Public administration in charac character; ter; one of the various various proposal proposalss for for public public administration’s sub-fields sets out six pillars, including human resources, resources, organizational theory, theory, policy analysis and statistics and statistics,, budgeting budgeting,, and ethics and ethics..[9]
1
Defin Definiitio tions
Public administration is both an academic discipline and a field of practice; the latter is depicted in this picture of US federal public servants at a meeting.
is the the impl implem emen enta tati tion on of government policy and policy and also an academic discipline that studies this implementation and prepares civil servants for working in the public service. [1] As a “field of inquiry with with a dive diverse rse scope” scope” its “funda “fundame menta ntall goal.. goal.... is to advance management and policies so that government can function.” function.”[2] Some of the various definitions which have been offered for the term are: “the management of public programs";[3] the “translation of politics of politics into into the [4] reality that citizens that citizens see see every day"; and “the study of government government decision making, the analysis the analysis of the policies themse themselv lves, es, the vario various us inputs inputs that that have have produ produce cedd them, and the inputs necessary to produce alternative policies.” [5] Public Public administ administrati ration on
Even in the digital age, public servants tend to work with both paper documents and computer files (pictured here is Stephen C. Dunn, Deputy Comptroller for the US Navy)
Public administration is “centrally concerned with the organization of government policies and programmes as well as the behavior of officials (usually non-elected) formally responsible for their conduct” [6] Many unelected public servants can servants can be considered to be public administrators, including heads of city, county, regional, state and federal departments such as municipal municipal budget directors, human tors, human resources (H.R.) resources (H.R.) administrators, city managers,, census managers, state ment agers mental al hea health lth directors, and [4] cabinet secretaries. secretaries . Public administrators are public servants working servants working in public departments and agencies, at all levels of government.
In 1947 Paul 1947 Paul H. Appleby defined Appleby defined public administration as “public leadership of public affairs directly responsible for executiv executivee action”. In a democracy, it has to do with such leadership and executive action in terms that respect and contribute to the dignity, the worth, and the potentials of the citizen. [10] One year later, Gordon Clapp, then Chairm Chairman an of the Tenne Tennessee ssee Vall Valley ey Authority defined defined public administration “as a public instrument whereby democratic craticsoc socie iety ty may may be more more compl complete etely ly reali realized zed.” .” This This implies that it must “relate itself to concepts of justice, liberty, and fuller fuller economic opportunity for human beings” and is thus “concerned with “people, with ideas, and with things.”[11] According to James D. Carroll & Alfred M. Zuck, the publication publication by “Woodrow Wilson of his essay, " The Study of Administration” in 1887 is generally regarded as the beginning of public administration administration as a spe[12] cific field of study”.
In the US, civil servants and academics such as Woodrow Wilson promoted Wilson promoted American civil service reform in the 1880s, moving public administration into academia. academia.[7] However, “until the mid-20th century and the dissemination of the German sociologist Max sociologist Max Weber's Weber's theory of bureaucracy” bureaucracy” there was not “much interest in a theory of public administration.” [8] The field is multidisciplinary is multidisciplinary
Drawing on the democracy theme and discarding the link to the executive branch, Patricia M. Shields asserts Shields asserts that public public administr administratio ationn “deals “deals with the steward stewardshi shipp and implementation of the products of a living democracy.” [13] The key term “product” refers to “those items that are constructed or produced” such as prisons, roads, laws, schools schools,, and security. security. “As implement implementors, ors, public public man1
2
2
HISTORY
agers engage these products.” They participate in the doing and making of the “living” democracy. A living democracy is “an environment that is changing, organic”, imperfect, inconsistent and teaming with values. “Stewardship is emphasized because public administration is concerned “with accountability and effective use of scarce resources and ultimately making the connection between the doing, the making and democratic values.” [14]
tions was rife with nepotism, favoritism, and political patronage, which was often referred to as a " spoils system". Public administrators have been the “eyes and ears” of rulers untilrelatively recently. In medieval times, the abilities to read and write, add and subtract were as dominated by the educated elite as public employment. Consequently, the need for expert civil servants whose ability to read and write formed the basis for developing expertise in such necessary activities as legal record-keeping, More recently scholars claim that “public administration paying and feeding armies and levying taxes. As the Euhas no generally accepted definition”, because the “scope ropean Imperialist age progressed and the militarily powof the subject is so great and so debatable that it is eas- ers extended their hold over other continents and people, ier to explain than define”. [15] Public administration is the need for a sophisticated public administration grew. a field of study (i.e., a discipline) and an occupation. The eighteenth-century noble, King Frederick William I There is much disagreement about whether the study of of Prussia, created professorates in Cameralism in an efpublic administration can properly be called a discipline, fort to train a new class of public administrators. The largely because of the debate over whether public ad- universities of Frankfurt an der Oder and University of ministration is a subfield of political science or a sub- Halle were Prussian institutions emphasizing economic field of administrative science", the latter an outgrowth of and social disciplines, with the goal of societal reform. its roots in policy analysis and evaluation research. [15][16] Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi was the most well-known Scholar Donald Kettl is among those who view public ad- professor of Cameralism. Thus, from a Western Euroministration “as a subfield within political science”. [17] pean perspective, Classic, Medieval, and EnlightenmentThe North American Industry Classification System def- era scholars formed the foundation of the discipline that inition of the Public Administration (NAICS 91) sector has come to be called public administration. states that public administration "... comprises establishments primarily engaged in activities of a governmental nature, that is, the enactment and judicial interpretation of laws and their pursuant regulations, and the administration of programs based on them”. This includes “Legislative activities, taxation, national defense, public order and safety, immigration services, foreign affairs and international assistance, and the administration of government programs are activities that are purely governmental in nature”.[18]
Lorenz von Stein, an 1855 German professor from Vienna, is considered the founder of the science of public administration in many parts of the world. In the time of Von Stein, public administration was considered a form of administrative law, but Von Stein believed this concept too restrictive. Von Stein taught that public administration relies on many prestablished disciplines such as sociology, political science, administrative law and public finance. He called public administration an integrating science, and stated that public administrators should be From the academic perspective, the National Center for concerned with both theory and practice. He argued Education Statistics (NCES) in the United States defines that public administration is a science because knowlthestudy of public administration as “A program that pre- edge is generated and evaluated according to the scientific pares individuals to serve as managers in the executive method. arm of local, state, and federal government and that fo- Modern American public administration is an extension cuses on the systematic study of executive organization of democratic governance, justified by classic and liberal and management. Includes instruction in the roles, de- philosophers of the western world ranging from Aristotle velopment, and principles of public administration; the to John Locke[20] to Thomas Jefferson.[21][22] management of public policy; executive-legislative rela- Inthe United States of America, Woodrow Wilson is contions; public budgetary processes and financial manage- sidered the father of public administration. He first forment; administrative law; public personnel management; mally recognized public administration in an 1887 article professional ethics; and research methods.” [19] entitled “The Study of Administration.” The future pres-
2 2.1
History Antiquity to the 19th century
Dating back to Antiquity, Pharaohs, kings and emperors have required pages, treasurers, and tax collectors to administer the practical business of government. Prior to the 19th century, staffing of most public administra-
ident wrote that “it is the object of administrative study to discover, first, what government can properly and successfully do, and, secondly, how it can do these proper things with the utmost possible efficiency and at the least possible cost either of moneyor of energy.”[7] Wilson was more influential to the science of public administration than Von Stein, primarily due to an article Wilson wrote in 1887 in which he advocated four concepts: •
Separation of politics and administration
2.2
3
US in the 1940s
ples, and/or Taylorism. Taylor’s scientific management consisted of main four principles (Frederick W. Taylor, 1911): •
•
•
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Woodrow Wilson
•
•
•
Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks. Scientifically select, train, and develop each employee rather than passively leaving them to train themselves. Provide 'Detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the performance of that worker’s discrete task' (Montgomery 1997: 250). Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks.
Taylor had very precise ideas about how to introduce his system (approach): 'It is only through enforced standardization of methods, enforced adoption of the best implements and working conditions, and enforced cooperation that this faster work can be assured. And the duty of enforcing the adoption of standards and enforcing this cooperation rests with management alone.' [24]
The American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) Comparative analysis of political and private orga- the leading professional group for public administration nizations was founded in 1939. ASPA sponsors the journal Public [25] Improving efficiency with business-like practices Administration Review, which was founded in 1940. and attitudes toward daily operations Improving the effectiveness of public service 2.2 through management and by training civil servants, merit-based assessment
US in the 1940s
Theseparation of politics andadministration hasbeen the subject of lasting debate. The different perspectives regarding this dichotomy contribute to differentiating characteristics of the suggested generations of public administration. By the 1920s, scholars of public administration had responded to Wilson’s solicitation and thus textbooks in this field were introduced. A few distinguished scholars of that period were, Luther Gulick, Lyndall Urwick, Henri Fayol, Frederick Taylor, and others. Frederick Taylor (1856-1915), another prominent scholar in the field of administration and management also published a book entitled 'The Principles of Scientific Management' (1911). He believed that scientific analysis would lead to the discovery of the 'one best way' to do things and /or carrying out an operation. This, according to him could help save cost and time. Taylor’s technique was later introduced to private industrialists, and later into the various government organizations (Jeong, 2007).[23] Taylor’s approach is often referred to as Taylor’s Princi-
Luther Gulick (1892–1993) was an expert on public administration.
4
2
HISTORY
The separation of politics and administration advocated by Wilson continues to play a significant role in public administration today. However, the dominance of this dichotomy was challenged by second generation scholars, beginning in the 1940s. Luther Gulick's fact-value dichotomy was a key contender for Wilson’s proposed politics-administration dichotomy. In place of Wilson’s first generation split, Gulick advocated a “seamless web of discretion and interaction”.[26] Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick are two secondgeneration scholars. Gulick, Urwick, and the new generation of administrators built on the work of contemporary behavioral, administrative, and organizational schol- The costly Vietnam War alienated US citizens from their governars including Henri Fayol, Fredrick Winslow Taylor, Paul ment (pictured is Operation Arc Light , a US bombing operation) Appleby, Frank Goodnow, and Willam Willoughby. The new generation of organizational theories no longer relied upon logical assumptions and generalizations about chaired by University of Chicago professor Louis Brownlow, to examine reorganization of government. Brownhuman nature like classical and enlightened theorists. low subsequently founded the Public Administration SerGulick developed a comprehensive, generic theory of or- vice (PAS) at the university, an organization which has ganization that emphasized the scientific method, effi- provided consulting services to all levels of government ciency, professionalism, structural reform, and executive until the 1970s. control. Gulick summarized the duties of administrators with an acronym; POSDCORB, which stands for Concurrently, after World War II, the whole concept of planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, re- public administration expanded to include policy-making porting, and budgeting. Fayol developed a systematic, and analysis, thus the study of 'administrative policy mak14-point, treatment of private management. Second- ing and analysis’ was introduced and enhanced into the generation theorists drew upon private management prac- government decision-making bodies. Later on, the hutices for administrative sciences. A single, generic man- man factor became a predominant concern and emphaagement theory bleeding the borders between the private sis in the study of Public Administration. This period and the public sector was thought to be possible. With witnessed the development and inclusion of other social the general theory, the administrative theory could be sciences knowledge, predominantly, psychology, anthrofocused on governmental organizations.The mid-1940s pology, and sociology, into the study of public adminis[23] theorists challenged Wilson and Gulick. The politics- tration (Jeong, 2007). Henceforth, the emergence of administration dichotomy remained the center of criti- scholars such as, Fritz Morstein Marx with his book 'The Elements of Public Administration' (1946), Paul H. Apcism. pleby 'Policy and Administration' (1952), Frank Marini 'Towards a New Public Administration' (1971), and others that have contributed positively in these endeavors. 2.2.1 1950s to the 1970s During the 1950s, the United States experienced prolonged prosperity and solidified its place as a world leader. Public Administration experienced a kind of heyday due to the successful war effort and successful post war reconstruction in Western Europe and Japan. Government was popular as was President Eisenhower. In the 1960s and 1970s, government itself came under fire as ineffective, inefficient, and largely a wasted effort. The costly American intervention in Vietnam along with domestic scandals including the bugging of Democratic party headquarters (the 1974 Watergate scandal) are two examples of self-destructive government behavior that alienated citizens.
2.3
1980s–1990s
In the late 1980s, yet another generation of public administration theorists began to displace the last. The new theory, which came to be called New Public Management, was proposed by David Osborne and Ted Gaebler in their book Reinventing Government .[27] The new model advocated the use of private sector-style models, organizational ideas and values to improve the efficiency and service-orientation of the public sector. During the Clinton Administration (1993–2001), Vice President Al Gore adopted and reformed federal agencies using NPM approaches. In the 1990s, new public management beThere was a call by citizens for efficient administration came prevalent throughout the bureaucracies of the US, to replace ineffective, wasteful bureaucracy. Public ad- the UK and, to a lesser extent, in Canada. The origiministration would have to distance itself from politics nal public management theories have roots attributed to to answer this call and remain effective. Elected offi- policy analysis, according to Richard Elmore in his 1986 cials supported these reforms. The Hoover Commission, article published in the “Journal of Policy Analysis and
5 Management”. [28]
erally not the province of public administration) in recent Some modern authors define NPM as a combination years, believing that they are in opposition to genericpubof splitting large bureaucracies into smaller, more frag- lic policy (termed ecological theory, of the late Urie Bromented agencies, encouraging competition between dif- fenbrenner). ferent public agencies, and encouraging competition be- Increasingly, public policy academics and practitioners tween public agencies and private firms and using eco- have utilized the theoretical concepts of political econnomic incentives lines (e.g., performance pay for senior omy to explain policy outcomes such as the success or executives or user-pay models).[29] NPM treats individ- failure of reform efforts and/or the persistence of subuals as “customers” or “clients” (in the private sector optimal outcomes.[36] sense), rather than as citizens. [30] Some critics argue that the New Public Management concept of treating people as “customers” rather than “citi- 3 Approaches zens” is an inappropriate borrowing from the private sector model, because businesses see customers as a means Public good and common good approaches to an end (profit), rather than as the proprietors of government (the owners), opposed to merely the customers Public management approach of a business (the patrons). In New Public Management, people are viewed as economic units not demo Public administration approach cratic participants which is the hazard of linking a MBA (business administration, economic and employer-based Public contracting and provision approach model) too closely with the public administration (governmental, public good) sector. Nevertheless, the model Public choice approach (one of 4 described by Elmore in 1986, including the “generic model”) is still widely accepted at all levels of Community services administration (US and global) government and in many OECD nations. •
•
•
•
•
•
In the late 1990s, Janet and Robert Denhardt proposed a new public services model in response to the dominance __________________________________________________________ of NPM.[31] A successor to NPM is digital era governance, focusing on themes of reintegrating government Systems approach responsibilities, needs-based holism (executing duties in cursive ways), and digitalization (exploiting the transfor Ecological approach mational capabilities of modern IT and digital storage). One example of this is openforum.com.au, an Australian Contingency approach non-for-profit eDemocracy project which invites politicians, senior public servants, academics, business people Behavioural approach and other key stakeholders to engage in high-level policy debate. Participatory/democratic approach Another new public service model is what has been called Competency/functional approach New Public Governance, an approach which includes a centralization of power; an increased number, roleand influence of partisan-political staff; personal-politicization __________________________________________________________ of appointments to the senior public service; and, the assumptionthat the publicservice is promiscuously partisan Business or market systems approach for the government of the day.[32] •
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In the mid-1980s, the goal of community programs in the US was often represented by terms such as independent living, community integration, inclusion, community participation, deinstitutionalization, and civil rights. Thus, the same public policy (and public administration) was to apply to all citizens, inclusive of disability. However, by the 1990s, categorical state systems were strengthened in the US (Racino, in press, 2014), and efforts were made to introduce more disability content into the public policy curricula[33] with disability public policy (and administration) distinct fields in their own right. [34][35] Behaviorists have also dominated “intervention practice” (gen-
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Social sciences research approach
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Statistical and engineering approach
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Feminist or gender studies approach
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Disability public policy approach
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Universal vs person-centred approaches
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Family studies, theories and community development
6
6
4
Core branches
In academia, the field of public administration consists of a number of sub-fields. Scholars have proposed a number of different sets of sub-fields. One of the proposed models uses five “pillars": [9] •
•
•
Organizational theory in public administration is the study of the structure of governmental entities and the many particulars inculcated in them. Ethics in public administration serves as a normative approach to decision making.
ACADEMIC FIELD
model". He claimed that rational bureaucrats will universally seek to increase the budgets of their units (to enhance their stature), thereby contributing to state growth and increased public expenditure. Niskanen served on President Reagan’s Council of Economic Advisors; his model underpinned what has been touted as curtailed public spending and increased privatization. However, budgeted expenditures and the growing deficit during the Reagan administration is evidence of a different reality. A range of pluralist authors have critiqued Niskanen’s universalist approach. These scholars have argued that officials tend also to be motivated by considerations of the public interest.
Policy analysis serves as an empirical approach to 5.2 decision making.
Dunleavy’s bureau-shaping
Public budgeting is the activity within a government The bureau-shaping model, a modification of Niskanen, that seeks to allocate scarce resources among unlim- holds that rational bureaucrats only maximize the part of their budget that they spend on their own agency’s operited demands. ations or give to contractors and interest groups. Groups Human resource management is an in-house struc- that are able to organize a “flowback” of benefits to seture that ensures that public service staffing is done nior officials would, according to this theory, receive inin an unbiased, ethical and values-based manner. creased budgetary attention. For instance, rational offiThe basic functions of the HR system are employee cials will get no benefit from paying out larger welfare benefits, employee health care, compensation, and checks to millions of low-income citizens because this many more (e.g., human rights, Americans with does not serve a bureaucrats’ goals. Accordingly, one Disabilities Act). [The Executives managing the HR might instead expect a jurisdiction to seek budget inDirector and other key Departmental personnel is creases for defense and security purposes in place programming. If we refer back to Reagan once again, Dunalso the subject of Public Administration.] leavy’s bureau shaping model accounts for the alleged decrease in the “size” of government while spending did Public Administration also has responsibility for core not, in fact, decrease. Domestic entitlement programcontent areas in the university sector which have tradi- ming was financially de-emphasized for military research tionally included: Housing and community development, and personnel. family studies at health and human services, labor and employment organizations, recreation, tourism and economic development, transportation systems, administrative law for areas such as public utilities, Personnel sys- 6 Academic field tems and workforces, non-profit sector and development, new IT technological developments, and the triparte of See also: Master of Public Administration and Doctor government (legislative, Executive, judicial). of Public Administration •
•
5
Decision-making models
Given the array of duties public administrators find themselves performing, the professional administrator might refer to a theoretical framework from which he or she might work. Indeed, many public and private administrative scholars have devised and modified decision-making models. 5.1
Niskanen’s budget-maximizing
In the United States, the academic field of public administration draws heavily on political science and administrative law. Some MPA programs include economics courses to give students a background in microeconomic issues (markets, rationing mechanisms, etc.) and macroeconomic issues (e.g., national debt). Scholars such as John A. Rohr write of a long history behind the constitutional legitimacy of government bureaucracy. In Europe (notably in Britain and Germany), the divergence of the field from other disciplines can be traced to the 1720s continental university curriculum. Formally, official academic distinctions were made in the 1910s and 1890s, respectively.
In 1971, Professor William Niskanen proposed a rational The goals of the field of public administration are rechoice variation which he called the "budget-maximizing lated to the democratic values of improving equality,
6.2
7
Master’s degrees
justice, security, efficiency, effectiveness of public services usually in a non-profit, non-taxable venue; business administration, on the other hand, is primarily concerned with taxable profit. For a field built on concepts (accountability, governance, decentralization, clientele), these concepts are often ill-defined and typologies often ignore certain aspects of these concepts (Dubois & Fattore 2009).[37]
ative public administration, including: the major differences between Western countries and developing countries; the lack of curriculum on this subfield in public administration programs; and the lack of success in developing theoretical models which can be scientifically tested.[40] The Comparative Administration grouphas defined CPA as, “the of publicadministration applied to diverse cultures and national setting and the body of factual data, by which it can be examined and tested.” Accordingly to Jong S. Jun, “CPA has been predominantly cross-cultural and cross-national in orientation.” Due to the organization of governments in the US, comparative studies of state governments and practices also are considered central not simply local or national. [41][42]
One minor tradition that the more specific term " public management" refers to ordinary, routine or typical management concerns, in the context of achieving public good. Others argue that “public management” refers to a newer, market-driven perspective on the operation of government. This latter view is often called " new public management" by its advocates. New Public Management represents a reform attempt, aimed at reemphasizing the 6.2 professional nature of the field. This will replace the academic, moral or disciplinary emphasis. Some theorists advocate a bright line differentiation of the professional field from related academic disciplines like political science and sociology; it remains interdisciplinary in nature.
Master’s degrees
One public administration scholar, Donald Kettl, argues that "...public administration sits in a disciplinary backwater”, because "...[f]or the last generation, scholars have sought to save or replace it with fields of study like implementation, public management, and formal bureaucratic theory”.[17] Kettl states that “public administration, as a subfield within political science...is struggling to define its role within the discipline”.[17] He notes two problems with public administration: it “has seemed methodologically to lag behind” and “the field’s theoretical work The Knapp-Sanders Building, the home of the School of Governtoo often seems not to define it"-indeed, “some of the ment at the University of North Carolina. most interesting recent ideas in public administration Some public administration programs have similarities to have come from outside the field”. [17] business administration programs, in cases where the stuPublic administration theory is the domain in which disdents from both the MPA and MBA programs take many cussions of the meaning and purpose of government, of the same courses . [In 2014, this similarity is due in the role of bureaucracy in supporting democratic gov- part to 7 times federal contracts over the number of federnments, budgets, governance, and public affairs takes eral employees in government.] In some programs, the place. In recent years, public administration theory has MPA (or MAPA) is more clearly distinct from the MBA, periodically connoted a heavy orientation toward critical in that the MPA often emphasizes substantially different theory and postmodern philosophical notions of govern- ethical and sociological criteria that are traditionally secment, governance, and power. However, many public ad- ondary to that of profit for business administrators. ministration scholars support a classic definition of the term emphasizing constitutionality, public service, bu- The MPA is related to similar graduate level governreaucratic forms of organization, and hierarchical gov- ment studies programs including MA programs in public affairs, public policy, and political science. Differernment. ences often include program emphases on policy analysis techniques or other topical focuses such as the study of international affairs as opposed to focuses on constitu6.1 Comparative public administration tional issues such as separation of powers, administrative Comparative public administration is defined as the study law, contracting with government, problems of goverof administrative systems in a comparative fashion or the nance and power, and participatory democracy. study of public administration in other countries. [38][39] Another definition for “comparative public administration” is the “quest for patterns and regularities in administrative action and behavior”.[38] There have been several issues which have hampered the development of compar-
A unique mid-career Master’s Program (e.g., Maxwell Mid-Career Program at Syracuse University began by Robert Iversen in the 1970s) may be offered to assist existing Public Managers or Community Managers to advance in their knowledge and careers, while continuing
8
8
PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
full-time employment. Community programs may be site Administration (LAGPA) and the Asian Group for Pubof internships, and continuing education credits which lic Administration (AGPA). can be used by managers and staff members. IASIA is an association of organizations and individuals whose activities and interests focus on public administration and management. The activities of its members in6.3 Doctoral degrees clude education and training of administrators and manThere are two types of doctoral degrees in public ad- agers. It is the only worldwide scholarly association in the ministration: the Doctor of Public Administration and field of public management. EGPA, LAGPA and AGPA the Ph.D. in Public Administration. The Doctor of Pub- are the regional sub-entities of the IIAS. lic Administration (DPA) is an applied-research doctoral degree in the field of public administration, focusing on practice. The DPA requires a dissertation and significant coursework beyond the Masters level. Upon successful completion of the doctoral requirements, the title of “Doctor” is awarded and the post-nominals of D.P.A. are often added. Some universities use the Ph.D. as their doctoral degree in public administration (e.g., Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada).
Also the International Committee of the US-based Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA) has developed a number of relationships around the world. They include sub regional and National forums like CLAD, INPAE and NISPAcee, APSA, ASPA. [43]
The Center for Latin American Administration for Development (CLAD), basedin Caracas, Venezuela, this regional network of schools of public administration set up by the governments in Latin America is the oldest in the region.[44] The Institute is a founding member and played 6.4 Notable scholars a central role in organizing the Inter-American Network Main article: List of notable public administration of Public Administration Education (INPAE). Created in 2000, this regional network of schools is unique in that it scholars is the only organization to be composed of institutions from North and Latin America and the Caribbean workNotable scholars of public administration have come ing in public administration and policy analysis. It has from a range of fields. In the period before public admin- more than 49 members from top research schools in varistration existed as its own independent discipline, schol- ious countries throughout the hemisphere.[45] ars contributing to the field came from economics, sociology, management, political science, administrative law, NISPAcee is a network of experts, scholars and practiand, other related fields. More recently, scholars from tioners who work in the field of public administration in Fedpublic administration and public policy have contributed Central and Eastern Europe, including the Russian [46] eration and the Caucasus and Central Asia. The US important studies and theories. public administration and political science associations like NASPAA, American Political Science Association (APSA)[47] and American Society of Public Administra7 International public administra- tion (ASPA).[48] These organizations have helped to create the fundamental establishment of modern public adtion ministration. There are several organizations that are active. The Commonwealth Association of Public Administration and Management CAPAM is perhaps the most diverse, covering the 54 member states of the Commonwealth from India to Nauru. Its biennial conference brings together ministers of public service, top officials and leading scholars in the field. The oldest is the International Institute of Administrative Sciences. Based in Brussels, Belgium, the IIAS is a worldwide platform providing a space for exchanges that promote knowledge and practices to improve the organization and operation of Public Administration and to ensure that public agencies will be in a position to better respond to the current and future expectations and needs of society. The IIAS has set up four entities: the International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration (IASIA), the European Group for Public Administration (EGPA), The Latin American Group for Public
8
Public Management
“Public Management” is an approach to government and non-profit administration that resembles private-sector management in some important ways. In particular, the use of management tools appropriate to public and in private domains, tools that maximize efficiency and effectiveness is at issue. A contrast is drawn with the study of public administration, which emphasizes the social and cultural drivers of government that many contend (e.g. Graham T. Allison and Charles Goodsell) makes it different from the private sector. Studying and teaching about public management are widely practiced in developed nations. Such credentials as the Master of Public Administration degree offer training in decision making relevant to the public good using
9 public infrastructure.
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In South Africa, Regenesys Business School through the Regenesys School of Public Management.
The public manager will deal with critical infrastructure that directly and obviously affects quality of life. Trust in public managers, and the large sums spent at their behest, Comparative public management, through government make them subject to many more conflict of interest and performance auditing, examines the efficiency and effectiveness of two or more governments. ethics guidelines in most nations. 8.1
Organizations
Many entities study public management in particular, in various countries, including: •
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In the US, the American Society for Public Administration. Indiana University Bloomington In Canada, the Institute of Public Administration of Canada, the Observatoire de l'Administation publique, and various projects of the Federation of Canadian Municipalities and Infrastructure Canada
9
See also •
Administration (government)
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Administrative law
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Budgeting
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Bureaucracy
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Civil society
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Municipal government
In the Netherlands, The Hague University of Applied Sciences
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Official
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Professional administration
In Australia, the Institute of Public Administration Australia. In France, the École nationale d'administration and the IMPGT, Institute of Public Management and Territorial Governance in Aix-en-Provence, AixMarseille University. In Belgium, the Public Governance Institute, KU Leuven.
•
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Public policy schools
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Theories of administration
In Germany, the German University of Adminis- 9.1 Societies trative Sciences Speyer, the Hertie School of Gov International Institute of Administrative Sciences ernance, the Bachelor and Master of Politics & Public Manangement at the Zeppelin University American Society for Public Administration Friedrichshafen, and the Bachelor and Master of Brazilian National School of Public AdministraPublic Policy & Management and the Executive tion[49] Public Management Master of University of Potsdam. Chinese Public Administration Society In Switzerland, the University of Geneva and the Dutch Association for Public Administration Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration (IDHEAP). Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration In Italy, the SDA Bocconi School of Management, Indian Institute of Public Administration[50] the graduate business school of Bocconi University in Milan, Italy. Korea Institute of Public Administration In Cyprus, the Cyprus International Institute of Philippine Society for Public Administration Management or CIIM. Public Administration Association of Nepal In Ireland, the Institute of Public Administration, Dublin. Royal Institute of Public Administration •
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Public administration theory Public policy
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Doctor of Public Administration
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Max Weber
In the UK, Warwick Business School, the London School of Economics, the UK local democracy project and London Health Observatory.
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Community services administration
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10
10
9.2
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Public Management sources
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re-
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Public Management Review, ISSN: 1471-9045 (electronic) 1471-9037 (paper), Routledge
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Public Works Management & Policy, ISSN: 15527549 (electronic) 1087-724X (paper), SAGE Publications
Suggested reading Dubois, H.F.W. & Fattore, G. (2009), 'Definitions and typologies in public administration research: the case of decentralization', International Journal of Public Administration, 32(8): 704–727. Jeong Chun Hai @Ibrahim, & Nor Fadzlina Nawi. (2007). Principles of Public Administration: An Introduction. Kuala Lumpur: Karisma Publications. ISBN 978-983-195-253-5
White,Jay D. and Guy B. Adams. Research in public administration: reflections on theory and practice.1994.
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Donald Menzel and Harvey White (eds) 2011. The State of Public Administration: Issues, Challenges and Opportunity. New York: M. E. Sharpe.
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Adelmann, R. (1989). The Federal Reserve System: Creature of a triumphant international banking establishment. Bulletin of the Committee to Restore the Constitution, 324, February. Bahro, R. (1986). Building the Green Movement . Philadelphia, PA: New Society Publishers. BBC. (2006). The Trials of Henry Kissinger . BBC Four, 3 April, 1.05-2.25am. May also be an earlier, printed, document. Benton, R. (1986). “Economics and the Loss of Meaning$fr1:$f:*0034-6764/86/1201251/$l.50/0ef:". Review of Social Economy 44 (3): 251–250. doi:10.1080/758516449. Bookchin, M. (1980). Toward an Ecological Society. Montreal, Canada: Black Rose Books.
Bookchin, M. (1992). “A green economy or green economics?". Newsletter of the Committee on the Political Economy of the Good Society 2 (2): 9–10. Bookchin, M. (2006). Ecology of Freedom . Oakland, WV: AK Press. Bruntland Report. (1987). Our Common Future: World Commission on Environment and Development . Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Smith, Kevin B. and Licari, Michael J. Public Administration — Power and Politics in the Fourth Branch of Government , ISBN 1-933220-04-X
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International Journal of Public Sector Management , ISSN: 0951-3558, Emerald Group Publishing
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academic
SUGGESTED READING
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Chomsky, N. (1989). Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies . London: Pluto Press. Chomsky, N. (1993). Year 501: The Conquest Continues . London: Verso. Curtis, M. (2003). The Web of Deceit: Britain’s Real Role in the World . London: Vintage. Day, P., & Klein, R. (1987). Accountabilities: Five Public Services . London: Tavistock Publications. Dean, J. W. (2006). Conservatives Without Conscience. New York: Viking Penguin. Ekins, P. (Ed.). (1986). The Living Economy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Elkin, S. L., & Soltan, K. E. (Eds.). (1999). Citizen Competence and Democratic Institutions . University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press. Emery, F. E. et al. (1974). Futures We're In. Canberra: Australian National University, Centre for Continuing Education. Emery, F. E. (1974). Panning for real but different worlds. In R. L. Ackoff, (Ed.), Systems and Management Annual . New York: Petrocelli. Etzioni, A. (1984). Capital Corruption: The New Attack on American Democracy. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Jovanovitch. Galbraith, J. K. (1991). Political Change, Military Power: The Failed Economic Base . Paper given at IAREP/SASE Conference, (June) in Stockholm, Sweden. George, S. (1988). A Fate Worse Than Debt . London: Penguin Books. Goldsmith, E. (1992). The Way: An Ecological World-View. London: Rider. Grossman, R. L., & Adams, F. T. (1993). Taking Care of Business: Citizenship and the Charter of Incorporation. Cambridge, MA: Charter Inc.
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Hancock, G. (1991). Lords of Poverty: The FreeWheeling Lifestyles, Power, Prestige and Corruption of the Multi-billion Dollar Aid Business . London:
Mandarin.
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“The Tragedy of the Commons”. 1243–1248. ence 162 (3859): doi:10.1126/science.162.3859.1243. 5699198.
Sci-
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1968. PMID
Hayek, F. A. (1948). Individualism and Economic Order . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Henrich, J., Longo, F. & Ysa, T. (Eds.) (2009). “The Top 50 Articles of PUBLIC: Stiglitz, Fukuyama, Mintzberg, Barzelay, Ospina, Rodrik, Pollitt, Heifetz, Hood, Pfeffer, Doig, Kellerman, Nye, et al.”. Barcelona: ESADE. [51] Hogan, R., Raskin, R., & Fazzini, D. (1990). The dark side of charisma. In K. E. Clark and M. B. Clark (Eds.), Measures of Leadership. WestOrange, NJ: Leadership Library of America. Hogan, R. (2006). Personality, Leadership and Opening Keynote Organisational Effectiveness . Speech: Annual Conference of the Division of Occupational Psychology of the British Psychological Society, Glasgow. Inkeles, A., & Smith, D .H. (1974). Becoming Modern. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Institute of Economic Democracy. (1982). The Money Trick . Melbourne, Australia: Heritage; Sudbury, UK: Bloomfield Books.
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Marks, N., Simms, A., Thompson, S., & Abdallah, S. (2006). The (Un)happy Planet Index: An
Ollman, B. (2001). “What is political science? What should it be?". The Good Society 10 (2): 68– 73. Perkins, J. (2006). Confessions of an Economic Hit
Pollitt, C. and G. Bouckaert (2004). Public Management Reform. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford UP. Raven, J. (1994). Managing Education for Effective
Raven, J. (1995). The New Wealth of Nations:
Unionville, New York: Royal Fireworks Press; Sudbury, Suffolk: Bloomfield Books. (Chapters 1 [which summarizes the whole book], 4 [ Some Observations on Money ], and 17 [Summary of Parts I to III and Overview of Part IV: The Way Forward ] are available at www.npsnet.com/cdd/nwn.htm ). •
Riccucci, N. M. (2005). How Management Matters: Street-Level Bureaucrats and Welfare Reform.
Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. •
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Index of Human Well-being and Environmental Im pact . London: New Economics Foundation. Down-
loadable from www.neweconomics.org and www. happyplanetindex.org
Nelson, E. H. (1986). New Values and Attitudes Throughout Europe . Epsom, England: TaylorNelson.
A New Enquiry into the Nature and Origins of the Wealth of Nations and the Societal Learning Arrangements Needed for a Sustainable Society.
Kanter, R. M. (1985). The Change Masters: Cor porate Entrepreneurs at Work . Hemel Hempstead: Unwin Paperbacks.
Lynn, L. E., Jr. (2006). “Public Management: Old and New.” Routledge.
Monbiot, G. (2000). Captive State: The Corporate Takeover of Britain . London: MacMillan.
Press; Oxford, U.K.: OPP Ltd. (now available from the author at 30, Great King Street, Edinburgh EH3 6QH).
Jeong Chun Hai @Ibrahim. (2007). Fundamental of Development Administration. Selangor: Scholar Press. ISBN 978-967-5-04508-0
Lynn, L. E., Jr. (1996). “Public Management as Art, Science, and Profession.” Chatham House, CQ Press.
Mill, J. S. (1859/1962). Representative Government . London: Dent.
Schooling: The Most Important Problem Is to Come to Terms with Values . Unionville, New York: Trillium
Jaques, E. (1989). Requisite Organization . Arlington, VA: Cason Hall and Co.
Lane, R. E. (1991). The Market Experience . New York: Cambridge University Press.
Miller, G. J. (1992). Managerial Dilemmas . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Man: The Shocking Story of How America Really Took Over the World . New York: Ebury Press.
Janicke, M. (1990). State Failure. Cambridge: Polity Press. Jaques, E. (1976). A General Theory of Bureaucracy. London: Heinemann.
Marx, K. (1886/1908). Capital: A Critical Analysis of Capitalist Production . London: Swan Sonnenschein.
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Roberts, A. E. (1984). The Most Secret Science. Fort Collins, CO: Betsy Ross Press. Schacter, Mark (2008). “How Good is Your Government? Assessing the Quality of Public Management” Schon, D. (1971/73). Beyond the Stable State. London: Penguin. Schweizer, P. (1994). Victory. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press.
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NOTES AND REFERENCES
Shah, H., & Marks, N. (2004). A Well-being Man- [11] Clapp, Gordon. 1948. “Public Administration in an Advancing South.” Public Administration Review Vol. 8. no. ifesto for a Flourishing Society . London: New Eco2 pp. 169-175. Clapp attributed part of this definition to nomics Foundation. Charles Beard.
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Smith, A. (1776/1981). The Wealth of Nations . [12] Carroll, J.D. & Zuck, A.M. (1983). “The Study of PubPenguin Books: Harmondsworth, Mddx.
lic Administration Revisited”. A Report of the Centennial Agendas project of the American Society for Public Administration. Washington, DC; American Society for Public Administration.
Triebwasser, M. A. (2000). “The Squelching of the Corporate Connection: The Great American Government Textbook Coverup”. New Political Science 22 (4): 453–484. doi:10.1080/713687967. [13] Shields, Patricia. 1998. “Pragmatism as a Philosophy of Science: A Tool for Public Administration" Research in
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Trainer, F. E. (Ed.). (1990). A rejection of the Public Administration Vol. 4. pp. 195-225. Bruntland Report. International Foundation for the Development of Alternatives Dossier, 77 , May–June, [14] Shields, Patricia. 1998. “Pragmatism as a Philosophy of Science: A Tool for Public Administration" Research in 71-85. Public Administration Vol. 4. pp. 199.
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Verba, S. et al. (1971). Modes of Democratic Participation. Beverley Hills, CA: Sage.
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Yankelovitch, D., Zetterberg, H., Strumpel, B., [16] Haveman, R. H. (1987). Policy analysis and evaluation research after twenty years. “Policy Studies Journal”, 16(1): Shanks, M., et al. (1983). Work and Human Values. 191-218. New York: Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies. [17] Kettl, Donald F. “THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION” (PDF). H-net.org. Retrieved October 25, 2010.
Notes and references
[1] “Random House Unabridged Dictionary”. nary.infoplease.com. Retrieved 2014-08-23.
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[18] “Definition Public Administration (NAICS 91)". Ic.gc.ca. Retrieved October 25, 2010.
[19] “CIP user site”. Nces.ed.gov. Retrieved 2014-08-23. [2] Handbook of Public Administration. Eds Jack Rabin, W. Bartley Hildreth, and Gerard J. Miller. 1989: Marcel [20] Second Treatise on Government Dekker, NY. p. iii [21] Declaration of Independence [3] Robert and Janet Denhardt. Public Administration: An Action Orientation. 6th Ed. 2009: Thomson Wadsworth, [22] Ryan, M., Mejia, B., and Georgiev, M. (Ed). 2010. AM Gov 2010. McGraw Hill: New York. Belmont CA. [4] Kettl, Donald and James Fessler. 2009. The Politics of the [23] Jeong Chun Hai @Ibrahim, & Nor Fadzlina Nawi. (2007). Principles of Public Administration: An IntroducAdministrative Process . Washington D.C.: CQ Press. tion. Kuala Lumpur: Karisma Publications. ISBN 978[5] Jerome B. McKinney and Lawrence C. Howard. Pub983-195-253-5 lic Administration: Balancing Power and Accountability. 2nd Ed. 1998: Praeger Publishing, Westport, CT. p. 62 [24] Frederick W. Taylor. (1856-1915). 'Principles of Scientific Management.' New York & London: Harper Brothers; Also see, Jeong Chun Hai @Ibrahim, & Nor Fadzlina [6] UN Economic and Social Council. Committee of Experts Nawi. (2007). Principles of Public Administration: An Inon Public Administration. Definition of basic concepts troduction. Kuala Lumpur: Karisma Publications. ISBN and terminologies in governance and public administra978-983-195-253-5 tion. 2006 [7] Wilson, Woodrow. June, 1887. The Study of Adminis- [25] “Our Web Site Has Moved!". Aspanet.org. Retrieved 2014-08-23. tration, Political Science Quarterly 2. [8] Public administration. (2010) In Encyclopaedia Britan- [26] Fry, Brian R. 1989. Mastering Public Administration; from Max Weber to Dwight Waldo. Chatham, New Jernica. Retrieved August 18, 2010, from Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. sey: Chatham House Publishers, Inc. page 80 [9] Shafritz, J.M., A.C. Hyde. 2007. Classics of Public Ad- [27] Public Administration Review, Vol. 56, No. 3 (May – ministration. Wadsworth: Boston. Jun., 1996), pp. 247–255 [10] Appleby, Paul 1947. “Toward Better Public Administra- [28] Elmore, R.F. (1986). Graduate education in public mantion,” Public Administration Review Vol. 7, No. 2 pp. 93agement: Working in the seams of government. “Journal 99. of Policy Analysis and Management”, 6(1): 69-83.
13 [29] Patrick Dunleavy, Helen Margetts et al, 'New public [43] “NASPAA International Web Portal”. Globalmpa.net. management is dead: Long live digital era governance', Retrieved 2014-08-23. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, [44] http://www.clad.org.ve (July 2006). [30] Diane Stone, (2008) 'Global Public Policy, Transnational [45] Policy Communities and their Networks,' Journal of Pol- [46] Floyd Studio, Ján Andruch. “Homepage - NISPAcee Inicy Sciences . formation Portal”. nispa.sk . [31] Denhardt , Robert B. and Janet Vinzant Denhardt (2000). [47] “APSA - American Political Science Association”. Ap“The New Public Service: Serving Rather than Steering.” sanet.org. Retrieved 2014-08-23. Public Administration Review 60(6) [48] aspanet.org [32] Aucoin, Peter (2008). New Public Management and the Quality of Government: Coping with the New Political [49] “ENAP - Escola Nacional de Administrao Pblica Bem Vindo a ENAP!". enap.gov.br . Governance in Canada, Conference on “New Public Management and the Quality of Government”, SOG and the Quality of Government Institute, University of Gothen- [50] “Indian Institute Of Public Administration - Home”. Iipa.org.in. Retrieved 2014-08-23. burg, Sweden, 13–15 November 2008, p.14. [51] ESADE. “ISSUU - PUBLIC by ESADE”. Issuu. [33] Watson,S. & Pfeiffer, D. (1992). A Case study for including disability policy issues in public policy curricula. George W. Kirchwey (1905). "Civil AdministraIn: R. Elmore, Curriculum and Case Notes. “Journal of Policy Analysis and Management”, 11(1): 167-173. tion". New International Encyclopedia . •
[34] Zola, I. Introduction. In: S.T. Brown, (1993). “An Independent Living Approach to Disability Policy Studies”. Berkeley, CA: Research and Training Center on Public Policy And Independent Living, World Institute on Disability. [35] Racino, J. (in press, 2014). “Public Administration and Disability: Community Services Administration in the US”. NY, NY: CRC Press, Francis and Taylor.
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[36] Corduneanu-Huci, Cristina; Hamilton, Alexander; Masses Ferrer, Issel (2012). Understanding Policy Change: How to Apply Political Economy Concepts in Practice. Washington DC.: The World Bank.
Fattore, Giovanni (2009). International Journal of Public Administration 32 (8). Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 704–727. doi:10.1080/01900690902908760. The field of public administration knows many concepts. By focusing on one such concept, this research shows how definitions can be deceptive...
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[37] Dubois, Hans F. W.;
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[38] Haroon A. Khan. Introduction to Public Administration. University Press of America, 2008. P. 33 •
[39] Corkery, J., Dddak, T., O'Nuallain, C. & Land, T. (1998). “Management of Public Service Reform.” Amsterdam, Netherlands and Tokyo, Japan: IOS Press and Ohmaha. [40] Haroon A. Khan. Introduction to Public Administration. University Press of America, 2008 p. 34 [41] Bowling, C. J. & Wright, D.S. (1998, winter). Public administration in the fifty states: A half Century revolution. “State and Local Government Review”, 30(1): 52-64. [42] Racino, J. (in press, 2014). “Public Administration and Disability: Community Services Administration in the US”. NY, NY and Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Francis and Taylor.
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External links Gov Monitor: A public administration, policy and public sector website Public Administration Theory Network (PAT-Net) : This is an international network of professionals concerned with the advancement of public administration theory. The Global Public Administration Resource : A forum where practitioners, academics and students can discuss topics in public administration. United Nations Public Administration Network (UNPAN): A body which aims to establish an Internet-based network that links regional and national institutions devoted to public administration. National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration International Public Management Network International Public Management Association for Human Resources
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Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
Text
Public administration Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public%20administration?oldid=655016216 Contributors: Edward, Michael
Hardy, Mac, Glenn, Rmilson, Andres, Andrewman327, Bevo, Joy, AaronSw, Robbot, RedWolf, Babbage, Guy Peters, Clossius, Stevietheman, Andycjp, Piotrus, Catdude, Howardjp, Neutrality, Zacha, Canterbury Tail, Discospinster, Kait, Uppland, El C, Lycurgus, Kwamikagami, Pearle, Mdd, Espoo, Alansohn, Tek022, Rd232, Jnothman, Alinor, Wtmitchell, Evil Monkey, Danthemankhan, Stemonitis, Isfisk, Woohookitty, Chochopk, Jeff3000, Tabletop, Aaroamal, Dangerous-Boy, Isnow, Electionworld, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, ElKevbo, Czar, John Maynard Friedman, Chobot, YurikBot, Borgx, Bhny, NawlinWiki, Cquan, RaF, Neum, Malcolma, CaliforniaAliBaba, Sarkar112, Tonywalton, Closedmouth, Ruennsheng, Mais oui!, GrinBot, Ilikenwf, SmackBot, NaiPiak, SeaNap05, Roberto Cruz, Hu Gadarn, Scifiintel, Paxse, HalfShadow, Ohnoitsjamie, Chris the speller, Cattus, SchfiftyThree, Jahiegel, KaiserbBot, Wikiphilia, Noles1984, Veeru7, Salt Yeung, Folio1701, John, Geeteshgadkari, Heydeesmeet, Kazooou, Beetstra, SQGibbon, RichardF, Cyril Washbrook, Levineps, OnBeyondZebrax, ShadowClones, Shoreranger, Eastlaw, JForget, Dgw, ShelfSkewed, Ryan Lanham, Trident13, Kozuch, Nihan, Thijs!bot, Ericip, Lord Hawk, Barticus88, Biruitorul, Naspaa, Marek69, NorwegianBlue, NERIUM, Dugwiki, Windows72106, Andiecain, Alphachimpbot, Leafman, JAnDbot, Ekabhishek, MER-C, Jrabc, Robina Fox, SiobhanHansa, VoABot II, Transcendence, Hdynes, MetsBot, Kathleen McNutt, Glen, DGG, Arjun01, R'n'B, EdBever, Sasajid, Maurice Carbonaro, Hossain Akhtar Chowdhury, HAppleby, Mrg3105, M-le-mot-dit, Goutamforindia, Funandtrvl, VolkovBot, Wbhildreth, Philip Trueman, P.dunleavy, SteveStrummer, LeaveSleaves, Wmcg, Lxxxi, Rlogan1128, Devgowri, WereSpielChequers, VVVBot, Jimmy.jd, Oxymoron83, Ss376-07, Fratrep, Secretlyironic, Jc hai, Dlrohrer2003, Jaipurite, ClueBot, Justin.mckay, Saddhiyama, Thektron, Jenafalt, Masterpiece2000, Techfast50, Bobbytheonlyone, Dsmurat, TheovanderKrogt, Jonverve, JDPhD, Apparition11, Ps07swt, BarretB, HKUL, Stickee, Ost316, Addbot, Mitrabhanu, Reedmalloy, AndersBot, Jan eissfeldt, Niklas g, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Teng1981, AnomieBOT, JackieBot, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Bob Burkhardt, ArthurBot, Xqbot, TinucherianBot II, Autorads, Linburats, DSisyphBot, Schmitts54, Grim Reaper, Almabot, J04n, C+C, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Miriska, RibotBOT, Shman644, Shadowjams, Zugzwang1972, FrescoBot, Silentbob05, Mekongforest, Tumblehome, W Nowicki, Melissa bxl, Mino-wiijiindi, Louperibot, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Neurosojourn, Skyerise, A8UDI, Tabletalker, Sic6sic, Lotje, Theo10011, Canuckian89, Ronfernandes, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Swbanks, RjwilmsiBot, Ermontgo, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Sgt oxx, Jeckhart85, RenamedUser01302013, We hope, PBS-AWB, Jenks24, Commonerborn, Anir1uph, Ingvildoia, Donner60, Cnajmee, ClueBot NG, Cntras, REHspeedtrolly, Silvana4444, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, Curb Chain, Fogoieveivfivfevbvibfsj, Luciparmer, Altaïr, Sandeepkmassey, Kalikcharan, One.tenth, Andrewengler9489, Afantastica, JARacino, Frosty, Jamesx12345, Prachi.jnu, CsDix, Arivera92, Babitaarora, RubleuleR, Ginsuloft, Edvin.arnby, Adqlth, 1980sEnglehart, Seyoume Egizeabher and Anonymous: 306
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