of this word. It could be shown that all the names related to fundamentals, to principles, or to the center have always designated an invariable presence - eidos, arche, telos, energeia, ousia (essence, existence, substance, subject) aletheia, transcendentality, consciousness, God, man and so forth. The event I call a rupture, the disruption I alluded to at the beginning of this paper, presumably would have come about when the structurality of structure had to begin to be thought, that is to say, repeated, and this is why
part of the totality of an era, our own, but still it proclaim itself and begun to work . Nevertheless, if we several ‘names’, as indications only, and to recall those discou discourse rse this occurr occurrenc encee has kept kept most most closel closelyy formulation, we doubtless would have to cite the Nietz metaphysics, the critique of the concepts of Being an were were substi substitut tuted ed the concep concepts ts of play play, interp interpret retati ati of self-pre without Sign present truth); the Freudian critique up to vote on this title critique of consciousness, of the subject, of self-ide orUseful Not useful proximity of self-possession; and, more radically destruction of metaphysics, of onto-theology, of the Being as presence. [...] In the work of Lvy-Strauss it must be recognized th
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader setting aside of nature. Besides the tension between play and history, there is also the tension between play and presence. Play is the disruption of presence. The presence of an element is always a signifying and substitutive reference inscribed in a system of differences and the movement of a chain. Play is always play of absence and presence, but if it is to be thought radically, play must be conceived of o f before the alternative of presence and absence. Being must be conceived of as presence or absence on the basis of the possibility of play and not the other way round. If Lvy-Strauss, better than any other, has brought to light the play of repetition, and the repetition of play, one no less perceives in his work a sort so rt of ethic of presence, an ethic of nostalgia for origins, an ethic of archaic and natural innocence, of a purity of presence and of self-presence in speech - an ethic, nostalgia, and
his entire entire history history - has dreamed dreamed of full full presen presen foundation, the origin and the end of play. The second interpretation, to which Nietzsche pointed the way, ethnography, as Lévi-Strauss does, the ‘inspiration of (again citing the ‘Introduction to the Work Work of Marcel Ma There are more than enough indications today to s perceive that these two interpretations of interpretat absolu absolutel tely y irreco irrup econci ncilab lable le on even evethis n iftitle we live liv e them them Sign to vote reconcile them in an obscure economy - together sha Useful usefulthe social science Notfashion, we call, in such a problematic For my part, although these two interpretations must accentuate their difference and define their irreducibility that today there is any question of choosing - in the f
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader 1. FORM AND INTENT IN THE AMERICAN NEW CRITICISM [...] A truly systematic study of the main formalists critics in the English language during the last thirty years would always reveal a more or less deliberate rejection of the principle of intentionality. The result would be a hardening of the text into a sheer surface that prevents the stylistic analysis form penetrating beyond the sensory appearances to perceive this ‘struggle with meaning’ of which all criticism, including the criticism of form should give an account of. For surfaces also remain concealed when they are being artificially separated from the depth that supports them. The partial failure of American formalism, which has not produced works of major magnitude, is due to its lack of o f awareness of the intentional structure of the literary form.
structural formalism of the new Critics to the ‘organic dear to Coleridge. The introduction of the principle would imperil the organic analogy and lead to a loss of hence the understandable need of the New Critics to pro source of strength. [...] The ambivalence reappears among modern disciples curious curious discrepanc discrepancyy between between their theoretical theoretical assum more practicalSign results. As it refines its interpretations up to vote on this title crit critic icis ism m does does not disc discove overr a sing single le mean meanin ing, g, usefulopposed to each Useful significations that can be Not radically revealing a continuity affiliated with the coherence of takes us into a discontinuous world of reflective iron Almost in spite of itself, it pushes the interpretative proc
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2. THE RHETORIC RHETORIC OF BLINDNES BLINDNESS: S: JACQUES JACQUES DERRIDA' DERRIDA'S READING OF ROUSSEAU
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[...] All these critics seem curiously doomed to say something quite differen differentt form what they meant to say. say. Their critical critical stance - Lukács’s Lukács’s propheticism, Poulet's belief in the power of an original cogito, Blanchot's claim of meta-Mallarméan meta-Mallarméan impersonality - is defeated by their own critical critical result results. s. A penetr penetrati ating ng but diffic difficult ult insigh insightt into into the nature nature of litera literary ry language ensues. It seems, however, that this insight could only be gained because the critics were in the grip of this peculiar blindness: their language could grope towards a certain degree of insight only because their method remained oblivious to the perception of this insight. The
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader
consisted in the affirmation of a methodology that could in terms of their own findings: Poulet's ‘self’ turns ou Blanchot's impersonality a metaphor for self-reading, cases, the methodological dogma is being played of insight, and this interplay between methodology and l in turn the highly literary rhetoric of what could be criticism. Derrida's case is somewhat different: his chap literary interpretation as deconstruction, Sign up to vote on this title is flawless in apply to the wrong object. There is no need to deconstr Not useful Useful established tradition of Rousseau interpretation, howev need of deconstruction. Derrida found himself in the mo critical positions: he was dealing with an author as language lets him be who, for that very reason, is bei
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader [...] The critical reading of Derrida's critical reading of Rousseau shows blindness to be the necessary correlative of the rhetorical nature of literary language. Within the structure of the system: text-reader-critic (in which the critic can be defined as the ‘second’ reader or reading) the moment of blindness can be located differently. If the literary text itself has areas of blindness, the system can be binary; reader and critic coincide in their attempt to make the unseen visible. Our reading of some literary critics, in this volume, is a special, special, somewhat somewhat more complex case of this structure: structure: the literary literary texts are themselves critical critical but blinded, blinded, and the critical critical reading of the critics tries to deconstruct the blindness. It should be clear by now that ‘blindness’ implies no literary value-judgement: Lukács, Blanchot, Poulet, and Derrida can be called ‘literary’ in the full sense of
blowing blowing in in the the direc direction tion of form formalis alistt and and intri intrinsic nsic critic criticism. ism. We speak as if, with the problems of literary form forever, and with the techniques of structural analysis perfec perfection tion,, we could could now now move move ‘beyo ‘beyond nd forma formalis lism’ m’ towa really interest us and reap, at last, the fruits of the ascetic techniques that prepared us for this decisive step. With th order of literature well policed, we can now confidently d the foreign affairs, affair thevote external externa of literature. litera ture. Not on Sign ups, to onl politics this title to do so, but we owe it to ourselves to take this step: our useful doNotother would wou ld not Useful allo allow w us to otherwi wise se.. Behin Behindd the the interpretation is possible, behind the recent interest in writ potentia potentially lly effec effective tive public public speech speech acts, acts, stands stands a high imperative that strives to reconcile the internal, formal, pr
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader not in the derived sense of comment or of eloquence or persuasion) becomes a mere extension of grammatical models, a particular subset of syntactical relations.[...] Without engaging the substance of the question, it can be pointed out, without having to go beyond recent and American examples, and without calling upon the strength of an age - old tradition, that the continuity here assumed between grammar and rhetoric is not borne out by theoretical and philosophical speculation. Kenneth Burke mentions deflection (which he compares structurally to Freudian displacement), defined as ‘any slight bias or even unintended error’, as the rhetorical basis of language, and deflection deflection is then conceived conceived as a dialectica dialecticall subversion subversion of the consistent link between sign and meaning that operates within grammatical patterns; hence Burke’s well - known insistence on the distinction between grammar
take the first example from the sub - literature of the m by his wife whether he wants to have his bowling laced laced und under er,, Archie Archie Bun Bunker ker answer answerss with with a que difference?’. Being a reader of sublime simplicity, hi patiently explaining the difference between lacing over whatever this may be, but provokes only ire. ‘What’s th not ask for difference but means instead ‘I don’t give difference is’.up The Sign tosame vote grammatical on this title pattern engende that are mutually exclusive: the literal meaning asks usefulby the figurative Useful Not (difference) whose existence is denied as we are talking about bowling shoes, the consequen trivial; Archie Bunker, who is a great believer in the au (as long, of course, as they are the right origin) muddle
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader some revealing inconsistencies within the commentaries, the line is usually interpreted as stating, with the increased emphasis of a rhetorical device, the potential unity between form and experience, between creator and creation. creation. It could be said that it denies denies the discrepancy discrepancy between the sign and the referent from which we started out. Many elements in the imagery and the dramatic development of the poem strengthen this traditional readin reading; g; without without having having to look look any furthe furtherr than than the immedi immediate ately ly preceding lines, one finds powerful and consecrated images of the contin continuit uityy from from part part to who whole le that that makes makes synecd synecdoch ochee into into the most most seductive of metaphors: the organic beauty of the tree, stated in the parallel syntax of a similar rhetorical question, or the convergence, in the dance, of erotic desire with musical form:
since they n no way exclude each other, disrupts and antithesis of the inside/ outside pattern. We can transfer act of reading and interpretation. [...] Does the metaphor of reading really unite outer me underst unde rstand anding ing,, action action with with reflec reflectio tion, n, into into one assertion is powerfully and suggestively made in a pas that describes the experience of reading as such a union. TheSign figure dramatized that of metaphor, a uphere to vote on thisistitle correspondence as represented by the act of reading. Th usefultaking place in en Useful Not the culmination of a series of actions leading up to the ‘dark coolness’ of Marcel’s Marcel’s room. I had stretched out on my bed, with a book, in
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader motionless hand in the middle of a running brook the shock and the motion of a torrent of activity. [Swann’s Way, Paris: Pleiade, 1954, P. 83.] For our present purpose, the most striking aspect of this passage is the juxtaposition of figural and metafigural language.[...] language.[...] Yet, it takes little perspicacity to show that the text does not practice what it preaches. A rhetorical reading of the passage reveals that the figural praxis and the metafigural theory do not converge and that the assertion of the mastery of metaphor over metonymy owes its persuasive power to the use of metonymic structures.[...] This would become clear from an inclusive reading of Proust’s novel or would become even more explicit explicit in a language - conscious conscious philosopher philosopher such as Nietzsche who, as a philosopher, has to be concerned with the
passage about the intrinsic, metaphysical superiority metonymy. We seem to end up in a mood of negative highly productive of critical discourse.[...] We are back at our unanswered question: does the g rhetoric end up in negative certainty certainty or does it, like th gram gramma marr, rema remain in susp suspen ende dedd in the the igno ignora ranc ncee falsehood? TwoSign concluding remarks suffice to answer t up to vote on should this title of all, it is not true that Proust’s text can simply b Useful (the Not useful assertion mystified superiority of metaphor over m reading deconstructs. The reading is not ‘our’ reading, the linguistic elements provided by the text itself; the di author and reader is one of the false distinctions that t
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader turn, open to the kind of deconstruction to the second degree, the rhetorical deconst deconstruc ructio tionn of psychol psycholing inguis uistic tics, s, in which which the more more advanc advanced ed investigati investigations ons of literature literature are presently presently engaged, engaged, against against considerab considerable le resistance. We end up therefore, in the case of rhetorical grammatization of semiol semiology ogy,, just just as in the gramma grammatic tical al rhetor rhetoriza izatio tionn of illocu illocutio tionar naryy phrases, in the same state of suspended ignorance. ignorance. [...] Literature as well as criticism - the difference between them being delusive - is condemned (or privileged) to be forever the most rigorous and, consequently, the most unreliable language in terms of which man names and transforms himself.
subverting the very possibility of a position of analytic resulting asymmetrical, abysmal structure, no analysis one - can intervene without transforming transforming and repeating the sequence, which is thus not a stable sequence, but w produces some regular effects. It is the functioning of t the structure structure of these effects, effects, that will provide the study. Any attempt to do three such complex text Sign up to ‘justice’ vote ontothis title of the question. But it is precisely the nature of such ‘j Not useful in Useful readings question each of these of the act of analysis debate prolif proliferat erates es around around a crime story story - a robber can hardly hardly be an accide accident. nt. Somewher Somewheree in each each economy of justice cannot be avoided. For in spite o
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader fathom her secret. From then on everything transpires like clockwork. After dealing in his customary manner with the business of the day, the Minister's draws from his pocket a letter similar in appearance to the one in his view, and having pretended to read it, he places it next to the other. A bit more conversation to amuse the royal company, whereupon, without flinching once, he seizes the embarrassing letter, making off with it, as the Queen, on whom none of his manoeuvre has been lost, remains unable to intervene for fear of attracting the attention of her royal spouse, close at her side at that very moment. Everything might then have transpired unseen by a hypothetical spectator of an operation in which nobody falters, and whose quotient is that the Minister Minister has filched filched from the Queen Queen her letter and that - an even more important result than the first - the Queen knows that he now has it, and
which remains the same. Whereupon he has but to withdraw, after ‘forgetting’ table, table, in order to return the following following day to reclaim i facsimile of the letter in its present state. As an incid prepared for the proper moment, draws the Ministe Dupin in turn seizes the opportunity to snatch the letter the imitation, and has only to maintain the appearances noise, a Here asSign wellup all to hasvote transpired, not without on thisiftitle commotion. The quotient of the operation is that the M Useful useful that Dupin is th has the letter, but, far fromNot suspecting ravished it from him, knows nothing of it. Moreover, w is far from insignificant for what follows. We shall retur Dupin to inscribe a message on his counterfeit letter. W
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader occasion for larceny afforded by that exposure. Thus three moments, structuring three glances, borne by three subjects, incarnated each time by different characters. The first is a glance that sees nothing: the King and the police. The second, a glance which sees that the first sees nothing and deludes itself as to the secrecy of what it hides: the Queen, then the Minister. The third sees that the first two glances leave what should be hidden exposed to whoever would seize it: the Minister and finally Dupin. In order to grasp in its unity the intersubjective complex thus describe, we would willingly seek a model in the technique legendarily attributed to the ostrich attempting to shield itself from danger: for that technique might ultimately be qualified as political, divided as it here is among three partners: the second believing itself invisible because the first has its head
story does not require that its meaning be revealed: ‘the produce its effects within the story: on the actors in the narrator, as well as outside the story: on us, the reader author, author, without without anyone's anyone's ever bothering bothering to worry abou ‘The Purloined Letter’ thus becomes for Lacan a kind signifier. Derrida's critique of Lacan's reading does not dispute but allego allegoric rical al inter intup erpre pretat ion on on this its title own terms, terms, Sign totation vote implic implicit it presupp presupposi ositio tions ns and its modus modus opera operandi. ndi. Not useful atUseful objections two kinds of targets: (1) what Lacan puts i (2) what Lacan leaves out of the text. (1) What Lacan puts into the letter: While assertin meaning is lacking, Lacan, according to Derrida, makes
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader reduce a complex textual functioning to a single meaning are serious blots indeed in the annals of literary criticism. Therefore it is all the more noticeable that Derrida's own reading of Lacan's text repeats precisely the crimes of which he accuses it: on the one hand, Derrida makes no mention of Laca Lacan' n'ss long long deve develo lopm pmen entt on the the rela relati tion on betw betwee eenn symb symbol olic ic determination and random series. And on the other hand, Derrida dismisses Lacan's ‘style’ as a mere ornament, veiling, for a time, an unequivocal message: ‘Lacan's ‘style’, moreover, moreover, was such that for a long time it would hinder and delay all access to a unique content or a single unequivocal meaning determined beyond the writing itself’ (PT, p.40). The fact that Derrid Derridaa repeat repeatss the very gestur gestures es he is critic criticisi ising ng does does not in itself itself invalidate his criticism of their effects, but it does render problematic his statement condemning their existence. And it also illustrates the transfer of
displacement’ (SPL, p.59). It is localised, but only as th locus of a differential relationship. Derrida, in fact, ena signifier in the very act of opposing it:
Perhaps only one letter need be changed, maybe even in the expression: ‘missing from its place’ [‘manque [‘manque à sa we need only introduce a written ‘a’, i.e. without accent out that if the up lacktohas its place [‘letitle manque a sa place’ Sign vote on this topology of the signifier, that is, if it occupies therein a Usefulthe order useful Not definite contours, would remain undisturbed (P
While While thus critic criticisi ising ng the hypostas hypostasis is of a lack lack substance of an absence (which is not what Lacan is sa
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader tying it. The word ‘analyse’, in fact, etymologically means ‘untie’, a meaning on which Poe plays in his prefatory remarks on the nature of analysis as ‘that moral activity which disentangles’ (Poe,67 p.102). The anal analys ystt does does not inte interv rven enee by givi giving ng mean meanin ing, g, but by effe effect ctin ingg a dénouement. But if the act of (psycho) analysis has no identity apart from its status as a repetition of the structure it seeks to analyse (to untie), then Derrida's remarks against psychoanalysis as b eing always already ‘mise en abîme’ in the text it studies and as being only capable of finding itself, are not objections to psychoanalysis but in fact a profound insight into its very essence. Psychoanalysis is in fact itself the primal scene it is seeking: it is the first occurrence of what has been repeating itself in the patient without ever having occurred. Psychoanalysis is not itself the interpretation of
neutralisation is possible, no general point of view’ (P also precisely precisely the ‘discovery’ ‘discovery’ of psychoanalysi psychoanalysiss involved (through transference) in the very ‘object’ of h Everyone Everyone who has has held the letter letter - or even beheld beheld narr narrat ator or,, has has ende endedd up havi having ng the the lett letter er addr addres es destination. The reader is comprehended by the letter: from which he can stand back and observe it. Not that th the letter is subjective than objective, but that Sign rather up to vote on this title which which subver subverts ts the polari polarity ty subjec subjectiv tive/o e/obje bjecti ctive, ve, useful Useful Not subjectivity into something whose position in a struct the passage through it of an object. The letter's de wherever it is read, the place it assigns to its reader as h Its destination is not a place, decided a priori by the se
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader interesting not to be deliberate. The opposition between the ‘phallus’ and ‘dissemination’ is not between two theoretical objects but between two interested positions. And if sender and receiver are merely the two poles of a reversible message, then Lacan's substitution of ‘destin’ for ‘dessein’ in Crébillon's quotation - a misquotation that Derrida Derrida finds revealing enough to end his analysis upon - is in fact the quotation' quotation's message. The The sender (dessein) and the receiver (destin) of the violence that passes between Atreus and Thyestes are equally subject to the violence the letter is. The sentence ‘a letter always arrives at its destination’ can thus either be simply pleonastic or variously paradoxical: it can mean ‘ the only message I can read is the one I send’, ‘wherever the letter is, is its destination’ ; ‘when a letter is read, it reads the reader’ ; ‘the repressed always returns’ ; ‘I only exist as a reader of the other’ ; ‘the letter has no destination’ ; and
unsandal'd were, / And widely glittered here and t entangled in her hair’ hair ’ (58-65). What follows is a taking in: Christabel questions this (‘and who art thou?’, 70), and takes in the answer (‘my line,/And my name is Geraldine’ 79-80); takes in as forcible kidnapping; and takes in, finally, the person of into the safety of her father's hall. Once there, however, in some Sign absolutely signs, such asGeraldine' up tosuspicious vote on this title of pain at the threshold (129 ff.), her refusal to join in pr Useful useful Not ‘angry moan’ of the mastiff (145 ff.), or the strange fla (156 ff.). Is it Christabel's turn to be taken in by Ger these signs, and others like them, she draws closer to h the point of lying at her side, naked, and in bed.
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader is thus a ‘seal’ in two senses of that word word - a hallmark or signature, signature, but one that also ‘seals up’, or encrypts, the fact of its own existence, of its meaning (if it has one) and its history (which is never revealed). And this seal, by sight and by touch, also seals up Christabel, and so becomes her seal and signature as well. Christabel, who cannot forget the mark, nor openly or articulately ‘declare’ it, must live henceforth as Geraldine lives, bearing, even as she dissembles, the sealing up of the seal, concealing the mark of her difference, saying one thing and meaning, knowing and being something else. [...] Taking, then, the poem named ‘Christabel’ as a meditation on itself, with the figure named ‘Geraldine’ as its own interior mirror-image; and taking the figure named ‘Christabel’ as one of her readers, perhaps a naïve one, or perhaps exemplary whose to Geraldine is kind of
Must we give up the quest for the seal? Three Three issues issues remain remain unexpl unexplore ored. d. Taken aken togethe togethe programme. First is the matter of closeness: we have not drawn Coleridge for his mark to surprise us. In textual te sufficiently taken in the system of his tropes and thei The better part of this essay must attempt to do so. in mind Second,Sign in reading the tropes wetitle must bear up to vote on this reveal, namely the mark. They cover up the mark. But t Notthemselves: useful Useful not a resource of the tropes if it were, disclose the mark. Rather, the covering up belongs to mark mark itself itself,, which which can can always always efface efface itself itself by something else, of something other than a mark, for exa
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader what they seem to mean, then we miss their intended meaning. If we read the words as a trope - as a metaphor, metaphor, in which the bitterness of the words words resembles the bitterness of the feeling feeling - then we inevitably miss the import of the words, and we also miss, therefore, the bizarre coincidence of the words with their meaning, a coincidence which is not organised like a metaphor. Trope, sign, and seal, then: a sequence of places to turn to. If not in the form of a progress, at least in the form of a juxtaposition. [...]
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader
2. PROTO -THEMES
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2.1 MYTH CRITICISM
2.1.1 Joseph Campbell: Campbell: from The Hero With A Thousand Faces Fa ces
majestic legends of the Bible, the adventure of the hero the pattern of the nuclear unit above described: a sep world, a penetration to some source of power, and a life The whole of the Orient Orient has been been blessed by the boon Gautama Buddha - his wonderful teaching teaching of the Good Occident has been by the Decalogue of Moses. The Gr the first support of all human culture, to the world-tran of their their Prometheus, andvote the Romans the founding Sign up to on this title city to Aeneas, following his departure from fallen Tro Useful of useful underworld the eerie theNot dead. Everywhere, no matte of interest (whether religious, political or personal), t acts are represented as those deriving from some sor world; and what happens in the interval of the hero's no
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader single folk; folk; universa universall heroes heroes - Mohammed, Mohammed, Jesus, Jesus, Gautama Gautama Buddha Buddha bring a message for the entire world. world. Whether the hero be ridiculous or sublime, Greek or barbarian, gentile or Jew, his journey varies little in essential plan. Popular tales represent the heroic action as physical; the higher religions show the deed to be moral; neverthele nevertheless, ss, there will be found astonishingly astonishingly little variation variation in the morphology of the adventure, the character roles involved, the victories gained. If one or another of the basic elements of the archetypal pattern is omitted from a given fairy tale, legend, ritual or myth, it is bound to be somehow or other implied - and the omission itself can speak volumes for the history and pathology of the example. [...] The cosmogonic cycle is presented presented with astonishing astonishing consistency consistency in the sacred writings of all the continents and it gives to the adventure of the
He spake unto me and said: I am thou and thou art I; thou mayest be I am there. In all am I scattered, and willest, thou gatherest Me; and gathering Me, thou gathe The two - the hero hero and his ultimate god, the seeker thus understood as the outside and the inside of a sing mystery, which is identical with the mystery of the ma great deed of the supreme hero is to come to the knowl in multiplicity andtothen to on make it known. Sign up vote this title
Useful Not useful 2. THE KEYS [...] The mythological hero, setting forth from his co castle castle,, is lured, lured, carri carried ed away away, or else else volunta voluntaril ril threshold of adventure. There he encounters a shad
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader description. Many tales isolate and greatly enlarge upon one or two of the typical elements of the full cycle (test motif, flight motif, abduction of the bride), others string a number of independent cycles into a single series (as in the Odyssey). Differing characters or episode can become fused, or a single element can reduplicate itself and reappear under many changes. The outlines of myths and tales tales are subject to damage damage and obscuration. obscuration. Archaic traits are generally eliminated or subdued. Imported materials are revised to fit local landscape, custom, or belief, and always suffer in the process. Furthermore, in the innumerable retellings of a traditional story, s tory, accide accidenta ntall or intent intention ional al disloc dislocati ations ons are inevit inevitabl able. e. To accoun accountt for elemen elements ts that that have have become become,, for one reason reason or anothe another, r, meanin meaningle gless, ss, secondary interpretations are invented, often with considerable skill.
to revert to them. This coincides with a feeling that we the study study of medioc mediocre re works works of art, art, how howeve everr ene remains a random and peripheral form of critical experi profound masterpiece seems to draw us to a point and enormous number of verging patterns of significan to wonder if we cannot see literature, not only as com time, but as spread out in conceptual space from some u is a p This inductive towards the archetype Sign upmovement to vote on this title up, as it were, from the structural analysis, as we back u usefulof brushwork. In toUseful Notinstead if we want see composition the grave-digger scene in Hamlet , for instance, is an texture, ranging from the puns of the first clown to the the Yorick soliloquy, which we study in the printed tex
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader psychology and history and the rest. In particular, particular, the literary anthropologist who chases the source of the Hamlet legend from the preShakespeare play to Saxo, and from Saxo to nature-myths, is not running away from Shakespeare: he is drawing closer to the archetypal form which Shakespeare recreated. A minor result of our new perspective is that contradictions among critics, and assertions that this and not that critical approach is the right one, show a remarkable tendency to dissolve into unreality. unreality. [...] Rhythm, or recurrent movement, is deeply founded on the natural cycle, and everything in nature that we think of as having some analogy with works of art, like the flower or the bird's song, grows out of a profound synchronization between an organism and the rhythms of its environment, eciall eciall that that of the sol With animal animal ssi of
instan instantan taneou eouss compre comprehen hensio sionn with with no direct direct ref importance of which is indicated by Cassirer in Langua the time we get them, in the form of proverbs, riddles and etiologica etiologicall folktales, folktales, there is already already a consi narrative in them. They too are encyclopedic in tenden total structure of significance, or doctrine, from rand fragments. As just as pure narrative would be uncons state of c significance be anon incommunicable Signwould up to vote this title communication begins by constructing narrative. Not useful tral The myth mythUseful is the centra cen l inform inf orming ing pow power er tha significance to the ritual and archetypal narrative to the myth is the archetype, though it might be convenient when referring to narrative, and archetype when speakin
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader these powers; myths of floods and the return of chaos, of the defeat of the hero, and Götterdämmerung myths. Subordinate characters: the ogre and the witch. The archetype of satire (see, for instance, the conclusion of The ). [...] Dunciad ). We have identified the central myth of literature, in its narrative aspect, with the quest myth. Now if we wish to see this central myth as a pattern of meaning also, we have to start with the workings of the subconscious where the epiphany originates, in other words in the dream. The human cycle of waking and dreaming corresponds closely to the natural cycle of light light and darkness, darkness, and it is perhap perhapss in this this corre correspon sponden dence ce that that all imaginative life begins. The correspondence is largely an antithesis: it is in daylight that man is really in the power of darkness, a prey to frustration and weakness; it is in the darkness of nature that the ‘libido’ or conquering
1. In the comic vision the human world is a commun represents the wish-fulfilment of the reader. The arche symposium, communion, order, friendship and love. In the human world is a tyranny or anarchy, or an indiv man, the leader with his back to his followers., the romance, the deserted or betrayed hero. Marriage or consummation belongs to the comic vision; the harlo varietiesSign of Jung's belong to the tragi up to‘terrible vote onmother’ this title heroic, heroic, angelic angelic or other superhuman superhuman communities communities f pattern. Useful Not useful 2. In the comic vision the animal world is a communit animals, usually a flock of sheep, or a lamb, or one of usually a dove. The archetype of pastoral images. In th
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader example of the comic vision at random, has the city, the tree, the bird, the community of sages, the geometrical gyre and the detachment from the cyclic world. It is, of course, only the general comic or tragic context that determines the interpretation of any symbol: this is obvious with relatively neutral archetypes like the island, which may be Prospero's island or Circe's.
2.1.4 Leslie A. Fiedler: from ‘Archetype ‘Archetype and Signature: The Relationship of Poet and Poem’
been rather ridiculously overemphasizing medium factor; I take it that we can now safely assume no one w with a poem and dwell on the elements common to the that a pattern of social behavior can be quite as much a chanted or spoken or printed. In deed as in word, th himself as maker and mask, in accordance with some know, in our day, mythos of the artist. And as we all know, When be a writer without having written anything. Sign up to vote on this title the importance of the biography of the poet, we useful Useful Not importance of every trivial detail, but of all that goes particular life-style, whether he concentrate on recrea Shelley, in some obvious image of the Poet, or, like W some witty anti-mask of the Poet. Who could contend t
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader The Tempest only in all its specificity: the diction, meter, patterns of imagery, the heard voice of Shakespeare (the Signature as Means); as well as the scarcely motivated speech on pre-marital chastity, the breaking of the fictional frame by the unconventional religious plaudite (the Signature as Subject). Without these elements, The Tempest is simply not The Tempest ; but Baldur can be retold in any diction, any style, just as long as faith is kept with the bare plot - and it is itself, for it is pure myth. myth. Other examples are provided by certain children's stories, retold and reillustrated without losing their essential identity, whether they be ‘folk’ creations like Cinderella or art produc products ts ‘captu ‘captured red’’ by the folk folk imagin imaginati ation, on, like like Southey's Three Bears. In our own time, we have seen the arts (first music, then painting, last of all literature) attempting to become ‘pure’, ‘pure’, or ‘abstract’ - that is to say,
symbols willy-nilly, though setting them in a Signature what James called ‘solidity of specification’. [...] A pair of caveats are necessary before we proceed between Archetype and Signature, it should be correspond to the ancient dichotomy of Content and Fo as the structures of Greek Tragedy ( cf. Gilbert Murra and Pastoral Elegy are themselves versunkene Arche being rerealized great of art. (Elsewhere I Sign upintothe vote onwork this title ‘structural myths’.) Useful Not useful the Nor does present distinction cut quite the same wa ‘impersonal’ (or even ‘nonpersonal’) and ‘personal’. F which is rooted in the ego and superego, belongs, as the division implies, to the social collectivity as well as
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader possibility of using biographical material for the purposes of evaluation. Let us consider some examples. For instance, the line in one of John Donne's poems, ‘A Hymne to God the Father’, which runs, ‘When thou hast done, thou hast not done’ would be incomprehensible in such a collection without author's names as the Thomas and Brown Reading Poems. A second example which looks much like the first to a superficial glance, but which opens up in quite qu ite a different way, would be the verse ‘they'are but Mummy, possest’, from Donne's ‘Loves Alchymie’. Let us consider whether we can sustain the contention that there is a pun on Mummy, whether deliberately planned or unconsciously fallen into. Can we read the line as having the two meanings: women, so fair in the desiring, turn out to be only dried-out after the having; and possessed,
and examining, for instance, Donne's ambivalent rela Mother, the Roman Church, which his actual mother r metaphorically, but in her own allegiance and desc analysis which at once unifies and opens up (one cou equally provocative and rich, for instance, with the f Melvil Melville' le's tales tales ships ships symbol symbolic ic of innoce innocence nce ar Bachelor and The Bachelor's Delight ) is condemned in ‘failing to stayup close to theonactual actual of the work Sign to vote this meaning title work work were were a tigh tightt litt little le isla island nd inst instea eadd of a fo Useful inexhaustible totality. Not useful The intrinsicist is completely unnerved by any refere the Archetype in literature, fearing such references as st the criterion of the ‘marvellous’ to respectable curren
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader King Lear , and Macbeth, they neither heighten nor deepen it but on the contrary reject and even destroy it. In fact, I would go as far as to argue that the tragic pattern in the tragedies themselves is scarcely maintained equally strongly over each of the plays. For, on the basis of a comparison between the myth and ritual pattern as I have described it in Tragedy and tragedies ies,, I think think that that the Paradox Paradox of the Fortunate Fortunate Fall and the traged Shakespeare's tragic vision, which he was able to sustain but tentatively in Hamlet , most fully in Othello, barely in King Lear , hardly at all in Macbeth, failed him altogether in the last plays, and that this failure is manifested by the use of the elements of the myth and ritual pattern as mere machinery, virtually in burlesque fashion, and not as their informing and sustaining spirit. [...] I. The myth and ritual pattern of the ancient Near East, which is at least
Despite the differences between the religions of the a (as, for example, between those of Egypt and Mesopota that of the Hebrews and of the others), nevertheless th certain significant features of myth and ritual in commo in their turn, stemmed from the common bond of ritual, one form or another) of all together, though, as I possessed completely all the elements, which varied in religion Sign to religion. thison single, ritual schem up toIn vote this idealized title of the community was secured by the regular perfor Useful ritual actions in which theNot kinguseful or his equivalent took Moreover the king's importance for the community increased by the almost universal conviction that th community or state and those of the king were inextrica
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader the process of separation, regeneration, regeneration, and the return on a higher level both the individual and the community are assured their victory v ictory over o ver the forces of chaos which are thereby kept under control. [...] II. This then, is the myth and ritual pattern as I understand it. What are its implications for tragedy? To start with, I would suggest that in the myth and ritual pattern we have the seedbed of tragedy, the stuff of which it was ultimately formed. Both the form and content of tragedy, its architecture as well as its ideology, closely parallel the form and content of myth and ritual pattern. But having said that, I must also say that the myth and ritual pattern and tragedy are not the same. Both share the same shape and the same intent, but they differ significantly in the manner of their creation and in the methods of achieving their purposes. [...] Tragedy, on the other hand, is a creation compounded of conscious craft
and ritual pattern is its adaptability, its ability to cha retaining its potency, and we should therefore not be su same same proce process ss at work work in its relati relation on to traged tragedyy. however, is the direction of change, for we find, first, the settling of destinies which is the highest point in th pattern - the goal of the struggle, since without it the p would be in vain, and chaos chaos and disorder would would be t theme, soSign elaborately explicated in the ritual practices o up to vote on this title East, is no more than implied in tragedy, just as th Notking useful between theUseful well-being of the and the well-being o again so detailed in ritual, is only shadowed forth, as aimed at but not to be achieved in reality. reality. Second, we discover that even greater emphasis is pl
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader vicariously purged from us by the suffering of the tragic protagonist. He commits the foul deed which is potentially in u s, he challenges the order of God which we would but dare not, he expiates our sin, and what we had hitherto felt we had been forced to accept we now believe of our free will, namely, that the order of God is just and good. Therefore is the tragic protagonist vouchsafed the vision of victory but not its attainment. attainment. III. Seen from this point of view, Hamlet is a particularly fascinating exampl examplee of the relati relations onship hip betwee betweenn the myth myth and ritual ritual patter patternn and trag traged edyy, beca becaus usee it show showss with within in the the acti action on of the the play play itse itself lf the the development of Shakespeare's awareness of tragedy as a heightened and secularized version of the pattern. Hamlet begins by crying for revenge which is personal and ends by seeking justice which is social. Shakespeare deals with the problem of the play - how shall a son avenge avenge the injustice
set it right!’ Hamlet's ambivalence is reflected in the fragmentation there are as many Hamlets as there are scenes in which each person in the play sees a different Hamlet befor contradictions in his character, two stand out as the m his incompleteness. The first is Hamlet's yearning to b for the sake of action alone, but rightly, in the clear ca while noSign tragic upprotagonist to vote onacts thismore title frequently and than Hamlet, he is more and more perplexed to discove Useful Not useful good would do - that is, cleanse Denmark Denmark by avenging - the more evil he in fact accomplishes; hence his en ability to act resolutely and without equivocation (IV he is nominally a Christian, yet in the moments of sharp
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader 2.1.6 Eric Gould: from from Mythical Intentions in Modern Literature Literature Chapter 1. ‘On the Essential in Myth: Interpreting the Archetype’ [...] I want to emphasize that the mythic, therefore, does not and cannot disappear in the modern so long as these questions remain. For reasons which should be clear to the reader by the end of this study, I do not believe that we must differentiate sharply between some pristine, original, o riginal, and sacred myth of origins, which has somehow receded form our grasp, and which we can only pessimistically hope to recover, and, on the other hand, myth as semiotic fact. True myth, it is very often said, even by such opposites as Eliade and Lévy-Strauss, can no longer be a reality for civilized man. My point is that mythicity is alive insofar as we rely on
Todorov and Kristeva. Rather we need to concentrate specul speculati ative ve issue issue of how fictio fictional nal narrat narrative ivess see importance both in and out of the history of literary lan For myths and fictions reveal the paradox of language defined in linguistic terms as both sequence (syntag (paradigm). Whatever we have to say about the mea necessarily part of this paradox, which describes the on both myth andup literature. Sign to vote on this title The work of James Joyce is a clear example of a co Useful In Not useful paradox. Portrait with this , Ulysses and Finnega particularly in his increasingly complex emphasis ‘transubsta ‘transubstantiat ntiation’ ion’ - we find examples examples of how myth recovered in the novel. This is achieved less by a simpl
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader But one cannot leave the argument there, or else we become locked into mere circularity. In the end, it is not enough to argue from linguistic premises alone and expect to have spoken intelligently about the mana of myth, which has supposedly been rather more universal than the mana of literature. I do want to examine something we all know, that ancient myths survive in the modern with all their problematic intensity as they deal with the numinous and the sacred. The question is how and why. The ‘why’ relates to the argument for the ontological status of myth to be found in the first part of this study. The ‘how’ is discussed in specific examples drawn from from the the work workss of Lawr Lawren ence ce and and Elio Eliot. t. If myth myth seek seekss to achi achiev evee understanding, to reach an unconcealed presence, to recover the numinous, to locate the universal in the Beingness of beings, then it must still cope with the Nothing of the modern. That remains our intellectual crisis, which
myth-and-literature studies might further take along less than it has followed in the past. We need to go beyond with the ‘failures’ of the modern fragmented sensibility in our time. There There have certainly certainly been defenders defenders of but we need to note too that it is precisely the fragmenta seen to keep myth alive. I attempt to offer fresh re Lawrence, and Eliot with the motive of showing how is a mythicity mythicity. . Andupsince I amon insisting that myth Sign to vote this title and interpretation, it must be said that the subject under Not useful Useful the business of literary criticism. It is currently fashiona the reach of the Structuralis Structuralistt enterprise enterprise has far exce that its attempt to seek meaning through networks, v symbolic connections and disconnections has neutralize
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader event, each caught in a metaphorical world seeking stability. Myths, we might assume, form perhaps the most demanding system among narratives that we have, a point which can be defined in several ways: traditionally in ritual performance, which can be found in wide-ranging civilizations, or else in its psychological function as either an imperial Jungian archetype or as some some versio versionn of wha whatt Bruno Bruno Bettel Bettelhei heim m has descri described bed as myth's myth's ‘typic ‘typical’ al’ involvem involvement ent with with ‘super ‘superego ego demand demandss in confli conflict ct with with idmotivated action, and with the self-preserving desires of the ego.’ But, again, those approaches do not seem to me to get to the heart of the matter: the mythicity of discourse as metaphor relies on metonymy. Myth is, after all, an historical consciousness only available in discourse, which does reveal reveal a growin growingg awaren awareness ess of some some liter literal al meanin meaningg in our finitu finitude de through through metaph metaphori orical cal ion But the import import of myth myth in
assumptions about itself and ourselves. The archetype is it depends on interpretation for its own existence. This i invidious invidious hermeneuti hermeneuticc circulari circularity ty but, again, to absence of meaning before meaning can even be discov So there is no reason to discard the term ‘archetype’ On the contrary, it requires a fresh definition. Sign archetypal significance for us, in both ancient and mod betwe they re-enact continually continua lly,on , through throu the play Sign up to vote thisgh title metaphor, the alternative closing and widening in dis Useful betweenthe inside andNot theuseful outside. They ther ratiocination, creative fantasy, and above all, our proce the world as a sign system. To repeat my earlier point metonym is the rhetorical degree zero of metaphor.
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader familiar conceptions. This has been the case with the concept of the unconscious in general. After the philosophical idea of the unconscious, in the form presented chiefly by Carus and von Hartmann, had gone down under the overwhelming wave of materialism, leaving hardly a ripple behind it, it gradually reappeared in the scientific domain of medical psychology. At first the concept of the unconscious was limited to denoting the state of repressed or forgotten contents. Even with Freud, who makes the unconscious unconscious - at least least metaphoric metaphorically ally - take the the stage stage as the acting acting subjec subject, t, it is really really nothin nothingg but the gather gathering ing place place of forgot forgotten ten and repressed contents, and has a functional significance thanks only to these. For Freud, accordingly, the unconscious is of an exclusively personal nature, although he was aware of its archaic and mythological thought-
archaic or - I would say - primordial types, that is, with that have existed since the remotest times. The term collectives’, used by Lévy-Bruhl to denote the symbo primitive view of the world, could easily be applie contents as well, since it means practically the same tribal lore is concerned with archetypes that have be special way. They are no longer contents of the unco alread alreadyy Sign been been up change chato nged d into int o this consci conscious ous formul for mulae ae vote on title tradition, generally in the form of esoteric teachings. Th Useful for useful of collective c theNot means of expression transmission derived from the unconscious. Another well-known expression of the archetypes tale. But here too we are dealing with forms that have r
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader therefore sees the unconscious in this way too, regarding it outright as my unconscious. Hence it is generally believed that anyone who descends into the unconsc unconsciou iouss gets gets into into a suffoc suffocati ating ng atmosp atmospher heree of egocen egocentri tricc subjectivity, and in this blind alley is exposed to the attack of all the ferocious beasts which the caverns of the psychic underworld are supposed to harbour. True, whoever looks into the mirror of the water will see first of all his own face. Whoever goes to himself risks a confrontation with himself. The mirror does not flatter, it faithfully shows whatever looks into it; namely, the face we never show to the world because we cover it with the persona, the mask of the actor. But the mirror lies behind the mask and shows the true face. This confrontation is the first test of courage on the inner way, a test
occurrences that take place just at this time. If you have kind, then the helpful powers slumbering in the deepe nature can come awake and intervene, for helplessness the eternal problem of mankind. To this problem there answer, otherwise it would have been all up with hum When you have done everything that could possibly thing that remains is what you could still do if only you much doSign we know ourselves? up toofvote on thisPrecious title little, to jud Hence there is still a great deal of room left for the unc Not useful Useful as we know, calls for a very similar attitude and theref same effect. The necessary and needful reaction from the collec expresses itself in archetypally formed ideas. The meetin
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader greater part an unconscious unconscious life that surrounds consciousness on all sides a notion notion that that is suffic sufficien iently tly obvious obvious whe whenn one considers considers how much much uncons unconscio cious us prepar preparati ation on is needed needed,, for instan instance, ce, to regist register er a sensesenseimpression. Although it seems as if the whole of our unconscious psychic life could be ascribed to the anima, she is yet only one archetype among many. Therefore, she is not characteristic of the unconscious in its entirety. She is only one of its aspects. This is shown by the very fact of her femininity. What is not-I, not masculine, is most probably feminine, and because the not-I is felt as not belonging to me and therefore as outside me, the animaimage is usually projected upon women. Either sex is inhabited by the opposite opposite sex up to a point, for, for, biologically biologically speaking, speaking, it is simply the greater number of masculine genes that tips the scales in favour of
troubled the ancients as little as it does the primitiv conservative and clings in the most exasperating fashio earlier humanity. She likes to appear in historic dress, w for Greece and Egypt. In this connection we would m anima stories of Rider Haggard and Pierre Benoît. [...] [The dream under discussion] expresses its meaning i voice of a wise magician, who goes back in direct lin medicineSign manup in to primitive He is, like the an vote onsociety. this title demon that pierces the chaotic darknesses of brute life HeUseful Not useful meaning. is the enlightener, the master and teache whose personification even Nietzsche, that breaker of escape - for he had called called up his reincarnation reincarnation in Zar spirit of an almost Homeric age, as the carrier and mout
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader wise wise old man man - are are of a kind kind that that can be dire direct ctly ly experi experien ence cedd in personified form. In the foregoing I tried to indicate the general psychological conditions in which such an experience arises. But what I conveyed were only abstract generalizations. One could, or rather one should, really give a description of the process as it occurs in immediate experience. In the course course of this process the archetypes archetypes appear as active personalities in dreams and fantasies. But the process itself involves anothe anotherr class class of arche archetype typess which which one wou would ld call call the archetyp archetypes es of They are not person personali alitie ties, s, but are typica typicall situat situation ions, s, transformation. They places, ways and means, that symbolize the kind of transformation in question. Like the personalities, these archetypes are true and genuine symbols that cannot be exhaustively interpreted, either as signs or as all rie The uin bol cisely cisely bec the
life in which the individual becomes what he always w has consci conscious ousnes ness, s, a develo developme pment nt of this this kind kind smoothly; often it is varied and disturbed, because cons again and again from its archetypal, instinctual foundati in opposition to it. There then arises the need for a sy positions. This amounts to psychotherapy even on where it takes the form of restitution ceremonies. As e mentio mentionn Sign the up identi ideto ntific ficati ation on of the Australia liann abo vote on this titleAustra ancestors in the alcheringa period, identification with usefulthe Helios apoth Useful Not sun’ among the Pueblos of Taos, mysteries, and so on. Accordingly, the therapeutic m psychology consists on the one hand in making possible the constellated unconscious contents, and on
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader hinterland of man’s man’s mind - that suggests the abyss abyss of time separating separating us from pre-human ages, or evokes a super-human world of contrasting light and dar darkne kness. ss. It is a pri primor mordia diall exp experi erienc encee whi which ch sur surpas passes ses man man’’s understanding, and to which his is in danger of succumbing. [...] The obscurity as to the sources sources of the material in visionary visionary creation is very strange, and the exact opposite of what what we find in the psychological mode of creation. We are even led to suspect that this obscurity is not uninte unintenti ntiona onal. l. We are natural naturally ly inclin inclined ed to suppose suppose - and Freudian Freudian psychology encourages us to do so - that some highly personal experience underlies this grotesque darkness. [...] Although a discussion of the poet’s personality and psychic disposition belongs strictly to the second part of my essay, I cannot avoid taking up in the present connection this Freudian view of the visionary work of art. For
that way of accounting for artistic creation which cons to personal factors. We should see clearly where it leads it takes us away from the psychological study of the confronts us with the psychic disposition of the poet latter presents an important problem is not to be denied art is something something in its own right, and may not be c question question of the significance significance to the poet of his creativ regard regarding ingSign it as trifl e, as screen screen, , as asource source of upatotrifle, vote onathis title achievemen achievementt - does not concern concern us at the momen Not useful theUseful interpret work of art psychologically. For this un essential that we give serious consideration to the basi underlies it - namely, namely, to the vision. We We must take it at as we do the experiences that underlie the psychologica
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader the Rhodesian cliff-drawings of the Old Stone Age there appears, side by side with the most amazingly amazingly life-like life-like represent representation ationss of animals, animals, an abstract abstract pattern pattern - a double cross contained contained in a circle. circle. This design design has turned up in every cultural region, more or less, and we find it today not only in Christian churches, but in Tibetan monasteries as well. It is the socalled sun-wheel, and as it dates from a time when no one had thought of wheels as a mechanical device it cannot have had its source in any experience of the external world. It is rather a symbol that stands for a psychic happening; it covers an experience of the inner, and is no doubt as lifelike a representation representation as the famous rhinoceros with the tick-birds tick-birds on its back. There has never been a primitive culture that did not possess a system of secret teaching, and in many cultures this system is highly developed. The man’s man’s councils and the totem-clans preserve this teaching
and Hell; Goethe must bring in the Blocksberg and the i Greek Greek antiqu antiquity ity;; Wagner agner needs needs the who whole le bod Nietzsche returns to the hieratic style and recreates the prehistoric times; Blake invents for himself indescrib Spitteler borrows old names for new creatures of the im interm intermedi ediate ate step is missin missingg in the who whole le range range sublime to the perversely grotesque. Psychology cantodovote nothing towards Sign up on this title the elucidation imagery except bring together materials for compar useful to this termin Useful NotAccording terminology for its discussion. appear appearss in the vision is the collec collectiv tivee uncons uncons collective unconscious, a certain psychic disposition sha of heredi heredity; ty; from it sci has develope develope
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader does not change the fact that his own work outgrows him as a child its mother. The creative process has feminine quality, and the creative work arises arises the from unconscious unconscious depths - we might say, from from the realms of mothers. Whenever the creative force predominates, human life is ruled and moulded by the unconscious as against the active will, and the conscious ego is swept along on a subterranean current, being nothing more than a helpless observer of events. The work in process becomes the poet’s fate and determines his psychic development. It is not Goethe who creates Faust , but Faust which creates Goethe. And what is Faust but a symbol? [...] The secret of artistic creation and of the effectiveness of art is to be found in a return to the state of participation mystique - to that level of experience at which it is man who lives, and not the individual, and at
‘psy ‘psych chic ic resi residua dua of numb number erle less ss expe experi rien ence cess of experi experienc ences es which which have have happen happened ed not to the indiv ancestors, and of which the results are inherited in th brain, a priori determinants of individual experience. It is the aim of the present writer to examine this hypo regard to examples where we can bring together the rec and and refl reflec ecti tion on of mind mindss appr approa oach chin ingg the the ma standpoints. It is hoped that, in this way, something may Sign up to vote on this title enriching the formulated theory of the systematic psy usefulwhile at the same ofUseful Not the insight more intuitive thinkers, thinker's results may receive somewhat more exact defin We have here an expression, somewhat imaginative a eri in of try which which
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader beneath, in ancient tradition. Let us glance back towards the earliest appearance in literature of the mountain as a seat of blessedness with caverned depths below. Such an image came to Milton by two lines of descent, through Greek and through Hebrew literature. In the Odyssey Olympus appears as ‘the seat of the Gods that standeth fast for ever. Not by winds is it shaken, nor ever wet with rain, nor doth the snow come nigh thereto, but most clear air is spread about it cloudless, and the white light floats over it.’ In this passage an ancient tradition has taken a definite aesthetic form to which our feeling can respond. Olympus in this aspect is akin to that Elysian plain, ‘where life is easiest for men. No snow is there, nor yet great storm nor any rain; but always Ocean sendeth forth the breeze of the shrill West to blow cool on men.’ [...]
hollow mountain of Babylonian myth, presenting it as the heavenly height. The mystery of God is high as H than Hell (Job xi. 8). [...] An image of Tartarus bearing an interesting relation Coleridge's poem is found in the mythical picture of th world that appears in the Phaedo of Plato. Plato picture lifted up fair and pure into the ether, while, piercing Homer whole Earth cavern ‘whereof Signyawns up to the votegreat on this title saying 'Afar off, where deepest underground the Pit is Usefulflow useful cavern all rivers andNot from it flow out again, a measureless measureless flood ‘swingeth ‘swingeth and swayeth swayeth up and dow wind surge with it[...]and even as the breath of living c forth and drawn in as a stream continually, so ther
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader response that has brought into both pictures a reference to the tumultuous breathing of the earth. Within those travellers' descriptions which Lowes exhibits as sources of the phrases of Coleridge's poem, was there also latent an organic response to the natural phenomenon witnessed, as to an expression expression of a living creature creature's 's force? We have, to judge from, in these descriptions, only the strong note of wonder: ‘the inchanting and amazing crysta crystall founta fountain’ in’,, ‘he was was astoni astonishe shedd by an inexpr inexpress essibl iblee rushin rushingg noise[...]and tremor of the earth[...]and saw, with amazement, the floods rushing upward many feet high’. Whatever organic response may have been present within the recorded amazement of the traveller, to Coleridge, sharing it as he read, some sense of the passion of a living thing was evidently conveyed. Elements of organic response which remain latent and undiscoverable in
high high wall wall were were privat privatee ground groundss which which I never never appearing and flowing through the bars of the low cu mystery and fascination for me; so that when we walked that direction I would look forward to coming to disappointed if we turned back short of it. Another s equally exciting to visit in those days was the lock o where I could watch the runnels of water that forced a r in my dr planks ofSign the sluice-gates, justthis as did the water wate up to vote on title As I recall those early memories in relation to the drea Not that useful Useful to recognize the note of feeling unites them with m Plato's image, and also with that of Coleridge. It is a br the water's movement, and sympathy with it as with a know whether if I underwent a Freudian analysis th
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader character, character, and of tensions and stresses shared with beings below the animal level. This factor of organic feeling, which invites our scientific curiosity to carry its analysis farther, should be identifiable, I think, by any reader who had the aptitude both for deep and full response to poetry, and for analysing that response. [...] The same reflections apply to the consideration of the cavern image. Exam Examin inin ingg my own own resp respon onse se to the the cave cavern rn imag imagee as it occu occurs rs in Coleridge's poem, I think a complex of reminiscence, including memories of damp dark cellars and of a deep well, regarded with fearful interest in childhood; also, fused with these, images of caverns and underground castle-vaults, goblin-tenanted, which I gathered from an absorbed reading of fairy-tales. These memories include no recognizable trace of reference to the womb. If, however, we accept the view that the earliest conscious
of loss and frustration symbolized by depth, darkness an sounds its intrinsic note of pain even through the o triumph that poetic expression achieves. As in the preceding essay we traced a pattern of ri vitality, a forward urge and backward swing of life imager imageryy deployed deployed in time time - an imager imageryy in which which w played their part - so now we find an emotional similar character statically, Sign up presented to vote on this titlein imagery of fixe - the the mount mountai ainn stan standi ding ng high high in stor storm m and and Not useful Useful waters unchanging, dark, below, whose movement only steadfast relations of height and depth. [...]
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader time I speak for Him Him - / The Mountains Mountains straight reply - // And And do I smile, such cordial light / Upon the Valley Valley glow - / It is as a Vesuvian Vesuvian face / Had let its pleasure pleasure through - // And when at Night - Our good Day done - / I guard My Master’ Master’ss Head - / ‘Tis better than than the Eider-Duck’ Eider-Duck’ss / Deep Pillow - to have shared - // To foe of His - I’m deadly foe - / None stir the second second time - / On whom whom I lay a Yellow Yellow Eye Eye - / Or an emphati emphaticc Thumb - // Though I than than He - may longer live / He longer must - than I - / For I have but the power to kill, / Without Without - the power to die Despite the narrative manner, it is no more peopled than the rest of Dickinson’s poems, which almost never have more than two figures: the speaker and another, often an anonymous male figure suggestive of a lover or of God or of both. So here: I and ‘My Master’. the ‘Owner’ of my life.
initial crisis of alienation and conflict to assimilate th integrated identity. identity. In the struggle toward wholeness th t anima come to mediate the whole range of experience f the man: her and his connection with nature and sex hand and with spirit on the other. No wonder that th anima appear in dreams, myths, fantasies, and works o once human and divine, as lover and god. Such a p Dickinson’s Owner in the poem. SignMaster up toand vote on this title However, for women in a society like ours, wh Not useful ofUseful subjection women in certain assigned roles, the proc integration integration becomes especially especially fraught with painful painful ambivalences. Nevertheless, here, as in many poems, D chance for fulfilment in her relationship to the animus
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader most often as all three at once. His link with landscape, therefore, is a passage into the unknown in his own psyche, the mystery of his unconscious. unconscious. For the man, the anima is the essential essential point of connection connection with woman and with deity. But all too easily, easily, sometimes all too unwittingly, unwittingly, connection - which should should move to union union - can gradua gradually lly fall into into compet competiti ition, on, then contention and conflict. The man who reaches out to Nature to engage his basic physical and spiritual needs finds himself reaching out with the hands of the predator to possess and subdue, to make Nature serve his own ends. From the point of view of Nature, then, or of woman or of the values of the feminine principle, the pioneer myth can assume a devastating and tragic significance, as our history has repeatedly demonstrated. Forsaking the institutional structures of patriarchal culture, the woodsman goes out
ultimate weapons for self-preservation. No longer se advances as the aggressor, murderer, murderer, rapist. [...]
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader
3. SUBJECTIVITY IN CRITICISM
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3.1
PSYCHOANALYTICAL APPROACHES
3.1.1 Sigmund Freud: from The Essentials of Psycho-Analysis
In the case of the complicated and confused dreams w now concerned, condensation and dramatization alone account for the whole of the impression that we gain o between the content of the dream and the dream-th evidence of the operation of a third factor, and this e careful sifting. First and foremost, when by means of analysis we that the knowledge of up theto dream-thoughts, we observe Sign vote on this title content deals with quite different material from the late useful for we find u isUseful Not to be sure, no more than an appearance, whole of the dream-content is derived from the dreamalmost all the dream-thou dream-thoughts ghts are represente representedd in Nevertheless, something of the distinction still remains
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader have given an exhaustive estimate of this phenomenon, however, unless I add that this work of displacement or transvaluation is performed to a very varying degree in different dreams. There are dreams which come about almost without any displacement. These are the ones which make sense and are intelligible, such, for instance, as those which we have recognized as undisguised wishful dreams. On the other hand, there are dreams in which not a single piece of the dream-th dream-thoughts oughts has retained retained its own psychical value, or in which everything that is essential in the dreamthoughts has been replaced by somehing trivial. And we can find a complete series of transitional cases between these two extremes. The more obscure and confused a dream appears to be, the greater the share in its construction which may be attributed to the factor of displacement. [...]
principle is proper to a primary method of working mental apparatus, but that, from the point of view of the of the organism among the difficulties of the external w very outset inefficient and even highly dangerous. Unde the ego’s instincts of self-preservation, the pleasure pri by the reality principle. This This latter latter principl principlee doe intention of ultimately obtaining pleasure, but it neve and carries into the postponement Sign upeffect to vote on this title of satisfaction, of a number of possibilities of gaining satisfaction a useful ofUseful asNot toleration unpleasure a step on the long indirect The pleasure principle long persists, however, as a m employed by the sexual instincts, which are so hard t starting from those instincts, or in the ego itself, it
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader consequence of the old conflict which ended in repression, a new breach has occurred in the pleasure principle at the very time when certain instincts were endeavouring, in accordance with the principle, to obtain fresh pleasure. [...] Let us suppose, then, that all the organic instincts are conservative, are acquired historically and tend towards the restoration of an earlier state of things. It follows that the phenomena of organic development must be attributed to external disturbing and diverting influences. The elementary living entity would from its very beginning have had no wish to change; if conditions remained the same, it would do no more than constantly repeat the same course of life. In the last resort, what has left its mark on the development of organisms must be the history of the earth we live in and of its relation to the sun. Every modification which is thus imposed upon
being: the instinct to return to the inanimate state. matter at that time for a living substance to die; the cou probably a brief one, whose direction was determined structure of the young life. For a long time, perhaps, liv thus thus being being consta constantl ntlyy create createdd afresh afresh and easil easilyy external influences altered in such a way as to oblige substance to diverge ever more widely from its original to make Sign ever more detours up tocomplicated vote on this title before reaching These circuitous paths to death, faithfully kept to by Useful would Not instincts, thus present us useful to-day with the picture of life. If we firmly maintain the exclusively conse instincts, we cannot arrive at any other notions as to the life. [...]
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader relationships proceed side by side, until the boy’s sexual wishes in regard to his mother become more intense and his father is perceived as an ob obst stac acle le to them them;; from from this this the the Oedi Oedipu puss comp comple lexx orig origin inat ates es.. His His identification with his father then takes on a hostile colouring and changes into a wish to get rid of his father in order to take his place with his mother. Henceforward Henceforward his relation to his father is ambivalent; it seems as if the ambivalence inherent in the identification from the beginning had become manifest. An ambivalent attitude to his father and an objectrelation of a solely affectionate kind to his mother make up the content of the simple positive Oedipus complex in a boy. Along with the demolition demolition of the Oedipus complex, complex, the boy’s objectobjectcathexis of his mother must be given up. Its place may be filled by one of two things: either an identification with his mother or an intensification of
3.1.1.4 (1933)
From ‘The ‘The Dissect Dissection ion of the the Psyc
Ever since, under the powerful impression of this formed the idea that the separation of the observing age of the ego might be a regular feature of the ego’s struct never left me, and I was driven to investigate the furth and connections of the agency which was thus separa Sign uptaken. to vote this title step is quickly Theoncontent of the delusions o already suggests that the is only a preparatio Useful Not useful observing punishing, and we accordingly guess that another funct must be what we call our conscience. There is scarcely us that we so regularly separate from our ego and s
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader plenty about, even if you are not psychiatrists. The most striking feature of this illness, of whose causation and mechanism we know much too little, is the way in which which the super-ego super-ego - ‘conscience’, you may call it, quietly treats the ego. While a melancholic can, like other people, show a greater or lesser degree of severity to himself in his healthy periods, during a melancholic attack his super-ego becomes over-severe, abuses the poor ego, humiliates it and ill-treats it, threatens it with the direst punishments, reproaches it for actions in the remotest past which had been taken lightly at the time - as though though it had spent spent the whole interva intervall in collecti collecting ng accusations and had only been waiting for its present access of strength in order to bring them up and make a condemnatory judgement on their basis. The supper-ego applies the strictest moral standard to the helpless ego which is at its mercy; in general it represents the claims of morality, and
attitude to the problem of conscious-unconscious. At fir greatly to reduce the value of the criterion of being con shown itself so untrustworthy. But we should be doing may be said of our life, it is not worth much, but it is all the illumination thrown by the quality of consciousne lost in the obscurity of depth psychology; but we must a bearings afresh. [...] Unluckily UnlucSign kily the of on psycho-anal psycho up work to vote this-analysis titleysis has found it use the word ‘unconscious’ in yet another, third, sense Useful usefulthe new and pow NotUnder be sure, have led to confusion. there being an extensive and important field of men normaly withdrawn from the ego’s knowledge so th ring in it have to be ded as cious in
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader [The id] is the dark, inaccessible part of our personality; what little we know of it we have learnt from our study of the dream-work and of the construction of neurotic symptoms, and most of that is of a negative character and can be described only as a contrast to the ego. We approach the id with analogies: we call it a chaos, a cauldron full of seething excitations. We picture it as being open at its end to somatic influences, and as there there taking taking up into into itself itself instinct instinctual ual needs which which find find their their psychical expression in it, but we cannot say in what substratum. It is filled filled with energy reaching it from the instincts, but it has no organization, produces no collective will, but only a striving to bring about the satisf satisfac actio tionn of the instin instinctu ctual al needs needs subjec subjectt to the obser observan vance ce of the pleasure principle. The logical log ical laws of thought do not apply in the id, and this is true above all of the law of contradiction. Contrary impulses exist
towards the external world, it is the medium for the p thence, and during its functioning the phenomenon arises in it. It is the sense-organ of the entire apparatu receptive not only to excitation from outside but also from the interior of the mind. We need scarcely look fo the view that the ego is that portion of the id which wa proximity and influence of the external world, which receptionSign of stimuli ason a protective up toand vote this titleshield against st to the cortical layer by which a small piece of liv Useful toNot surrounded. surrounded. The relation relation theuseful external world has factor for the ego; it has taken on the task of represen world world to the id - fortuna fortunatel telyy for the id, whic destruction if, in its blind efforts for the satisfaction
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader its best achievemen achievements. ts. The ego develops from perceiving perceiving the instincts instincts to contro controlli lling ng them; them; but this this last last is only only achiev achieved ed by the [psych [psychica ical] l] repr repres esen enta tati tive ve of the the inst instin inct ct bein beingg allo allott tted ed its its prop proper er plac placee in a considerable assemblage, by its being taken up into a coherent context. To adopt a popular mode of speaking, we might say that the ego stands for reason and good sense while the id stands for the untamed passions. So far we have allowed ourselves to be impressed by the merits and capabilities of the ego; it is now time to consider the other side as well. The ego is after all only a portion of the id, a portion that has been expediently modified by the proximity of the external world with its threat of danger. From a dynamic point of view it is weak, it has borrowed its energies from the id, and we are not entirely without insight into the methods methods - we might might call call them dodges dodges - by which which it extract extractss further further
one anothe anotherr. These These claims claims are are always always diver divergen gen incompatible. No wonder that the ego so often fails in tyrannical masters are the external world, the super-ego we follow the ego’s ego’s efforts to satisfy them simultaneou obey obey them them simultane simultaneous ously ly - we cannot cannot feel feel any personified this ego and having set it up as a separate hemmed in on three sides, threatened by three kinds of if it is hard pressed, reacts generating Sign up to itvote onbythis title anxiety. [...]
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader startling spectacle of the infant in front of the mirror. Unable as yet to walk, or even to stand up, and held tightly as he is by some support, human or artificial (what, in France, we call a ‘ trotte-bébé’), he nevertheless overcomes, in a flutter of jubilant activity, the obstructions of his support and, fixing his attitude in a slightly leaning-forward position, in order to hold it in his gaze, brings back an instantaneous aspect of the image. We have only to understand the mirror stage as an identification, in the full sense that analysis gives to the term: namely, the transformation that take takess plac placee in the subjec subjectt when when he assu assume mess an image image - whos whosee predestination to this phase-effect is sufficiently indicated by the use, in analytic theory, of the ancient term imago. This jubilant assumption of his specular image by the child at the infans stage still sunk in his motor incapacity incapacity and nursling dependence, dependence, would
inversion and its isolating processes, and the latter in tu to paranoic alienation, which dates from the deflection into the social I. This moment in which the mirror-stage comes to an en the identification with the imago of the counterpart primordial jealousy (so well brought out by the Bühler in the phenomenon of infantile transitivism), the henceforth linkupthetoI vote to socially elaborated Sign on this title situations. It is this moment that decisively tips the whole of h usefulof the other, con Useful through Not into mediatization the desire in an abstract abstract equivalence equivalence by the co-operation co-operation of other into that apparatus for which every instinctual thrust con even though it should should correspond correspond to a natural natural matur
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader experi experienc ence, e, culmin culminate atess in the preten pretentio tionn of provid providing ing an existe existenti ntial al psychoanalysis. At the culmination of the historical effort of a society to refuse to recognize that it has any function other than the utilitarian one, and in the anxiety of the individual confronting the ‘concentrational’ form of the social bond that seems to arise to crown this effort, existentialism must be judged by the explanations it gives of the subjective impasses that have indeed resulted from it; a freedom that is never more authentic than when it is within the walls of a prison; a demand for commitment, expressing the impotence of a pure consciousness to master any situation; a voyeuristicsadistic idealization of the sexual relation; a personality that realizes itself only in suicide; a consciousness of the other that can be satisfied only by Hegelian murder.
modern modern anthropolog anthropology, y, psychoanalysis psychoanalysis alone recogni imaginary servitude that love must always undo again, o For such a task, we place no trust in altruistic feeling, the aggressivity aggressivity that underlies underlies the activity of the p idealist, the pedagogue, and even the reformer. In the recourse of subject to subject that we preserve may accompany the patient to the ecstatic limit of the ‘ destin which isSign revealed to vote him the of his mortal up to on cipher this title our mere power as practitioners to bring him to that po Useful Not useful journey begins.
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader Let us note, then, that aphasias, although caused by purely anatomical lesions in the cerebral apparatus that supplies the mental centre for these functions, prove, on the whole, to distribute their deficits between the two sides of the signifying effect of what we call here the ‘letter’ in the creation of signification. A point that will be clarified later. [...] I shall designate as metonymy, then, the one side (versant ) of the effective field constituted by the signifier, so that meaning can emerge there. The other side is metaphor . Let us immediately find an illustration; Quillet’s dictionary seemed an appropriate place to find a sample that would not seem to be chosen for my own purposes, and I didn’t have to go any further than the well known line of Victor Hugo: ‘His sheaf was neither miserly nor / spiteful...’, under which aspect I presented metaphor
signif significa icatio tionn in a perfec perfectly tly convin convincin cingg repre represent sent comedy. It is obvious that in the line of Hugo cited above, not of light springs from the proposition that the sheaf wa nor spiteful, for the reason that there is no question of t either the merit or demerit of these attributes, since the sheaf, belong to Booz, who exercises the former in disp in the and without the on latter of title his sentiments Signinforming up to vote this If, however, his sheaf does refer us to Booz, and this i Useful Not it is because it has replaced himuseful in the signifying chain where he was to be exalted by the sweeping away of gre now Booz himself has been swept away by the sheaf, a outer darkness where greed and spite harbour him in th
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader Modern metaphor has the same structure. So the line Love is a pebble laughing in the sunlight , recreates love in a dimension that seems to me most most tena tenable ble in the the face face of its its immi immine nent nt lapse lapse into the the mira mirage ge of narcissistic altruism. We see, then, that metaphor occurs at the precise point at which sense emerg emerged ed from from non non-se -sense nse,, that that is, at that that fronti frontier er which, which, as Freud Freud discovered, when crossed the other way produces the word that in French is the word par excellence, the word that is simply the signifier ‘ esprit’ ; it is at this frontier that we realize that man defies his very destiny when he derides the signifier. But to come back to our subject, what does man find in metonymy if not the power to circumvent the obstacles of social censure ? Does not this form, which gives its field a truth in its very oppression, manifest a certain
Is what thinks in my place, then, another I? Does F represent the confirmation, on the level of psychologic Manicheism? In fact, there is no confusion on this point: what Freu us to is not a few more or less curious cases of split pe the heroic epoch I have been describing, when, like t fairy fairy stories, stories, sexuality talked, talked, the demonic atmosph orientation might have given never materialized. Sign up to vote onrise thistotitle The end that Freud’s discovery proposes for man was useful ofUseful inNot the apex his thought these moving terms: werden. I must come to the place where that was. This This is one one of rein reinte tegr grat atio ionn and and harm harmon onyy, I reconciliation (Versöhnung).
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader which already places him in the position of mediating between me and the double of myself, as it were with my counterpart. If I have said that the unconscious is the discourse of the Other (with a capital O), it is in order to indicate the beyond in which the recognition of desire is bound up with the desire for recognition. In other words this other is the other that even my lie invokes as a guarantor of the truth in which it subsists. By which we can also see that it is with the appearance of language the dimension of truth emerges. Prior to this point, we can recognize in the psychological relation, which can be easily isolated in the observation of animal behaviour, the existence of subjects, not by means of some projective mirage, the phantom of which a certain type of psychologist delights in hacking to pieces, but simply on
adversary, but in that case my success is evaluated with of betrayal, that is to say, in relation to the Other who i Good Faith. Here Here the the prob proble lems ms are are of an orde orderr the the hete hetero ro completely misconstrued (méconnue) if reduced to a others’, or whatever we choose to call it. For the ‘exist having once upon a time reached the ears of the Midas the secre through Sign the partition that on separates him from up to vote this title phenomenologists, the news is now being whispered Useful useful ‘Midas, King Midas, is theNot other of his patient. He him [...] When I speak of Heidegger, or rather when I transla ke th effo effort rt to le th ch he offe offe
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader 3.1.7 Harold Bloom: from ‘Poetry, ‘Poetry, Revisionism, and Repression’ Jaques Derrida asks a central question in his essay on Freud and the Scene of Writing ‘ ‘What is a text, and what must the psyche be if it can be represented by a text?’ My narrower concern with poetry prompts the contrary question: ‘What is a psyche, and what must a text be if it can be represented by a psyche?’ Both Derrida’s question and my own require exploration of three terms: ‘psyche’, ‘text’, ‘represented’. ‘Psyche’ is ultimately from the Indo-European root bhes, meaning ‘to breath’, and possibly was imitative in its origins. ‘Text’ ‘Text’ goes back, to the teks, root meaning ‘to weave’, and also ‘to fabricate’. ‘Represent’ has its root es: ‘to be’. My question thus can can be rephrased: ‘What is a breath,
truth and the pleasurable effects on this belief’. No stro that Nietzsche was accurate in this insight, and no cri any strong poet will accept and so be hurt by demystific A poetic ‘text’, as I interpret it, is not a gathering o but is a psychic battlefield upon which authentic force only victory worth winning, the divinating divinating triumph ov Milton sang it: Sign up to vote on this title Attir’d with Stars, we shall for ever sit, useful and thee O Tim Useful Not Triumphing over Death, and Chance,
Few notions are more difficult to dispel than the ‘ one that a poetic text is self-contained, that is has
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader represses represses misprision, misprision, or creative creative misreading, misreading, but no matter matter how strong a misprision, it cannot achieve an autonomy of meaning, or a meaning fully present, that is, free from all literary context. Even the strongest poet must take up his stance within literary language. If he stands outside it, then he cannot begin to write poetry. The caveman who traced the outline of an animal upon the rock always retraced a precursor’s outline. [...] [...] Vico’s insight is that poetry is born of our ignorance of causes, and we can extend Vico by observing that if any poet knows too well what causes his poem, then he cannot write it, or at least will write it badly. He must repress the causes, including the precursor-poems, but such forgetting [...] itself is s condition of a particular exaggeration of style or hyperbolical figuration that tradition has called the Sublime. [...] [...] A strong poem does not formulate poetic facts any more than
misprision. [...] Vico’s profundity as a philosopher of rh others ancient views tropes as defenses. [...] Vico is asking asking a crucia cruciall questi question, on, which which reductively as, What is a poetic image, or what is a rh what is a psychic defense? Vico’s Vico’s answer can be read as image, trope, defense are all forms of a ratio between making things out of itself, and human self-identifi the hu transformSign us into thevote thingsonwethis have made. When up to title the trespass of a poetic repression of anteriority, and Not the useful isUseful then movement a new poem, ratio measures a rew revision. [...] [...] For a strong poet in particular, rhetoric is also saw it as being, a mode of interpretation that is the
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader Freudi Freudians ans,, may contai containn antith antitheti etical cal effec effects ts but not uninte unintende ndedd or counterinte counterintended nded effects. effects. In the Freudian Freudian valorizati valorization on of sublimation, sublimation, the survival of those effects would be flaws in the poem. But poems are actual actually ly strong stronger er whe whenn their their counte counterin rinten tended ded effec effects ts battle battle most most incessantly against their overt intentions. Imagination Imagination,, as Vico understood understood and Freud did not, is the faculty faculty of self-preservation and so the proper use of Freud, for the literary critic, is not so to apply Freud (or even revise Freud) as to arrive at an Oedipal inte interp rpre reta tati tion on of poet poetic ic hist histor oryy. I find find such such to be the the usua usuall misunderstanding that my own work provokes. In studying poetry we are not study studyin ingg the the mind mind,, nor nor the the Unco Uncons nsci ciou ous, s, even even if ther theree is an unconscious. We are studying a kind of labor that has its own latent principles, principles that can be uncovered and then taught systematically.
3.1.8.1 From ‘The Whole and Its Parts’
When the break between Freud and Jung is discusse practical point of disagreement that marked the differences is too often forgotten: Jung remarked that transference the psychoanalyst frequently appeared devil, a god, or a sorcerer, and that the roles he assume eyes went far beyond any sort of parental images. They up of to the vote on this title initial reserva to a totalSign parting ways, yet Jung’s one. The remark remar k holds true of children’s children’s gam Useful Not useful same confines himself to playing house, to playing only at mommy. He also plays at being a magician, a cowboy, a train, a little car. The train is not necessarily daddy
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader were it not for them. But that is not the real matter at issue. The matter at issue is to find out whether everything he touches is experienced as a representative of his parents. Ever since birth his crib, his mother’s breast, her nipple, his bowel movements are desiring-machines connected to parts of his body. It seems to us self-contradictory to maintain, on the one hand, that the child lives among partial objects, and that on the other hand he conceives of these partial objects as being his parents, or even different parts of his parents’ bodies. Strictly speaking, it is not true that a baby experiences his mother’s breast as a separate part of her body. It exists, rather, as a part of a desiring-machine connected to the baby’s mouth, and is experienced as an object providing a non-personal flow of milk, be it copious or scanty. A desiring-machine and a partial object do not represent anything. A partial object is not representative, even though it admittedly
contrary: it is comp comple leti ting ng the the task task begu begunn by psychology, namely, to develop a moralized, familial di pathology, linking madness to the ‘half-real, half-imag the Family’, deciphering within it ‘the unending attem father’, ‘the dull thud of instincts hammering at the soli as an institution and at its most archaic symbols’. H participating in an undertaking that will bring about bourgeoi psychoanalysis in the work of Sign upistotaking vote part on this title most far-reachin far-reachingg level, level, that is to say, say, keeping keeping Not useful and making no toUseful daddy-mommy harnessed the yoke of with this problem once and for all . [...]
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader unconscious representations. And as we have seen, it is the same agency the family - that performs this double operation, distorting and disfiguring disfiguring social desiring-production, leading it into an impasse. Thus the link between representation-belief and the family is not acci accide dent ntal al;; it is of the the esse essenc ncee of repr repres esen enta tati tion on to be a fami famili lial al representation. But production is not thereby suppressed, it continues to rumb rumble le,, to thro throbb bene beneat athh the the repr repres esen enta tati tive ve agen agency cy (instance représentative) that suffocates it, and that it in return can make resonate to the breaking point. Thus in order to keep an effective grip on the zones of production, representation must inflate itself with all the power of myth and tragedy, it must give a mythic and tragic presentation of the family and a familial presentation of myth and tragedy. Yet aren’t myth and tragedy, too, productions-forms of production? Certainly not; they are
machine in general. For the real question is this: of cou on the child’s child’s unconscious - but does he act as as a head expressive familial transmission, or rather as the agent machinic information or communication? Schreber’s d communicate with those of his father; but it is in this v are from early childhood the libidinal investment of a s field the father has a role only as an agent of prod the first p theon contrary, chooses production. SignFreud, up toon vote this title father father who indica indicates tes the actio actionn of machin machines, es, but Useful useful there Not thereafter is no longer even any reason for consi whether as desiring-machines or as social machines. In will be inflated with all the ‘forces of myth and re phylogenesis, so as to ensure that the little familial repr
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader public element - the Earth, the Despot - is now taken up again, but as the expression of a subjective and private reterritorialization: Oedipus is the fallen fallen despot - banished, banished, deterritoria deterritorialized lized - but a reterritorial reterritorializati ization on is engine engineere ered, d, using using the Oed Oedipu ipuss comple complexx concei conceived ved of as the daddydaddymommymommy-me me of today’ today’ss everym everyman. an. Psycho Psychoana analys lysis is and the Oed Oedipu ipuss complex gather up all beliefs, all that has ever been believed by humanity, but only in order to raise it to the condition of a denial that preserves belief without believing in it (it’s only a dream: the strictest piety today asks for nothing more). Whence this double impression, that psychoanalysis is opposed to mythology no less than to mythologists, but at the same time extends myth and tragedy to the dimensions of the subjective universal: if Oedipus himself ‘has no complex’, the Oedipus Oedipus complex has no Oedipus, just as narcissism has no Narcissus. Such is the ambivalence that traverses
3.2
PHENOMENOLOGICAL CRITI
3.2.2 Georges Poulet: from ‘The Self and Other Consciousness’
Critical consciousness relies, by definition, on the thin Sign up to vote title only therein. [ it finds its nourishment andon itsthis substance [...] EachUseful literary work, of nouseful matter what kind, impl Not an act of self-discovery. Writing does not mean sim unstemed rush of thoughts to flow onto the paper; writin construe oneself as the subject of these thoughts! ‘I thin
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader How could I have failed to recognize the significance of this discovery! The work always began with an act of awareness, and the critical interest which selected the work as an object of consideration posited the same beginning. I was no longer of the opinion that the writer subjects himself to the unordered flow of his spiritual life. He seemed to me now to be characterized therein that he attacked his problem each moment anew, as if he were beginning again from zero. And, in turn, the literary critic also began at zero, with the complete denial denial of his ‘self’. Thus it could validly be said that if the writer creates initially his own cogito, the critic finds his point of departure in the cogito of another. This alien cogito would then, regardless of its origin, become a part of the innermost being of the one who reproduced it. It was a kind of borrowed awareness. In addition, the critic would find it possible with this procedure
becomes the coherence of the critical text which transposes the literary text. [...] I decided to compile systematically all the variati which I could find in my authors. This decision afforded this point had threatened to remain chaotic - a for drowned in the flood of human thoughts. No matter thoughts they were or in which spiritual place I had fusion them, them, they the y had appeare appe areddontothis mytitle as a confus con ion o Sign up to vote differ differenc ences es I could could not note. note. The procedur proceduree thr toUseful Not useful ascended the self-experience of a certain author allo the moment in which the originality of a concept rea mental act, and to measure the significance of the fra this concept was to develop. To arrive at this awareness
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader pressing duty of a literary critic was the rediscovery of the cogito of an author. But how was this cogito to be ‘rediscovered’ ?. [...] To consider a possible object of research research is to misunderstand misunderstand its essence. essence. It cogito as a possible means to make a kind of thing out of a pure subject. The unusual aspect of the experience of consciousness consists precisely therein: that it cannot be regarded externally as a mere supplement of thought. It is, rather, the inner self of the consciousness, the I that confirms itself as I, regardless of the attributes which it happens to have. Thus a cogito was for me an act which would be experienced only inwardly. It escapes the mind unless the mind has succeeded in identifying itself with the power of perception perceiving itself. And since the specific task of the critic consisted precisely in comprehending this process of selfitio itio in th stud studie iedd rk th itic itic uld uld t hi that that
author author,, critic criticism ism must must non noneth ethele eless ss lay stress stress abo encounter of self with its own being: all criticism is fir criticism of consciousness.
3.2.3 Roman Ingarden: from ‘Some Epistemological Cognition of the Aesthetic Concretization of the Litera Sign up to vote on this title In the cognition aesthetic concretization of a li Usefulof the Not useful first we are concerned in the place with discovering wh is constituted and appears in it. But that is not the mai cognition. cognition. It is basically only an empirical empirical preparation preparation
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader contingency. In particular, particular, it can consist in the understanding that the value does not appear but is not sufficiently founded in the aesthetically valuable qualities which are present. The appearance of the value must thus have a basis outside the aesthetic object, which makes its objectivity at least questionable. With regard to the cognition of an aesthetic concretization we must furthe furtherr explai explainn to wha whatt extent extent the aesth aestheti etical cally ly valuabl valuablee qualit qualities ies manifested in the object are founded in the artistic values of the work of art itself or necessarily arise form factors which the reader projects to fill out certain places of indeterminacy in harmony with the work. In this way we gain insight into the necessary or contingent structure of the literary aesthetic object under investigation, even into its foundations in the work of art itself. The demonstration of the necessary ontic interconnections
structure. It is open to question, however, whether t assert asserted ed of aesthe aesthetic tic concr concreti etizat zation ions. s. The dou concretizations arise mainly from the fact that, besides series of purely subjective, individual factors influence given literary work. The formation of a concretization Werther or Shakespeare’s Hamlet depends primarily external circumstances under which the reading is perfo the stateSign of the up reader to votehimself. on thisThese title factors are qu independent of the work of art being read and of one an Useful Not useful be predicted in their conjunctions. Thus the differences concretizations of the same work are quite multifariou unpredictable. It will happen only very rarely that two the same work, formed by different readers, will be co
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader aesthetic concretizations, and it might be asked whether these do not go beyond these limits and should not perhaps be turned over to literary critic criticism ism.. But the soluti solution on of this this proble problem m wou would ld requir requiree a gener general al discus discussio sionn about about the object object,, the task, task, and the methods methods of litera literary ry scholarship and other forms of knowledge about literature, which include philosophy of literature, criticism, and poetics. Such a discussion goes beyond the scope of this book. This result seems, however, to be threatened by a danger we must now discuss. Judgements that appear to be contradictory are often made about the same literary literary work of art, art, in daily daily life life as well as in scholarly scholarly invest investiga igatio tion, n, espec especial ially ly whe whenn it is a questi question on of so-cal so-called led value value judgements or evaluations. To the extent that this reflects a shortcoming of the individual investigator or arises from an accidental defect in the results
the introduction of our distinctions, the theoretical diffi Neither conflict nor contradiction occurs when when two judg different concretizations of the same work say somethi corresponding factors of the two concretizations. The co very well differ on this point. The fact that such judgem does not constitute a shortcoming in literary study. Of c only when the point of difference between the judgem factor orSign attribute of vote the concretization up to on this titlewhich does not b itself but to supplementation of the work by the new fa Useful useful of the concretizatio concreti zations. ns.If,Not however, however , we have two ju differed with reference to a factor of the schematic stru of art itself, then we would have a real conflict or con nevertheless can, in principle, be removed through fur
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader artistic value of the work will last a long time, and perhaps it will not be possible to resolve it in a single cultural epoch. But this does not speak against the ‘scientific character’ of the evaluation of the literary works of art; it is rather simply a consequence of the essential structure of the literary work of art itself and of its ‘life’ in various cultural epochs, and a consequence of the relatively narrow limits of the literary scholar, who is often unable to see beyond the horizon of his own cultural epoch. But that should not tempt us into skepticism about literary scholarship; rather, it should spur us on to further investigation.
possible. I saw him trace certain sensory fixation obsession with place. Haunted by the idea of the secret o which nature seemed to converge, he rediscovered t romance) motif of numinous places. My analysis of ho difficulty, Wordsworth’s ‘spirit’ detached itself from ‘ itself to the larger, more generous idea of ‘nature’ show of ‘spots of time’ was still indebted to that of ‘spirit of the g genius, in Wordsworth, quitetitle freed itself Sign up to votenever on this attempting to respect these nature-involved epiphanies Notreligious useful struggle betwee Useful the very ground of his senses and and defi defini nite te)) and and Hebr Hebrai aicc (ind (indef efin init ite, e, an representations of the divine. [...] What moved me most, perhaps, was the poet’s ex
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader habitable. Yet I did not achieve, or seek, a single transvaluing insight thaat might derive from Wordsworth a systematic view of human development. I remained more interested in ‘error’ ‘error’ - in the process and particulars of what the evolving evolving mind thinks of as an emergence emergence from error error - than in the poet’s anticipation anticipation of modern findings. In some sense emergence itself, our unsteady growth into self-consciousness, became the subject. [...] At several points in the book I approached a general theory linking verbal figures and structures of consciousness. But I managed to evade my own insight and to remain with Wordsworth instead of translating him into deci decisi sive ve mode modern rnis isms ms.. Ther Theree is, is, sure surely ly,, a rela relati tion on betw betwee eenn the the overdetermined or centroverted character of the omphalos and that of the symbol. The flight from these charged charged places of discourse or imagination imagination through doublings, circlings, the generation of personae, metaphorical
Strange fits of passion have I And now w known: orchard-plot; And I will dare to tell, And, as we climbe But in the Lover’s ear alone, The sinking moon What once to me befel. Came near, and ne
When she every In one of those sw SignI loved up to looked vote on this title day slept, Not usefulKind Nature’s gen Fresh as a Useful rose in June, I to her cottage bent my way, And all the while m Beneath an evening moon. On the descending
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader plus horse, or becalmed knight from Romance? He is certainly not the conventional Hotspur of ballad tradition, and his night ride has a touch of parody. Instead of sparking hooves and a charged message, a gentle distractable trot. All is ‘error’ in this poem: the lover’s mind wanders. Or does it? It is not over-anticipating, taking the moon as its mark, so that it is already already where where it wished wished to be - with the belove beloved, d, and beyond beyond a changeable changeable,, sublunar world? world? So that it is, after all, haste haste ridden like a ballad hero’ s? Such strong anticipation or omening - call it futuring - is both expressed and limited by Wordsworth’s poetics of error. In mood, style and subject, his poems are a defense against ecstasy of this kind. Ecstasy, in which the soul goes out of the body, becomes ordinary and almost funny (a ‘fit’). We sense the psychopathology of everyday life as teh rider approaches an
(stanza one of ‘A slumber’) to the abyss of temporalit viceversa. You You never remain in nature or in imagination that the lover of ‘Strange fits’ rides into the poem out o still apparaled like the child of the Great Ode, with an a this world. And let us admit that were he to ride out of t be into trauma. But losing his way he remains in the the poles. Sign up to vote on this title
Not useful
Useful 3.3
READER-RESPONSE READER-RESPONS E CRITIC
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader that must, at the same time that they speak to him, create an interlocutor capable capable of understandi understanding ng them’. them’. This dialogical dialogical character character of the literary literary work also establishe establishess why philological philological understanding understanding can exist only in a perpetual confrontation with the text, and cannot be allowed to be reduced to a knowledge of facts. Philological understanding un derstanding always remains related to interpretation that must set as its goal, along with learning about the object object,, the reflec reflectio tionn on and descri descripti ption on of the comple completio tionn of this this knowledge as a moment of new understanding. [...] The Perceval of Chrétien de Troyes, as a literary event, is not ‘historical’ in the same sense as, for example, the Third Crusade, which was occurring at about the same time. It is not a ‘fact’ that could be explained as caused by a series of situational preconditions and motives, by the intent of a historical action as it can be reconstructed, and by the necessary and
understanding of the genre, from the form and themes o works, and from the opposition opposition between poetic and [...] A literary work, even when it appears to be new, does as something absolutely new in an informational vacuum its audience to a very specific kind of reception by anno and covert covert signals, signals, familiar familiar characteristi characteristics, cs, or imp read, brin awakensSign memories of that which was already up to vote on this title specific emotional attitude, and with its beginning aro Useful Not useful which for the ‘middle and end’, can then be maintained reorie reoriente nted, d, or even even fulfil fulfilled led ironic ironicall allyy in the cou according to specific rules of the genre or type of t in the reception of text is, in the primary ho
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader aesthetic distance the disparity between the given horizon of expectations and the appearance of a new work, whose reception can result in a ‘change of horizons’ through negation of familiar experiences or through raising newly articulated experiences to the level of consciousness, then this aesthetic distance can be objectified historically along the spectrum of the audience’ audience’ss reactions reactions and criticism criticism’s ’s judgement judgement (spontaneou (spontaneouss success, success, rejection or shock, scattered approval, gradual or belated understanding). The way in which a literary work, at the historical moment of its appearance, satisfies, surpasses, dissappoints, or refutes the expectations of its first audience obviously provides a criterion for the determination of its aesthetic value. The distance between the horizon of expectations and the work, between the familiarity of previous aesthetic experience and the ‘horiz ‘horizont ontal al cha ’ demand demanded ed by the eption eption of the k,
accord according ing to an aesthe aesthetic tic of recept reception ion,, danger danger irresistibly convincing and enjoyable ‘culinary’ art, so specia speciall effor effortt to read read them them ‘again ‘against st the grain’ grain’ of experience to catch sight of their artistic character once Thesis 4. The reconstruction of the horizon of expect of which a work was created and received in the past, e other hand to pose questions that the text gave an answ could to discov discover er how con porary ary reader reader could Sign up tothe votecontem ontempor this title understood the work. This approach corrects the mos Useful or Not useful a classicist norms of modernizing understanding of a circular recourse to a general ‘spirit of the age’. It br hermeneutic difference between the former and the curr of a work; it raises to consciousness the history of its
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader sentence is to a large extent the product of his responses to words one, two three, and four. And by response, I intend more than the range of feelings (what Wimsatt and Beardsley call ‘the purely affective reports’). The category category of response response includes any and all of the activities activities provoked by a string of words: the projection of syntactical and/or lexical probabilities; their subsequent occurrence or non-occurrence; attitudes towards persons, or things things,, or ideas ideas refer referred red to; the reversal reversal or questi questioni oning ng of those those attitudes; and much more. Obviously, this imposes a great burden on the analys analystt who in his observat observation ionss on any one moment moment in the reading reading experience must take into account all that has happened (in the reader's mind) at previous moments, each of which was in its turn subject to the accumulating pressures of its predecessors. (He must also take into account influe influe and res predatin predatin the actual actual din eri
equate equate it with with the inform informati ation on given given (the (the messag messag expressed. That is, the components of an utterance are in relation to each other or to a state of affairs in the ou the state of mind of the speaker-author. In any and all o meaning is located (presumed to be embedded) in the apprehension of meaning is an act of extraction. In sh sense of process and even less of the reader's actualizin that process. Sign[...] up to vote on this title
Not useful Useful The Affective Fallacy Fallacy In the preceding pages I have argued the case for a m which focuses on the reader rather than on the artif remains of this essay I would like to consider some of
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader a page or a book is so obviously there - it can be handled, photographed, or put away - that it seems to be the sole repository of whatever value value and meaning we associate with it. (I wish the pronoun could be avoided, but in a way it makes my point.) This is, of course, the unspoken assumption behind the word ‘content.’ The line or page or book contains - everything. The great merit (from this point of view) of kinetic art is that it forces you to be aware of ‘it’ as a changing object - and therefore no ‘object’ at all - and also to be aware of yourself as correspondingly correspondingly changing. Kinetic art does not lend itself to a static interpretation because it refuses to stay still still and doesn't let you stay stay still still either either.. In its operatio operationn it makes makes inescapable the actualizing role of the observer. Literature is a kinetic art, but the physical form it assumes prevents us from seeing its essential nature, even though we so experience it. The availability of a book to the
oft, is not unwise.’ The focus of the controversy is the word ‘spare’, for w have been proposed: leave time for and refrain from. O is crucial if one is to resolve the sense of the lines. In o delights’ are being recommended - he who can leave not unwise; unwise; in the other, other, they are the subject subject of a w knows when to refrain from them is not unwise. The p two interp interpret retati ations cite cite as evi dence ce both bothEnglis Englis Sign upons to vote on eviden this title various sources and analogues, Milton's ‘known attit hisUseful Not found in other writings, anduseful the unambiguously exp of the following sonnet on the same question. [...] If it does nothing else, this curious anticipates a point few moments: moments: eviden eviden brough broughtt to bea in the co
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader still exists, exists, and it is transferre transferredd from the words on the page to the reader (the reader is ‘he who’), who comes away from the poem not with a statement, but with a responsibility, the responsibility of deciding when and how often often - if at all - to indulge indulge in ‘those ‘those delights’ delights’ (they remai remainn delights in either case). This transferring of responsibility from the text to its reader readerss is wha whatt the lines ask us to do - it is the essence essence of their their experience experience - and in my terms it is therefore therefore what what the lines mean. It is a meaning the Variorum critics attest to even as they resist it, for what they are labouring so mightily to do by fixing the sense of the lines is to give the responsibility back. The text, however, will not accept it and remains determinedly evasive, even in its last two words, ‘not unwise’. In their position these words confirm the impossibility of extracting form the poem a moral formula, for the assertion (certainly too strong a word) they
this procedure (and with the assumptions that generat course of following it through, the reader's activities ar and devalued. They are ignored because the text is sufficient - everything everything is in it - and they are devalued devalued b are thought of at all, they are thought of as the disposa extraction. In the procedures I would urge, the reader's a center of attention, where they are regarded, not as lea but as having meaning. The Sign up to vote onmeaning this titlethey have is a con not bein beingg empt empty; y; for for they they incl includ udee the the maki making ng Useful Not assumptions, the rendering anduseful regretting of judgemen and abandoning of conclusions, the giving and withdra the specif specifyin yingg of cause causes, s, the asking of questi questions ons answers, the solving of puzzles. In a word, these activiti
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader they are I would argue that they do not lie innocently in the world but are themselves constituted by an interpretive act, even if, as is often the case, that act is unacknowledged. Of course, this is as true of my analyses as it is of anyone else's. In the examples offered here I appropriate the notion ‘line ending’ and treat it as a fact of nature; and one might conclude that as a fact it is responsible for the reading experience I describe. The truth I think is exactly the reverse: line endings exist by virtue of perceptual strategies rather than the other way round. Historically, the strategy that we know as ‘reading (or hearing) poetry’ has included paying attention to the line as a unit, but it is precisely that attention which has made the line as a unit (either of print or of aural duration) available. A reader so practised in paying that attention that he regards the line as a brute fact rather than as a convention will have a great deal of difficulty with concrete poetry; if he
particular community that there are a variety of texts, boast a repertoire of strategies for making them. believes in the existence of only one text, then the members employ will be forever writing it. The first accuse the members of the second of being b eing reducive, an call their accusers superficial. The assumption in each c that the other is not correctly perceiving the ‘true text’, be that each the on textthis (or texts) Signperceives up to vote title its interpretive and call into being. This, then, is the explanation both f Useful Not interp interpret retati ation on among among diffe differen rentuseful t reader readerss (they (they bel community) and for the regularity with which a single r different interpretive interpretive strategies and thus make different to different communities). It also explains why there a
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader same ways can also be forgotten or supplanted or complicated or dropped from favor (‘no one reads that way anymore’). When any of these things happens, there is a corresponding change in texts, not because they are being read differently, differently, but because they they are being written differently. differently. The only stability, then, inheres in the fact (at least in my model) that inte interp rpre reti tive ve stra strate tegi gies es are are bein beingg depl deploy oyed ed,, and and this this mean meanss that that communication is a much more chancy affair than we are accustomed to think it. For there are no fixed texts, but only interpretive strategies making them; them; and if interp interpret retive ive strate strategie giess are not natura natural, l, but learne learnedd (and (and theref therefore ore unavai unavailab lable le to a finite finite descri descripti ption) on),, wha whatt is it that that uttere utterers rs (speakers, authors, critics, me, you) do? In the old model utterers are in the business of handing over ready made or prefabricated meanings. These meanings are said to be encoded, and the code is assumed to be in the
(interpretation cannot be withheld) and will therefore be marks. So once again I have made the text disappear, but problems do not disappear with it. If everyone is interpretive strategies and in the act of constituting speakers, and authors, how can any of us know whet member of the same interpretive community as any answer isSign that up he can't, since to vote onany thisevidence title brought forw claim would itself be an interpretation (especially if th useful Useful author long dead). The onlyNot ‘proof’ of membership is fe of recognition from someone in the same community, s to you what neither of us could ever prove to a third pa say it to you now, knowing full well that you will agre
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader
4. HISTORY, IDEOLOGY
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4.1
NEO-MARXIST APPROACHES
4.1.1 Walter Benjamin: from ‘The Author As Producer’
70
You will remember how Plato, in his project for a Republic, deals with
[...] I hope to be able to show you that the concept o the perfunctory form in which it generally occurs in mentio mentioned ned,, is a totall totallyy inadeq inadequat uatee instru instrumen mentt criticism. I should like to demonstrate to you that the te of literature can be politically correct only if it is al literary sense. That means that the tendency which is includ includes es a litera literary ry tenden tendency cy.. And let me add at included tendency tendency,Sign , which whic h is implicitly implic itlythis or title explicitly explicitly up to vote on political tendency, tendency, this and nothing else makes up the qu Useful useful of is because this that the Not correct political tendency o also to its literary quality: because a political tendency comprises a literary tendency which is correct. [...] Social relations, as we know, are determin
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader process. [...] Here I should like to confine confine myself to pointing pointing out the decisive difference between merely supplying a production apparatus and changing it. I should like to preface my remarks on the New Objectivity 71 with the proposition that to supply a production apparatus without trying, within the limits of the possible, to change it, is a highly disputable activity even when the material supplied appears to be of a revolutionary nature. For we are confronted with the fact - of which there has been no shortage of proof in German Germanyy over over the last decade decade - that that the bourgeoi bourgeoiss appara apparatus tus of production and publication is capable of assimilating, indeed of propagating, an astonishing amount of revolutionary themes without ever seriously seriously putting into question question its own continued existence existence or that of the class which owns it. In any case this remains true so long as it is supplied
do we see? It has become more and more subtle, more a and the result is that it is now incapable of photographin rubbish-heap without transfiguring it. Not to mention electric cable factory: in front of these, photography ca beautiful’. [...] It has succeeded in turning abject poverty itself, by modish, technically perfect way, into an object of enjoy economic function of photography Sign up to vote on this titleto supply the m processing, with matter which previously eluded Not useful Spring Spring,, famous famUseful ous people people, , foreig for eign n countr countries ies - then then functions is to renovate the world as it is from the insid techniques. Here we have an extreme example of what it m
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader writers teaches nobody. The crucial point, therefore, is that a writer’s production must have the character of a model: it must be able to instruct other writers in their production, and, secondly, it must be able to place an improved apparatus at their disposal. This apparatus will be the better, the more consumers it brings in contact with the production process - in short, the more readers or spectators it turns into collaborators. We already posses a model of this kind, of which, however, I cannot speak here in any detail. It is Brecht’s Brecht’s epic theatre. [...] Epic theatre does not reproduce conditions; rather, it discloses, it uncov unc over erss them them.. The The unco uncove veri ring ng of the the cond condit itio ions ns is effe effect cted ed by interrupting the dramatic process; but such interruption does not act as a stimulant; it has an organizing function. It brings the action to a standstill in mid-course and thereby compels the spectator to take up a position
4.1.2 Walter Benjamin: from ‘The Work of Art in the A Reproduction’
[...] The presence theon original is the prerequisite Sign up to of vote this title authenticity. Chemical analyses of the patina of a br Useful this, establish as does the Not proofuseful that a given manuscr Ages stems from an archive of the fifteenth century. Th authenticit authenticityy is outside technica technicall - and, of course, course, not reproducibility [...]
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader a trem tremen endo dous us shat shatte teri ring ng of trad tradit itio ionn whic whichh is the the obve obvers rsee of the the contem contempor porary ary crisis crisis and renewa renewall of mankin mankind. d. Both Both proces processes ses are intimately connected which the contemporary mass movements. Their most powerful agent is the film. Its social significance, particularly in its most positive form, is inconceivabl inconceivablee without without its destructiv destructive, e, cathartic cathartic aspect aspect,, that that is the liquidati liquidation on of the traditio traditional nal value value of the cultur cultural al heritage. [...] The concept concept of aura aura which which was proposed proposed above above with with refere reference nce to historical objects may usefully be illustrated with reference to the aura of natural ones. We define the aura of the latter as the unique phenomenon of a distance, however close it may be. If, while resting on a summer afternoon, you follow with your eyes a mountain range on the horizon or a branch which casts its shadow over experience the aura of those
forms of the cult of beauty. The secular cult of beauty, the Renaissance and prevailing for three centuries, cle ritualistic basis in its decline and the first deep crisis wh the advent advent of the first first truly truly revolu revolutio tionar naryy mea photography, simultaneously with the rise of socialis approaching crisis which has become evident a century art reacted with the doctrine of l’ art pour l’ art, that is, w art. ThisSign gave up riseto to vote what on might betitle called a negative the this of the idea of ‘pure’ art, which not only denied any soc useful byNot but also anyUseful categorizing subject matter. (In poetry, first to take this position.) An analysis of art in the age of mechanical reproductio to these relationships, for they lead us to an all-importa
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader histor historica icall issues issues at stake. stake. Ideolo Ideology gy,, here, here, clearl clearlyy signif signifies ies a ‘false ‘false consci consciousn ousness ess’’ which blocks blocks true histor historica icall percep perceptio tion, n, a screen screen interposed interposed between between men and their history history.. As such, it is a simplistic simplistic notion: it fails to grasp ideology as an inherently complex formation which, by inserting individuals into history in a variety of ways, allows of multiple kinds and degrees of access to that history. It fails, in fact, to grasp the truth that some ideologies, and levels of ideology, are more false than others. Ideology is not just the bad dream of the infrastructure: in ‘producing’ the real, it neverthele nevertheless ss carries carries elements elements of deformatively ‘producing’ reality within itself. But it is not enough, therefore, to modify the image of ‘screen’ to that of ‘filter’, as though ideology were a mesh through which elemen elements ts of the real real could could slip. slip. Any such such ‘inter ‘interven ventio tionis nist’ t’ model of ideology holds out the possibility of looking behind the obstruction to
naturally determined in the last instance by history it might say, is the ultimate signifier of literature, as signified. For what else in the end could be the source signif signifyin yingg practi practice ce but the real real social social format formation ion material matrix ? [...] The literary literary work appears free free - self-producing self-producing and s because it is unconstrained by the necessity to reprod ‘rea ‘real’ l’ ; Sign but but up this thisto free fr eedom dom simp simply ly conc concea eals ls its its vote on this title determination by the constituents of its ideological matr Useful Not useful text’s that at the level le vel of the text’ s ‘pseudo-real’ - its imag events - ‘anything can happen’, this is by no means true organisation; and it is precisely because that is not t wheeling contingency of its pseudo-real is equally illu
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader 4.1.5 Terry Eagleton: from Marxism and Literary Criticism (1976) Marxist criticism is not merely a ‘sociology of literature’, concerned with how novels get published and whether they mention the working class. Its aim is to explain the literary work more fully; and this means a sensitive attention to its forms, styles and meanings. But it also means grasping those forms, styles and meanings as the products of a particular history. The painter Henri Matisse once remarked that all art bears the imprint of its historical epoch, but that great art is that in which this imprint is most deeply marked. Most students of literature are taught otherwise: the greatest art is that which timelessly transcends its historical conditions. Marxist criticism has much to say on this issue, but the
commonly known by Marxism as the economic ‘base’ o From these economic base, in every period, emerges emerges a certain forms of law and politics, a certain kind of state function function is to legitimate legitimate the power of the social cl means of economic production. But the superstructure c this: it also consists of certain ‘definite forms of soci (political, religious, ethical, aesthetic and so on), which also, i designates as ideology. Theonfunction of ideology, Sign up to vote this title power of the ruling class in society; in the last analy Useful Not ideas of society are the ideas of useful its ruling class. Art, tha part of the ‘superstructure’ of society. It is (with quali make later) part of society’s ideology - an element structure structure of social social ption which ensures that the s
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader (as we shall see later) form. But we do not understand ideology either unless we grasp the part it plays in the society as a whole - how it consists of a definite, historically relative structure of perception which underpins the power of a particular social class. This is not an easy task, since an ideology is never a simple reflection of a ruling class’s ideas; on the contrary, it is always a complex phenomenon, which may incorporate conflicting, even contradictory views, of the world. To understand an ideology, we must analyse the precise relations between different classes in a society; and to do that means grasping where those classes stand in relation to the mode of production. All this may seem a tall order to the student of literature who thought he was merely required to discuss plot and characterization. It may seem a confusion of literary criticism with disciplines like politics and economics
conservatism, intensified for him the crisis of English bo It is also possible to see in these terms why that sce Gulf should be artistically fine. To write well is more ‘style’ ; it also means having at one’s disposal an ideolo which can penetrate to the realistic of men’s experi situation. This is certainly what the Placido Gulf scene d it, not just because its authors happens to have an excel but because situation allow him access Signhis up historical to vote on this title Whether those insights are in political terms ‘progressiv Useful useful are (Conrad’s certainly theNot latter) is not the point - any the point that most of the agreed major writers of the tw Yeats, Eliot, Pound, Lawrence - are political conservati truck with fascism. Marxist criticism, rather than apolog
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader successful battle, etc. - forms of law - and then even the reflexes of all these actual struggles in the brains of the combatants: political, legal, and philosophical theories, religious ideas and their further development into systems of dogma - also exercise their influence upon the course of the historical struggles and in many cases preponderate in determining their form. Engels wants to deny that there is any mechanical, one - to - one corres correspond pondenc encee betwee betweenn base base and supers superstru tructu cture; re; elemen elements ts of the superstructure constantly react back upon and influence the economic base. The materialist theory of history denies that art can in itself change the course of history; but it insists that art can be an active element in such change. Indeed, when Marx came to consider the relation between base
‘superstructure’ ; the second concerns our own relation i past art. To take the second question first: how can it still find aesthetic appeal in the cultural products o different societies? In a sense, the answer Marx give from the answer to the question: How is it that we mod to the exploits of, say, Spartacus? We respond to Sp sculpture because our own history links us to those anc find in them an undeveloped phase Sign up to vote on this titleof the forces wh Moreov Moreover er,, we find find in those those ancien ancientt societ societies ies a Useful man Not useful between and ‘measure’ Nature which capitalist so destroys, destroys, and which socialist socialist society society can reproduc higher level. We ought, in other words, to think of ‘ terms than our own contemporary history. To ask how
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader explain this apparent discrepancy? Let us take a concrete literary example. A ‘vulgar Marxist’ case about T.S.Eliot’s The Waste Land might be that the poem is directly determined by ideological and economic factors - by the spiritual emptiness and exhaus exhaustio tionn of bou bourg rgeoi eoiss ideolo ideology gy which which spring springss from from that that crisis crisis of capitalist imperialism known as the First World War. This is to explain the poem as an immediate ‘reflection’ ‘reflection’ of those conditions; but it clearly clearly fails to take into account a whole series of ‘levels’ which ‘mediate’ between the text itself and capitalist economy. It says nothing, for instance, about the social situation of Eliot himself - a writer living an ambiguous relationship with English society, as an ‘aristocratic’ American expatriate who became a glorified City clerk and yet identified deeply with the conservative traditionalist, rather than bourgeois - commercialist, elements of English
these (and other) factors into account. It is not a matte poem to the state of contemporary capitalism; but neith introducing so many judicious complications that any capitalism may to all intends and purposes be forgotten all the elemen elements ts I have have enumer enumerate atedd (the (the author’ author’ ideological forms and their relation to literary forms, philosophy, techniques of literary production, aesth aest ure mod direct directly ly Sign relev relevant ant to the base/ bas e/ super sup erstr struct ucture up to vote on this title criticism looks for is the unique conjuncture of element Useful Notofuseful one Waste Land. No as The these elements can b another: each has its own relative independence. indeed be explained as a poem which springs from a c ideology, but it has no simple correspondence with that
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader English studies in the later nineteenth century, one could do worse than reply: reply:’’ the failur failuree of relig religion ion.’ .’ By the mid-V mid-Vict ictori orian an period period,, this this traditionally reliable, immensely powerful ideological form was in deep trouble. It was no longer winning the hearts and minds of the masses, and underr the twin unde twin impact impactss of scient scientifi ificc discov discovery ery and social social change change its previous unquestioned dominance was in danger of evaporating. This was particularly worrying for the Victorian Victorian ruling class, because religion is for all kinds of reasons an extremely effective form of ideological control. Like all successful ideologies, it works much less by explicit concepts of formulated doctrines than by image, symbol, habit, ritual, and mythology. It is affec affectiv tivee and experi experient ential ial,, entwin entwining ing itself itself with with the deepest deepest unconscious roots of the human subject; and any social ideology which is unable to engage with such a deep-seated a-rational fears and needs, as T.
to save our souls and heal the State.’ 1 Gordon’s word our own century, but they find a resonance everywh England. It is a striking thought that had it not been crisis in mid-nineteenth-century ideology, we might no a plentiful supply of Jane Austen casebooks and bl Pound. As religion progressively ceases to provide the affective values and basic mythologies by which a s is constr class-society ‘English’ Signcan up be to welded vote ontogether, this title to carry this ideological burden from the Victorian pe Useful useful here Not key figure is Matthew Arnold, always preternatural needs of his social class, and engagingly candid abo urgent social need, as Arnold recognizes, is to ‘Helleniz philistine middle class, who have proved unable
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader classes. If these classes cannot win their sympathy or give them their direction, society is in danger of falling into anarchy.3 Arnold is refreshingly unhypocritical: there is no feeble pretence that the education of the working class is to be conducted chiefly for their own benefit, or that his concern with their spiritual condition is, in one of his most most cheris cherished hed terms, terms, in the least least ‘disin ‘disinter terest ested. ed.’’ In the even even more more disarmingly candid words of a twentieth-century proponent of this view: ‘Deny to working-class children any common share in the immaterial, and presently they will grow into the men who demand with menaces a communism of the material.’ 4 If the masses are not thrown a few novels, they may react by throwing up a few barricades. Literature Literature was in al suitable suitable candidate for this ideological ideological
and extensive hours of labor prevented them personally literary masterpiece, they could take pleasure in the tho their own kind kind - English people - had done so. The a study of English literature written in 1891, ‘need instruction, that is to say, in what pertains to their relati their duties as citizens; and they need also to be impres by having the presentation in legend and history of before the examplesSign brought attractively up tovividly vote onand this title moreover, could be achieved without the the cost and UsefulEnglish usefulwas written in the classics: Not them the literature and so was conveniently available to them. Like religion, literature works primarely by emotion and so was admirably well-fitted to carry through the
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader There was another sense in which the ‘experiential’ nature of literature was ideologically convenient. For ‘experience’ is not only the homeland of ideology, the place where it takes roots most effectively; it is also in literary form a kind of vicarious self-fulfillment. If you do not have the money and leisure to visit the Far East, except perhaps as a soldier in the pay of British imperialism, then you can always ‘experience’ it at second hand by reading Conrad or Kipling. Indeed, according to some literary theories this is even more real than strolling around Bangkok. The actually impoverished experience of the mass of people, an impoverishment bred by their social conditions, can be supplemented by literature: instead of working to change such conditions (which Arnold, to his credit, did more thoroughly than almost any of those who sought to inherit his mantle), you can vicariously fulfill someone’s desire for a fuller life by handing them
rather than rebarbative abstraction, is thus in order. Sinc nowhere more vividly dramatized than in literature, bro experience’ with all the unquestionable reality of a b literature becomes more than just a handmaiden of mo moral ideology for the modern age, as the work of F. R. graphically to evince. The working class was not the only oppressed layer of at whomSign ‘English’ specifically beamed. English up towas vote on this title Royal Commission witness in 1877, might be cons subject for Useful ‘women ... andNot theuseful second - and third-ra 8 become schoolmasters.’ The ‘softening ‘softening’’ and ‘huma English, terms recurrenly used by its early proponen existing ideological stereotypes of gender clearly fem
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader national tradition and identity to which new recruits could be admitted by the study of humane letters. The reports of educational bodies and official enquieries into the teaching of English, in this period and in the early twenti twentieth eth centur centuryy, are strewn strewn with with nostal nostalgic gic back-r back-refe eferen rences ces to the ‘organ ‘organic’ ic’ communit communityy of Eliza Elizabet bethan han Englan Englandd in which which nob nobles les and groundlings found a common meeting-place in the Shakespearian theater, and which might still be reinvented today. It is no accident that the author of one of the most influe influenti ntial al gove governm rnment ent reports reports in this this area, area, The Teaching of English in England (1921), was none other than Sir Henry Newbolt, minor jingoist poet and perpetrator of the immortal immortal line ‘Play up! play up! and play the game!’ Chris Baldick has pointed to the importance of admission of English literature to the civil service examinations in the Victorian period: armed with this conveniently packaged version of their
propaganda - is palpable in his writing. The only way seemed likely to justify its existence in the ancient un systematically mistaking itself for the classics; but th hardly keen to have this pathetic parody of themselves a If the first imperialist world war more or less put p Raleigh, providing him with an heroic identity more co with that of his Elizabethan namesake, it also signaled t One of th English Sign studies and Cambridge. upattoOxford vote on this title antago antagonis nists ts of Engli English sh - philolog philologyy - was colos colos Useful and NotEngland useful happened to be influence; since Germanic major war with Germany, Germany, it was possible to smear classi form of ponderous ponderous Teutonic eutonic nonsense nonsense with which Englishman Englishman should be caught associating. associating.11 Engla
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader 4.1.8 Fredric Jameson: from ‘The politics of theory: Ideological positions in the postmodernism debate’ The problem of postmodernism - how its fundamental characteristics characteristics are to be described, whether it even exists in the first place, whether the very contrary, a mystification - this problem concept is of any use, or is, on the contrary, is at one and the same time a aesthetic and a political one. The various positions which can logically be taken on it, whatever terms they are couched in, can always be shown to articulate visions of history, in which the evaluation of the social moment in which we live today is the object of an essent essential ially ly politic political al affir affirmat mation ion or repudi repudiati ation. on. Indee Indeed, d, the very very enabling premise of the debate turns on an initial, strategic presupposition
latter’s conquest of the university, the museum, the ar and the foundations, the assimilation, in other words, o modern modernism isms, s, into into the ‘canon ‘canon’’ and the subseq subseq everything in them felt by our grandparents to be shoc ugly, dissonant, immoral and antisocial. […] In narrative proper, the dominant conception of a dis narrative, a repudiation of representation, and a ‘revo general with theSign (repressive) ideology of title storytelling up to vote on this adequate adequate to encapsulate encapsulate such very different different work as Useful and Not useful Ismael but also of Pynchon Reed; of Beckett, but nouveau roman and its own sequels, and of the ‘non well, and the New Narrative. Meanwhile, a significantly has seemed to emerge both in commercial film and in t
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader disengaged from the variety of recent pronouncements on the subject; yet even this relatively neat scheme of combinatoire is further complicated by one’s impression that each of these possibilities is susceptible of either a politically progressive or a politically reactionary expression (speaking now from a Marxist or more generally left perspective). One can, for example, salute the arrival of postmodernism from an essentially anti-modernist standpoint.72 A somewhat earlier generation of theori theorists sts (most (most notabl notablyy Ihab Ihab Hassa Hassan) n) seems seems alread alreadyy to have have don donee something like this when they dealt with the postmodernist aesthetic in terms of a more properly poststructuralist thematics (the Tel quel attack on ideology of representation, the Heideggerian or Derridean ‘end of Western metaphysics’): here what is often not yet called postmodernism (see the Utopian prophecy at the end of Foucault’s The Order of Things) is saluted
articulat latee these these views views with with force, force, con Criterion, articu respons responsibi ibilit lityy of the ‘maste ‘masterpi rpiece eces’ s’ and monume monume modernism with the fundamental irresponsibility and postmodernism associated with camp and with the which the Wolfe style is a ripe and obvious example. What is more paradoxical is that politically Wolfe much in common; and there would seem to be a certai erad the the way waySign in whic wh Kram Kramer er this must musttitle seek seek to eradic ic upich toh vote on seriousness seriousness’’ of the classics classics of the modern their their Notprotopolitical useful Useful the middle-class stance and passion w repudiation, by great modernists, of Victorian taboos a commodification and of the increasing asphyxiation o capitalism, from Ibsen to Lawrence, from Van Gogh to
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader is surely a far more progressive line on the subject. We are indebted to Jürgen Habermas73 for this dramatic reversal and rearticulation of what rema remain inss the the affi affirm rmat atio ionn of supr suprem emee valu valuee of the the Mode Modern rn and and the the repudiation of the theory, as well as the practice, of postmodernism. For Habermas, however, the vice of postmodernism consists very centrally in its politically reactionary function, as the attempt everywhere to discredit a modern modernist ist impulse impulse Hab Haberm ermas as himsel himselff associ associate atess with with the bou bourge rgeois ois Enlightenment and with the latter’s still universalizing and Utopian spirit. With With Adorno himself, himself, Habermas seeks to rescue rescue and to recommemor recommemorate ate what both see as the essentially negative, critical and Utopian power of the great high modernisms. […] Both Both of the previous previous position positionss - antimo antimoder dern/pr n/prepo epostm stmode odern rn , and premodern/antipostmodern characterized by acceptance of the
to a contemporary or postcontemporary cultural cultural produ charac character terize izedd as ‘postmod ‘postmodern ern’, ’, be grasped grasped as par reaffirmation of the authentic older higher modernis Adorno’s spirit. The ingenious twist or swerve in h involves the proposition that something called ‘postmo follow high modernism proper, as the latter’s waste p very precisely precisely precedes and prepar prepares es it, so tha postmodernisms all around us u s may be Sign up to vote on this title seen as the prom and the reinvention, the triumphant reappearance, o Not Useful all modernism endowed with itsuseful older power and with f prophetic stance, whose analyses turn on the anti-repre of modern modernism ism and postmo postmoder dernis nism; m; Lyotard yotard’’s however, cannot be adequately evaluated in aesthetic
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader But a genuinely historical historical and dialectical dialectical analysis of such phenomena particularly when it is a matter of a present of time and of history in which we ourselves exist and struggle struggle - cannot afford afford the impoverished luxury of such absolute moralizing judgements: the dialectic is ‘beyond good and evil’ in the sense of some easy taking of sides, whence the glacial and inhuman spirit of its historical vision (something that already disturbed contemporaries about Hegel’s original system). The point is that we are the cult cultur uree of post postmo mode dern rnis ism m to the the point point wher wheree its its faci facile le within the repudiation is as impossible as any equally facile celebration of it is complacent and corrupt. Ideological judgement on postmodernism today necessarily implies, one would think, a judgement on ourselves as well as on the artifacts in question; nor can an entire historical period, such as our own, be grasped in any adequate way by mean of global moral judgements
Digest culture. Indeed, it can be argued that the em modernism is itself contemporaneous with the first gre recognizable mass culture (Zola may be taken as the m coexistence of the art novel and the bestseller to be text). It is now this constitutive differentiation which seem disappearing: we have already mentioned the way in after Schonbergm even Sign up toand vote onafter thisCage, title the two antithe the ‘classical’ and the ‘popular’ once again begin to Useful Not general way, it seems clear thatuseful the artists of the ‘pos have been fascinated precisely by the whole new o merely of the Las Vegas strip, but also of the late show Hollywood film, of so-called paraliterature with its a
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader ‘the people’) has disappeared. Perhaps, however, this is not so new a story after all: one remembers, indeed, Freud’s delight at discovering an obscure tribal culture, which alone among the multitudinous multitudinous traditions traditions of dream-ana dream-analysis lysis on the earth had managed to hit on the notion that all dreams had hidden sexual meanings meanings - except for sexual sexual dreams, which which meant something something else! So also it would seem in the postmodernist debate, and the depoliticized bureaucratic society to which it corresponds, where all seemingly cultural positions turn out to be symbolic forms of political moralizing, except for the single overtly overtly political political note, which which suggests suggests a slippage slippage from politics politics back into culture again. I have the feeling that the only adequate way out of this vicious circle, besides praxis itself, is a historical and dialectical view which seeks to grasp the present as History.
interpretation as such, but rather at best its (indispensabl Today this properly antiquarian relationship to the c dialectical counterpart which is ultimately no more sat the tendency of much contemporary theory to rewrite se the past in terms of its own aesthetic and, in particu modernist (or more properly postmodernist) conception This unacceptable unacceptable option, or ideologica ideologicall doub or projec antiquarianism and modernizing ‘relevance’ Sign up to vote on this title that the old dilemmas of historicism - and in particula Not useful ofUseful from the claims monuments distant and even archai cultural past on a culturally different present - do n because we choose to ignore them. Our presuppositio that follow, will be that only a genuine philosophy of hi
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader fundamental theme - for Marxism, the collective struggle to wrest a realm of Freedom from a realm of Necessity; only if they are grasped as vital episodes in a single vast unfinished plot: ‘The history of all hitherto existi existing ng societ societyy is the histor historyy of class class strugg struggles les:: freema freemann and slave, slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman - in a word, oppressor and oppressed - and stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large or in the common ruin of the contending classes’. 75 It is in detecting the traces of that uninterrupted narrative, in restoring to the surface of the text the repressed and buried reality of this fundamental history, that the doctrine of a political unconscious finds its function and its necessity. From this perspective the convenient working distinction between
interpretive codes whose insights are strategically lim their own situational origins as by the narrow or local w construe or construct their objects of study. Still, to describe the readings and analyses contain work as so many interpretations, to present them as so the construction of a new hermeneutic, is already to a polemic program, which must necessarily come to and theore theoretic tical al cli e variou var slytitle hostil hostilee to these these Sign upclimat tomate vote oniously this instance, increasingly clear that hermeneutic or interpr Useful Notpolemic useful targets of becomeone of the basic structuralism in France, which - powerfully buttressed b Nietzsche - has tended to identify such operations operations with h particular with the dialectic and its valorization
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader nontheoretical practice, is a contradiction in terms; that even the most formalizing kinds of literary or textual analysis carry a theoretical charge whose denial unmasks it as ideological. [...] I will here go much further than this, and argue that even the most innocently formalizing readings of the New Criticis Criticism m have have as their their essent essential ial and ultima ultimate te functi function on the propagation of this particular view of what history is. Indeed, no working model of the functioning of language, the nature of communication or of the speech speech act, act, and the dyna dynamic micss of formal formal and stylis stylistic tic change change is conceivable which does not imply a whole philosophy of history. [...] Interpretation proper-what we have called ‘strong’ rewriting, of ethical codes, which all in one way or another project various notions of the unity and the coherenc coherencee of consci conscious ousnes nesss - always always presup presuppos poses, es, if not a tio of the iou itself itself the at least least hanism hanism of
may itself be seen as the rewriting or restructuration of or ideological subtext, it being always understood that t immediately present as such, not some commonsense ex even the conventional narrative narrative of history manuals, bu always be (re)constructed after the fact. The literary therefore always entertains some active relationship wit order to do so, it cannot simply allow ‘reality’ to perse own being, outside textonand at title distance. It must rath Sign up tothe vote this into its own texture, and the ultimate paradoxes and Useful Notofuseful linguistics, and most notably semantics, are to be tr process, whereby language manages to carry the Real own intrinsic or immanent subtext. Insofar, in other w action - what Burke will map as ‘dream’, ‘prayer’, or ‘
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader however, is the proviso that history is inaccessible to us except in textual form, or in other words, that it can be approached only by way of prior (re)textualization. Thus, to insist on either of the two inseparable yet incommensurable dimensions of the symbolic act without the other: to overemphasize the active way in which the text reorganizes its subtext (in order, presumably, to reach the triumphant conclusion that the ‘referent’ does not exist); or on the other hand to stress the imaginary status of the symbolic act so completely as to reify its social ground, now no longer understood as a subtext but merely as some inert given that the text passively or fantasmatically ‘reflects’ - to overstress either of these functions of the symbolic act at the expense of the other is surely to produce sheer ideology, whether it be, as in the first alternative, the ideology of structuralism, or, in the second, that of vulgar materialism. [...]
4.1.10 Raymond Williams: from ‘Dominant, Residua
The complexity of a culture is to be found not on processes and their social definitions - traditions, formations - but also in the dynamic interrelations, at process, of historically varied and variable elements called ‘epochal’ analysis, a cultural process is seized as Sign up dominant to vote on this title with determinate features: feudal culture or bo a transition from one to Not the other. usefulThis emphasis o Useful definitive lineaments and features is important and o effective. But it often happens that its methodology is very very differ different ent functi function on of histor historica icall analys analysis, is, in
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader still to speak of the ‘dominant’ and the ‘effective’, and in these senses of the hegemonic. But we find that we have also to speak, and indeed with further differentiation of each, of the ‘residual’ and the ‘emergent’, which in any real process, and at every moment in the process, are significant both in themselves and in what they reveal of the characteristics of the ‘dominant’. By ‘residual’ I mean something different from the ‘archaic’, though in practice these are often very difficult to distinguish. Any culture includes available elements of its past, but their place in the contemporary cultural process is profoundly variable. I would call the ‘archaic’ that which is wholly recognized as an element of the past, to be observed, to be exam examin ined ed,, or even even on occa occasi sion on to be cons consci ciou ousl slyy ‘rev ‘reviv ived ed’, ’, in a deliberate deliberately ly specializi specializi What I mean by the ‘residual’ ‘residual’ is
This is very notable in the case of versions of ‘the l passing through selective versions of the character connecting and incorporated definitions of what liter should be. This is one among several crucial areas, s alternative or even oppositional versions of what literat and wha whatt liter literary ary experi experienc encee (and (and in one common common significant experience) is and must be, that, against incorporation, actively residual meanings Sign up to vote on this title and values By ‘emergent’ I mean, first, that new meanings Useful useful new Notand practices, relationships kinds of relationshi being created. But it is exceptionally difficult distingu which are really elements of some new phase of the (and in this sense ‘species-specific’) and those which
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader differ different ent parts of the process. process. The making making of new social social values values and institutions far outpaced the making of strictly cultural institutions, while specific cultural contributions, though significant, were less vigorous and autonomous than either general or institutional innovation. A new class is always a source of emergent cultural practice, but while it is still, as a class, relatively subordinate, this is always likely to be uneven and is certain to be incomplete. For new practice is not, of course, an isolated process. To To the degree that it emerges, and and especially to the degree that it is oppositional rather than alternative, the process of attempted incorporation significantly begins. [...] The process of emergence, in such conditions, is then a constantly repeated, an always renewable move beyond a phase of practical incorporation: usually made much more difficult by b y the fact that much incorporation incorporation looks like recogniti acknowledge acknowledgement ment and thus a
thou though gh in vary varyin ingg degr degree ees, s, prac practi tica call consc conscio io relationships, specific skills, specific perceptions, that social and that a specifically dominant social order ne represses, or simply fails to recognize. A distinctive feature of any dominant social order is how far it reach range of practices and experiences in an attempt at inc can be areas of experience it is willing to ignore or or to gen assign asSign private specialize aesthetic up or to to vote on thisastitle Moreover, as a social order changes, in terms of its Not useful Useful variable. needs, these relations are Thus in advanced ca of chan change gess in the the char charac acte terr of labo labour ur,, in the the communications, and in the social character of deci dominant culture reaches much further than ever be
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader
4.2 MICHEL FOUCAULT: FOUCAULT: POWER AND DISCOURSE Sheet Music
4.2.1 Friedrich Nietzsche: from The Will to Power 481 (1883-1888) Against positivism, which halts at phenomena - ‘There are are only facts’ - I would say: No, facts is precisely what there is not, only interpretations. We cannot establish any fact ‘in itself’ : perhaps it is folly to want to do
cases a new interpretation over an old interpretation incomprehensible, that is now itself only a sign). Th everything is in flux, incomprehensible, elusive; what enduring is - our opinions.
605 (SPRING-FALL 1887) The ascertaining of ‘truth’ and ‘untruth’, the ascert general, Sign is fundamentally different from forming, shap up to vote on this title willing, such as is of the essence of philosophy. To To intro this task stillUseful remains to be Not done,useful assuming there is no m it is with sounds, but also with the fate of peoples: they most different interpretations and direction toward diffe On a yet higher level is to posit a goal and mould fac
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader dealt with three modes of objectific objectification ation which transform transform human beings into subjects. The first is the modes of inquiry which try to give themselves the status of sciences; for example, the objectivizing of the speaking subject in grammaire generale, philology, and linguistics. Or again, in this first mode, the objectivizing of the productive subject, the subject who labours, in the analysis of wealth and of economics. Or, a third example, the objectivizing of the sheer fact of being alive in natural history or biology. In the second part of my work, I have studied the objectivizing of the subject in what I shall call ‘dividing practices’. The subject is either divided inside himself or divided from others. This process objectivizes him. Examples are the mad and the sane, the sick and the healthy, the criminals and the ‘good boys’.
analytical work cannot proceed without an ongoing c And this conceptualization implies critical critical thought - a c The first thing to check is what I shall call the ‘con mean that the conceptualization should not be founded object - the conceptualize conceptualizedd object is not the singl conceptuali conceptualizatio zation. n. We have to know the historical historical motivate our conceptualization. We need a historical present circumstance. Sign up to vote on this title The second thing to check is the type of reality w dealing. Useful Not useful A writer writer in a well-k well-know nownn French French new newspa spaper per surprise: ‘Why is the notion of power raised by so many it such an important subject? Is it so independent that i
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader discover discover - or try try to discover discover - which which specific specific and perhaps perhaps original original problem is connected with them. The relationship between rationalization and excesses of political power is evid eviden ent. t. And we shou should ld not need need to wait wait for for bure bureau aucr crac acyy or concentration camps to recognize the existence of such relations. But the problem is: What to do with such an evident fact? fact? Shall we try reason? To my mind, nothing would be more sterile. First, because the field has nothing to do with with guilt or innocence. Second, because it is senseless to refer to reason as the contrary entity to nonreason. Last, because such a trial would trap us into playing the arbitrary and boring part of either the rationalist or the irrationalist. Shall we investigate this kind of rationalism which seems to be specific to our modern culture and which originates in Aufklärung ? I think that was
relations, locate their position, and find out their point the methods used. Rather than analyzing power from th its internal rationality, it consists of analyzing power rel antagonism of strategies. For example, to find out what our society means by s should investigate what is happening in the field of insa And what we mean by legality in the field of illegality And, inSign orderup to to understand power relations are a vote on what this title should investigate the forms of resistance and attempts m Useful Not useful these relations. As a starting point, let us take a series of opposit developed over the last few years: oposition to the po women, of parents over children, of psychiatry over th
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader 3. It is a form of power which does not look after just the whole community but each individual in particular, during his entire life. 4. Finally, this form of power cannot be exercized without knowing the inside of people’s minds, without exploring their souls, without making them them reveal reveal their innerm innermost ost secret secrets. s. It implie impliess a know knowled ledge ge of the conscience and an ability to direct it. This form of power is salvation oriented (as opposed to political power). It is obla oblati tive ve (as (as oppo oppose sedd to the the prin princi cipl plee of sover soverei eign gnit ity) y);; it is indivi individua dualiz lizing ing (as oppo opposed sed to legal legal pow power) er);; it is coexte coextensi nsive ve and continuous with life; it is linked with with a production of truth - the truth of the individual himself. But all this is part of history, you will say; the pastorate has, if not disappeared, at least lost the main part of its efficiency
4.2.3 M. Foucault: from ‘How Is Power Exerc
What constitutes the specific nature of power? The exercise of power is not simply a relationship b individual or collective; it is a way in which certai others. Which is to say, of course, that something calle without without a capita capitall letter letter,, which which assume assumeddto exi Signor updiffused to voteform, on this title concentrated does not exist. Power e is put into action, even if, of course, integrated into Useful Not usefulit ispermanen of possibilities possibilities brought brought to bear upon permanent t stru means that power is not a function of consent. In renunciation of freedom, a transference of rights, the p
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader acts; and that, faced with a relationship of power, a whole field of resp respon onse ses, s, reac reacti tion ons, s, resul results ts,, and and possi possibl blee inve invent ntio ions ns may may open open up.Obviously the bringing into play of power relations does does not exclude the use of violence any more than it does the obtaining of consent; no doubt the exercise of power can never do without one or the other, often both at the same time. But even though consensus and violence are the instruments or the results, they do not constitute the principle or the basic nature of power. The exercise of power can produce as much acceptance as may be wished for: it can pile up the dead and shelter itself behind whatever threats it can imagine. In itself the exercise of power is not violence; nor is it a consent which, implicitly, is renewable. It is total structure of actions brought to bear upon possible actions; it incites, it induces, it seduces, it makes easier or more difficult; in the extreme it
action, neither warlike nor juridical, which is governme When one defines the exercise of power as a mode o actions of others, when one characterizes these actions b of men by other other men - in the broadest sense of the te an import important ant elemen element: t: freed freedom. om. Power Power is exerci exerci subjects, and only insofar as they are free. By this we m collective subjects who are faced with a field of poss and diver several several ways behavi ng,onseveral sever reactions reactions Sign of up behaving, to vote thisaltitle may be realised. Where the determining factors saturate useful Usefulof power; Not is no relationship slavery is not a power relati is in chains. (In this case it is a question of a physic constraint.) Consequently, there is no face-to-face confr and freedo freedo which which mutual mutually ly lusive lusive
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader gives it its foundation. In linguistics, one would have a science perfectly founded in the order of positivities exterior to man (since it is a question of pure language), which, after traversing the whole space of the human sciences, would encounter the question of finitude ( since it is through languge, and within it, that thought is able to think: so that it is in itself a positivity with the value of a fundamental ). Above ethnology and psychoanalysis, or, o r, more exactly, exactly, interwoven with them, a third ‘counterscienc science’ e’ would appear appear to traver traverse, se, animat animate, e, and distur disturbb the who whole le constituted field of the human sciences; and by overflowing it both on the side of positivities and on that of finitude, it would form form the most general contestation of that field. Like the two other counter-sciences, it would make visible, in a discursive mode, the frontier-forms of the human sciences; like them, it would situate its experience in those enlightened and
we find that by means of this emergence of structure relation within a totality of elements) the relation of th to mathematics has been opened up once more, and dimension; it is no longer a matter of knowing whether results, results, or whether human behaviour behaviour is susceptible susceptible of into the field of a measurable probability; the question of knowing whether it is possible without a play on wo notion ofSign structure, or at on least whether up to vote this title it is the same referred to in mathematics and in the human sciences: Useful Notthe useful central if one wishes toknow possibilities and righ and limitations, of a justified formalization; it will relation of the sciences of man to the axis of the for disciplines - a relation that had not been been essential till th
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader to the figure of man (that figure which had once taken the place of Classical Classical Discourse), Discourse), contempora contemporary ry culture culture is struggling struggling to create create an important part of its present, and perhaps of its future. On the one hand, suddenly very near to all this empirical domains, questions arise which before had seemed very distant from them: these questions concern a general formalization of thought and knowledge; and at a time when they were still thought to be dedicated solely to the relation between logic and mathematics, they suddenly open up the possibility, and the task, of purifying the old empirical reason by constituting formal languages, and of applying a second critique of pure reason on the basis of new forms of the mathematical a priori. However, at the other extremity of our culture, the question of language is entrusted to that form of speech which has no doubt never ceased to pose it, but which is now, for the first time, posing it
madness that it manifested itself - the figure of finitude in language (as that which unveils itself within it), b preceding it, as that formless, mute, unsignifying regio can find its freedom. And it is indeed in this space th literature, first with surrealism (though still in a very form), then, more and more purely, with Kafka, Batail posited itself as experienced: as experience of death inaccessi of death), of unthinkable thought (and in its Sign up to vote on this title repetition (of original innoncence, always there at th Not useful limit always the Useful most distant of language); as exper (trapped in the opening and the tyranny of that finitude) It is clear that this ‘return’ of language is not a sudd cultur cultur it is not the irrupti irrupti dis ery of
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader carries and animates our thought, and perhaps lulls it to sleep with the facility of its promises, and makes us believe that something new is about to begin, something we glimpse only as a thin line of light low on the horizon - that feeling and that that impression are perhaps perhaps not ill founded. It will be said that they exist, that they have never ceased to be formulated over and over again since the early nineteenth century; it will be said that Hölderlin, Hegel, Feuerbach, and Marx all felt this certainty that in them a thought and perhaps a culture were coming to a close, and that from the depths of a distance, which was perhaps not invincible, another was approaching - in the dim light of dawn, in the brilliance brilliance of noon, or in the dissention of the falling day. But this close, this perilous imminence whose promise we fear today, whose danger we welcome, is probably not of the same order. Then, the task enjoined upon thought though t by that annunciation
philosophy and the promise of an approaching culture w and the same thing as the thought of finitude and the a in the field of knowledge; in in our day, day, the fact that and again - in the process of coming coming to an end, and perhaps, though even more outside and against it, in li in formal reflection, the question of language is being doubt that man is in the process of disappearing. was fo For theSign entireupmodern - that which to voteepisteme on this title end of the eighteenth century and still serves as the posi Not useful Useful knowledge, that which constituted man’s particular m the possibility possibility of knowing knowing him empirically empirically - that en bound up with the disappearance of Discourse and with the shift of language towards objectivity, and with
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader most questions questions to which it is not possible to reply; reply; they must be left in suspense, suspense, where they pose themselves, themselves, only with the knowledge knowledge that the possibility of posing them may well open the way to a future thought. thought. One thing in any case is certain: man is neither the oldest nor the most constant problem that has been posed for human knowledge. Taking a relatively short chronological sample within a restricted geographical area - European European culture since since the sixteenth century century - one can be certain certain that man is a recent invention within it. It is not around him and his secrets that knowledge prowled for so long in the darkness. In fact, among all the mutations that have affected the knowledge of things and their order, the knowledge of identities, differences, differences, characters, characters, equivalences, words - in short, in the midst of all the episodes of that profound history of the Same
4.2.5 Michel Foucault: from Discipline and Punish: Prison
[...] Rusche and Kirchheimer’s great work, Punish Structures, provides a great number of essential refe must first rid ourselves of the illusion that penalty is exclusively) a means of reducing crime and that, in this Sign up tothevote on this title or beliefs, it m the social forms, political system lenient, tendUseful towards expiation of obtaining redress, to Not useful of individuals or the attribution of collective respons analyze rather the ‘concrete systems of punishment’, stu phenomena that cannot be accounted for by the juridic
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader punishment diminishes accordingly and ‘corrective’ detention takes its place. There are no doubt a number n umber of observations to be made about such a strict correlation. But we can surely accept the general proposition that, in our societies, the systems of punishment are to be situated in a certain ‘political economy’ of the body: even if they do not make use of violent or bloody punishment, even when they use ‘lenient’ methods involving confinement or correction, it is always the body that is at issue – the body and its forces, their utility and their docility, their distribution and their submission. It is certainly legitimate to write a history of punishment against the background of moral ideas or legal structures. But can one write such a history against the background of a history of bodies, when such systems of punishment claim claim to have only the secret souls of criminals as their objective?
out; it may be subtle, make use neither of weapons no remain of a physical order. That is to say, there may be a ‘ body that is not exactly exactly the science science of its function functioning, ing, an forces that is more than the ability to conquer them: this k mastery constitute what might be called the political techn Of course, course, this technol technology ogy is diffuse diffuse,, rarely rarely formula formula systematic discourse; it is often made up of bits and piece coherence disparateSign set ofup tools methods. In title spite of the to or vote on this generally no more than a multiform instrumentation. Mor useful or state appara in Useful localized a particular typeNot of institution recourse to it; they use, select or impose certain of its m mechanisms and effects, it is situated at a quite differe apparatuses and institutions operate is, in a sense, a micro
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader general form of the law or government; that, although there is continuity, (they are indeed articulated on this form through a whole series of complex mechanisms), there is neither analogy nor homology, but a specificity of mechan mechanism ism and modalit modalityy. Lastly Lastly,, they they are not univoc univocal; al; they they define define innumerable points of confrontation, focuses of instability, each of which has its own risks of conflict, of struggles and of an at least temporary inversion of the power relations. The overthrow of these ‘micro-powers’ does not, then, obey the law of all or nothing; it is not acquired once and for all by a new control of the apparatuses nor by a new functioning or a destruction of the institutions; on the other hand, none of its localized episodes may be inscribed in history except by the effects that it induces on the entire network in which it is caught up. Perhaps, too, we should abandon a whole tradition that allows us to
power presupposes, therefore, that one abandons concerned – the violence – ideology opposition, the met the model of the contract or of conquest; that – whe concerned – one abandons the opposition between wh and what is ‘disinterested’, the model of knowledge an the subject. Borrowing a word from Petty and its con giving it a different meaning from the one current in century, Sign one might political up toimagine vote ona this title‘anatomy’. This study of a state in terms of a ‘body’ (with its elements, Useful usefulof the body and it nor its forces), would it beNot the study terms of a small state. One would be concerned with the a set of material elements and techniques that serve as icatio icatio tes and ts for the
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader code the ‘lack of power’ with which those subjected to punishment are marked. In the darkest region of the political field the condemned man represents the symmetrical, inverted figure of the king. We should analyse what might be called, in homage to Kantorowitz, ‘the least body of the condemned man’. If the surplus power possessed by the king gives rise to the duplication of his body, has not the surplus power exercised on the subjected body of the condemned man given rise to another type of duplication? That of a ‘noncorporal’, a ‘soul’, as Mably called it. The history of this ‘micro-physics’ of the punitive power would then be a genealogy or an element in a genealogy of the modern ‘soul’. Rather than seeing this soul as the reactivated remnants of an ideology, one would see it as the present correlative of a certain technology of power over the body. It would be
subjection much more profound than himself. A ‘soul’ brings him to existence, which is itself a factor in the m exercises over the body. The soul is the effect and political anatomy; the soul is the prison of the body. body. [...]
Sign up to vote on this title 4.3 THE NEW HISTORICISM Useful Not useful
4.3.1 Stephen Greenblatt: from Shakespearean Neg Circulation Of Social Energy in Renaissance E
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader textual traces left by the dead, for simulations are undertaken in full awareness of the absence of life they contrive to represent, and hence they may skillfully anticipate and compensate for the vanishing of the actual life that has empowered them. Conventional in my tastes, I found the most satisfying intensity of all in Shakespeare. I wanted to know how Shakespeare managed to achieve such intensity, for I thought that the more I understood this achievement, the more I could hear and understand the speech of the dead. The question then was how did so much life get into the textual traces? Shakes Shakespea peare’ re’ss plays, plays, it seemed seemed,, had precip precipita itated ted out of a sublime sublime confrontation between a total artist and a totalizing society. By a total artist I mean one who, through training, resourcefulness, and talent, is at the moment of creation complete unto himself; by a totalizing society I mean
implied a structural unity and stability of command b what I actually knew about the exercise of authority period. If it was importan importantt to speak speak of pow power er in relati relati literature – not only as the object but as the enabl representation itself – it was equally important to resist all images images and expres expressio sions ns into into a single single master master d the desi Renaissance writers themselves often echoed Sign up to vote on this title prelates for just such a discourse, brilliant critical and th useful Useful recent years by a large andNot diverse group of scholars that this desire was itself constructed out of conflicti motives. Even those literary texts that sought most arde monolithic power could be shown to be the sites of
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader can never be expressed in other terms. The great attraction of this authority is that it appears to bind and fix the energies we prize, to identify a stable and permanent source of literary power, to offer an escape from shared contingency. This project, endlessly repeated, repeatedly fails for one reason: there is no escape from contingency. contingency. All the same, we do experience unmistakable pleasure and interest in the literary traces of the dead, and I return to the question how it is possible for those traces to convey lost life. Over the past several generations this question has been addressed principally by close reading of the textual traces, and I believe that sustained, scrupulous attention to formal and linguistic design will remain at the center of literary teaching and studying. But in the essays that follow I propose something different: to look less at
significance is social and historical. We experience wit its contemporary existence depends upon an irregular c transactions that lead back to the late sixteenth and e centuries. Does this mean that the aesthetic power of direct transmis transmissio sionn from from Shakes Shakespea peare’ re’ Lear is a direct Certainly not. That play and the circumstances in which embedded have been continuously, often radically, ref into a per refigurations history, locking us Signdo upnot to cancel vote on this title the contrary, they are signs of the inescapability of a his Useful useful struct structure ured d negoti neg otiati ation on andNot exchan exc hange, ge, alread alreadyy evi moments of empowerment. That there is no direct, between ourselves and Shakespeare’s Shakespeare’s plays does not me link at all. The ‘life’ that literary works seem to posse
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader circumstance and cultural value that make ordinary utterances evanescent. Whereas most collective expressions moved from their original setting to a new place or time are dead on arrival, the social energy encoded in certain works of art continues to generate the illusion of life for centuries. I want to understand the negotiations through which works of art obtain and amplify such powerful energy. If one longs, as I do, to reconstruct these negotiations, one dreams of finding an originary moment, a moment in which the master hand shapes the concentrated social energy into the sublime aesthetic object. But the quest is fruitless, for there is no originary moment, no pure act of untrammelled creation. In place of a blazing genesis, one begins to glimpse something something that seems at first far less spectacular spectacular:: a subtle, subtle, elusive set of exchanges, a network of trades and trade-offs, a jostling of competing
conceptualizations of problems. One of the marks of a historian is the consistency with which he reminds purely provisional nature of his characterization of agencies found in the always incomplete historical reco that literary theorists have never stuudied stuudied the struc narrat narrative ives. s. But in gener general al there there has been been a rel historical narratives as what they most manifestly are: v contentsSign of which arevote as much invented up to on this title as found and th have more in common with their counterparts in literatu inUseful Not useful with those the sciences. Now, it is obvious that this conflation of myth consciousnes consciousnesss will offend some historians historians and distu dist theorists whose conception of literature presupposes a
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader his external model,’ whether that the external model be the actions of past men or the historian’s own thought about such actions. What Frye says is true enough as a statement of the ideal that has inspired historical writing since the time of the Greeks, but that ideal presupposes an opposition between myth and history that is as problematic as it is venerable. It serves Frye’s purposes very well since it permits him to locate the specifically ‘fictive’ in the space between the two concepts of the ‘mythic’ and the ‘historical’. As readers of Frye’s Anatomy of Criticism will remember, Frye conceives fictions to consist in part of sublimates of archetypal myths-structures. These structures have been displaced to the interior of verbal artifacts in such a way as to serve as their latent meanings. The fundamental meanings of all fiction, their thematic content, consists, in Frye’s view, of the ‘pre-generic plot-structures’ or mythoi
‘fictions’ in general. The late R. G. Collingwood insisted that the historia story teller and suggested that historical sensibility was capacity to make a plasible story out of a congeries o their unprocessed form, made no sense at all. In thei sense sense of the histor historica icall record record,, which which is fragm fragm incomplete, historians have to make use of what Collin constr construct uctive ive imagin ima on’,on , which whi ch title told told thehistor historian ian Sign up ginati to ation’ vote this competent detective – what ‘must have been the case’, g Useful usefulit displayed to t and Not evidence the formal properties capable of putting the right question to it. This constru functi functions ons in much much the same way that that Kant Kant sup imagination functions when it tells us that even though
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader look at them in order to see if the historian has adequately reproduced them in his narrative. Nor should we want to, even if we could; for after all it was the very strangeness of the original as it appeared in the documents that inspired the historian’s efforts to make a model of it in the first place. If the historian only did that for us, we should be in the same situation as the patient whose analyst merely told him, on the basis of interviews with his parents, siblings, and childhood friends, what the ‘true facts’ of the patient’s patient’s early life were. We We would have no reason to think that anything at all have been explained to us. This is what leads me to thimk that historical narratives are not only models of past events and processes, but also metaphorical statements which suggest a relation of similitude between such events and processes and the story types that we conventionally use to endow the events of our
But the presumed concretness and accessibility of h this contexts of the texts that literary scholars study products of the fictive capability of the historians who h contexts. The historical documents are not as opaqu studied by the literary critic. Nor is the world those more accessible. The one is no more ‘given’ than the opaqueness of the world figured in historical documen increasedSign by the historical up production to vote onofthis title narratives. Ea work only adds to the number of possible texts that hav Not if a full and Useful accurate picture of auseful given historical milieu drawned. The relationship between the past to be analy works produced by analysis of documents is paradoxi know about the past, the more diffucult it isto generalize
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader has so described the events as to remind us of that form of fiction which we associate with the concept ‘tragic.’ Properly Properly understood, histories ought never to be read as unambiguous signs of the events they report, but rather as symbolic structures, extended metaphors, that ‘liken’ the events reported in them to some form which we have already become familiar in out literary culture. Perhaps I should indicate briefly what is meant by the symbolic and iconic aspects of a metaphor. The hackneyed phrase ‘My love, a rose’ is not, obviously, intended to be understood as suggesting that the loved one is actually a rose. It is not even meant to suggest that the loved one has the specific attributes of a rose - that is to say, that the loved one is red, yellow, yellow, orange, or black, is a plant, has thorns, needs sunlight, should be sprayed regularly with insecticids, and so on. It is meant to be understood as
provide historical events with all of the possible meanin literary art of their culture is capable of endowing them between the proper historian and the philosopher of hist the latter’s insistence that events can be emploted in story form. History-writing thrives on the discovery o plot structures that might be invoked to endow different meanings. And our understanding of the past i in the degree to to which in dertermining h Sign up votewe onsucceed this title conforms to the strategies of sense-making that are c Useful purest forms in literary art. art. Not [...] useful The implication is that historians constitute their su objects of narrative representation by the very lang describe them. And if thsi is the case, it means that a
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader would proceed along the lines laid out by Roman Jakobson in a paper entitled ‘Linguistics and Poetics’, in which he characterized the difference between Romantic poetry and the various forms of nineteenth-century Realistic prose as residing in the essentially metaphorical nature of the former and the essentially metonymical nature of the latter. I think that his characterization of the difference between poetry and prose is too narrow, because it presupposes that complex macrostructural narratives such as the novel are little more than projections of the ‘selective’ (i.e., phonemic) axis of all speech speech acts. acts. Poetry Poetry,, and especi especiall allyy Romant Romantic ic poetry poetry,, is then then character characterized ized by Jakobson Jakobson as a projection projection of the ‘combinato ‘combinatory’ ry’ (i.e., (i.e., morphemic) axis of language. Such a binary theory pushes the analyst toward a dualistic opposition between poetry and prose which appears to rule out the possibility of a metonymical poetry and a metaphorical prose.
of the Revolution which his contemporaries experienc by recording it in the mode of irony; Michelet recodes t mode mode of synech synechdoc doche; he; Tocque Tocquevil ville le recode recodess the metonymy. In each case, however, the movement from narratively described, i.e., laid out on a time line in make the interpretation of the events that made up the of drama drama that that we can recog recogniz nizee Satiri Satirical cal,, Rom respectively. This drama can be followed by the reader Sign up to vote on this title such a way as to be experienced as a progressive revel Not useful Useful consists true nature of the events of. The revelation is however, as a restructuring of perception so much as an field of occurance. But actually what has happened is th originally encoded in one way is simply being decoded
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader etymology of both words an ideal unity: the undivided, un divided, the integral. Theories about the ultimate unity of both history and the human subject derive of course from a western philosophical tradition where, moreover, they they have have usuall usuallyy implie impliedd each each other: other: the univer universal sal being seen seen as manife manifeste stedd throug throughh indivi individua duall essenc essences es which which in turn turn presupp presuppose ose universals. Often unawares, idealist literary criticism has worked within or in the shadow of this tradition, as can be seen for example in its insistence that the universal truths of great literature are embodied in coherent and consistent ‘characters’. The altern alternati ative ve to this this is not to become become fixated fixated on this this negati negation on universal universal chaos and subjective subjective fragmentation fragmentation - but rather rather to understand understand history and the human subject in terms of social and political process. Crucial for such an understanding is a materialist account of ideology.
closely by the state - both companies companies and plays had to yet its institutional position was complex. On the sometimes summoned to perform at Court and such m extension of royal power [...]; on the other hand, it cultural production in which market forces were strong was especially exposed to the influence of subordin classes. We should not, therefore, expect any straightfor , it is betweenSign playsup and on the contrary to ideology: vote on this titlecontrary, topics which engaged writers and audiences alike w useful wasUseful Not ideology under strain. We We will take as an instance f and it will appear that even in this play, which is often one where Shakespeare is closest to state propaganda, th ideolo ideology gy is ple as it solidat solidates, es, it
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader this activist religion was the doctrine of callings: ‘God bestows his gift upon us [...] that they might be employed in his service and to his glory, and that in this life.’ This doctrine legitimated the expansive assertiveness of a social order which was bringing much of Britain under centralized control, colonizing parts of the New World and trading vigorously with most of the Old, and which was to experience experience revolutiona revolutionary ry changes. At the same time, acquiescence in an unjust social order (like that encouraged by a fatalistic metaphysic of stasis) seemed to be effected, though less securely, by an insistence that ‘whatsoever any man enterpriseth or doth, either must keep himself within the compass, limits or precincts thereof’ [...]. This ideology was none the less metaphysical. Such an activist ideology is obviously appropriate for the legitimation of warfare, and so we find it offered by the Archbishop of Canterbury in
The activist ideology thus displaces the emphasis on thoroughly metaphysical none the less. More general perhaps more than any since, we can see a secular theo theolo logi gica call cate catego gori ries es to the the exte extent nt that that it ma Reform Reformati ation on theolog theologyy actual actually ly contri contribut buted ed to nevertheless it was an appropriation which depended the most important of which, in ideological legitimation teleology.Sign up to vote on this title Not only the justification of the war but, more speci Not useful Useful works representation of Henry, in such terms. His is a nature nature - blood, blood, lineage lineage and breedin breeding: g: ‘The blood renowned them / Runs in your veins’ (I. ii. 118-19) ultimately from God’s law as it is encoded in nature a
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader resistance, with the attempt to recover the voices and cultures of the repressed and marginalized in history and writing. Moreover, ideology is destabilized not only from below, but by antagonisms within and among the dominant class or class fraction (high, as opposed to popular, literature will often manifest this kind of destabilization). Whereas idealist literary critic criticism ism has tended tended to emphas emphasize ize the transc transcend endenc encee of confli conflict ct and contradiction, materialist criticism seeks to stay with them, wanting to understand them better. better. Ideologies which represent society as a spurious unity must of necessity also also effac effacee confli conflict ct and contra contradic dictio tion. n. How succes successfu sfull they they are in achieving this depends on a range of complex and interrelated factors, only a few of which we have space to identify here. One such will be the relative relative strength strength of gent, subordinat and oppositional oppositional elements
4.4
FEMINIST CONCERNS AND APPRO
4.4.1 Simone De Beauvoir: from The Secon Sign up to vote on this title [...] If her Useful functioning as aNot female is not enough to def useful declin declinee also also to explai explain n her through through ‘the ‘the eterna eterna nevertheless we admit, provisionally, that women do ex face the question: what is a woman?
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader masculine. Woman Woman has ovaries, a uterus: these peculiarities imprison her in her subjectivity, circumscribe her within the limits of her own nature. It is often said that she thinks with her glands. Man superbly ignores the fact that his anatomy also includes glands, such as the testicles, and that they secrete hormones. He thinks of his body as a direct and normal connection with the world, which he believes he apprehends objectively, whereas he regards the body of woman as a hindrance, a prison, weighed down by everything peculiar to it. ‘The female is a female by virtue of a certain lack of qualities’, qualities’, said Aristotle Aristotle;; ‘we should regard regard the female nature nature as affli afflicte ctedd with with a natura naturall defect defective ivenes ness.’ s.’ And St. Thomas Thomas for his part part pronounced woman to be an ‘imperfect man’, an ‘incidental’ being. being. This is symbolized in Genesis where Eve is depicted as made from what Bossuet called ‘a supernumerary bone’ of Adam.
themselves into a unit which can stand face to face wi unit. They have no past, no history, no religion of the have no such solidarity of work and interest as that o They are not even promiscuously herded together in th community feeling among the American Negroes, the worker workerss of SaintSaint-De Denis nis,, or the factor factoryy hands hands of dispersed dispersed among the males, males, attached attached through through resi economic economic condition, condit and on social socia l standing to certain certain m Sign upion, to vote this title husbands - more firmly than than they are to other women useful with men of tha Usefulthey the bourgeoisie, feelNot solidarity proletarian women; if they are white, their allegiance is to Negro women. The proletariat can propose to ma class and a sufficie sufficiently ntly fanatical fanatical Jew or Negr might
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader woman wrote The Trial, Moby Dick, Ulysses, or Seven Pillars of Wisdom. Women do not contest the human situation, situation, because because they have hardly hardly begun to assume it. This explains why their works for the most part lack metaphysical resonances and also anger; they do not take the world incide incidenta ntally lly,, they they do not ask it questi questions, ons, they they do not expose expose its contradictions: they take it as it is too seriously. It should be said that the majority of men have the same limitations; it is when we compare the woman of achievement with the few rare male artists who deserve to be called ‘great men’ that she seems mediocre. It is not a special destiny that limits her: we can readily comprehend why it has not been vouchsafed her - and may not be vouchsafed vouchsafed her for some time - to attain to the loftiest loftiest summits. Art, literature, philosophy, are attempts to found the world anew on a
are being promoted to leadership positions in governm culture. Inequalities, devalorizations, underestimations, of women at this level continue to hold sway in vain. Th them is a struggle against archaisms. The cause has understood, the principle has been accepted. What re down the resistance to change. In this sense, this strugg of the main concerns of the new generation, is not, str problem.Sign In up relationship its prob proble lem m power, to vote ontothis title its summarized as follows: What happens when women usefulwhen, on the con Useful Not and identify with it? What happens power and create a parallel society, a counterpower wh aspects ranging from a club of ideas to a group of terror The assumption by women of executive, industrial, a
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader innovative initiatives on the part of women inhaled by power systems (when they do not submit to them right off) are soon credited to the system’s account; and that the long-awaited democratization of institutions as a result of the entry of women most often comes down to fabricating a few ‘chief ‘chiefs’ s’ among them. them. The diffic difficult ultyy presen presented ted by this this logic logic of integrating the second sex into a value system experienced as foreign and therefore counterinvested is how to avoid the centralization of power, how to detach women from it, and how then to proceed, through their critical, differen differential, tial, and autonomous autonomous interventi interventions, ons, to render render decision-ma decision-making king institutions more flexible. Then Then there there are the more more radic radical al femini feminist st curren currents ts which, which, refusi refusing ng homologation to any role of identification with existing power no matter what the power may be, make of the second sex a counter - society. A
more and no less than ‘half of the sky’. It has, therefore, become clear, because of the particu of the second second genera generatio tion, n, that that these these protes protestt move feminism, feminism, are not ‘initially ‘initially libertarian’ libertarian’ movements movements through internal deviations or external chance manipu into the old ruts of the initially combated archetypes. logic of counterpower and of countersociety necessarily the comb very structure, itsto essence as athis simulacrum of Sign up vote on title power. In this sense and from a viewpoint undoubte Useful has Notbeen useful modern feminism only but a moment in process of coming to consciousness about the (separation, castration, etc.) which constitutes any symb Thus the identification with power in order to con
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader counte counterin rinves vestin tingg the violen violence ce she has endure endured, d, make make of hersel herselff a ‘possessed’ agent of this violence in order to combat what was experienced as frustration – with arms which may seem disproportional, but which are not so in comparison with the subjective or more precisely narcissistic suffering from which they originate. Necessarily opposed to the bourgeois democratic regimes in power, this terrorist violence offers as a program of liberation liberation an order which is even more oppressive, oppressive, more sacrificial sacrificial than those it combats. Strangely enough, it is not against totalitarian regimes that these terrorist groups with women participants unleash themselves but, rather, against liberal systems, whose essence is, of course exploitative but whose expanding democratic legality guarantees relative tolerance. Each time, the mobilization takes place in the name of a nation, of an oppressed group, of a human essence imagined as good and sound; in the name, then,
such thing as Woman.’ Indeed, she does not exist w possessor of some mythical unity - a supreme power, the terror of power and terrorism as the desire for po unbelievable force for subversion in the modern world! time, what playing with fire!
Creatures and creatresses [...] Pregnancy seems experienced as the radi Sign up to votetoonbethis title splitt splitting ing of the subjec subject: t: redoubl redoubling ing up of the bod useful eUseful coexistenc coexistence of the self andNot of an other, of nature and physiology and speech. This fundamental challenge accompanied by a fantasy of totality – narcissistic com of instituted, socialized, natural psychosis. The arrival o
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader imaginary imaginary is not only an identification identification,, an imaginary potency potency (a fetish, a belief in the maternal p enis maintained at all costs), as a far too normative view view of the the soci social al and and symb symbol olic ic rela relati tions onshi hipp woul wouldd have have it. it. This This identification also bears witness to women’s desire to lift the weight of what is sacrificial in the social contract from their shoulders, to nourish our societies with a more flexible and free discourse, one able to name what has thus far never been an object of circulation in the community: the enigmas of the body, the dreams, secret joys, shames, hatreds of the second sex. It is understandable from this that women’s writing has lately attracted the maximum attention of both ‘specialists’ and the media. The pitfalls encount encountere eredd along along the way, way, how howeve ever, r, are not to be minimi minimized zed:: For example, does one not read there a relentless belittling of male writers
the founding separation of the sociosymbolic contract, of its cuttin cuttingg edge edge into into the very interi interior or of eve subjective, sexual, ideological, or so forth. This in su habitual and increasingly explicit attempt to fabricate a as foundress of a society or a countersociety may be analysis of the potentialities of victim/executioner each identity, each subject, each sex. What discourse, discour se,to if vote not that a religion, would be ab Sign up onof this title adventure which surfaces as a real possibility, after both Useful impass and the imp asses es of theNot presen preuseful sentt ideolo ideologic gical al rew feminism has participated? It seems to me that the role called ‘aesthetic practices’ must increase not only to c storage and uniformity of information by present-day m
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader ethi ethics cs?? If not not to that that ethi ethics cs defi define nedd by clas classi sica call phil philoso osoph phyy – in relationship to which the ups and downs of feminist generations seem dangerously precarious – are women not already participating in the rapid dismantling that our age is experiencing at various levels (from wars to drugs to artificial insemination) and which poses the demand for a new ethics? The answer to Spinoza’s question can be affirmative only at the cost of considering feminism as but a moment in the thought of that anthro anthropom pomorp orphic hic identi identity ty which which curren currently tly blocks blocks the horizo horizonn of the discursive and scientific adventure of our species.
extraordinarily rich and inventive, in particular as conc is prolonged or accompanied by a production of fo aesthetic activity, each stage of rupture inscribing a r composition, something beautiful. Beauty will no longe I wished that that woman would write and proclain th so that other women, other unacknowledged sovereigns too, overflow; my desires have invented new desires, felt so unheard-of againtitle I, too, have Signsongs. up toTime voteand on this torrents that I could could burst - burst with forms forms much m useful Useful those which are put up in Not frames and sold for a stinki too, said nothing, showed nothing; I didn’t open my repaint my half of the world. [...] I write woman: woman must write woman. And man
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader awakenings, discoveries of a zone at one time timorous and soon to be forthright. A woman’s body with its thousand and one thresholds of ardour - once, by smashing yokes and censors, she lets it articulate the profusion of meaning meaning that run through it in every direction direction - will make the old single-grooved mother tongue reverberate with more than one language. We’ve been turned away from our bodies, shamefully taught to ignore them, to strike them with that stupid sexual modesty; we’ve been made victims of the old fool’s game: each one will love the other sex. I’ll give you your body and you’ll give me mine. But who are the men who give women the body that women blindly blindly yield to them? Why so few texts? texts? Because so few woman have as yet won back their body. Women must write through their bodies, they must invent the impregnable impregnable language that will wreck partitions, classes, and rhetorics, regulations and codes, they
with the exploitation and manipulation of the female au in popular culture and film; and with the analysis of w semiotic systems. The second type of feminist criticism woman as writer - with woman as the producer of textu the history, themes, genres and structures of literatu subjects include the psychodynamics of female creativi the problem of a female language; the trajectory of collectiveSign female literary up to vote career; on thisliterary title history; and, of particular writers and works. No term exists in E specie specielis lised ed Useful discou discourse rse,, andNot souseful I have have adapte adaptedd gynocritique: ‘gynocritics’ (altho (although ugh the signif significa ica pseudonym in the history of women’s women’s writing also ‘georgics’).
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader Gynocritics begins at the point when we free ourselves from the linear absolutes of male literary history, stop trying to fit women between the lines of the male tradition, and focus instead on the nearly visible world of female culture. [...] Before we can even begin to ask how the literature of women would wou ld be differ different ent and specia special, l, we need need to recons reconstru truct ct its past, to rediscover the scores of women novelists, poets and dramatists whose work has been obscured by time, and to establish the continuity of the female tradition. [...] As we recreate the chain of writers in this tradition, the patterns of influence and response from one generation to the next, we can also begin to challenge the periodicity of orthodox literary history, and its enshrined canons of achievement. It is because we have studied women write in isolation that we have d the connectio betwe
Repre Represent sentati atives ves of the formal formal Female Female Aestheti Aesthetic, c, Richardson and Virginia Woolf, begin to think in te female sentences, and divide their work into ‘masculin ‘feminine’ ‘feminine’ fictions, fictions, redefinin redefiningg and sexualising sexualising exte experience. [...] In trying to account for these complex permutatio tradition, feminist criticism has tried a variety of theore The most natural feminist Sign up todirection vote onfor this title criticism to t revisi revision, on, and even even the subver subversio sionn of relate relatedd ide Useful Notturalism, useful structural Marxist Marxistaesthetic aesth eticss and struc ism, altering altering their methods to include the variable of gender. I believe, h thrift thriftyy femini feminine ne making making-do -do is ultima ultimatel telyy unsati unsati criticism cannot go around forever in men’s ill-fitting
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader and ‘lower’ criticism, the higher concerned with the ‘scientific’ problems of form form and struct structure ure,, the ‘lower’ ‘lower’ concern concerned ed with with the ‘human ‘humanist istic’ ic’ problems of content and interpretation. And these levels, it seems to me, are now taking on subtle gender identities, and assuming a sexual polarity - hermen hermeneut eutics ics and hismen hismeneut eutics ics.. Ironic Ironicall allyy, the existe existence nce of a new critic criticism ism practise practisedd by women women has made it even even more more possib possible le for structuralism and Marxism to strive, Henchard-like, for systems of formal obligation and determination. Feminist writings in these modes, such as Hélène Cixous and the women contributors to Diacritics, risk being alloted the symbolic ghettoes of the special issue or the back of the book for their essays. It is not because the exchange between feminism, Marxism and structuralism has hitherto been so one-sided, however, that I think attempts
rational, marginal and grateful; and sisters in a new wo which engenders another kind of awareness and com demands that we renounce the pseudo-success of token the ironic masks of academic debate. How much easier, is, not to awaken - to continue to be critics and teachers anthro anthropolo pologis gists ts of male male cultur culture, e, and psycho psycholog logist ist response, claiming all the while to be universal. Ye ourselvesSign to go to sleep. As women upback to vote on this title scholars in th been given a great opportunity, a great intellectua Not useful theUseful poetics, anatomy, rhetoric, the the history, await our The task of feminist critics is to find a new languag reading that can integrate our intelligence and our expe and our suffering, our scepticism and our vision. This
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader as transcendental signifier. To play such a part obviously makes Ophelia ‘essential’, as Lacan admits; but only because, in his words, ‘she is linked forever, for centuries, to the figure of Hamlet’. [...] Yet when feminist criticism allows Ophelia to upstage hamlet, it also brings to the foreground the issues in an ongoing theoretical debate about the cultural cultural links between between femininity femininity,, female female sexuality sexuality,, insanity insanity,, and representation. [...] [...] Femini Feminist st critic criticss have have offer offered ed a variet varietyy of respons responses es to these these questions. Some have maintained that we should represent Ophelia as a lawyer represents a client, that we should become her Horatia, in this harsh world reporting her cause aright to the unsatisfied. [...] If we turn from American to French feminist theory, Ophelia might confi the impossibility impossibility of esenti the feminine feminine in patriarcha patriarchall
circle or mystery of feminine difference, the cipher of fe be deciphered by feminist interpretation. interpretation.6 A third approach would be to read Ophelia’s sto subtext of the tragedy, the repressed story of Hamlet Ophelia represents the strong emotions that the Elizab the Freudians thought womanish and unmanly. When L his dead sister he says of his tears that ‘When these and sham will be out’ thattoisvote to say, feminine feminine Sign- up onthat thisthe title will be purged. According to David Leverenz, in an Useful in Hamlet, Woman Not’ useful called ‘The Hamlet’s Hamlet’s disgust at the in himself is translated into violent revulsion against wo brutal behavior towards Ophelia. Ophelia’s Ophelia’s suicide, suicide, Lev becomes ‘a microcosm of the male world’s banishme
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader theoretical construction of female insanity.9 Finally, I want to suggest that the feminist revision of Ophelia comes as much from the actress’s freedom as from the critic’s interpretation.10 When Shakespeare’s heroines began to be played by women instead of boys, the presence of the female body and female female voice, voice, quite quite apart apart from from detail detailss of interp interpret retati ation, on, create createdd new meanin meanings gs and subver subversive sive tensions tensions in these these roles, roles, and perhap perhapss most most importantly with Ophelia. Looking at Ophelia’s history on and off the stage, I will point out the contest between male and female representations of Ophelia, cycles of critical repression and feminist reclamation of which contem contempor porary ary femini feminist st critic criticism ism is only only the most most recent recent phase. phase. By beginning with these data from cultural history, history, instead of moving from from the grid of literary theory, I hope to conclude with a fuller sense of the responsibilities of feminist criticism, as well as a new perspective on
are so easily drowned in tears, as her body is the rep amniotic fluid and milk. [...] [...] Clinic Clinicall allyy speaki speaking, ng, Oph Opheli elia’ a’ss behavi behavior or characteristic of the malady the Elizabethans would h female love - melancholy, or erotomania. From about had become become a fashio fashionab nable le diseas diseasee among among you young ng London, and Hamlet himself is a prototype of the mela the epidemic Sign of upmelancholy to vote onassociated this title with intellectua genius ‘curiously ‘curiously bypassed bypassed women.’ women.’ Women’ Women’ss mela Useful and Not useful emotional instead as biological, in origins.17 [...] The subversive or violent possibilities of the mad eliminated, however, on the eighteenth - century stag stereotypes of female love - melancholy were sentime
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader [...] Whereas the romantic Hamlet, in Coleridge’s famous dictum, thinks too much, much, has an ‘overb ‘overbala alance nce of the contem contempla plativ tivee facult faculty’ y’ and an overactive intellect, the romantic Ophelia is a girl who feels too much, who drowns in feeling. The romantic critics seem to have felt that the less said about Ophelia the better; the point was to look at her. [...] Smithson’s performance is best recaptured in a series of pictures done by Delacroix from 1830 to 1850, which show a strong romantic intere interest st in the relati relation on of female female sexual sexuality ity and insani insanity ty..25 The most most innovative innovative and influentia influentiall of Delacroi Delacroix’ x’ss lithographs lithographs is La Morte d’ Ophelie of 1843, the first of three studies. Its sensual languor, with Ophelia half - suspended in the stream as her dress slips from her body, anticipated the fascination with the erotic trance of the hysteric as it would be studied by Jean-Martin Charcot and his students, including including Janet and Freud.
asylum work in the 1850s by Dr Hugh Welch Diamond, his female patients at the Surrey Asylum and at Bethle heavily influenced by literary and visual models in his po subjects. His pictures of madwomen, posed in prayer, or de - like garlands, were copied for Victorian consumption lithographs in professional journals.30 [...] But if the Victorian madwoman looks mutel ted, she picture pictures, s, Sign and acts men meon n had staged stage d and directed, direc up atopart vote this title represented in the feminist revision of Ophelia initiated b Not useful Useful actresses, and respectable Victorian Victorian actresse s, and by women critics their efforts to defend Ophelia, they invent a story for her own experiences, grievances, and desires. [. ] On th Victo ictori ri st it Elle Elle
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader Freud had traced Hamlet’s irresolution to an Oedipus complex, and Ernest Jones, Jones, his leading leading British British disciple disciple,, develope developedd this view view, influen influencin cingg the perfor performanc mances es of John Gielgud Gielgud and Alec Guinness Guinness in the 1930s. In his final version of the study, Hamlet publishedd in 1949, 1949, Jones Jones argue arguedd that that Hamlet and and Oedipu Oedipus, s, publishe ‘Ophelia ‘Ophelia should be unmistakably unmistakably sensual, as she seldom is on stage. She may be ‘inno ‘innocent cent’’ and docile, docile, but she is very very aware aware of her her body body.’ .’38 In the theater and in criticism, this Freudian edict has produced such extreme readings readings as that Shakespeare Shakespeare intends intends us to see Ophelia as a loose woman, and that she has been sleeping with hamlet. Rebecca West West has argued that Ophelia was not ‘a correct and timid virgin of exquisite sensibilities,’ a view she attributes to the popularity of the Millais painting; but rather ‘a disreputable young woman.’39 [...] Since the 1960s, the Freudian representation of Ophelia has been
45
In terms of effect on the theater, the most radical applica was probably realized in Melissa Murray’s Murray’s agitprop play 1979 for the English women’s theater group ‘Hermone I blank blank verse verse retelli retelling ng of the the Hamlet Hamlet story story,, Ophelia Ophelia becom becom off with a woman servant to join a guerilla commune.46 When feminist criticism chooses to deal with represe with with wome women’ n’ss writ writin ing, g, it must must aim aim for for a maxim maxim toward contextualism, in which the complexity of attitudes Sign up to vote on this title be analyz analyzed ed in their fullest fullest cultura culturall and historica historicall frame. frame. Useful usefulvirginal and seduct weak onNot strong and Ophelias the stage, inadeq inadequa uate te or opp oppre resse ssedd Ophe Ophelia liass in crit critic icism ism,, representations have overflowed the text, and how they ideological character of their times, erupting as debates betw
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader 4.4.6 Sandra M. Gilbert: from ‘Literary Paternity’ Paternity’ Though many of these writers writers use the metaphor of literary literary paternity paternity in different ways and for different purposes, all seem overwhelmingly to agree that a literary text is not only speech quite literally embodied, but also power mysteriously made manifest, made flesh. In patriarchal Western culture, therefore, the text’s author is a father, a progenitor, a procreator, an aesthetic patriarch whose pen is an instrument of generative power like his penis. More, his h is pen’s power, like his penis’s power, is not just the ability to generate life but the power to create a posterity to which he lays claim, as, in Said’s paraphrase of Partridge, ‘an increaser and thus a founder.’ In this respect, the pen is truly mightier than its phallic counterpart, the
but, as my epigraph from Anais Nin indicates, etiology that defines a solitary Father God as the on things, and the male metaphors of literary creation that an etiology have long ‘confused’ literary women – re alike. For what if such a proudly masculine cosmic A legitimate model for all earthly authors? Or worse, generative power is not just the only legitimate power b there is?Sign That up literary theoreticians from Aristotle to H to vote on this title believe this was so no doubt prevented many Not useful Useful ‘attempting the pen’ – to use Anne Finch’s phrase – and anxiety in generations of those women who were ‘presu to dare such an attempt. Jane Austen’s Anne Elliot un when she decorously observes, toward the end of Pers
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader herself into art in order ‘to appeal to man’ :
‘From the Paleolithic on, we have evidence that woman, through careful coiffure, through adornment and makeup, tried to stress the eternal type rather than the mortal self. Such makeup, in Africa or Japan, may reach the, to us, somewhat estranging degree of a lifeless mask – and yet that is precisely the purpose of it: where nothing is lifelike, nothing speaks of death.’ For yet another reason, then, it is no wonder that women have historically hesitated to attempt the pen. Authored by a male God and by a godlike male, killed into a ‘perfect’ image of herself, the woman writer’s selfcontemplation may be said to have begun with a searching glance into the
after a long interlude of grief and failure by reciting ‘M to that heavenly muse, who on the ‘ secret top of Or taught the Hebrew shepherd how in the womb of chaos, a world had originated and ripened.’ Though, as Virg suggested, the author of Paradise Lost was the ‘first of in his misogynistic contempt for Eve, the ‘Mother of drastically revises his imagery, de-emphasizing the ge the the patr patria iarc rcha hal l Auth Au or on and andthis stre stress ssin ingg the th e powe powe Sign up to thor vote title matriarcha matriarchall muse. More directly directly,, in Shirley she has Useful Not useful never heroine insist that Milton ‘saw’ Eve: ‘it was his c In fact, she declares, the first woman was never, like M doll, half angel’ and always potential fiend. Rather, sh Titan, a woman whose Promethean creative energy g
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader some unknown to my companion... some... in modern dialects.... We could make out little by the dim light, but they seemed to contain prophecies, detail detailed ed relati relations ons of events events but lately lately passed passed;; names. names..... and often often exclam exclamati ations ons of exulta exultatio tionn or woe woe... ... were were traced traced on their their thin thin scant scant pages.... We made a hasty selection of such of the leaves, whose writing one at least of us could understand, and then... bade adieu to the dim hypaeth hypa ethric ric caver cavern... n..... Since Since that that period period... ... I have have been been employ employed ed in deciphering these sacred remains.... I present the public with my latest discoveries in the slight Sibylline pages. Scattered and unconnected as they were, I have been obliged to... model the work into a consistent form. But the main substance rests on the divine intuitions which the Cumaean damsel obtained from heaven.’
characterization of the (‘female’) volcano as ‘The So Symbol – / The lips that never lie –.’ And in one of poems of the 1860s she formulated a matriarchal creativity that must surely have given her the strength t art through all the doubts and difficulties of her reclusiv
Sweet Mountains – Ye tell Me no lie – / Never deny M Those same unvar ying Eyes Turntitle on Me – when I Signunvarying up to vote on/this take the Royal names in vain – / Their far – slow – Vi Useful– Cherish Not Strong Madonnas stilluseful – / The Wayward Nun – / Whose service – is to You – / Her latest Worship Worship Fades from the Firmament away – / To lift Her Brows o
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader course of graduate education, without anyone’s ever seeming to inculcate or defend defend them. them. Appeal, Appeal, were were any necessar necessaryy, wou would ld be to the other meaning of ‘canon,’ that is to established standards of judgement and of taste. Not that either either definition is presented presented as rigid and immutable immutable - far from it, for lectures in literary history are full of wry references to a benighted though hardly distant past when, say, the metaphysical poets were insufficiently appreciated or Vachel Lindsay was the most modern poet recognized in American literature. Whence the acknowledgment of a subjective subjective dimension, dimension, sometimes sometimes generalize generalizedd as ‘sensibili ‘sensibility ty,’ ,’ to the category of taste. Sweeping modifications in the canon are said to occur because of changes in collective sensibility, but individual admissions and elevations from ‘minor’ to ‘major’ status tend to be achieved by successful critical promotion, which is to say, demonstration that a particular author
We acknowledge it Canonlike, but not Canonicall 1601)
Many feminist critics reject the method of case-by-ca The wholesale consignment consignment of women’ women’ss concerns concerns and grim area bounded by triviality and obscurity cannot be by tokenism. betitle attained, they argue Sign True up toequality vote oncan this up the canon to a much larger number of female v Useful Not useful that brings endeavor eventually basic aesthetic question Initially Initially,, however however,, the demand demand for wider wider repre author authorss is substa substanti ntiate atedd by an extrao extraordi rdinar naryy ef ropriation. ropriation. The gence of feminist feminist literary literary
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader 1849)
But the aesthetic issues cannot be forestalled for very long. We need to understand whether the claim is being made that many of the newly recovered or validated texts by women meet existing criteria or, on the other hand, that those criteria themselves intrinsically exclude or tend to exclude women and hence should be modified or replaced. If this polarity is not, not, in fact, fact, applic applicabl ablee to the process, process, what are the ground groundss for presenting a large number of new female candidates for (as it were) canonization? The problem is epitomized in Nina Baym’s introduction to her study of American women’s women’s fiction between 1820 and 1870:
tradition. There is no reason why the canon need speak as one man on the fundamental questions of human ex even as an elite white male voice, it can hardly be said to After all, when we turn from the construction of panth no prescribed number of places, to the construction o then something does have to be eliminated each time added, and here ideologies, aesthetic and extra-aesthet syllabus come into play. canon andtitle hence the Sign up Is tothe vote on this regarded as the compendium of excellence or as the r Not useful a point history? ForUseful there comes when the proponent o recognize the achievement of both sexes has to put up o given woman writer is good enough to replace some m prescribed reading list or she is not. If she is not, then
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader because women’s literature and the female tradition tend to be evoked as an autonomous cultural experience, not impinging on the rest of literary history. Wisdome under a ragged coate is seldome canonicall. (Crosse, 1603)
Whether dealing with popular genres or high art, commentary on the female tradition usually has been based on work that was published at some some time time and was produc produced ed by profes professio sional nal write writers. rs. But femini feminist st scholarship has also pushed back the boundaries of literature in other directions, considering a wide range of forms and styles in which women’s writing writing - especially especially that of women who did not perceive perceive themselves themselves as writer writer In thi en’ letter letter diarie diarie jou ls,
more than a form of ‘reverse discrimination’ discrimination’ - a conce of them are already overly attached. It is up to the f when we determine that this is indeed the right cou demons demonstra trate te that that such such an inclus inclusion ion wou would ld con affirmative action for all of us. The development development of feminist feminist literary criticism criticism already proceeded through a number of identifiable s more reminiscent the on survey Sign up toofvote thiscourse title than of the s canon formation and revision, and it has been more succ Not useful Useful and sticking to its own intellectual turf, the female coun gaining general canonical recognition for Edith Wharto the female diarists of the Westward Expansion. In on coherent our sense of the female tradition is, the stro
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader 4.5.1 Edward Said: from ‘Crisis [in orientalism]’ It may appear strange to speak about something or someone as holding a phrase more textual attitude, but a student of literature will understand the phrase easily if he will recall the kind of view attacked by Voltaire in Candide, or even the attitude attitude to reality reality satirized satirized by Cervantes Cervantes in Don Quixote. What seems unexceptionable good sense to these writers is that it is a fallacy to assume that the swarming, unpredictable, and problematic mess in which human beings live can be understood understood on the basis of what books - texts say; to apply what one learns out of a book literally to reality is to risk folly or ruin. One would no more think of using Amadis of Gaul 79 to understand sixteenth-century (or present day) Spain than one would use
In the light of all this, consider Napoleon and Less they knew, more or less, about the Orient, came from bo tradition of Orientalism, placed in its library of idées re Orient, like the fierce lion, was something to be enco with to a certain extent because the texts made that Ori an Orient was silent, available to Europe for the reali that that invol involve vedd but but were were neve neverr dire direct ctly ly respo respons ns inhabitants, and unable to resist the projects, images, or Sign up to vote on this title devised for it. Earlier I called such a relation between Useful useful (and its consequences) andNot Oriental silence the result o the West’s great cultural strength, its will to power ove there is another side to the strength, a side whose exis the pressures of the Orientalist tradition and its textu
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader As a syst system em of thou thought ght about about the the Orie Orient nt.. It alwa always ys rose rose from from the the specifica specifically lly human detail to the general transhuman transhuman one; an observatio observationn about a tenth-century Arab poet multiplied itself into a policy towards (and about) the Oriental mentality mentality in Egypt, Egypt, Iraq or Arabia. Similarly Similarly a verse from the Koran would be considered the best evidence of an ineradicable Muslim sensuality. Orientalism assumed an unchanging Orient, absolutely different (the reasons change from epoch to epoch) from the West. And Orientalism, in its post-eighteenth century form, could never revise itself. All this makes Cromer and Balfour, as observers and administrators of the Orient, inevitable. The closenes closenesss betwee betweenn politi politics cs and Orient Orientali alism, sm, or, or, to put it more more circumspectly, the great likelihood that ideas about the Orient drawn from Orientalism can be put to political use, is an important yet extremely
b) On the level of the thematic, [the Orientalists] ado conception of the countries, nations and peoples of study, a conception which expresses itself through a cha typology … and will soon proceed with it toward racism According According to the traditional traditional orientalis orientalists, ts, an essenc someti sometimes mes even clearly clearly describ described ed in metaph metaphysi ysi constitutes the inalienable and common basis of all the b this essence both since Signisup to‘historical’, vote on this titleit goes back to the and fundamentally a-historical, since it transfixes the b Useful within Not useful of study, its inalienable and non-evolutive spec defining it as all other beings, beings, states, nations, peoples, a product, a resultant of the vection of the forces operati historical evolution.
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader subdivide, and redivide its subject matter without ever changing its mind about the Orient as being always the same, unchanging, uniform and radically peculiar object. Friedrich Schlegel, who learned his Sanskrit in Paris, illustrates these traits traits together together.. Although by the time he published his Über die Sprache Sprache und Weisheit der Indier [On the Language and Wisdom of India ] in 1808 Schlegel Schlegel had practical practically ly renounced renounced his Orientali Orientalism, sm, he still held that Sanskrit and Persian on the one hand andPGreek and German on the other had more more affin affiniti ities es with with each each other other than than with with the Semiti Semitic, c, Chines Chinese, e, American or African languages. Moreover, the Indo-European family was artistically simple and satisfactory in a way the Semitic, for one, was not. Such abstractions as this did not trouble Schlegel, for whom nations, races, minds and peoples peoples as things one could talk about passionate passionately ly - in the
‘low’ Orientals was widely diffused in European cultu else, else, unless unless it be later later in the ninete nineteent enthh centur centur anthropologists and phrenologists, was it made the ba subject matter as it was in comparative linguistics or ph and race seemed inextricably tied, and the ‘good’ Orien classical period somewhere in a long-gone India, w Orient lingered in present-day Asia, parts of North A and the everywhere. wereon confined to Europe Sign‘Aryans’ up to vote this title Léon Léon Poliak Poliakov ov has shown shown (witho (without ut once once remark remark Useful useful were theNot ‘Semites’ not only Jews but the Muslims as w myth dominated historical and cultural anthropology at ‘lesser’ peoples. The official official intellectu intellectual al logy of Orientali Orientali
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader Egypt, Syria and Turkey, but also from major geographical surveys done all through the Orient. […] With disenchantment disenchantment and a generalized generalized - not to say schizophrenic schizophrenic - view of the Oriental, there is usually another peculiarity. Because it is made into a general object, the whole Orient can be made to serve as an illustration of a particular form of eccentricity. Although the individual Oriental cannot shake or disturb the general categories that make sense of his oddness, his oddness can nevertheless be enjoyed for its own sake. Here, for example, is Flaubert describing the spectacle of the Orient: To amuse the crowd, Mohammed Mohammed Ali’s Ali’s jester took a woman in a Cairo bazaar one day, set s et her on the counter of a shop, and coupled with her publicly while the shopkeeper calmly smoked his pipe.
charming’ meaning in the Orient. This meaning cannot can only be enjoyed on the spot and ‘brought back’ ve The Orient is watched , since its almost (but never behaviour issues out a reservoir of infinite peculiari whose sensibility tours the Orient, is a watcher, never detached, always ready for new examples of what the Egypte called ‘bizarre jouissamce’. The Orient become of queerness. Sign […] up to vote on this title As a judge of the Orient, the modern Orientalist does n Useful says, Not and even stand apart fromuseful it objectively. His hu whos whosee sign sign is the the abse absenc ncee of sympa sympath thyy cove cove knowled know ledge, ge, is weight weighted ed heavil heavilyy with with all the perspectives and moods of Orientalism that I have
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader second second was to adapt the old ways to the new. new. But to the Orientali Orientalist, st, who believes the Orient never changes, the new is simply the old betrayed by the new, misunderstanding dis-Orientals (we can permit permit ourselves the neolog neologism ism). ). A third, third, revisi revisioni onist st altern alternati ative, ve, to dispen dispense se with with Orientalism altogether, was considered by only a tiny minority. minority. One index of the crisis, according according to Abdel Malek, was not simply that ‘national liberation movements in the ex-colonial’ Orient worked havoc with Orientalist conceptions of passive, fatalistic ‘subject races’ ; there was in addition the fact that ‘specialists and the public at large became aware of the time-lag, not only between orientalist science and the material under study, but also - and this this was determining determining - between between the conceptions, conceptions, the methods and the instruments of work in the human and social sciences and those of orientalism.89The Oriental Orientalists ists - from Renan Renan to Goldziher Goldziher to
texts. However, along with such academic security-bla ‘literature’ or ‘the humanities’, and despite its overar Orientalism is involved in worldly, historical circumsta tried to conceal behind an often pompous scientism rationalism. The contemporary intellectual can learn how, on the one hand, either to limit or to enlarge reali of his discipline’s claims, and on the other, to see the h foul-rag-and-bone Sign up toshop voteof onthe thisheart, title Yeats called it visions, methods, and disciplines begin, grow, thrive, a Useful Not to useful Orientalism investigate is also propose intellectual w the methodological problems that history has broug speak, in its subject matter, the Orient. But before that see the humanistic values that Orientalism, by its scope
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader given given in early early histor historica icall period periods, s, whe whenn the world world was larger larger,, more more amorphous, less globalized. Today a fantastic emphasis is placed upon a politics of national identity, and to a very great degree, this emphasis is the result of the imperial experience. For when the great modern Western imperial expansion took place all across the world, beginning in the late eigtheenth century, it accentuated the interaction between the identity of the French or the English and that of the colonized native peoples. And this mostly antagonistic interaction gave rise to a separation between people as members of homogenous races and exclusive nations that was and still is one of the characteristics of what can be called the epistemology of imperialism. At its core is the supremely stubborn thesis that everyone is principally and irreducibly a member of some race or category, category, and that race or category cannot ever be assimilated to or accepted by others-except
Japan, Indonesia, and the Philippines, where the den native essence emerged as the focus of, and even the ba recovery. [...] Inattentive or careless readers of Frantz Fanon, g one of the two or three three most eloquent eloquent apostl apostles es resi resist stan ance ce,, tend tend to forg forget et his his mark marked ed susp suspic ic nationalism. So while it is appropriate to draw atten chaptersSign on violence in The up to vote onWretched this titleof the Earth, that in subsequent chapters he is sharply critical of w Useful consciousness. Not useful pitfalls of national He clearly meant this thi And for the reason that while nationalism is a necess agains againstt the coloni colonizer zer,, nation national al consci conscious ousnes nesss must transformed into what he calls ‘social consciousness,’ j
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader knowledge that is based principally on the affirmation of identity is very similar, is indeed directly related to, the unreconstructed nationalism that has guided so many postcolonial states today. It asserts a sort of separatism that wishes only to draw attention to itself; consequently it neglects the integration of the earned and achieved consciousness of self within ‘the rendez-vous of victory.’ On the national and on the intellectual level the problems are very similar. similar. Let me return therefore to one of the intellectual debates that has been central to the humanities in the past decade, and which underlies the episode with which I began. The ferment in minority, subaltern, feminist, and and post postco colo loni nial al cons consci cious ousne ness ss has has resu result lted ed in so many many salu saluta tary ry achievements in the curricular and theoretical approach to the study of the humanities as quite literally to have produced a Copernican revolution in
sanctimonious piety of historical or cultural victimh making making our intell intellect ectual ual presen presence ce felt. felt. Such Such strate strate insufficient. The whole effort to deconsecrate Eouroce interpreted, least of all by those who participate in the effor effortt to suppla supplant nt Euroce Eurocentr ntrism ism with, with, for instan instan Islamocentric approaches. On its own, ethic particularity for intellectual intellectual process process - quite the contrary contrary.. At first, was a question, for some, of adding Sign up to vote on this titleJane Austen to t Western estern writer writerss in humani humanitie tiess course courses; s; then then it Useful Not the displacing entire canon ofuseful American writers like Emerson with best selling writers of the same period lik Stowe and Susan Warner. Warner. But after that the logic of even more attenuated, and the mere names of politicall
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader reader summons to mind as the interpretation proceeds. The point I am trying to make can be summed up in the useful notion of worldliness. By linking works to each other we bring them out of the negl neglec ectt and and seco second ndar arin ines esss to whic whichh for for all all kind kindss of poli politi tica call and and ideological reasons they had previous;y been condemned. What I am talking about therefore is the opposite of separtism, and also the reverse of exclusivism. It is only through the scrutiny of these works as literature, as style, as pleasure and illumination, that they can be brought in, so to speak, and kept kept in. Other Otherwis wisee they they will will be regard regarded ed only only as inform informati ative ve etnographic specimens, suitable for the limited attention of experts and area specialists. Worldliness is therefore the restoration to such works and interpretations of their place in the global setting, a restoration that can only be accomplished by an appreciation not of some tiny, defensively
positions that are educative, humane, and engaged, on training and taste and not simply on a technologized or on the tiresome playfulness of ‘postmodern’ criticism disclaimers of anything but local games and pastiches and his acolytes, we are still in the era of large narrativ cultural cultural clashes, clashes, and of appallingly appallingly destructive destructive war recent conflagration in the Gulf - and to say that we are beyond literature, is to be blind andtitle trivial. Sign up to vote on this I am not arguing that every interpretaive act is equiv Notcould usefulanyone defend or orUseful How either for against life. general a position? I am saying that once we grant inte right to exist in a relatively disengaged atmosphere, an that isn’t disqualified by partisanship, we ought then
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader me to be important to underline the fact that whatever else they are, works of literature are not merely texts. They are in fact differently constituted and have different values, they aim to do different things, exist in different genres, and so on. One of the greatest pleasures for those who read and study literature is the discovery of long-standing norms in which all cultures known to me concur: such things as style and performance, the existence of good as well as lesser writers, and the exercise of preference. What has been most unacceptable during the many harangues on both sides of the so-called Western canon debate is that so many of the combatants combatants have ears of tin, and are unable to distinguish distinguish between between good writing and politically correct attitudes, as if a fifth-rate pamphlet and a great novel have more or less the same significance. Who benefits from leveling attacks on the canon? Certainly not the disadvantaged person or
are to be brought to an end, so that more, and not fewer the benefits of what has for centuries been denied the class, or gender.
4.5.3 Sign upEdward to voteW.onSaid: thisfrom title‘The Problem of Te
Not useful Useful The pages that follow work through two powerful, con of considering, describing, analyzing, and dealing theo problem of textuality, a manifestly central problem for
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader grounds, and perhaps the one specially singled out in Foucault’s attack on Derrida - that Derrida is concerned only with ‘reading’ a text and that a text is nothing more than the ‘traces’ found here by the reader - would be the appropriate one to begin with here.2 According to Foucault, if the text is important for Derrida because its real situation is literary an abysmally textual element, l’ ecriture en abime with which (Derrida says in ‘La double séance’) séance’) criticism criticism so far has been unable really really to deal,3 then for Foucault the text is important because it inhabits an element of power ( pouvoir) pouvoir) with a decisive claim on actuality, even though that power is invisible or implied. Derrida’s criticism therefore moves us into the text, Foucault’s in and out of it. Yet neither Foucault nor Derrida would deny that what unites them more, even, than the avowedly revisionist and revolutionary character of
In both cases, cases, neverthele nevertheless, ss, the critic critic challenges challenges t apparently sovereign powers of intellectual activity, w ‘system’ or ‘method’, when in dealing with texts these the condition of science. The challenge is delivered in large gestures of differentiation: Derrida refers everyw metaphysics and thought, Foucault in his earlier work t epochs, epistémès, that is, those totalities which bu culture into controlling, incorporating, Signitsup to vote on this title and discrimin Each ‘way’, Foucault’s and Derrida’s, attempts not on Useful but useful entities challenged alsoNot in some persistent fashion to attack the stability, authority, presence, power of the them if at all possible. For both writers, their work is me tyr and the fictio fictio of direct direct refer to
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader texts is perhaps to neglect the implemented, effective power of textual statement.4 Derrida’s work thus has not always been in a position to accommo accommodat datee descri descripti ptive ve inform informati ation on of the kind kind giving giving Western estern metaphysics and Western culturea more than repetitively allusive meaning; neither has it been interested systematically and directly in dissolving the ethnocentrism of which on occasion it has spoken with noble clarity; neither has it demanded from its disciples any binding engagement on matters pertaining to discovery and knowledge, freedom, oppression, or injustice. For if everything in a text is always open equally to suspicion and to affirmation, then the differences between one class interest and another, or between oppressor and oppressed, one discourse and another, one ideology and another are virtual in - but never crucial to making decisions about - the finally reconciling element of textuality. [...]
[...] Whereas Derrida’s theory of textuality brings upon a signifier freed from any obligation to a transce Foucault’s theories move criticism from a consideration a desc descri ripti ption on of the the sign signif ifie ier’ r’ss place, a plac plac dimens dimension ionles less, s, or withou withoutt the affir affirmat mative ive authori authori discipline. In other words, Foucault is concerned wi force by which the signifier occupies a place, so in can showSign howup penal discourse in itstitle turn wasable to ass to vote on this places in the structural, administrative, psycholog Not useful ofUseful panoptical economy the prison’s architecture. Now the value of such a strictly historical view of t text is not only that it is historical. Its greatest value i criticism to the recognition that a signifier occupying
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader curiously passive and sterile view not so much of the uses of power but of how and why power is gained, used, and held onto. This is the most dangerous consequence of disagreement with Marxism, and its result is the least convincing aspect of his work. [...] [...] What one misses in Foucault therefore is something resembling Gramsc Gramsci’ i’ss analys analyses es of hegemony, histor historica icall blocks blocks,, ensemb ensembles les of relationships done from the perspective of an engaged political worker for whom the fascinated description of exercised power is never a substitute for trying to change power relationships within society. [...] I can conclude on a more positive - if somewhat summary - note. I have been implying that criticism is, or ought to be, a cognitive activity, activity, and that it is a form of knowledge. I now find myself saying that if, as Foucault has tried to show, all knowledge is contentious, then criticism, as activity and
[Ed.] ‘ Mise Mise en abyme is a term in heraldry meaning a in its center (abyme) a smaller image of the same s implication, ad infinitum, with ever smaller and smalle toward the central point.’ J. Hillis Miller, ‘Steven’s ‘Steven’s Roc Cure’, Georgia Review, Review, 30 (1976), p. 11. For Fouc discourse see his ‘The Order of Discourse’, in Unty Robert Young, Young, pp. 48-78. MichelSign Foucault’s on this Derrida up to attack vote on titleis to be found in a later version of Folie Folie et déraison: Histoire de la folie Useful useful Not (Paris, 1972), pp. 583-603. [Ed.] This is available in Body, This Paper, This Fire’, in Oxford Literary Review 28.) Jaques Derrida, La Dissemination (Paris, 1962), p. 297
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader simple moral or political message. And the fourth form is literary theory, a relatively new subject. It appeared as an eye-catching topic for academic and popular discussion in the United States later than it did in Europe: people like Walter Walter Benjamin and the young Georg Lukacs, for instance, did their theoretical work in the early years of this century, and they wrote in a kno known, wn, if not univer universal sally ly uncont uncontest ested, ed, idiom. idiom. Americ American an litera literary ry theory, despite the pioneering studies of Kenneth Burke well before World War Two, came of age only in the 1970s, and that because of an observably deliberate attention to prior European models (structuralism, semiotics, deconstruction).... Now the prevailing situation of criticism is such that the four forms represent in each instance specialization (although literary theory is a bit eccentric) and a very precise division of intellectual labour. Moreover, it is
From From bein beingg a bold bold inte interv rven enti tiona onary ry move moveme me specialization, American American literary theory of the late seven into the labyrinth of ‘textuality,’ dragging along with apostles apostles of European European revolutionary revolutionary textuality textuality – Derr whose trans-Atlantic canonization and domestication seemed sadly enough to be encouraging. It is not too American or even European literary theory now expl principleSign of noninterference, up to vote on and thisthat titleits peculiar mode its subject matter (to use Althusser’s formula) is Useful that anythi anything ng tha t is worldl wor ldlyyNot , circum ciruseful cumsta stanti ntial, al, or soc ‘Textuality’ is the somewhat mystical and disinfected literary theory. Textuality Textuality has therefore become the exact antithesis an
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader of the social world, human life, and of course the historical moments in which they are located and interpreted. Literary theory, theory, whether of the Left or of the Right, has turned its back on these things. This can be considered, I think, the triumph of the ethic of professionalism. But it is no accident that the emergence of so narrowly defined a philosophy of pure textuality and critical noninterference has coincided with the ascendancy of Reaganism, or for that matter with a new cold war, increased militarism and defense spending, and a massive turn to the right on matters touching the economy, social services, and organized labour labour.. In having having given up the world entirely entirely for the aporias aporias and unthinkable paradoxes of a text, contemporary criticism has retreated from its constituency, the citizens of modern society, who have been left to the hand hand of ‘f e’ rket rket fo ltina ltinati ti l atio atio th
almost unanimously held view that it is the duty of hum our culture to devote themselves to the study of the gr literature. Why? So that they may be passed on to youn in turn become members, by affiliation and formation, o educated individuals. Thus we find the university exper officially consecrating the pact between a canon of initiate instructors, a group of younger affiliates; in a manner all thisup reproduces thethis filiative Sign to vote on titlediscipline suppo by the educational process. This has almost alway Nothtuseful t might histor historica ically lly Useful within within wha what mig be called called the clo traditional Western, and certainly of the Eastern, unive now, I think, in a period of world history when for compensatory affiliative relationships interpreted dur
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader neutral political element, that they are to be appreciated and venerated, that they define the limits of what is acceptable, appropriate, and legitimate so far as cultur culturee is concer concerned ned.. In other other words, words, the affil affiliat iative ive order order so presented surreptitiously duplicates the closed and tightly knit family structure that secures generational hierarchical relationships to one another. another. Affiliation then becomes in effect a literal form of re-presentation, by which what is ours is good, and therefore deserves incorporation and inclusion in our programmes of humanistic study, and what is not ours in this this ultima ultimatel telyy provin provincia ciall sense sense is simply simply left left out. out. And out of this this representa representation tion come the systems systems from Northrop Frye’s to Foucault’ Foucault’s, s, which claim the power to show how things work, once and for all, totally and predictively. It should go without saying that this new affiliative structure and its systems of thought more or less directly reproduce the
sort of order for another, in the process of which e nonhumanistic and nonliterary and non-European is dep structure. If we consider for a minute that most of the w European, that transactions within what the UNESCO calls the world information order are therefore not lite social sciences and the media (to name only two m production in ascendancy today over the classically de dominateSign the diffusion of knowledge in waysthat are sc up to vote on this title to the traditional humanistic scholar, then we will have Useful Not useful and assertions ostrichlike retrograde about Eurocentric are. The process of representation, by which filiation is affiliative structure and made to stand for what belong turn belong to the family of our languages and tradition
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader teaches us to read in a different way and to remember that for every poem or novel in the canon there is a social fact being requisitioned for the page, a human life engaged, a class suppressed or elevated – none of which can be accounted for in the framework rigidly maintained by the processes of repr repres esen enta tati tion on and and affi affili liat atio ionn doin doingg above above-g -gro roun undd work work for for the the conservation of filiation. And for every critical system grinding on there are events, heterogeneous and unorthodox social configurations, human beings and texts disputing the possibility of a sovereign methodology of system. Everything I have said is an extrapolation from the verbal echo we hear between the words ‘filiation’ and ‘affiliation.’ In a certain sense, what I have been trying to show is that, as it has developed through the art and critical theories produced in complex ways by modernism, filiation gives
4.5.5 Henry Louis Gates, Jr.: from The Signifying M
SignofupthetoTalking vote on this title ‘The Trope Book’ I Useful Not useful THE LITERATURE of the slave, published in Engli and 1865, is the most obvious site to excavate the ori American literary tradition. Whether our definition of
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader not be taken as specimens of a black literary culture. Rather, the texts of the slave could only be read as testimony of defilement: the slave’s representation and reversal of the master’ a attempt to transform a human being into a commodity, and the slave’s simultaneous simultaneous verbal witness of the possession of a humanity shared in common with Europeans. The chiasmus, perhaps the most commonly used rhetorical figure in the slave narratives and throughout subsequent black literature, is figured in the black vernacular tradition by tropes of the crossroads, that liminal space where Esu resides. The slave wrote not primarily to demonstrate humane letters, but to demonstrate his or her own membership in the human community. [...] Just as there there are remarkably remarkably few literary literary traditions traditions whose first century’s existence is determined by texts created by slaves, so too are
they could, then, the argument ran, the African variety the European variety were fundamentally related. If no clear that the African was destined by nature to be a slav [...] [...] What What remain remained ed consta constant nt was that that black black peo speaking subjects only by inscribing their voices in the this matter of recording an authentic black voice in th letters was of widespread concern in the eighteenth cent it affect Sign the production up to voteofonblack this texts, title if indeed it af [...] Useful Notthatuseful The most salient indication this idea informed the texts is found in a topos that appears in five black t English by 1815. This topos assumed such a central pla of figurative language that we can call it a trope. It i
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader [...] The trope of the Talking Book became the first repeated and revised trope of the tradition, the first trope to be Signified upon. The paradox of representing, of containing somehow, the oral within the written, precisely when oral black culture was transforming itself into a written culture, proved to be of sufficient concern for five of the earliest black autobiographers to repeat the same figure of the the Talking Book that fails to speak, appropriating the figure accordingly with embellished rhetorical differences. II The first text in which the trope of the Talking Book appears is James Albert Ukawsaw Gronnoiosaw’s first edition of A Narrative of the Most Remarkable Particulars in the Life of James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw,
silence in black literary antecedents, Gronniosaw turned the Noble Savage to ground his text within a tradition. [ One of the ironies of representation of the Noble savag is rendered noble through a series of contrasts with countrymen. Oronooko bears aquiline features, has some miraculous process to straighten his kinky hair, a fluently, among other languages. Oronooko, in other w and acts European, speaks like a European, Europea and thinks Sign up to vote on thisn,title or, more properly, like a European king. Unlike th Not useful Useful Noble representing most other savage protagonists, the his fellow black princes-in-bondage are made noble b with their native countrymen. He is the exception, and n rule. Several Africans gained notoriety in eighteen-cen
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader is the custom custom of our country country.. It was was made made into rings, and they they were were linked linked into into one another, another, and formed formed into a kind of chain, and so put round my neck, and and arms, and legs, and a large large piece hanging at one ear, almost in the the shape of a pear. pear. I found found all this troublesome, and was glad when my new master [a Dutch captain of a ship] took it from me. I was now washed, and clothed clothed in the Dutch or English manner. manner. Gronniosaw admits to being glad when his royal chain, a chain of gold that signified his cultural heritage, was removed from him, to be replaced, after a proverbial if secular baptism by water, with the ‘Dutch or English’ clothing of a ship’s crew. crew. That which signified his African past, a veritable signif signifyin yingg chain, chain, Gronni Gronniosa osaw w eagerl eagerlyy abandon abandons, s, just just as he longs longs to abandon the language that his European captors ‘did not understand.’
with me. As soon as my master had done reading, I fo place where he put pu t the book, being mightly migh tly delighted nobody saw me, I opened it, and put my ear down clos hopes that it would soon say something to me; but I w greatly disappointed, when I found that it would not sp immediately presented itself to me, that every body despised me because I was black . Sign up to vote on this title What can we say of this compelling anecdote? anecdote? The b useful Usefulit simply Not for Gronniosaw; refused to speak to him, Gronniosaw Gronniosaw,, the book - or, perhaps perhaps I should say, say, the ‘book’ - constituted a silent primary text, a text howe black man found no echo of his own voice. The silent b
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader scene, we shall see, is refigured in John Jea’s revision of the trope of the Talking Talking Book. If Marrant Signifies upon Gronniosaw by substituting the oppositions of black/Cherokee and Christian/non-Christian for black illiterate African/w African/white hite literate literate European, European, what has become become of Gronniosaw Gronniosaw’s ’s ‘signifying chain’? Marrant does not disappoint us; the chain is inverted as well, although it is still made of gold. And, like Gronniosaw, Marrant by contig contiguit uityy in his narrat narration ion associ associate atess the golden golden chain chain with with his own mastery mastery of language, language, the Cherokee Cherokee language. language. Marrant’s Marrant’s figure of the golden chain does not appear until the penultimate sentence in the twoand-one-half-page paragraph in which the talking Book episode occurs. In this sentence, Marrant informs us that it is the Cherokee king who owns the gold ‘chains and bracelets’, and as we might suspect, it is John
is the black vernacular equivalent of metalepsis. Marran Gronniosaw’s trope because his revision seeks to rev trope trope by disp displa lace ceme ment nt and and subs substi titu tuti tion on.. All All of Gronniosaw’s trope are present in Marrant’s revision, pattern has been rearranged rearranged significantly. significantly. [...]
IV Sign up to vote on this title [...] Regardless of what Atahualpa might have said Useful useful source, and Ma could translation have beenNot Cugoano’s both read English, unlike Gronniosaw. Gronniosaw. Cugoano, how with Marrant’s revision and seems to have decided to version as a way of stepping around Marrant. What seem
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader Phillis Wheatley and Equiano, which call attention to the assimilated presence of a subject who is Anglo-African, a hybrid third term meant to mediate between the opposites signified by ‘African’ and ‘Anglo-Saxon.’ Jea’s choice of representation of himself, while common among other Protestant ministers who published autobiographies contemporaneous with Jea’s, is the negative, if you will, of the positive image selected by Wheatley and Equiano. Jea reverses the convention of self-presentation by employing the silhouette to underscore a literal blackness of the subject represented as black upon black. But even more curious for the purpose of this chapter is Jea’s revision of the trope of the Talking Book, which he also seeks to make literal. [...] Jea reverses the semantic associations of ‘slave’ and ‘chains’, making his condition the metaphor of the human condition. It is clear early on in his
entire reading lesson unfolded ‘in about fifteen minute his readers a fairly precise account of events that le appearence, and of actions immediately before and after visitation. Finally, he tells us three times that his req God’s gift in return was to ‘read,’ ‘understand,’ and ‘sp of this chapter of the Bible in both ‘the English and D Jea’s desire, satisfied by divine intervention when a avenues Sign had been evils ofslavery, w up toclosed vote off on by thisthe title facility with the text of God, a facility that he is able to Useful It Not demand of the skeptical. is theuseful mastery of the text of other texts, which leads directly to his legal manumissio It is not an arbitrary text that the angel (or God) sele slave’s mastery. Rather, it is the Gospel of John. Let us
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader Cugoan Cug oanoo and Equiano Equiano (both (both of who whom m call call attent attention ion to its figura figurativ tivee properties, as we have seen) and attempts to represent the several literal and figurative elements of the received trope as if they all happened. This is what I mean when I say that Jea literalize literalizess the trope, trope, that he erases its figura figurativ tivee proper propertie tiess by expand expanding ing its compac compacted ted denota denotatio tions ns and connotations into a five-page account of the event that transforms his life in a most fundamental way. [...] After Jea’s revision, or erasure as I am thinking of it, the trope of the Talking Book disappears from the other slave narratives published in the nineteenth century. No longer is this sign of the presence of literacy, and all that this sign connotes in the life of the black slave, available for revision after Jea has erased its figurative properties by its turn to the supernatural. Rather, the trope of the Talking Book now must be displaced
Briton Hammon’s 1760 narrative to Alice Walker’s simply by explicating the figures used to represent the s subject for a textual voice.
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader room also, where stood a table and a book like the two first, and said, ‘I will instruct thee-yea, thou shall be instructed from the beginning of all things to the end of all things. things. Yea, Yea, thou shall be well instructed. instructed. I will instruct.’ And then I awoke, and I saw him as plain as I did in my dream. And after that he taught me daily. And when I would be reading and come to a hard word, I would see him standing by my side and he would teach me the word right. And often, when I would be in meditation and looking into things which was hard to understand, I would find him by me, teaching and giving me understanding. And oh, his labor and care which he had with me often caused me to weep bitterly, when I would see my great ignorance and the great trouble he had to make me understand eternal things. For I was so buried buried in the depth of the tradition of my forefathers, forefathers,
discourses. We must use these theories and methods i relevant to the study of our own literatures. The dan however, is best put by Anthony Appiah in his definitio ‘the Naipaul fallacy’ :
It is not necesary to show that African literature is f same as European literature in order to show that it ca more the sameSign tools; ... vote nor should shoul d endors end up to on this titleorsee a more postcolonial legacy which requires us to show that Af Useful Notonly) useful (but worthy of study precisely because it is fundam as European literature. We
not, Appiah concludes, ask ‘the reader to und
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader We must redefine ‘theory’ itself from within our black cultures, refusing to grant the racist premise that theory is something that white people do, so that we are doomed to immitate our white colleagues, like reverse black minstrel critics done up in whiteface. We We are all heirs to critical theory, but we black critics are heirs as well to the black vernacular tradition. Our task now is to invent and employ our own critical theory, to assume our own propositions, and to stand with the academy as politically responsible and responsive parts of a social and culturtal African American whole. [...] As deconst deconstruc ructio tionn and other other poststr poststruct uctura uralis lisms, ms, or even even an aracia araciall Marxism and other ‘articles of faith in Euro-Judaic thought,’ exhaust themselves in a self-willed racial never-never land in which we see no true reflections of our blac faces and hear no echoes of our black voices, let us - at long last - master the canon canon of critical critical traditions traditions and languages languages of
arts of interpretation. For the future of theory and of lite general, in the reminder of this century, is black, indeed
How does this matter of the black canon of criticism a to define canon(s) of black literature? I believe, first of free ourselves of the notion that we are ‘just Americans put it, and that what is good and proper for America inden proper for Afro-Americanists, wetitle shall remain Sign up to vote on this white masters, female and male, and to the Western Western trad Usefulright most fundamental thatNot anyuseful tradition posseses, and define itself, its own terms for order, its very own presu recall the etymology o f the word ‘theory’ from the Gree understand understand why the production production of the black black text
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader disposal the means to edit an anthology which will define a canon of AfroAmerican literature for instructors and students at any institution which desires to teach a course in Afro-American literature. Once our anthology is published, no one will ever again be able to use the unavailability of black texts as an excuse not to teach our literature. A well-marketed anthology - particularly particularly a Norton anthology - functions in the academy to to create a tradition, as well as to define and preserve it. A Norton anthology opens up a literary tradition as simply as opening the cover of a carefully edited and ample book. I am not unaware of the politics and ironies of canon-formation. The canon that we define will be ‘our’ canon, one possible set of selections among several possible sets of selections. In part to be as eclectic and as democratically ‘representative’ as possible, most other editors of black
black canon might not necessarily agree with my own, o I have have trie triedd to brin bringg toge togeth ther er a diff differ eren entt ar methodological, and theoretical perspectives, so that w produce an anthology which most fully represents the v of what it means to teach that tradition. I can say that my own biases toward canon-formatio formal formal relationship relationship that obtains obtains among texts in the antiphony relationsSign of revision, echo, callthis andtitle response, up to vote on and to stress the vernacular roots of the tradition, c Notmeuseful Useful let Crummell. Accordingly, add that our antholo major innovation in anthology production. Because of t vernacular base of so much of our literature, we shall tape along with our anthology. This means that each p
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader
5. ANTI-RELATIVISM, ANTI-ANTI-FOUNDATIONALISM: TRADITIONALIST RESPONSES
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5.2 Harold Bloom: from The Western Canon
5.2.1 ‘Preface and Prelude’
With most of these twenty-six writers, I have tried to confront
creator of Lear, Hamlet, Iago, Falstaff and his discip Webster and Thomas Middleton. The best living Englis Kermode, in his famous Forms of Attention (1985) has warning I know about the fate of the canon, that is t place, the fate of Shakespeare: Shakespeare:
Canons, which negate the distinction between knowl which are instruments of on survival built to be time-pro Sign up to vote this title deconstructible; if people think there should not be such Useful useful them. Their def find Not very well the means to destroy longer be undertaken by central institutional power; longer be compulsory, though it is hard to see how the of learned institutions, including recruitment, can manag
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader incessant conflict with Homer, who is exiled from The Republic, but in vain, since Homer and not Plato remained the schoolbook of the Greeks. Dante's Divine Comedy, according to Stefan George, was ‘the book and school of the ages’, though that was more true for poets than for anyone else and is properly assigned to Shakespeare's plays, as will be shown throughout this book. Contemporary writers do not like to be told that they must compete with Shakespeare and Dante, and yet that struggle was Joyce's provocation to greatness, to an eminence shared only by Beckett , Proust, and Kafka among modern Western authors. The fundamental archetype for literary achievement will always be Pindar, who celebrates the implicit sense the quasi-divine victories over every possible competitor. Dante, Milton , and Wordsworth repeat Pindar's key metaphor of racing to win the palm, which
begot, their puissance is their own. As assertions by and prose fiction writers, these are healthy and underst self-d self-delu eluded ded.. But as declar declarati ations ons by suppos supposed ed optimistic pronouncements are neither true nor interesti both human nature and the nature of imaginative litera no strong, canonical writing without the process of lit process vexing to undergo and difficult difficult to understand. [. if sign The burden of influence hastitle to be borne, Sign up to vote on this is to be achieved and reachieved within the wealth of Useful is Tradition tradition. notNot onlyuseful a handing-down or p transm transmiss ission ion;; it is also also a confli conflict ct betwee betweenn past past aspiration, in which the prize is literary survival or ca That conflict cannot be settled by social concerns, or b
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader particularly at the level of figurative language. By the time that Shakespeare writes Othello, all all trac tracee of Marl Marlow owee is gone gone:: the the self self-delighting villainy of Iago is cognitively far subtler and light years more refined imagistically than the self-congratulatory excesses of the exuberant Barabas. Iago's relation to Barabas is one in which Shakespeare's creative misreading of his precursor Marlowe has triumphed wholly. Shakespeare is a unique case in which the forerunner is invariably dwarfed. Richard III manifests an anxiety of influence in regard to The Jew of Malta and With the advent of Tamburlaine , but Shakespeare was still finding his way. With IV, Part One the finding was complete, and Marlowe Falstaff in Henry IV, became only the way not to go, on the stage as in life. [...] I feel quite alone these days in defending the autonomy of the aesthetic, but its best defense is the experience of reading King Lear and
for Heming Hemingway way,, Hen Henry ry James James for Fitzge Fitzgeral rald, d, He Faulkner. Something of the same cunning appears in T of Whitman and Tennyson, and Ezra Pound's blend Browning, as again in Hart Crane's deflection of Elio toward Whitman. Strong writers do not choose their p they they are are chosen chosen for them, them, but they have the wit forerunners into composite and therefore partly imagina Canon is primarily Sign up to vote onmanifested this title as the anxiety forms forms and malfor malforms ms each each new write writerr that that asp Not useful isUseful language; Literature not merely it is also the will motive for metaphor that Nietzsche once defined as different, the desire to be elsewhere. This partly mean from oneself but primarily I think, to be different different
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader every gate at every university, so that each student might ponder the splendor of the insight. [...] Cultural criticism is another dismal social science, but literary criticism, as an art, always was and always will be an elitist phenomenon. It was a mistake to believe that literary criticism could become a basis for democratic education or for societal improvement. When our English and other other litera literatur turee depart departmen ments ts shrink shrink to the dimens dimension ionss of our curren currentt Classics departments, ceding their grosser functions to the legions of Cultural Studies, we will perhaps be able to return to the study of the inescapable, to Shakespeare and his few peers, who after all, invented all of us. [...] What interests me is the flight from the aesthetic among so many in my profession, some of whom at least began with the ability to experience
‘the most intense consciousness that he is a distribu indeed of immortality immortality’, ’, a consciousne consciousness ss that Curtius l Lati Latinn poet poetss of Fran France ce as earl earlyy as 1100. 1100. But But consciousness was linked to the idea of a secular cano the hero hero being being celebr celebrate atedd but the celebr celebrati ation on its immort immortal. al. The secula secularr canon, canon, with with the word mea approv approved ed author authors, s, does does not actual actually ly begin begin until until eight eightee eent nth h cent ce ntur ury y , duri du ring ng the th e lite li tera rary ry peri peri Sign up to vote on this title Sentimentality, and the Sublime. The Odes of William Useful Not useful canon Milton Sublime through and are among the e English written to propound a secular tradition of canon One illuminating theory of canon is pres Fowler in his Kinds of Literature (1982). In a chapter o
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader Aesth Aestheti eticc value value is by defini definitio tionn engend engendere eredd by an intera interacti ction on between artists, an influencing that is always an interpretation. The freedom to be an artist, or a critic, necessarily rises out of social conflict. But the source or origin of the freedom to perceive, while hardly irrelevant to aesthetic value, is not identical with it. There is always guilt in achieved individuality; it is a version of the guilt of being a survivor and is not productive of aesthetic value. [...] The openers-up of the Canon and the traditionalists do not disagree much on where the supremacy is to be found: in Shakespeare. Shakespeare is the secular canon, or even the secular scripture; forerunners and legatees alike are defined by him alone for canonical purposes. This is the dilemma that confronts partisans of resentment: either they must deny Shakespeare's unique eminence eminence (a painful painful and difficult difficult matter) matter) or they must show why
Jonson, for that arbitrary role. Or if history and not exalted Shakespeare, what was it in Shakespeare that mighty Demiurge, economic and social history? Cl inquiry begins to border on the fantastic; how much sim ther theree is a qualitative differ differenc ence, e, a differ differenc encee Shakespear Shakespearee and every other writer, writer, even Chauc whoeve who everr. Origi Original nality ity is the great great scanda scandall that that accommodate, and Shakespeare remains the most origi Sign up to vote on this title ever know. [...] Not useful We Useful possess theCanon because we are morta belated. There is only so much time, and time must there is more to read than there ever was before. From Hom to Freud, Freud, Kafka and Beckett Beckett is jou
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader Baudelaire (and Erich Auerbach after him) called ‘aesthetic dignity’. One of the ineluctable stigmata of the canonical is aesthetic dignity, which is not to be hired. [...] Plato hoped that by banishing the poet, he would also banish the tyrant. Banishing Shakespeare, or rather reducing him to his contexts, will not rid us of our our tyra tyrants nts.. In any any case case,, we cann cannot ot rid rid ours oursel elve vess of Shakespeare, or of the Canon that he centers. Shakespearean as we like to forget forget,, largel largelyy invent invented ed us; if you add the rest of the Canon, Canon, then then Shak Shakes espe pear aree and and the the Cano Canonn whol wholly ly inve invent nted ed us. us. Emer Emerso son, n, in Representative Men, got this exactly right: ‘Shakespeare is as much out of the the cate categor goryy of emin eminen entt auth author ors, s, as he is out out of the the crow crowd. d. He is inconceivably wise; the others, conceivably. A good reader can, in a sort, nestle into Plato's brain, and think from thence; but not into Shakespeare's.
Does literature have a social function? I am very unhappy with current attempts throughout the Western world by a group I have called ‘the school put arts, and literature in particular, particular, in the service of utility of literature is to teach us not how to talk to other to ourselves.And the function of the critic is to make o the sorrows and of the very occasional and rather perilo it meansSign to beup condemned to talk oneself. A proper us to vote on thistotitle and Dante and and Tolstoy Tolstoy and Cervantes and the other Useful highest order is to teach us Not both useful to fill out and to temper tempe with ourselves. What does this ‘school of resentment’ resent? resent? Lit tur The t diffic difficult ult And I
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader interested in various articles on the compost heap of so-called so-called popular culture culture than in Proust or Shakespeare Shakespeare or Tolsto Tolstoy. y. I am aware that I am fighting a rear-guard action, and that that the war is over and we have lost. What will replace the canon? Partly Partly the staples of popular culture, culture, and partly partly,, to use that dreadful dreadful phrase, ‘politicaly correct’ works. A dear friend who teaches English at the University of Chicago told me with great gusto how she had led led the fight to replace replace the stories of Ernest Hemingway Hemingway with the works of the Chican Chicano-A o-Amer merica icann write writerr Gary Gary Soto Soto in her introd introduct uctory ory course course on literatur literature. e. Now Hemingway Hemingway,, at his very best, is just about as good as Chekhov or Joyce - that is to say, about as good as a short-story writer can can be. While Gary Soto couldn’t write his way out of a paper bag. When I told her this, she replied that she and I could go home and read whatever
incons inconsist istenc encyy, or even even a curiou curiouss parado paradox. x. Toug atheism usually tends to be an emotional given rather system. But if mere inconsistency is no bar to dogma lite litera rary ry theo theory ry,, one migh mightt hop hopee none noneth thel eles esss fo agnosticism if it could be shown that the doctrine of cog based on premises that are empirically empirically wrong. I. The metaphor of perspective Sign up to vote on this title
Useful the Not useful changing Words concerning appearances of an o seen from different points in space, came to the lexica in modern European languages. Perspective-words are n the lexicon of ancient Greece and Rome. The Orient wa
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader that one’s own sense of reality is distorted by one’s spiritual location, on the analogy of monocular vision, required the Copernican revolution of the Kantian philosophy. But the implied relativism in that analogue is a supreme irony, since the purpose of the critical philosophy was to defend the validity and universality of knowledge, not its dependence on a spiritual perspective. It is not only an irony, it is a total vulgarization of the great Kantian insight. This chapter is a sketch of some of these vulgarizations in the domain of hermeneutic theory, and an argument against their uncritical and facile application. II. The perspective of history: three relativistic fallacies
partly accurate for modern historicism (or cultural uncritical forms. Literary history often stresses the i period without placing a correspondent stress indivi individua dualit lities ies within within a period period.. And this is odd understand the sameness of individuals within a period perceive sameness among individuals across different p is hims himsel elff an hist histor oria ian, n, a dist distin ingui guish shed ed one, one, literary h inconsistency. History of any sort, including Sign up to vote on this title would be impossible on the assumption that man’s pe useful inUseful itNot radically history; and would be empty if it assu nature nature remain remained ed everyw everywher heree the same. same. Unc Uncrit ritica ica direction deserves to be called a fallacy. It is not, of fallacy, fallacy, only an offence against experience and common
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader as in the case of Snell, who seems to assert that all the Greeks of Homer’s day lacked lacked a concep conceptt of a unifie unifiedd human human self. self. Und Under er this this falla fallacy cy,, everybody who composed texts in the Elizabethan age, or the Romantic Age, or the Periclean Age shared in each case a common perspective imposed by their shared culture. Literary historians who write on this premise are content to apply it in the following following sort of syllogism: Medieval Man believed in alchemy. alchemy. Chaucer was a Medieval Man. Chaucer believed in alchemy. alchemy. […] Finally my third historicistic fallacy. It is the one I wish chiefly to expose. It now lurks behind many a critical bush. It is the fallacy of the homogeneous present-day perspective. Only by accepting this additional fallacy, for example, can Gadamer offer an alternative to Snell. For when
another is not to deny that a man can understand perspective very different from his own. Vico’ elaborated by Dilthey98, was that men share a commo other than they are99. The distance between one culture not in every instance be bridgeable, but the same is true who inhabit the same culture. Cultural perspectivism, been attacking, forgets that the distance between between one his the huge another is a very small step in comparison to Sign up to vote on this title we must leap to understand the perspective of another p Useful Not useful or place. III. What is an approach?
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader whom was drawn to one of the groups that had formed around Plato or Heraclitus or Archimedes. Wandering back and forth among the groups were other thinkers who tried to mediate between them, but without success. In fact, the groups only moved farther and farther apart, until they could communicate only among themselves. The thinkers had become isolated in their separate approaches to reality. Then Dilthey awoke from his dream, which he interpreted as follows: No man can see any reality steadily and see it whole. Each approach is partial and incommensurate with other approaches. ‘To contemplate all the aspects in their totality is denied denied to us’ 100. But But in his his waki waking ng stat statee ther theree was was for for Dilt Dilthe heyy a consolation: each approach may be partial and confined, but each does disclose its own particular element f truth. The history of literary criticism and scholarship yields its own version of
correctness with the presumably meaningful criterion of But what, after all, is a perspective? The metaphor is s while the matter at hand is neither. If we were require abandon the metaphor in favour of more descriptive te forced forced to the realiz realizati ation on that that the visual visual metaph metaph Copernican revolution in philosophy. Perspectivism i Kantian insight that man’s experience is preaccomodate of experience. Thetocontribution to title modern thought of D Sign up vote on this was in extending the Kantian insight beyond the ab Useful Not matics useful realms realms of science scien ce andmathematic mathe s into their riche domains of cultural experience. Conscious of his deb concei conceived ved his theore theoretic tical al work work on interp interpret retati ation on program which he called the ‘Critique ‘Critique of Historical Rea
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Contemporary Critical Theories. A Reader culturally conditioned categorial systems. It is within the capacity of every individual to imagine himself other than he is, to realize in himself another human or cultural possibility. […] The skeptical perspectivist does better, therefore, if he retreats to the more more adequat adequatee premis premises es of the Kanti Kantian an argum argument ent.. This This is his most most powerful line of defense, and from it he can argue quite correctly that my building can be quite different from my friend’s friend’s even if we trade places and view it from a an identical physical perspective. My building is not a mere physical given but an object constituted by my own special categorial system. By the same token, every interpretation of verbal meaning is consti constitut tuted ed by the catego categorie riess throug throughh which which it is constr construed ued.. Yet, for everyone who looks at it, a building stands there as an object of some sort. Verbal meanin is not an object like that. As a constructio constructio from a mute
formulated. Of course, as some critics insist, the read self-imagining author. But a text cannot be interpreted different from the original author’s. meaning is und perspective that lends existence to the meaning. Any not interpretation but authorship. Every act of interpretation involves, therefore, at least that that of the author author and that that of the interpre interpreter ter.. The vision. entertained both at once, as in normal binocular Sign up to vote on this title extraordin extraordinary ary or illusory illusory fear, fear, this entertaini entertaining ng of useful once is theUseful ground of all Not human intercourse, and a speech which the linguists have called the ‘doubling o When we speak or interpret speech, we are never tra matrix of spiritual categories; we are never merely lis
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