LECTIA 39 Care sunt domeniile de interes ale teoreticianului in psih ps ihol olog ogie ie la in inccep eput utul ul se seco colu lulu luii XXI? Pentru Pent ru oamen oamenii ii de st stii iint ntd, d, modul modul ca carac racter teris istic tic de a pr priv ivii lum lumea, ea, din punctu punctull de vedere alpropriei discipline, creeazd implacabil dileme etice, fie si pentru cdstiinta si
tehni hnici cille st stiiinti ntiffice, care pot fl aplicat cate e pentr ntru u a imbuna imbunatdt tdti conditi tia a omul ului ui,, sunt valori alorifi fica catedeobicei si in scop scopul manipulari anipulariii si al exploata tari riii, (din principiile etice ale Uniunii Americane a Psihologilor)
Cu ani in urmd, unul dintre dascdlii mei, A. R. Cohen, m-afdcut constient asupra unui fel de ,,miopie" referitoare la atitudinea de excitare entuziastd, data de descoperirea de not legi cuprivire la natura umand. Intr-o zi, cdnd analizam datele dintr-un articol al men, care tocmai fusese acceptat pentru revista „ Science ", profes pro fesor orul ul m-a intreb intrebat at care care es este te cauza cauza bunei mele mele dispoz dispozit itii ii.. Cd Cdnd nd am in incep ceput ut sd-i povestesc despre influenta cofeinei si a cloropromaz cloropromazinei inei asupra comportamentului sexual al sobolanului adult, deodatdm-a intrerupt. M-a rugat sd-i sd -i spun spun ce sepet sepetre rece ce afar afar a, pepar peparte tea a ceala cealalt lta a a st strd rdzi zii, i, unde unde se qfla qfla Scoal Scoala a de Med Me dic iciind nd.. ,,Nimic", ,,Nimi c", amr amrdspu dspuns. ns. ,,P ,,Purs ursisi isimpl mplu, u, cdt cdteva evaper persoa soanes nestau tauinp inpici icioar oaresi esidis discut cutd. d. " M-a indemn indemnat at sdfac sdfac pre presup supune uneri ri despre despre ce anu anume me discut discutd. d. M-am incumeta incumetatt sd aflrm cdfemeia era tristddin cauza a ceea ce-ispusese bdrbatulsi cdo altdfemeie o consola. Profesorul m-a intrebat despre cauzele posibile ale nemultumirii ei, despre felul cum era incurajatd etc. Apoi, mi-a tras o loviturd ,,sub Centura", spund sp undndu ndu-m -mi: i: ,,D ,,Dacd acdai ai sti sti cu cum m sdo sdo incu incura raje jezi zi,, aipu aipute teaf afac acee asta asta si, si, pe pe mdsu mdsurd rdce ce ai ai reflecta cum anume se rdnesc si se ajutd oamenii intre ei, aiputea descoperi cd oamenii obisnuiti sunt maifascinanti decdt soarecii tdi albi, bine hrdniti". nut ai^ut so. sttu{/e.z &o motiiKitia. aceftora. ... fll-cuit iK tot ce. ,\ /?///!
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Psihologie
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Lectia 39
Care sunt domeniile de interes ale teoreticianului in psihologie la inceputul secolului XXI? ^
Inai Inaint ntee de a pute putea a sa apdr valo valoar area ea stii stiint ntei ei care care cerc cercet eteaz eazd d proce procese sele le psih psihic icee pe fiin fiinte te simp simple le,, mi-a mi-a apli aplica catt lovi lovitu tura ra deci decisi siva va:: „ Gdndeste-te si vezi dacanu reusesti sa
gasesti un pic pic de tim timp pentru ntru a studio oamenii nii si a cauta not sol soluti utiii pentru ntru procedat astfel si ma proble problemele coti cotidiene diene,, le l egate gate de condi conditi tia a umana". ana" . Am procedat stra stradu duie iesc sc in cont contin inua uare re sdpr sdproc oced edez ez lafe lafel. l. (dupa P. Zimbardo) Oare toti psihologii procedeaza astfel? Ce crezi? Pe cati dintre ei ii intereseaza omul ca subiect si ca fiinta independents si pe cati ca obiect, care nu se deosebeste cu nimic de un preparat microscopic? Dupa parerea ta, aceasta abordare a omului ca subiect ar trebui sa fie adecvata doar pentru practicieni sau si pentru teoreticieni si cercetatori? Sau poate accepti orientarea din psihologie potrivit careia omul este mai mult obiect? Vei avea ocazia de a reflecta asupra acestor probleme pe parcursul lecturii acestei lectii. Psihologia il serveste pe om, in general, sau doar pe unii oameni? Ce anume se afla in spatele mitului contemporan contemporan al psihologiei atotputernice? atotputernice? Cat adevar se afla in faptul ca apreciem puterea ei de manipulare - daca tu ma manipulezi pe mine este un pacat, dar daca eu te manipulez inseamna ca sunt curajos, destept, in timp ce tu esti un nataflet? S-ar putea sa nu ai un raspuns unic si sigur la aceste intrebari, dar ar fi bine, eel putin, sa ti le formulezi. Astazi vom porni intr-o calatorie lunga, deoarece vom examina evolutia psihologiei de la aparitia sa pana in prezent, pentru a constientiza existenta orientarilor si a tendintelor generale. Cei interesati vor gasi multe surse in care dispunerea accentelor nu este uniforma, in schimb sfera esentiala a continutului va fi unitara. Istoricul psihologiei ne dezvaluie multe lucruri despre dezvoltarea omului contemporan. Cercetarile apartinand unor discipline variate reflecta intr-un anumit mod conditia fiintei umane, intr-o perioada istorica data, precum si valorile unanim recunoscute. Este uimitor cat de mult se deosebesc conceptiile referitoare la natura omului, la scopurile esentiale, demne de atentia cercetatorilor si de efortul lor creativ, obligatorii in cadrul diferitelor abordari. Conceptii contradictorii se manifesta fie concomitent, fie consecutiv. Pentru a le combate, este nevoie de multa energie; dar exista si cazuri in care acestea coexists in mod pasnic.
Ne Ne afl aflam, am, asa asadar, dar, in cadr cadrul ul ist istorie orieii psih psihol olog ogie ieii stiin iintif tifice din sec secolul olul XX. Ne ocup ocupam am de psi psihicu hicull omului ului,, vazu azut cand and ca alc alcatu atuit din din senza enzattii elementar ntare, e, cand cand int intr-o r-o ipos postaz taza generala, ca un intreg organizat. Avem de-a face cu o persoana privita ca ,,o cutie neagra" nedefmita indeaproape, reactionand la stimuli situationali. In cadrul ei apare o formatiune tenebroasa, scuturata de impulsuri biologice neconstientizate. Exista, de asemenea, creierul, prin care se face legatura cu lumea. prin intermediul reflexelor; acest centra este lipsit de ,,suflet". Intalnim in cadrul acestei ,,cutii negre" si un produs al culturii, si rezultatul propriei firi, a carei forma finala depinde si de pri ivita ivita . Vom gasi gasi o fiinta fiinta prinsa prinsa in in plas riil riil le le i cu
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Prepcupari si tendinte in psihologia contemporana
Capitol XVI
Vom urmari, asadar, drumul gandirii psihologice in secolul trecut (lectia 39) si aplicatiile practice, spatiile in care ,,actioneaza psihologia", in mod concret (lectia 40). La sfarsitul lec^iei 40, vei gasi totodata a doua parte a testului de veriflcare,
corespunzatoare lectiilor 21-40. Foloseste aceasta ocazie pentru a recapirula materialul parcurs pana acum, daca vei considera necesar acest lucru. Asadar, sapornim!
Care sunt preocuparile psihologului-teoretician psihologului-teoretician la incepiitul secolului al XXl-Iea? Psihol Psihologi ogia a contem contempo poran rand d este este un domeni domeniu u de cerce cercetar taree stiint stiintifi ificds cdsii de activ activita itate te practica practica.. Majorit Majoritate ateapsi apsiholo hologil gilorp orpract ractica ica astdzip astdzipsiho sihologi logia a ca meserie meserie utilddi utilddin n punc punctt de veder vederee practic practic in multe multe domeni domeniii ale ale vietii vietii si activit activitdt dtii ii umane: umane: produ product ctie, ie, invdtdmdnt, sdndtatesi altele. (...) Psihologia acoperdo sferddefenomene uriasd sifo sifoar arte te div diver ersi sifi fica cata. ta. Din Din acea aceast sta a cauz cauza, a, del delim imit itar area ea obi obiec ectu tulu luii ei est estee difi difici cila la,, iar iar in literatura despecialitateputem intdlni numeroase incercdri in acest sens- scrie un specialist.
Nu exist existaa un conse consens ns in ceea ce prives priveste te defin definir irea ea obiect obiectul ului ui psiho psiholo logi giei ei,, dar domeniul nostru nu este singular, celelalte discipline sociale intampinand de asemenea dificultati de precizare unitara si clara a obiectului de studiu.
Termenul psihologie a aparut la sfarsitul perioadei medievale si inceputul epocii moderne, fiind defmit atunci ca stiinta a sufletului. Astazi spunem mai curand ca
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Lectia 39
Care sunt domeniile de interes ale teoreticianului in psihologie la inceputul secolului XXI?
Ea cerceta senzatiile, care se imbinau pe principiul asocierilor. asocierilor. Larandullor, acestea ^ aveau sa construiasca constiinta umana. Constiinta umana nu era accesibila cercetarii in alt mod decat prin introspectie. W. Wundt, ,,parintele" psihofizicii si al psihologiei experimentale, considera ca obiectul psihologiei trebuie sa cuprinda experienta nemijlocita a subiectului, adica fenomenele pe care omul le descopera in sine prin metoda autoobservarii sau a introspectiei. Exegetii naturalisti (Helmholtz, Young, Muller, Weber, Fechner, Bonders etc.) au efectuat cercetari experimentale si au analizat matematic senzatiile si activitatile motorii. Exprimandu-ne intr-un limbaj specific zilelor noastre, putem spune ca acestia s-au ocupat de sensibilitatea si de reactivitatea organismului uman. Mult mai tarziu a fost acceptata ideea ca ceea ce este subiectiv, constientizat, este secundar in raport cu relatia concreta dintre d intre lume si om. Ca de obicei, a aparut opozitia fata de directia descrisa, opozitie concretizata in miscarea numita psihologia formei sau gestaltista (Wertheimer, Kohler, Koffka, N
Kruger). Contributia acestei miscari la dezvoltarea stiintei a constat in incercarea de a explica intr-un mod nou fenomene cunoscute de mult timp. Teoreticienii gestaltisti respingeau teza de baza a predecesorilor, potrivit careia ar putea fi recreat intregul proces psihic, prin imbinarea ,,atomilor" acestuia ca elemente constitutive (de exemplu, perceptiile individuale sa fie reduse la o suma a senzatiilor). In opinia lor, in viata psihica exista o ordine in care se manifests anumite entitati. Tocmai acestea sunt primare. Avem de-a face in viata psihica a omului cu formatiuni, cu ,,forme", nu cu un haos de senzatii singulare, care se asociaza. S-a dezvoltat apoi si s-a extins behaviorismul, ale carui radacini rezida in cercetarile lui Morgan si Jennings. Primele legaturi dintre psihologia animalelor si cea a oamenilor au fost sesizate si elaborate de Thorndike. El s-a ocupat, de asemenea, de proce procesul sul invat invatar arii ii la oamen oamenii si de memor memorare are,, ceea ceea ce a condu conduss la psihologia mvatarii, la care vom reveni. Watson, un alt teoretician al acestui curent, a lansat Psiholo ologi gia a necesitatea de a ne concentra asupra cunoasterii comportamentelor. Psih behaviorista tinde, prin observare sistematicd si experiment, la formularea de genera generaliz lizari ari,, legi legi si princip principii ii care care guvern guverneaz eazd d compor comportam tament entul ul omului omului (dupa Watson). Psihologia ar trebui, asadar, sa renunte la cercetarea constiintei, in favoarea cercetarii situatiilor, a conflguratiilor de stimuli care declanseaza anumite comportamente (reactii). Merita sa subliniem ca nici o atitudine behaviorista, in formele ei extreme, radicale, nu s-a putut mentine in cercetarile de psihologie. Au aparut diferite modificari ale acestora, admitand mai mult sau mai putin rolul personalitatii umane (asa-numitul
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Preocupari si tendinte in psihologia contemporana____________________________ contemporana_____________________________Capitol _Capitol XVI
^
considerau ca intreaga psihologie ar putea fi desfiintata, in general, in favoarea fiziologiei. Reflexologia nu a capatat un asemenea ecou precum orientarea pavlovia pavloviana. na. Pavlov s-a ocupat de activit activitate ateaa nervoasa nervoasa superioara superioara,, operand operand cu conceptele de reflex conditional si neconditionat, inhibare, inductie, structure a semnalelor, precum si cu tipuri de activitate nervoasa superioara. O reactie la orientarea pavloviana a condus la reflectia asupra reducerii intregii activitati umane la reflexe. Insusi Pavlov, initial extrem de radical in ideile sale, a sesizat spre sfarsitul vietii necesitatea conlucrarii dintre fiziologie si psihologie, inlocuirea rivalitatii celor doua discipline cu sustinerea reciprocal O contribute substantial^ la dezvoltarea psihologiei a oferit medicina. Abordarile care au initiat psihologia clinica tineau de psihanaliza (Freud) si de psihologia individuals! (Adler). Ulterior au aparut cercetari asupra nevrozei, spaimei si hipnozei. S-a dezvoltat, de asemenea, neopsihanaliza (Homey, Fromm). In spiritul acestei orientari, psihicul este tratat ca un sistem organizat de forte. S-a observat astfel ca activitatea noastra constienta este condusa de impulsuri. Constiinta este doar un nivel al psihicului, ,,suprafata" sa, asadar obiectul propriu-zis al preocu preocupar parilo ilorr psihol psihologi ogiei ei ar trebui trebui sa fie person personali alitat tatea, ea, cu subcon subconsti stient entul ul si inconstientul sau. Aceasta conceptie s-a conturat pe baza unor observatii indelungate ale medicilor psihiatri, care au tins la elaborarea unor metode psihologice adecvate in tratarea celor bolnavi psihic (Charcot, Janet). Freudismul a dezvoltat metoda asocierilor libere, analiza viselor, fenomenul transferului. Aceste metode urmareau orientarea, constientizarea genezei reale a propriilor probleme.
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In conceptia lui Adler, teoria se concentra asupra formarii caracterelor si a deosebirilor dintre acestea. Se lua in consideratie rolul mai mare al mediului in dezvoltarea omului, iar mecanismul terapeutic il constituiau reflectiile critice asupra propriului mod de a actiona. Aceasta conceptie a devenit baza lucrarilor din domeniul tipologiei caracterelor (Kretschmer), folosita in diagnosticarea clinica a personalitatii. Au fost create cateva metode interesante de diagnosticare: metoda proiectiei a lui Rorschach (folosindinterpretareapetelorcolor (folosindinterpret areapetelorcolorate)sitestulculorilor ate)sitestulculoriloralluiSzondi.Aap alluiSzondi.Aaparut, arut, de asemenea, conceptia psihosomatica, din cercetarile si analizele genezei asocierilor fizice la om. In aceeasi perioada, psihologia a beneficial mult de pe urma conceptiei lui Darwin. Cel care a folosit ideea evolutionismului in psihologie a fost Spencer. El afirma ca dezvoltarea este un proces continuu. Dezvoltarea psihicului consta intr-o continua diferentiere si integrare. Organele senzoriale, de exemplu, ,,se specializeaza" in cunoasterea diferitelor insusiri ale acelorasi obiecte si fenomene. In final, aceste activitati se regrupeaza, pentru a identifica obiectul in mod global. Experienta indivizilor din cadrul generatiilor se fixeaza prin aceasta cunoastere a lumii in forma
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Lectia 39
Care sunt domeniile de interes ale teoreticianului in psihologie la inceputul secolului XXI?
S-a delimitat si psihologia dezvoltarii, care se ocupa de factorii dezvoltarii psihice ^^ (de la Preyer la Piaget). A aparut o teorie a factorilor si a conditiilor dezvoltarii psihice. A fost formulata influenta ereditatii si a mediului (Stern), aflate adesea in opozitie. Cercetarile asupra dezvoltarii s-au extins, Datoram mult cercetarilor care au cuprins dezvoltarea in ansamblul sau, imbogatind considerabil metodele folosite in acest perimetru. S-a apreciat, totodata, rolul activitatii proprii in ceea ce priveste dezvoltarea dezvoltarea individual^. O contribute uriasa la psihologia dezvoltarii revine lui J. Piaget, care a efectuat cercetari in domeniul gandirii, al inteligentei. Rezultatele cercetarilor sale au aratat ____ diferentele diferentele calitative intre psihicul copiilor si eel al persoanelor adulte. Autorul a elaborat teoria dezvoltarii procesului de gandire, de la operatii concrete la operatii formale, abstracte. A aparut si s-a dezvoltat domeniul psihologiei invatarii (Thorndike, Skinner) si, o data cu aceasta, psihologia educatiei. Multe cercetari nu au avut initial nimic in comun cu aplicatiile lor nemijlocite, de exemplu in procesul de invatamant. Thorndike '\^> a fost eel care a formulat afirmatii despre invatare. Din pacate, problema motivatiei pentru invatare a fost studiata doar marginal. Abia Meumann a aplicat aceste legi la cerintele scolii. Ulterior, aceste eforturi au fost continuate si s-au aprofundat cercetarile asupra conditiilor invatarii, a diferitelor tipuri si strategii, a rolului personalitatii si al motivatiei elevului si pro proffeso esorul rului (Ber (Berna narrd, Baley aley s. a.). .). Psi Psiholo hologi giaa educa ducati tieei si-a exti xtins cons onsiderabi rabill sfera pre preoc ocup upaaril rilor, de exem exempl plu u asupra upra fenom nomenul enului ui insu insucc cces esel elor or scol scolar are. e. Lui Galton ii datoram in psihologie metodele statistice, introduse in studierea diferentelor individuale. Se dezvolta acel compartiment al psihologiei inteles ca stiinta a testelor (Binet, Wechsler). Inceputurile sale sunt legate de elaborarea scalei inteligentei de catre Binet. Ulterior, aceasta a fost modificata de Terman. Practica a devansat teoria: s-a manifestat necesitatea de a elabora o teorie a inteligentei generale (Spearman). Au aparut noi metode de cercetare a acesteia. De aici, au aparut si prim primel elee teste teste de veri verifi fica care re a cunost cunostin inte telo lor, r, folo folosi site te in cadr cadrul ul exam examen enel elor or.. Au fost fost concepute, de asemenea, diferite teste de diagnosticare a personalitatii, fiind folosite pe scara larga, indeosebi cu scopul selectiei, ceea ce reprezinta si astazi o practica discutabila. A aparut si psihologia muncii. Radacinile sale rezida in cercetarile cu privire la
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Preocupari si tendinte in psihologia contemporana
^,
Capitol XVI
O amploare deosebita a capatat psihologia sociala (Newcomb, Rotter). Tematica si metodele de cercetare ale acestei ramuri s-au schimbat foarte mult in timp. Initial, au fost studiate insusirile omului ca fiinta sociala, iar ulterior s-a trecut la examinarea relatiilor si formelor obiective, specifice convietuirii interumane. Au fost cercetate, prin printr tree altel altele, e, man manif ifes esta tare reaa omulu omuluii in grupu grupuri ri soci social ale, e, depe depend nden enta ta grup grupur uril ilor or de alte alte influente, modul de desfasurare a comunicarii, perceperea celorlalti, factorii care conditioneaza atractia reciproca etc. Cercetarile s-au desfasurat, de asemenea, in cadrul etnopsihologiei (Malinowski, Benedict). Cercetatorii erau preocupati, de exemplu, de asemanarea formelor de cultura la diferite populatii si explicau acest fenomen prin similitudini ale nevoilor umane de baza.
\^
O alta tendinta a fost psihologia umanista (Maslow, Rogers), care s-a nascut din revolta si nemultumirile fata de metodele si abordarile folosite pana arunci. Scopul fina finall alp alpsi siho holo logi giei ei uman umanis iste te este este desc descrie riere rea a comp comple letda tda ceea ceea ce inse inseam amna nasd sd trai traies esti ti mchipuman... (Bugental). Tezele care delimiteazapreocuparile acestei orientari il perce percep p pe om ca pers persoa oana na,, nu ca suma suma de parti parti cons consti titu tuti tive ve.. Ele se conc concen entr trea eaza za asupra relatiei cu persoana concreta si asupra capacitatii noastre de a ne afla in legatura cu ceilalti oameni. Se atrage atentia aici asupra rolului constiintei de sine, a posi posibi bili lita tati tiii de a opta opta si asup asupra ra vieti vietiii inte intele lect ctua uale le,, in conse consens ns cu scop scopur urii si valo valori ri individuale. Asadar, aceasta psihologie este interesata de om, dar nu este obiectiva stiintific, apreciind mai mult scopurile importante pentru conditia umana decat rigoarea metodelor. Nu respinge metodele statistice si experimentele, dar verificarea adevarului o constiruie experienta umana. Predomina aici relativismul cognitiv: orice cunoastere este relativa si variabila, desi psihologii umanisti nu resping realizarile celorlalte orientari psihologice. In psihologia actuala s-au consolidat teoriile cognitive (Kelly, Festinger, Sherif, Hovland). Premisele lor descind din psihologia formei si sunt o reactie la lipsurile beha behavi vior oris ismu mulu luii si ale teorii teoriilo lorr inva invata tari rii. i. Toate Toate se conce concent ntre reaz azaa asup asupra ra refle reflect ctar arii ii stimulilor sociali. Se preocupa mai mult de desfasurarea proceselor de cunoastere, de aspectele lor formale, nu de continutul concret. Se intereseaza, de asemenea, de
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Lecfta 39
Care sunt domeniile de interes ale teoreticianului in psihologie la inceputul secolului XXI?
care sa redati cat mai nimerit caracterul si esenta diferitelor concept!! si orientari din psihologie. Daca doresti, pot! trimite materialul pregatit ca tema pentru acasa. Metaforele create redau in primul rand reactia emotionala, afectiva a atitudinilor noastre fata de continurul teoriilor. Constati ca iti plac sau nu, ca iti sunt apropiate sau ca le respingi. Dar acesta nu este singurul mod de a ne exprima opiniile pe aceasta tema. Incearca sa te pronunti cu privire la diferitele orientari la nivel rational. Care este parerea ta despre orientarile din psihologie din secolul trecut? Exercitiul 2: Ce comideri tu important intr-o teorie? Te rog sa alegi una dintre orientarile prezentate aici. Criteriile alegerii vor fi de data aceasta riguroase: utilizarea la nivel larg, modalitatea de argumentare, rigurozitatea cercetarii, inspiratia pentru cercetarile din domenii inrudite, unitatea si armonia judecatii etc. Cauta argumente rationale pentru a-ti justifica pozi po ziti tia. a. Ar fi bi bine ne,, da daca ca ai do dori ri,, sa pr prez ezin inti ti ac aces este te ar argu gume ment ntee pa part rten ener erul ului ui ta tau u de discutie, care ar putea sa te stimuleze la un efort mai mare, prezentandu-ti contraargumentele sale. Incearca sa vezi totodata ce anume lipseste in orientarea aleasa de tine, care sunt consecintele acesteia, ce nivel de comunicativitate prezinta. In ce masura, dupa tine, aceasta conceptie poate fi verificata empiric? Setul de argumente si reflectiile asociate pot fi trimise ca tema pentru acasa.
Idei diferi Idei diferite te s-au s-au nascut nascut in ps psiho iholo logi giee si ap apoi oi au dispdru dispdrut, t, pentr pentru u afi continu continuat atee dupd zed de ani. La rdndul lor, altele sdldsluiesc in tesdtura stiintei prin legea inertiei,fiind lipsite de mult de sensul existentei. Psihologia s-a dezvoltat concomitent in cdteva orientdri, prezentdnd aborddri radicale in ceea ce priveste natura psihicul psih icului ui uman uman.. Aces Aceste te orie orientdr ntdri, i, in anum anumite ite perioade perioade si in anum anumite ite tdri, au convietuitpasnic, ignordndu-se reciproc, in timp ce in alteperioade si in alte tdri s-au sau co conf nfru runt ntat at ac acer erb, b, al alcd cdtu tuin ind d ul ului uito toar aref efor orma mati tiun unii hi hibr brid idee - scriu specialist!!.
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Lecjia 39
Care sunt domeniile de interes ale teoreticianului in psihologie la inceputul secolului XXI?
care sa redati cat mai nimerit caracterul si esenta diferitelor concept!! si orientari din psihologie. Daca doresti, poti trimite materialul pregatit ca tema pentru acasa. Metaforele create redau in primul rand reactia emotionala, afectiva a atitudinilor noastre fata de continutul teoriilor. Constati ca iti plac sau nu, ca iti sunt apropiate sau ca le respingi. Dar acesta nu este singurul mod de a ne exprima opiniile pe aceasta tema. Incearca sa te pronunti cu privire la diferitele orientari la nivel rational. Care este parerea ta despre orientarile din psihologie din secolul trecut? Exercitiul 2: Ce consideri tu important intr intr--oteori orie e?
Te rog sa alegi una dintre orientarile prezentate aici. Criteriile alegerii vor fi de data aceasta riguroase: utilizarea la nivel larg, modalitatea de argumentare, rigurozitatea cercetarii, inspiratia pentru cercetarile din domenii inrudite, unitatea si armonia judecatii etc. Cauta argumente rationale pentru a-ti justifica pozi po ziti tia. a. Ar fi bi bine ne,, da daca ca ai do dori ri,, sa pr prez ezin inti ti ac aces este te ar argu gume ment ntee pa part rten ener erul ului ui ta tau u de discutie, care ar putea sa te stimuleze la un efort mai mare, prezentandu-ti contraargumentele sale. Incearca sa vezi totodata ce anume lipseste in orientarea aleasa de tine, care sunt consecintele acesteia, ce nivel de comunicativitate prezinta. In ce masura, dupa tine, aceasta conceptie poate fi verificata empiric? Setul de argumente si reflectiile asociate pot fi trimise ca tema pentru acasa. Idei diferite diferite s-au nas nascut cut in psih psiholog ologie ie si apoi au dispdrut, dispdrut, pentru afi con continu tinuate ate dupazeci de ani. La rdndul lor, altele salasluiesc in tesdtura stiinteiprin legea inertiei,fiind Hpsite de mult de sensul existentei. Psihologia s-a dezvoltat concomitent in cdteva orientdri, prezentdnd aborddri radicale in ceea ce priveste natura psihiculuii uman. Aceste orientdri, in anumite perioad psihiculu perioadee si in anumite tari, au convietuitpasnic, ignordndu-se reciproc, in timp ce in alteperioade si in alte tari s-au s-a u con confru frunta ntatt acer acerb, b, alcd alcdtui tuind nd ulu uluito itoare arefor format matiun iunii hibr hibride ide - scriu specialistii.
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Lectia 39
Care sunt domeniile de interes ale teoreticianului in psihologie la inceputul secolului XXI?
care sa redati cat mai nimerit caracterul si esenta diferitelor conceptii si orientari din psihologie. Daca doresti, poti trimite materialul pregatit ca tema pentru acasa. Metaforele create redau in primul rand reactia emotionala, afectiva a atitudinilor noastre fata de continutul teoriilor. Constati ca iti plac sau nu, ca iti sunt apropiate sau ca le respingi. Dar acesta nu este singurul mod de a ne exprima opiniile pe aceasta tema. Incearca sa te pronunti cu privire la diferitele orientari la nivel rational. Care este parerea ta despre orientarile din psihologie din secolul trecut?
importantI ntrntr-o o teori orie e? Exercitiul 2: Ce consider! tu im Te rog sa alegi una dintre orientarile prezentate aici. Criteriile alegerii vor fi de data aceasta riguroase: utilizarea la nivel larg, modalitatea de argumentare, rigurozitatea cercetarii, inspiratia pentru cercetarile din domenii mrudite, unitatea si armonia judecatii etc. Cauta argumente rationale pentru a-ti justifica pozi po ziti tia. a. Ar fi bi bine ne,, da daca ca ai do dori ri,, sa pr prez ezin inti ti ac aces este te ar argu gume ment ntee pa part rten ener erul ului ui ta tau u de discutie, care ar putea sa te stimuleze la un efort mai mare, prezentandu-ti contraargumentele sale. Incearca sa vezi totodata ce anume lipseste in orientarea aleasa de tine, care sunt consecin^ele acesteia, ce nivel de comunicativitate prezinta. In ce masura, dupa tine, aceasta conceptie poate fi verificata empiric? Setul de argumente si reflectiile asociate pot fi trimise ca tema pentru acasa.
Idei diferi Idei diferite te s-au s-au ndscut ndscut in psihol psihologi ogiee si apo apoii au dis dispdr pdrut ut,, pentru pentru afi continu continuat atee dupdzeci de ani. La rdndul lor, altele sdldsluiesc in tesdtura stiintei prin legea inertiei,fiind lipsite de mult de sensul existentei. Psihologia s-a dezvoltat concomitent in cdteva orientari, prezentdnd abordari radicale in ceea ce priveste natura psihicu psi hicului lui uman. Aces Aceste te ori orienta entari, ri, in anum anumite ite perioade perioade si in anum anumite ite tdri, au convietuitpasnic, ignordndu-se reciproc, in timp ce in alteperioade si in alte tdri s-au sau co conf nfru runt ntat at ac acer erb, b, al alcd cdtu tuin ind d ul ului uito toar aref efor orma mati tiun unii hi hibr brid idee - scriu specialistii.
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Preocupari si tendinte in psihologia contemporana
Capitol XVI
Dupa cum vezi, nu exista doar o singura orientare in psihologie; ele sunt mai multe, ceea ce indica o anumita dinamica. Avem mai multe abordari, mai multe posi po sibi bili lita tati ti de int inter erpr pret etar aree chiar chiar a acel acelor oras asii date. date. Totu Totull e frumo frumos, s, dar dar ceva ceva lipse lipsest stee aici. Ceva important. Lipseste tendinta spre imitate (sinteza) sau spre decizie, in priv pr ivin inta ta fol olos osir irii ii li limb mbaj ajul ului ui un unei ei te teor orii ii an anum ume. e. Regretand lipsa de sinteza, sa ne concentram asupra deciziei. Ch. Buchler, la o intalnire a Societatii Psihologiei Umaniste, la Montreal, in anul 1973, a spus:
Am ajun ajunsp spee te tere renu nulp lpsi siho holo logi giei ei ca no novi vice ce,, la incepu inceputu tull se seco colu lulu luii XX XX.. Pr Prin inci cipa pale lele le mele preocupdri le formulasem pe atunci in intrebarea: Ce credem despre viata omului? Consideram cdpsihologia imiva inlesni gdsirea unuirdspuns. Imiamintesc cuvintele sarcastice ale profesoarei mele din ultimii ani de liceu, card i-am mdrturisit interesul meu fata de psihologie: ,,Psihologia n-o sd-ti spundnimic despre viata, ci doar despre reactiile senzoriale la stimuli si despre invatare ". Eram cu atdt mai dezamdgitdsi am hotdrdt: ,,Dacdpsihologia nu este astfel, atunci voiface eu din ea o stiinta a vietii umane ". Magandeam: „ Cu ajutorul psihologiei ar trebui sd Jim trai aim mpropri propria a viata ata? ? Care Care capabili sdgdsim rdspunsul la intrebdrile: Cum satr
esterostulvi ostulvie eti tiii? Cumsa sane nerrap aportdm ortdmlacelelal alte teperso soane aneiin viata?" viata?" Ce crezi? Dupa tine, dezideratul autoarei s-a implinit? Probabil, dar NUMAI in cadrul declarativ al psihologiei umaniste, a carei precursoare a fost. Oare, in general, raspunsurile la aceste intrebari ar trebui sa constituie scopul eforturilor psihologiei? Nu este aceasta sarcina eticii sau a religiei? Vorbim aici despre standarde, despre bine si rau, despre decizii de natura morala. Ce crezi despre aceasta?
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Lecjia 39
Care sunt domeniile de interes ale teoreticianului in psihologie la mceputul secolului XXI?
Asadar, este diferit nivelul de dezvoltare al discipline! noastre, in diferite tari ale lumii contemporane. ^
In domeniul psihologiei contemporane aplicate (educationale, clinice, a muncii), in activitatea teoretica de cercetare ar trebui sa se puna in continuare accent pe:
-
___________
cercetarea optimizarii procesului de educatie, a eficientei procesului educational, a educatiei in familie, a atitudinilor parintilor;
cercetarea conditionarilor si a efectelor bolilor psihice si psihosomatice, a problemelor care tin de defectologie, neuropsihologie, neuropsihologie, psihopatologie, ———— psih ps ihol olog ogie ie me medi dica cala la si ju juri ridi dica ca,, de sa sana nata tate teaa ps psih ihic ica, a, pr prec ecum um si a fa fact ctor oril ilor or ca care re conduc la dependents; -
cercetarea costurilor si a beneficiilor in munca, a surmenajului, a luarii deciziilor, a conditionarii eficientei, precum si a selectiei resurselor umane.
Niciod Nici odat ataa nu es este te su sufi fici cien entt efo efort rtul ul de a cu cuno noas aste te ca catt ma maii bi bine ne ac aces este te pr prob oble leme me,, de a le intelege, intrucat o asemenea cunoastere este transpusa in mod firesc asupra posi po sibi billitati tiii de im imbu bun nat atat atiire a exi exisste ten ntei no noas asttre re.. Care Care sun suntt, dupa dupa pa pare rere reaa ta, ta, dom domeni niiile care nu au fost indicate aici si care merita atentie sub aspect teoretic si investigativ? Discuta despre acest lucru cu parteneral tau de discutie sau cu alti oameni, preocupati de tema respectiva.
Orientari ale dezvoltarii care apar in stiinta mondiala a
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Preocupari si tendinte in ps ihologia contemporana contemporana _______ _______ ___________________ ___________________
Capitol XVI
Ch. Buchler dorea sa faca din psihologie un instrument nu atat al cunoasterii sau al intelegerii, cat o sursa de indicatii concrete, de solutii referitoare la optiunile oamenilor, la responsabilitatea umana. Lucrurile nu s-au intamplat asa, psihologia tinzand catre alta directie. Dupa tine, este bine sau rau? De ce? Incearca sa gasesti argumente pro si contra. Psihologii nu sunt insa ,,absolviti" de obligatia de a cautabaze stiintifice concrete pent pe ntru ru conceptia integrala asupra individului uman. Dincolo de psihologia cognitiva, de aceasta problema se intereseaza cu precadere teoreticienii cu orientare umanista. In posrulatele lor exista mai putina rigoare, dar cata bucurie si energie, cat sentiment al fragilitatii si al infirmitatii a ceea ce este individual! Omul este un produs al naturii si un locatar al catorva lumi ce se intrepdtrund reciproc. La origine este un organism biologic. Din punct de vedere social, este purt pu rtdt dtor or de rolu roluri ri soci social ale. e. (... (...)) Omul Omul este este unul unul dint dintre re modu module lele le stru struct ctur urii ii iera ierarh rhic ice, e, ndscutepe Pdmdnt ca urmare a tendintei naturii de a construi intr-un he ceea ce a surp su rpat at in al altu tul. l. (...) (...) Omu mull es este te o pa part rtic icul uld d di dint ntrr-o o ca cate tedr dral ald d ma maie iest stuo uoas asd, d, a cd cdre reii armonie si simplitate, inpofida aglomeratiei detaliilor constructiei, potfi cuprinse dintr-o privire. Toatepdrtile ei redau spiritul intregului si, totusi,fiecare din ele este alta. Infelul acesta, intelegem conceptia de sistem al naturii, conditie indispensabild pent pe ntru ru cu cuno noas aste tere rea a om omul ului ui — — afirma afirma un specialist. Intr-un articol scris in 2001, citim ca ,,secolul XX cu siguranta nu a fost secolul
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Lecjia 39
Care sunt domeniile de interes ale teoreticianului in psihologie la inceputul secolului XXI?
In secolul XX, psihologia a beneficiat de realizarile neurologiei si fiziologiei \^ sistemului nervos. S-a desprins chiar un domeniu separat, neuropsihologia. In ultimii ani, s-a dezvoltat neurobiologia. Cercetarile asupra creierului si asupra cunoasterii reprezinta un important segment in cercetarea stiintifica.
Un series impediment in psihologie il constituie caracterul ,,mozaicat", raspandirea si lipsa unor modalitati de cumulare a cunostintelor. Sintezele teoretice si modelele par a tine de viitor. Lucrul acesta va fl posibil abia atunci cand vor fi cercetate suficient mecanismele fundamental de reglare la nivel neurobiologic, cognitiv si behavioristic. Fireste, nu este vorba de reducerea omenirii la dimensiunea biologica. Psihologia trebuie sa se raporteze la toate nivelurile de manifestare a persoanei. Stiinta cu caracter de baza ar trebui sa capete insa un statut riguros si justificat empiric. Dorim sa stim ce mecanisme neuronale isi asuma raspunderea pentru constiinta, pen p enttru sis sistem emul ul mem memo ori riei ei,, pen pentru pr proc oces esel elee de gan gand dire. Se Se par paree ca des desco cop per eriiri rille in acest domeniu de interes se vor produce destul de curand. Acest lucru nu impiedica nicicum discutiile si dezbaterile pe tema naturii si a mecanismelor de manifestare a omului in diferite sfere ale vietii individuale si sociale. Teoriile psihologiei aparute in secolul XX s-au ocupat si de procesul creativitatii, al receptarii si al participarii la cultura in sens larg. Exista numeroase cercetari referitoare la limbaj, comunicare, mass-media sau lapersuasiunea sociala, utilizata in sfera politicii, a ideologiei, a religiei si a economiei.
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Preocupari si tendinfc m psihologia contemporana
Capitol XVI
•
fenomenele pot fi cercetate numai in scopul cunoasterii stiintific stiintificee sau cu gandul la utilizarea lor practica, in viata;
•
in final, se poate cerceta evolutia fenomenelor sau doar rezultatul lor imediat.
Toate acestea au o uriasa influenta asupra concluziilor si reflectiilor finale.
Sa urmarim un exemplu: Daca studiezi nevoile cuiva, poti sa intrebi de ele. Persoana iti va spune ce stie ea insasi si ceea ce vrea sa relateze pe tema respectiva. Depinde de sfera ei de cunoastere, de constiin^a de sine, dar si de atitudinea fata de tine, de scopul discutiei, de orizontul asteptarilor, intr-o astfel de situatie. Poti observa tu singur, poti ruga pe altcineva sa observe sau poti aduna informatii, pe baza anchetei.
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Lec^ia 39
Care sunt domeniile de interes ale teoreticianului in psihologie la inceputul secolului XXI?
Scopurile psihologiei Sa revenim la istorie, dar la o perioada mai recenta. Te rog sa parcurgi citatul de mai jos si sa fii atent la reactiile pe care ti le va starni.
Abia cdnd omenirea Abia omenirea va disp dispune une de cuno cunostin stinte te mult mai sigure, sigure, refe referit ritoare oare la pers pe rson onal alit itat ate, e, si de me meto tode deps psih ihot oteh ehni nice ce ba baza zate tepe pe ac acea east sta, a, ps psih ihol olog ogia ia is isii va re real aliz iza a pe vaputea servi la di diri rijjare area a deplin sarcinile aflate in fata ei de la inceput. Ea vap Atun unci ci se se va ins insta tala la „ era psihologiei". Abia oameni nillor in in inte interesul oa oam meni nillor (!) (!).. At atuncipsihologia va tinepasul cu stiintele naturii si cu tehnica bazatdpe acestea. Abia Ab ia at atun unci ci ps psih ihol olog ogia ia va co cons nsti titu tuii o ba bazd zdpu pute tern rnic icdp dpen entr tru u ma majo jori rita tate tea a st stii iint ntel elor or umaniste, precumfizicapentru precumfizicapentru stiintele naturii. Trebuie sa recunoastem insd cd, in legdturd cu perspectivele de mai sus, se desprinde o intrebare destul de incomodd: oare oamenii care dispun de cunostinte foarte avansate despre viata psihicd, avdnd posibi posibilitatea litatea de a „ manipula "
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Preocupari si tendin|e in psiholog psihologia ia contemporana ________ contemporana __________________ __________________ __________ __
(
|
Capitol XVI
Psi sihol hologi ogia a descri scrie e ce cee ea ce seintampl pla a cu adevarat. adevarat.
Studiind omul, trebuie sa distingem faptele, datele, adica ceea ce vedem si auzim (ceea ce inregistram cu ajutorul simturilor sau al aparaturii) de ceea ce semnifica ele (adica de concluzii si interpretari). Daca ne ocupam de fenomene interne, cum ar fi teama, nevoia, frustrarea, trebuie sa definim aceste variabile in mod riguros, sa stabilim in ce fel se manifesta prezenta lor, precum si modalitatea de masurare.
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Lectia 39
Care sunt domeniile de interes ale teoreticianului in psihologie la inceputul secolului XXI?
Intre fumat si boala de cancer apare o corelatie. Surescitarea nervoasa este corelata si cu fumatul, si cu aparitia cancerului. Care este factorul primar si care este eel secundar? Stim ca exista mtre ele o legatura reciprocal |
)
Psi sihol hologia ogia coorodoneazaceea ce seintampl pla. a. Tinzand spre dirijarea a ceea ce se intampla, psihologia ca stiinta isi propune drept scop eliminarea fenomenelor nefavorabile din punct de vedere social, cum ar fi violenta, bolile psihice, sinuciderile, dificultatile la invatatura, conflictele interumane etc. De asemenea, printre acesti factori putem include si rasismul, conformismul, tulburarile sexuale. Gandeste-te cine si cum poate decide care fenomene se afla pe aceasta lista. Insusi continutul ei reprezinta un spatiu series al manipularii! Nu-i asa?
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Preocupari si tendinte in psihologia ps ihologia contemporana
Capitol XVI
Ni Nimeni nu vre vreaa sa sa se se su supuna puna dir dirijari jarii, i, sa fie fie manipu nipullat, cu cu to toate ca, ca, ades desea, ea, ma majori jorita tate teaa oamenilor nu au nimic impotriva faptului de a afla cum anume se poate obtine in mod eficient un loc de munca, cum anume se poate face o cariera sau cum sa-si exercite influenta asupra celorlalti, in acord cu scopurile personale. Nu ne ne plac placee sa fim fim con convi vins nsi, i, sa sa fim fim ind indem emna nati ti,, sa suf sufer erim im inf influ luen ente te str strai aine ne,, dar dar noi noi insine procedam astfel. Dorim sa ne dotam cu instramente corespunzatoare, pentru a ne exercita influenta. Ne convine mult mai putin rolul de obiect al unor asemenea influente. In general, ni se pare ca suntem rezistenti in fata lor.
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Lectia 39
Care sunt domeniile de interes ale teoreticianului in psihologie la inceputul secolului XXI?
Daca stabilim ce anume inseamna pentru oameni ceva nefavorabil, atunci, apeland la cunostintele de psihologie, cum putem sa reactionam in fata unui rau semnalat? Cunoscand conditiile in care apare un fenomen nedorit, precum si factorii care il sustin, am putea sa depasim depa sim multe probleme din lumea contemporana.
Instru Ins trumen mentel telee psi psihol hologi ogiei, ei, lafel lafel ca orice orice alt altee ins instru trumen mente, te, pot servi servi bin binelu eluii sau
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Preocupari §i tendinje in psihologia contemporana
Capitol XVI
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Lecjia 39
Care sunt domeniile de interes ale teoreticianului in psihologie la inceputul secolului XXI?
si asupra celor din jur. In calitatea sa de cercetator, el ar trebui sa fie sensibil la sentimentele persoanelor investigate. Acest lucru va fi posibil daca cercetatorul va constlentiza rolul de formare a subiecthitatii persoaneiin procesul de mfluentare sau de distrugere a acestei subiectivitati. Asadar, trebuie sa tindem spre a obtine acordul benevol de participare la orice fel de cercetari, pentru a starni increderea maxima in ceea ce priveste intentia,
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Preocupari §i tendinte in in psihologia contemporana___________________ contemporana_________________________ ______ __Capitol XVI
S. Milgram: Cele mat durabile solutiondri aleproblemelorpsihologicepot transpare la nivel biologic. Prin Printr tree cele cele mat mat de seam seamd d reali ealizd zdri ri in psi psiholo hologi giee (...) ...) se afld afldpr prog ogre resu sull in cer cerceta cetare rea a creierului, indeosebi descoperirea endorfinelor, endorfinelor, a substantelor substantelor produse de creier,
prin prin care care se aten atenue ueaz azd d dure durere rea. a. Cercetdrile au ardtat cat de multsuntempredispusi la influence intense alefortelor al ch cdnd cdnd ed cd de de ! de el
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