TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES
TOPIC 1
CONCEPTS AND ISSUES IN CURRICULUM
1.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 1 introduces you you to the key concepts and issues related to curriculum. It provides insights to the types of curriculum, relationship between curriculum, syllabus, course and programme. It also looks at the the forces that influence curriculum construction..
1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to: define curriculum • • •
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describe different types of curricula describe the relationship between curriculum, syllabus, course and programme list the forces that influence curriculum construction
1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
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TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES CONTENT 1.2.1 Concepts n! Iss"es Iss"es #n C"$$#c"%"& ' Ke( Concepts Concepts n! Iss"es
Making decisions about curriculum includes considering what the curriculum should be, how it can be enacted in the classroom and how students might epe eperi rien ence ce it. it. This This sect sectio ion n will will eam eamin ine e vario various us defi defini niti tion ons s of the the term term curriculum and the relationships between curriculum, syllabus, course and programme. Thus, to understand how the content of schooling is shaped in any society, we must understand the relationship between education and other institutions in society. In other words, to understand what is taught, how it is taught and why why it is taug taught ht,, we need need to look look at the the soci social al forc forces es that that shap shape e the the curriculum.
1.2.1 1.2.1 De)#n# De)#n#t#on t#ons s o) C"$$#c C"$$#c"%" "%"& &
E*e$c#se 1
W+t #s (o"$ !e)#n#t#on o) c"$$#c"%"&, •
!rite down in twenty"five"words"or"less a definition of curriculum.
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#hare your definition with another friend or in a small group.
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$ompare differences and similarities.
%#cientific& eperts are 'ualified and (ustified in designing curricula based on epert knowledge of what 'ualities are desirable in adult members of society and it can be know what eperiences would produce those 'ualities ) -o+n F$n%#n F$n%#n /o#tt. /o#tt. Thus Thus,, curriculum is defined as the experiences that someone ouht to ha!e in order to "ecome the #ind of adult the$ ouht to "ecome. "ecome. $urriculum is an ideal rather than reality of what will actually happen.
*riginated from the +atin word currere referring currere referring to the oval track upon which oman chariots raced )means literally to run a course-. plan for achieving goals )Tyler and Taba-. Tanner )1/0- defined curriculum as %the planned and guided learning eperiences and intended outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and eperiences under the auspices 2
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES of the school, for the learners2 continuous and wilful growth in personal social competence&. #chubert )1/03- defines curriculum as the contents of a sub(ect, concepts and tasks to be ac'uired, planned activities, the desired learning outcomes and eperiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform society. 4ratt )1/0- defines curriculum as a written document that systematically describes goals planned, ob(ectives, content, learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth. 5oodlad and #u )1//6- define curriculum as a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific timeframe and place, a tool that aims to bring about behavioural changes in students as a result of planned activities and includes all learning eperiences received by students with the guidance of the school. 5rundy )1/03- defines curriculum as a programme of activities )by teachers and pupils- designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or ob(ectives.7ass )1/03- provides a broader definition, stating that a curriculum includes %all of the eperiences that individual individual learners have in a program program of education education whose purpose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific ob(ectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present professional practice. $urriculum is: That which is taught in school8 • • •
set of of sub(ects8 $ontent8
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programme programme of studies8
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set of of materials8
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#e'uence of courses8
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set of of performance ob(ectives8
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course course of study8
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9verything that goes on within a school8
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9verything that is planned by school personnel8
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That which is taught both inside and outside of school directed by the school8 series series of eperiences undergone undergone by learners in school8 school8 and That which an individual learner eperiences as a result of schooling.
#ource:Peter #ource: Peter F. Oliva, Developing the Curriculum. Curriculum. Boston: Boston: Little, Little, Brown Brown & 1!".
Company. Company.
espite varying definitions of curriculum, there seems to be a consensus that it is a statement: *f what students should know )knowledge or content-8 •
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Be able to do )skills-8
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7ow it is taught )instruction-8
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7ow it is measured )assessment-8 and
7ow the educational system is organised )contet-. #t is a structure$ plan o% inten$e$ learning outcomes, involving nowle$ge, sill sills, s, 'eha 'ehavi viou ourr an$ an$ asso associ ciat ate$ e$ lear learni ning ng e(pe e(peri rien ence ces s orga organi nise se$ $ as a se)uence o% events that a stu$ent ac)uires through e$ucation an$ training. *ow we conceive o% the curriculum is i s important 'ecause our conceptions an$ ways o% reasoning a'out curriculum re%lect how we thin, stu$y an$ act on the the e$uc e$ucat atio ion n ma$e ma$e avai availa la'l 'le e to stu$ stu$en ents ts.. #n shor short, t, how how we $e%i $e%ine ne the the curriculum re%lects our assumptions a'out the worl$ +Corn'leth, 1-. •
T"to$#% Ts
In one;two sentences, define the term
1.2.2 1.2.2 P%nne P%nne! ! Enct Encte! e! n! 3#!! 3#!!en en C"$$#c C"$$#c"%" "%"& &
P%nne! C"$$#c"%"& 4O5e$t6E*p%#c#t6Inten!e! 4 O5e$t6E*p%#c#t6Inten!e! The overt overt curriculum curriculum is the open, or public, dimensio dimension n and includes includes curren currentt and and histor historica icall interp interpret retati ations ons,, learni learning ng eperi eperienc ences, es, and learning outcomes. the intended curriculum is captured most eplicitly in state content standards. statements of what every student must know and be able to do by some specified point in time. !hat students are supposed to learn. *pen *penly ly disc discus usse sed, d, cons consci ciou ously sly plan planne ned, d, usua usually lly writt written en down down,, presented through the instructional process Tetbooks, etbooks, learning kits, lesson plans, school plays etc. •
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3#!!en C"$$#c"%"& 4In5#s#%e6Co5e$t hidden curriculum is a side effect of an education, =>lessons? which are learne learned d but but not openly openly intended intended&& such such as the transm transmiss ission ion of norms, values, and beliefs conveyed in the classroom and the social environment. ny learning eperience may teach unintended lessons. The The proc proces esse ses@ s@th the e %noi %noise se&& by whic which h the the over overtt curr curric icul ulum um is transmitted %they are also learning and modifying attitudes, motives, and values in relationship to the eperiences@in eperiences@in the classroom.& •
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TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES •
The nonacademic outcomes of formal education are sometimes of greater conse'uence than is learning the sub(ect matter.
Encte! C"$$#c"%"& •
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The enacted curriculum refers to instruction )e.g. what happens in classrooms-. the content actually delivered during instruction )i.e., instructional content-, as well as how it is taught )i.e., instructional practices-. Typically, the content targets are based on the intended;planned curriculum. In other words, the enacted curriculum is what students get the chance to learn, as well as how teachers =deliver= the content. The %9nacted $urriculum& reflects the daily curricular eperience of a student within instructional settings eemplified by assignments, instructional practices, and managed content.
N"%% C"$$#c"%"& •
!hen a topic is never taught:
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%too unimportant@&
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%too controversial@&
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%too inappropriate@&
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%not worth the time@&
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%not essential@&
That which we do not teach, thus giving students the message that these elements are not important in their educational eperiences or in our society. T"to$#% Ts
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ifferentiate the types of curricula.
9plain to colleagues the characteristics of each types of curriculum. •
No7 te $e e)o$e (o" &o5e on to t+e ne*t top#c.
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TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES
1.2.8 Fo$ces t+t #n)%"ence c"$$#c"%"& const$"ct#on
Anowing the social foundations of curriculum is crucial in making decisions about what should be included in the curriculum and eventually what happens in the classroom. #chools eist within the contet of society and influence culture which in turn shapes curriculum. The story <$urriculum of orest #chool2 illustrates this point. curriculum should be able to prepare students for the present and the future. In other words, a curriculum should address the wants and needs of learners by responding to social conditions locally, nationally and globally )McCeil, 1//D-. Po%#t#c%
In the politics of the school curriculum, ennis +awton observes that curriculum development is about selecting %the most important aspects of culture for transmission to the net generation. *ne of the of the crucial 'uestions to ask is the political 'uestion: %who makes the selection&.9ducation is normally a covert tool in the stratagem)scheme;ployof the political class. Econo&#c 9ducation was primarily didactic and learning was less book"based that it is today. $ontrolled largely by the teacher, education focused predominantly on basic skills. Teachers taught reading, writing and arithmetic to complement the skill students learn outside school. By the beginning of the 6th century, the industrial revolution brought about drastic changes in the economy of many countries. More people moved to live in cities and working in factories. s a conse'uence new skills were needed in an industrial society. It was then that a great change took pace in education: the model of schools as a factory emerged. #tudents were taught the facts and skills they needed for industrial (obs, which they were likely to hold their entire lives. *ne"room schools were eventually replaced by large buildings. #tudents were sorted by grades and sat in straight rows, with a teacher at the front of the classroom in control of learning. The curriculum was compartmentalised. 6
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES
!ithout doubt, in the post"industrial or information society, a new curriculum will be needed. It is envisioned that in the new model, education will be more personalised. In other words, education will be more differentiated to meet each student2s learning re'uirements. #tudents will be challenged with higher epectations of learning, and encouraged to think critically and creatively as they solve problems. They will spend more time using information technology and learn independently. The knowledge gained and skills ac'uired and attitudes nurtured will support them throughout life.
Soc#% #ociety is increasingly becoming diverse, especially in urban areas. #ocieties are becoming more multicultural, multiethnic and multi"religious and it is important that curriculum understands and reflect these changes. s stated by *rnstein and 7unkins )1//0-, %the compleion of our students is changing from one colour to various shades of colour and this adding of colour and cultural diversity will continue into the foreseeable future& )p.1EF-. s the world moves towards becoming a global village, society will become even more diverse with people bringing in new values, new languages and a new way of life. ddressing diversity in the curriculum will continue to be a challenge for educators. It is a task that will at times be politically sensitive. *ne concept that has interested educators is assimilation or integration of the diverse groups. In the Fs and 3s the melting pot approach was adopted in some countries in an attempt to assimilate people of different cultural, ethnic and religious backgrounds. It is metaphor for the way in which diverse societies develop, in which the ingredients in the pot )people of different cultures, languages and religions- are combined so as to lose their distinct identities resulting in a final product that is 'uite different from the original inputs. Gsually, it involved the blending of minority groups with the ma(ority. It was hoped that a national identity would evolve from these varied attributes. 7owever, in practice the culture of the ma(ority became dominant. This approach has proven to be less successful in assimilating people and has been replaced by the sala$ 'owl approach. 7ere people of diverse backgrounds are all in the same salad but maintain their own uni'ue features. $ultural diversity of pluralism recognises that most societies are composed of many voices and many ethnic groups. It is a framework in which groups show respect and tolerance of each other8 coeist and interact without conflict. 4ower and decision making is shared leading to more widespread participation and greater feeling of commitment from society members.
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TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES 7ow should curriculum address cultural diversity or pluralismH The challenge confronting educators is developing curriculum that is responsive to students2 diverse social and cultural values and at the same time capable of creating a national identity based on core values and practices. It may be necessary to have different programmes, different pedagogical approaches, fleible curriculum and even varied educational environments to address the needs of all students. Co society can afford to socially or economically marginalise any student and the curriculum must nurture students to become active participants in a dynamic and emerging society )#chon, 1//-.
1.2.9 Conce$ns o) !#))e$ent s+$e+o%!e$s #n t+e M%(s#n conte*t #pecial Interest 5roups and $urriculum $urriculum decision making is political. Jarious special interest groups continually propose what should be included in school curriculum. The topics range form substance abuse to the rights and responsibilities of citiKens. 9nvironmental groups insist that students should be taught about conservation and preservation and the inculcation of values to love the environment. mong the concerns of these groups are caring for our rivers, industrial pollution, saving the whales and leatherback turtles. #ubstance abuse is another concern of society. #ubstance abuse includes drugs )such as heroin, mari(uana, ecstasy pills, etc-, alcohol,cigarettes,glue sniffing and so forth. #ociety has repeatedly emphasised the need for substance abuse prevention programmes to be included in school curriculum. 5roups involved in prevention of drug addiction are keen to see that students are taught about drug addiction in the hope that they will be more aware of the problem and say %no& to the habit. $onsumer advocates are keen to see that students are taught about their rights and responsibilities as consumers in the hope that they will be more prudent consumers as students and later as adults. 7ealth groups have also suggested that schools introduce programmes about 7IJ ids awareness, nutritional information, and other health related issues. s society becomes more developed, the rise in obesity is of concern in terms of its conse'uences on the health system, especially in worker productivity and increased ependiture on health care. #e education has been a topic that has been proposed at various points8 especially when statistics and instances of teen pregnancy and promiscuity are highlighted by the media and government reports. $rime prevention by educating the community on crime prevention techni'ues and by getting citiKens involved in crime prevention •
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TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES
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activities such as neighborhood watch to reduce the number of crimes and increase the 'uality of life of citiKens. 5overnments are also determined to ensure that students are taught about their rights and responsibilities as citiKens. $itiKenship education has been proposed in an effort to politically socialise students with democratic ideals, principles and practices. Being prepared to play a part in political institutions is essential such as the ability to make informed decision at the personal and societal level. #imilarly, to be educated to take an active part in the cultural life of society such as holding on to religious and moral beliefs, the ability to use and interpret a wide range of media, socialisation of children and so forth
Re)%ect#on
o you think that the syllabuses L tetbooks used in our country ade'uately reflect your national ideology L the demands of our societyH
#urf the internet to get more information on this topic.
Then take a break and move on to the net topic when you are ready.
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TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES
TOPIC 2
MODELS PRINCIPLES AND DE:ELOPMENT OF CURRICULUM DESIGN
2.0 SYNOPSIS Topic 6 introduces you to the models, principles and develooopment of curriculum design 2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of Topic 6, you will be able to: discuss the models of curriculum design • • •
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compare and contrast the curriculum design models identify the steps in curriculum design and relate it to the composition and structure of curriculum design in Malaysia discuss the underlying principles in curriculum design discuss the ob(ectives of the current curriculum i.e. A## and AB#M, the principles and main focus of the current curriculum in relation to C94 compare and contrast the current curriculum with previous Malaysia 9nglish +anguage school curriculum
2.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPIC Mo!e%s P$#nc#p%es n! De5e%op&ent o) c"$$#c"%"& !es#;n
Mo!e%s o) c"$$#c"%"& !es#;n
P$#nc#p%es #n c"$$#c"%"& !es#;n 10
De5e%op&ent o) t+e M%(s#n c"$$#c"%"&
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES
2.8
CONTENT
2.8.1 Mo!e%s p$#nc#p%es n! !e5e%op&ent o) c"$$#c"%"& !es#;n ' Ke( Concepts n! Iss"es
$urriculum is the foundation of the teaching"learning process whether it is a school, college, university or training organisation. The tetbooks used, how teachers are trained, development of instructional plans, evaluation of students, preparation of guides for both students and teachers, and setting of standards, are all based on the curriculum. Thus, without a curriculum no educational institution can function efficiently. 5iven such importance to curriculum, a number of 'uestions are raised. 7ow is it developedH 7ow is it organisedH !ho develops itH !hat are the principles in developing a curriculumH 7ow do we know whether the curriculum is successfulH 2.8.2 De)#n#t#ons o) Mo!e%s
E*e$c#se 1
!hat is your definition of a modelH •
!rite down in twenty"five"words"or"less a definition of a model.
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#hare your definition with another friend or in a small group.
$ompare differences and similarities. model consists of interacting parts that serves as a guide or procedure for action. #ome models are simple while others are very comple. In many instances, models are more similar than different and are often refinements or revisions of earlier models. simplified representation of reality which is often depicted in diagrammatic )graphic- form. •
!hat is the purpose of a modelH To provide a structure for eamining the elements that go to make up curriculum planning, and how these elements interrelate. 11
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES
The development of a curriculum involves the developer in decisions about the nature and appropriateness of the substantive)essential;fundamentalelements, eg the: outcomes
content
method
assessment strategies)evaluationThese decisions are made in relation to the conte(t in which the curriculum will operate T"to$#% Ts In one;two sentences, define the term
2.8.8 T(%e$
TN+92# M*9+ )1/E/- " introduced in 1/E/ by alph !alter Tyler in his classic 'oo Basic Principles o% Curriculum an$ #nstruction Aey 9mphasis: Instructional *b(ective )Instructional ob(ectives: a $etaile$ $escription that states how an instructor will use an instructional activity , innovation or program to reach the $esire$ learning o'ective+s-. 4urpose: To measure students progress towards ob(ectives Method 1. #pecify Instructional *b(ectives 6. $ollect performance ata . $ompare performance data with the ob(ectives;standards specified O/yler: Fon$ly calle$ 0Father o% Behavioral O'ectives 2 $evelope$ an o'ective3'ase$ evaluation mo$el lso sometimes called the se'uential, rational, behavioural or means P end model )product-. This longstanding yet still seminal )important;influential- model has regained significance since the advent of outcomes"based education in the 1//s and the conse'uent emphasis on planning from outcomes8 that is, using outcomes as the basis for the selection of content, teaching;learning methods and assessment strategies. Tyler describes learning as taking place through the action of the learner, not what the teacher does. 12
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES
This model consists of four primary steps: Development o% per%ormance o'ectives Development o% activities Organi4ation o% activities 5valuation
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!hat is the purpose of the educationH
)!hat educational purposes should the school seek to attainH " meanin% definin appropriate learnin o"&ecti!es' By 6purposes6, /yler was re%erring to 6o'ectives6 an$ when $eveloping curriculum o'ectives $ata shoul$ 'e gathere$ %rom three sources7 namely, the su'ect area +e.g. 8cience, 9athematics, eography, *istory-, the learners +e.g. economically $isa$vantage$, gi%te$, varying aca$emic a'ilitiesan$ society +e.g. ethics, patriotism, national unity, environmental awareness, employment, maret nee$s-. fter identifying the ob(ectives )which are the desired learning outcomes-, the curriculum developer has to pass them through two screens: the Ophilosophy screen and the OOpsychology screen. esulting from this are specific instructional ob(ectives which state the kind of outcomes that are observable are measurable. OPhilosophy o% e$ucation is the stu$y o% )uestions such as 6;hat is e$ucation<6, =;hat is the purpose o% e$ucation<>, 6;hat $oes it mean to now something<6 an$ =;hat is the relationship 'etween e$ucation an$ society<> For e(ample, when you propose the teaching o% a particular 'o$y o% nowle$ge, course or su'ect, you will 'e ase$, 6;hat is your philosophy %or intro$ucing that content<6 OO/he term as use$ 'y teachers emphasi4es its relationship to curriculum, to teaching, an$ to the issues o% se)uencing, rea$iness, an$ trans%er. /he two maor psychological perspectives o% learning, 'ehaviorist an$ constructivist, have important i$eas to o%%er e$ucators. 6-
!hat educational eperiences will attain the purposesH
)7ow can learning eperiences be selected which are likely to be useful in these ob(ectivesH- " meanin% introducin useful learnin experiences. /he ne(t step is the selection o% e$ucational e(periences which ena'le the attainment o% the stipulate$ o'ectives. /he learning e(periences have to tae into account the previous e(periences learners 'ring to a situation. /he 13
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES learning e(periences will have to 'e selecte$ 'ase$ on what is nown a'out human learning an$ human $evelopment. -
7ow can these eperiences be effectively organiKedH
)7ow can learning eperiences be organiKed for effective instructionH- " meanin% orani(in experiences to maximi(e their effect . *e emphasise$ that the e(periences shoul$ 'e properly organise$ so as to enhance learning an$ suggeste$ that i$eas, concepts, values an$ sills 'e use$ as organising elements woven into the curriculum. /hese elements woul$ serve as organisers lining content within a particular su'ect +e.g. *istory, 5conomics, 8cience- an$ also $etermine the metho$ o% instruction or $elivery o% content. E-
7ow can we determine when the purposes are metH
)7ow can the effectiveness of learning eperiences be evaluatedH- " meanin% e!aluatin the process and re!isin that )ere not effecti!e' Finally, /yler propose$ that evaluation shoul$ 'e an important part o% the curriculum $evelopment process. #t was necessary %or e$ucators to now whether the selecte$ learning e(periences pro$uce$ the inten$e$ results. For e(ample, i% the o'ective was to $evelop critical thining among stu$ents, $i$ the learning e(periences selecte$ achieve this o'ective< /hrough evaluation it will 'e possi'le to $etermine whether the curriculum was e%%ective or ine%%ective.
2.8.9 W+ee%e$
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES
!heeler2s model for curriculum design is an improvement upon Tyler2s model. Instead of a linear model, !heeler developed a cyclical model. 9valuation in !heeler2s model is not terminal. indings from the evaluation are fed back into the ob(ectives and the goals, which influence other stages.
*heeler+s Model 1 ims, goals and ob(ectives
D 9valuation
6 #election of learning eperiences
#election of content
E *rganisation and integration of e eriences
dapted from Grevbu, . *. )1/0D-. Curriculum 8tu$ies.
!heeler contends that: ims should be discussed as behaviours referring to the end product of learning which yields the ultimate goals. *ne can think of these ultimate goals as outcomes. ims are formulated from the general to the specific in curriculum planning. This results in the formulation of ob(ectives at both an enabling and a terminal level. $ontent is distinguished from the learning eperiences which in turn, determine the content. T"to$#% Ts
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ifferentiate the two types of models. 9plain to colleagues the characteristics of each type of model.
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TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES 2.8.> Steps #n c"$$#c"%"& !es#;n #n $e%t#on to &o!e%s o) c"$$#c"%"& !es#;n In the 1/Fs, curriculum designers such as 7ilda Taba reduced TylerQs curriculum rationale into a simple procedure: 1. iagnosis of needs. 6. ormulation of ob(ectives. . #election of content. E. *rganiKation of content. D. #election of learning eperiences. F. *rganiKation of learning eperiences. 3. etermination of what to evaluate and the ways and means of doing it. This procedure has defined curriculum design since that time. $urriculum design became little more than a determination of goals, activities, content, delivery systems and assessment techni'ues. $urriculum design became basically little more than an eercise in solving a series of problems. 2.8.? P$#nc#p%es #n c"$$#c"%"& !es#;n !hat is curriculum designH $urriculum design is deciding about the %shape& or %configuration& of a curriculum plan. It involves the selection of content in line with the goals and ob(ectives of the curriculum. The selected content will have to be arranged in a form that will help the teacher in choosing and organising appropriate learning eperiences for the classroom. $urriculum design is also referred to as %curriculum organisation&. •
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In short, designing the curriculum involves the task of organising or arranging the four components;elements8 namely, o=ect#5es s"=ect &tte$ 4content tec+#n;@%e$n#n; e*pe$#ences and e5%"t#onprocedures into a cohesive and comprehensive plan that can be implemented with minimal difficulties. good curriculum is: Balanced )!ell"ad(usted igorous )emanding;ifficult $oherent )$lear;ational;Intelligible Jertically integrated ppropriate )#uitable;itting ocused;parsimonious )tightfisted elevant )4ertinent;#ignificant16
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES The following principles have been proposed when deciding on content organisation )#owell, 68 *rnstein L 7unkins, 1//0-: 1- #cope " #cope refers to both the breadth and depth of content and includes all topics, learning eperiences and organising threads found in the curriculum plan. #cope not only refers to cognitive learning but also affective learning, and some would argue spiritual learning )5oodland L Rhiin #u, 1//6-. #ometimes the scope of a curriculum is narrow, consisting of (ust a simple listing of key topics and activities. 6- #e'uence " #e'uence refers to the organisation of content and the etent to which it fosters cumulative and continuous learning )referred to as vertical relationship among sections of the curriculum-. o students have the opportunity to make connections and enrich their understanding of the contentH It is important that the se'uencing of content leads to the cumulative development of intellectual and affective processes. The se'uence of content and eperiences should be based on the logic of the sub(ect matter and the way in which individuals learn. It should be based on psychological principles and understanding of human development and learning: a- #imple to comple P $ontent is organised from simple subordinate components to comple components depicting interrelationships among components. b- #piral " In a spiral curriculum, concepts may be introduced on a simple level in the early grades, and then revisited with more and more compleity and application later on. c- 4rere'uisites P It works on the assumption that bits of information or learning must be grasped before other bits of information can be understood. d- !hole to part P $ontent is better understood if an overview )wholeis first presented to show the connections between the parts. e- $hronology P This is a useful organiser for se'uencing content especially in sub(ects such as history, political science and world events. f- Jertical organisation " This simply means that content and skills are arranged so that they build on one another8 that they align with the general se'uence of cognitive development. They indicate what students have learned and what they will learn later. g- 7oriKontal organisation " It involves how skills and content that are taught during one level or one period of time relate to another. - Integration " Integration is the bringing together of the concepts, skills and values of different sub(ect areas to reinforce each other. Bits of information from different sub(ect areas are brought together in such a way as to present the learner with a unified picture of knowledge. #ome have argued that however much curriculum planners try to 17
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES integrate information8 it is the learners who integrate what they are learning in their minds. It is something that happens within the individual learner. The idea of integration was popularised in the Fs by 7ilda Taba because of concern that school curriculum was too dis(ointed, fragmented and detached. +ately, there has been a surge of interest in curriculum integration due to the rapid accumulation of information that is doubling in a shorter period of time. Increasingly, there is a realisation that knowledge has to be viewed in a much broader sense, particularly in dealing with ideas that cut across disciplines. !hen faced with real"world situations, seldom is one area of content sufficient to eplain comple phenomena.
2.8. De5e%op&ent o) t+e M%(s#n c"$$#c"%"& Nt#on% P+#%osop+( o) E!"ct#on 4NPE %9ducation in Malaysia is a continuous effort towards enhancing potentials of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner in order to create individuals who are well"e'uipped intellectually, spiritually and emotionally. This effort aims to produce knowledgeable, ethical and responsible Malaysian citiKens who are can contribute towards the harmony and prosperity of the community and nation.& The Cational 4hilosophy of 9ducation )C49- acts as a guide for all educational activities in Malaysia. It sets the values and principles of the Malaysian education system from the primary to the tertiary level. The C49 eplains the aims and ob(ectives of the national education for the individual and the nation. Its aims and ob(ectives are in tandem, namely, to produce individuals who are knowledgeable and full of integrity who will contribute as responsible citiKens. 9ducation is considered to be a basic and m a(or process in developing individuals to be the key players in achieving the country2s aims and aspirations. !ith the C49, the national education system has propelled to the forefront of education in the region. The basis of C492s philosophy is that humans are steadfast in their belief in god and their religion. The ultimate aim of education based on this philosophy therefore is to develop every aspect of individuals in a harmonious and balanced manner so as to preserve their wellbeing. Anowledge and education should path the way to goods ethics and moral values as responsible and learned members of the community and nation. core concept of the C49 is the value and role of knowledge in the development of individuals and their role in the community. More importantly, 18
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES the value of knowledge lies in the truth of the matter which serves not only to inform but also to transform and shape individuals to serve the community. This power of knowledge that is able to transform individuals and their networks makes it a very valuable commodity. 9ducation is a lifelong process and man is constantly in need to epand, eplore and verify eisting knowledge. 9perience does not only enrich and strengthen knowledge but also re"eamine and increase the capacity of eisting knowledge possessed by individuals. St"!( o) t+e c"$$ent M%(s#n En;%#s+ Ln;";e sc+oo% c"$$#c"%"& The ?uriulum 8tan$ar$ 8eolah @en$ah )A##- was introduced to overcome certain shortcomings within the older system, the ?uriulum Bersepa$u 8eolah @en$ah )AB#-. It is hoped with this new restructured and improved curriculum, our children would have the necessary knowledge, skills and also the values to face and overcome the challengers of the current times. In this fast paced progressive world, what worked very well in 1/0 is (ust not good enough today. The use of technology and people skills for one, are vital tools that needed to be in cooperated into the curriculum to ensure that our children can perform successfully on a global platform. They need to be e'uipped not only with the necessary knowledge and skills but also with the strength of character and leadership 'ualities to be successful. A## has one new word in it <#tandard2. In this new curriculum, there are set standards of learning that our children have to achieve at the different levels of their schooling. This means that when our children complete a particular level of schooling, they are epected to have achieved a preset standard of knowledge, skills and values. t specific times at each level these learning standards will be measured to ensure that no child gets left behind. If a child fails to meet the re'uired standard, the teacher is re'uired to do more revision activities with the child until he or she eventually achieves the re'uired standard. The new curriculum has also been designed to go beyond ac'uiring communication skills, self"development and the child2s immediate environment as in the AB#. It is designed to enhance and embrace the use of science and technology, develop values, understand humanitarian issues and also focus on the child2s physical and aesthetical development. lthough the AB# focused on holistic learning, the current curriculum seeks to go beyond this. The A## curriculum uses what is known as a modular"based system. or easy understanding let us look at the teaching and learning of the 9nglish +anguage. In A##, for the primary school, the 9nglish +anguage syllabus is divided into two separate levels. A## +evel 1 is made up of Near *ne, Near Two 19
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES and Near Three while A## +evel 6 comprises of Near our, Near ive and Near #i.
or +evel 1 the modules taught are: Module 1 )+istening and #peakingModule 6 )eadingModule )#peakingModule E )+anguage rts•
•
•
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t +evel 6, grammar will be added to the four modules taught in +evel 1. lthough tetbooks are being used in the teaching and learning process, learning is now more accessible with students playing a more important role in their learning. ote learning is no longer encouraged and with the introduction of +anguage rts component in the curriculum, there is now space for interactive actives. These include the use of drama, role"play, debates, language games and songs to make the lessons more meaningful and facilitate the learning of the language. +essons are more fun and there is also more movement and activities in the process of learning. This element of
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TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES The long"term ob(ective of the A## is to produce individuals who have positive self"image and high self"esteem. !ith character building emphasiKed, it is hoped that our children would not only have the ade'uate knowledge and skills but would also have strong leadership 'ualities and character to face the challengers of the current scenario.
Co&p$$#son o) ot+e$ M%(s#n En;%#s+ Ln;";e sc+oo% c"$$#c"%"& T+e Inte;$te! P$#&$( Sc+oo% C"$$#c"%"& 4ICPS ' K/SR The Integrated 4rimary #chool $urriculum is divided into two phases that is 4hase 1 )Near1"- and 4hase II )Near E"F-. The curriculum emphasises the mastery, reinforcement and application of the s and the ac'uisition of comple skills and knowledge. lso, emphasised is the development of positive attitudes and values. The content is divided into si components: basic skills, humanities, art and recreation, values and attitudes, living skills and communication skills. The compulsory sub(ects are Bahasa Malaysia, 9nglish, mathematics, Islamic 9ducation, moral education, music, art, physical education, science, local studies and living skills. T+e Inte;$te! Secon!$( Sc+oo% C"$$#c"%"& 4ICSS ' K/SM The Integrated #econdary #chool $urriculum put emphasis on providing a general education and consolidation of skills ac'uired in the primary grades. The secondary school curriculum continued to focus on the development of positive attitudes and values among students. The lower secondary curriculum comprised of the following sub(ects: Bahasa Malaysia, 9nglish, mathematics, Islamic 9ducation, moral education, science, geography, history, physical education, art and living skills. In the upper secondary curriculum, besides compulsory sub(ects such as history, mathematics, Bahasa Malaysia, 9nglish, and moral education;Islamic education8 students select elective sub(ects from the humanities, pure sciences, Islamic studies, applied arts, information technology, technology and languages.
Re)%ect#on o you think that the curriculum used in our country is based on a particular curriculum design modelH S"&&$( The curriculum design models discussed show that curriculum designing is conducted stage by stage. #ome of the models discussed consider the 21
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES process to be more important than the ob(ectives. *ther models take ob(ectives to be the most important feature of curriculum design. 5enerally, all models stress the importance of considering a variety of factors that influence curriculum. ela your mind before you move on to the net topic
TOPIC 8
CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGNING A CURRICULUM
8.0 SYNOPSIS Topic introduces you to the considerations in designing a curriculum. 8.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of Topic , you will be able to: discuss the factors involved in curriculum design • •
discuss the importance of knowledge of the curriculum in organising teaching and learning
8.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPIC Cons#!e$t#ons #n !es#;n#n; c"$$#c"%"&
Nee!s n%(s#s
Pe$sonne%
T$;et ;$o"p
Mte$#% se%ect#on
A#&s n! o=ect#5es
Content
Mon#to$#n; n! s"ppo$t
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Le$n#n; t+eo$#es pp$oc+es n! &et+o!s
Assess&ent n! e5%"t#on
Const$#nts
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES
8.8
CONTENT
8.8.1 Cons#!e$t#ons #n Des#;n#n; C"$$#c"%"&
T"to$#% Ts iscuss some of the considerations in designing a curriculum. The curriculum design phase is the systematic process of r esearch, planning, identifying and specifying the complete design of the course ob(ectives, lesson planning ,topic content, training methodology, learner eercises, courseware content, and assessment criteria.
Consideration in Curriculum Design
Constrai nts
Assessment & #valuation
Needs Analysis
!onitoring & "upport
Target Group
!aterial "election
Aims & Objectives
erson nel
Cont ent
Learning theories, approaches & methods
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TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES
Nee! n%(s#s •
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Ceeds analysis )also known as needs assessment- has a vital role in the process of designing and carrying a curriculum. ccording to Iwai et al. )1///-, the term needs analysis generally refers to the activities that are involved in collecting information that will serve as the basis for developing a curriculum that will meet the needs of a particular group of students. The curriculum designers must be aware of the learners2 strengths and weaknesses. Ceeds analysis is a process of collecting and analyKing information about learners in order to set goals and contents of a language curriculum based on their needs )Aayi, 60-. It eamines what learners already know and what they need to know )Cation L Macalister, 61-. Many scholars indicate that knowing about learners2 needs such as %their learning ob(ectives, language attitudes, epectations from the course& are necessary in order to design an efficient curriculum )Brindley, 1/0E8 Cunan, 1/00, Senodohids, 66, et Aayi, 60-. By gathering such information, therefore, the needs analysis can guarantee that the course will contain the relevant and useful things for students to learn.
T$;et G$o"p !ho is the target audienceH or whom we design our curriculumH $onsider the pupils2 Individual needs bilities Interests 4otentials Multiple intelligence )visual, auditory or kinesthetic learnerJarious learning styles or learning modes )hands on, discovery learning, eperiential8 learning, distance learning • • • • • •
!ho is the target audience8 !hat is the minimum;maimum current knowledge of the participant audienceH !hat are their characteristicsH !hat are their special needsH !hat knowledge and skill deficiencies currently 24
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES eistH !hat are the tasks currently performed by the target audience and what new skill level is re'uired following the trainingH !hat are the available delivery options and methods for transferring the new skills to the workplaceH !hat is the instructional setting8 e.g. lectures, tutorials, on"the"(ob, self study, etcH7ow do these skills connect to the intended audienceH !hat is the timeline for programme completionH $urriculum should be appropriate for: " personal development )attitudes, behaviours" social development )communication" aesthetic development " interpersonal;intrapersonal development " physical development " Intellectual development " Multiple intelligence )linguistic, spatial, musical, logical"mathematicalA#&s n! O=ect#5es •
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+esson, programme, life@everything starts with an aim, ob(ective or purpose The aims of curriculum are the reasons for undertaking the learning <(ourney2 9.g. im: " to prepare students for employment in a particular profession " to develop problem"solving skills and adapt to changes in society
The stated aims of a curriculum tell students what are the results of studying it is likely to be. )what would they gain by learning from it-.ims are not the same as desired learning outcomes. a- aims should relate to the combined impact of the curriculum, the pedagogy and the assessment of the various elements. b- desired learning outcomes need to be student oriented, and should point to theknowledge, skills, competencies and attitudes of those students who successfully complete the course. ims and +earning *b(ectives " im statements are broad and all encompassing, while, desired ob(ective;learning outcomes are specific, behavioural, student" focussed statements. Content se%ect#on ll curricula have content.$hoices have to be made on what to be included in curriculum.The
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES "the topics "issues or sub(ects that will be covered as it proceeds
!hen selecting content for curriculum, you should bear in mind the following principles: 1 #t s+o"%! e $e%e5nt to t+e o"tco&e o) t+e c"$$#c"%"& 47+t !o 7e see to c+#e5e #n %#ne 7#t+ #&s6 o=ect#5es an effective curriculum is 4G4*#IJ9 • •
$learly focused on the planned outcomes
The inclusion of irrelevant topics, however interesting in themselves, acts as a distraction and may confuse students. 2 t+e content s+o"%! e pp$op$#te to t+e %e5e% o) t+e t$;et ;$o"p an effective curriculum is progressive )simple comple, basics advanced-, leading students onward and building their knowledge Materials which is too basic or too advanced for their current stage makes students either bored or baffled, and erodes their motivation to learn •
•
8 #t s+o"%! e "p@to@!te. The students should be aware of what2s happening around them and the world. The content should be constantly updated. •
•
9 t+e content s+o"%! e 5%#! 4O$nste#n n! 3"n#ns1BB Jalidity refers to whether the information passed on to the students is authentic and obtained from credible sources )reliable-. InternetHH oubt the reliability.. •
• •
$ontents need to be checked to determine its accuracy.
> )es##%#t( 4cp%e o) e#n; !one67o$%e 6 e*ec"t%e O$nste#n n! 3"n#ns 41BB educators who select content have to take into consideration the constraints of time, epertise of staff,funding, and other educational resources that schools might face when implementing the curriculum. 9.g. the time allocated for teaching may be insufficient to cover all the topics, because school have to allocate time for etra"curricular activities and other school events. •
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TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES Le$n#n; t+eo$#es &et+o!s n! pp$oc+es The teaching and learning methods or learning eperiences should be derived from the content and learning ob(ectives in a meaningful way and the methods or the organisation of eperiences should facilitate the attainment of respective ob(ectives in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domain. Most curriculum designs can be grouped into the following three basic designs8 namely, sub(ect"centred designs, learner"centred designs and problem"centred designs. #ub(ect"$entred esigns include D types of designs: academic sub(ect designs, discipline designs, broad field designs, correlation designs and process designs. +earner"$entred esigns include types of designs identified as child" centred, romantic;radical designs and humanistic designs. 4roblem"$entred esigns include types of designs identified as life" situations design, core design and social problems design. •
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1- #ub(ect"centred design
#ub(ect"$entred esigns are by far the most popular and widely used curriculum design. This is because knowledge and content are well accepted as integral parts of the curriculum. #ince ac'uiring a body of content is integral in any school system, much thought has focused on how best to present the knowledge, skills and values of the sub(ects to learners and the following five approaches have been proposed: )a-
cademic #ub(ect esign The academic sub(ect design is both the oldest and best known design to most people because it was the way many of them were educated. This design is based on the belief that humans are uni'ue because of their intellect and the 'uest for and ac'uisition of knowledge is to feed this intellect. In the 1/s, obert 7utchins indicated that the academic sub(ect design model for merican schools should comprise language and its uses )reading, writing, grammar, literature-, Mathematics, #cience, 7istory and foreign languages. 7as it changed todayH !hy is this model of curriculum design widely adoptedH *ne reason given is that it is much easily interpreted in tetbooks and commercially available support materials. #ince teaching is essentially a verbal activity )whether it be lecture, recitation, group discussion- teachers find it easier to communicate the ideas and knowledge of a sub(ect presented in verbal form in tetbooks. lso, people are familiar with this format, having gone through it themselves when in school. 27
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES 7owever, critics argue that this design deemphasises the learner by taking away their rights to choose the content that is most meaningful to them. The focus on the sub(ect matter fails to foster social, psychological and physical development and to some etent, fosters an elite ruling class based on knowledge )*rnstein L 7unkins, 1//0-. )b- iscipline esign discipline is a specific body of knowledge that has its own methods of in'uiry, has its specialised words and terminology, has a tradition and a collection of literature, and the persons involved in the field are theoreticians and practitioners. 4roponents of the discipline design model emphasise the teaching of the disciplines in its pure form. In other words, a student who studies biology would approach the sub(ect as a biologist while those who study history will study it as historians. !hat is the rationale for teaching the disciplinesH ccording to its proponents, the school is a mini version of the world of intellect and that the disciplines reflect that world. )c- Broad ields esign The broad fields design is also known as the interdisciplinary design. The main reason for this design arose from the concern that sub(ects taught were too compartmentalised and fragmented8 for eample, geography, geometry, literature, algebra and so forth. The suggestion was to bring together content from different sub(ects to form one logical sub(ect. or eample, 9conomics, #ociology, 4olitical #cience, 5eography and 7istory were combined to form #ocial #tudies. nother eample is +anguage rts )composed of literature, grammar, linguistics and spelling- and 5eneral #cience )composed of Biology, $hemistry and 4hysics-. t one time there was a sub(ect called Man and the 9nvironment )lam dan Manusia- implemented in Malaysian primary schools. !hat are some of the issues in this modelH *ne would be breadth versus depth. or eample, in studying social studies over one year, students are eposed to a variety of social science concepts compared to only studying economics concepts for one year. $ertainly, treatment of the various social science concepts would be superficial. or sure, a year of economics will epose students to more economics concepts and principles than would a year of social studies. 7owever, some may argue whether students need such in" depth knowledge of a particular sub(ect. If the educational philosophy is to give students an overview of the social sciences, then #ocial #tudies might be the logical choice. )d- $orrelation esign The correlation design model lies in between the academic design model and the broad fields design. If you do not want your curriculum to consist of five 28
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES separate sub(ects nor five different sub(ect areas to be fused into one, then the correlation design model might be an alternative. or eample, you may want to (ust fuse or correlate history with literature at the secondary school level. or eample, in a history lesson the class learns about the Uapanese occupation of Malaysia. uring the literature class, students read novels about life during that time period. 7owever, each sub(ect retains its own distinct identity. )e- 4rocess esign In the discipline based design discussed earlier, students learn the methods of in'uiry used by eperts in the respective disciplines. or eample, in studying anthropology, students will learn various ethnographic procedures. dvocates of the process design model stress the learning of general procedures and processes that are not applicable to any particular discipline. The most popular eample of the process design model is the teaching of thinking skills. Jarious educators have suggested that students should be taught to think. $urriculum has focused on the teaching of decision making, problem solving, critical thinking and creative thinking. 9nnis )1/F- identified a list of critical thinking skills that should be taught, such as identification of fallacies, checking the credibility of sources and so forth. In the process design curriculum students are also taught to be aware of their thinking and to take action when necessary. good thinker is able to monitor his or her thinking and take steps to remedy faulty thinking. The general assumption is that there are general thinking skills, and processes are common regardless of the sub(ect area. The aim of the curriculum is to enhance these process skills applicable to all disciplines. Thinking critically is not uni'ue to geography or physics. Ceither is thinking creatively the sole domain of art or literature. 6- +earner"centred design
!hile sub(ect"centred designs are popular, there is also an emphasis on learner" centred designs. The early supporters of the child"centred curriculum were largely the progressives 9mphasis was on the development of the whole child and this was most evident in primary schools. )a- $hild"$entred esign
4roponents of the child"centred design believe that learners should actively participate in the teaching"learning process. +earning should be related closely to the daily lives of students, unlike the sub(ect"centred design which tends to separate content from the daily lives of learners. In the child"centred design, focus is on the needs and interests of the learners. 29
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES n early advocate of the child"centred curriculum was rench philosopher, Uean"Uac'ues ousseau )1316"1330-, who in his book 5mile made the child the focus of the educational process. 7e emphasised that %+iving is the business that I wish to teach him. !hen he leaves my care he, I grant, be neither magistrate, nor soldier, nor priest: he will be, primarily, a man& )cited in #oetard, M., 1//E, p.E6-. This did not mean children were allowed to run free. $hildren need to be guided by the teacher according to their level of development. 4erhaps, the most well"known advocate of the child"centred design is Uohn ewey. 7e argued that children are not blank slates and they bring with them four basic impulses P the impulse to communicate, to compare and contrast, to in'uire and to epress themselves through language. In the child"centred design, teaching and learning draw on the eperiences of learners and the vast amount of information they bring to the classroom. Gsing this design, teachers and students negotiate what is of interest to learners and what content is to be included in the curriculum. Teachers and students participate in planning lesson units, its purposes, the focus of the content and the learning activities to be introduced in the teaching and learning situations. In the child"centred model, the interests and eperiences of the learner become the sub(ect"matter of the curriculum. $hildren are given the freedom to discover and do things for themselves rather than told how to do something. The %pro(ect method& became a popular pedagogical strategy in the child" centred design in which children solved problematic situations calling on their knowledge and skills of science, history, art and so forth. In other words, the traditional sub(ects are not re(ected but rather used to solve problems that are of interest to learners. )b-
adical esign In this design, the focus is the learner which is 'uite similar to the child" centred design8 the difference being that greater emphasis is placed on the need for the curriculum to reform society. 4roponents of the radical design operate on the assumption that society is corrupt and repressive. $hildren should be educated towards the goal of social reform. well"known proponent of the radical design was 4aulo reire who opposed treating students as empty vessels to be filled with knowledge by the teacher. 7e ob(ected to the teacher"student dichotomy )contrast- and proposed the relationship between teacher and student be reciprocal )mutual-, which is , =the teacher who learns an$ the learner who teaches>. ccording to proponents of this curriculum design, learning is reflective and not eternally imposed by those in power. Anowledge is not the finished product to be ac'uired by learners because this is indoctrination. +earning is something that results from the interaction between and among people. +earners should challenge content and be allowed to give their opinions 30
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES about the information given to them. +earners will value what they learn if they are allowed to construct their own knowledge. !hen learners create meaning, they have ownership over what they have learned resulting in genuine thought. )c- 7umanistic esign The humanistic design became popular in the Fs and 3s in response to ecessive overemphasis on the disciplines during the Ds and early Fs in the Gnited #tates. 4roponents of the humanistic design based their arguments on the principles of humanistic psychology. basic 'uestion asked is whether the curriculum has allowed a person to truly achieve his or her full potential. The curriculum should be designed to empower learners to be involved in the process of realising their potential. 5reater emphasis was placed on the affective domain to permit students to feel and to value. *ne of the proponents of the humanistic curriculum design was $arl ogers )1/6" 1/03- who argued that the aim of education is the facilitation of learning. To facilitate learning, the teacher accepts learners as persons, placing importance on their feelings and their opinions8 while caring for them. In other words, the teacher is able to view the world through the student2s eyes. !ith such a curriculum, learners become fully functional persons capable of intelligent choice8 are critical learners able to approach problem situations with fleibility8 and are able to work cooperatively with others )*rnstein L 7unkins, 1//0-. The humanistic curriculum design focuses on the interconnectedness of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. The design stresses the development of positive self"concept and interpersonal skills of learners. The humanistic curriculum re'uires teacher with great skills and competence in dealing with individuals. This may be difficult to obtain in all teachers. There is also a tendency to overemphasise the individual and ignore the needs of the society. - 4roblem"centred design 4roblem"$entred esigns models focus on the problems faced by society. The 4roblem"centred designs are pre"determined before the arrival of students. In other words, genuine life problems are selected and teaching" learning activities are organised around these issues. The learner is placed in the social setting to address problems. Gnlike the learner"centred designs, the problems or issues discussed originate from issues that are of concern to society. It aims to prepare students with relevant knowledge and skills to fit into society when they leave school. )a-
+ife"centred situations
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TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES In any society, there are persistent life situations that are crucial to a society2s successful functioning. 9amples of such life situations are healthy living, use of leisure time, ethics, racial tolerance, citiKenship skills and so forth. It was argued by its advocates that it makes educational sense to organise a curriculum around such life situations. #tudents will direct relevance in studying such social issues when they are related to their world. lso, having students study social or life situations will encourage them to seek ways to improve society. The life situations that need to be emphasised in schools will depend on what students need before they enter the working world and assume adult responsibilities. 7owever, some needs and interests have already been met by the family, religious institutions and other community organisations. #o, the schools should address those needs not met by these institutions. The li%e3centre$ situations curriculum has been criticised because students do not learn much sub(ect matter. 7owever, proponents of the model state that this is not true because the design draws heavily from the traditional sub(ect areas. The content is organised in a manner that allows students to see problems faced by society. In addressing societyQs pressing problems, content is drawn from different sub(ect areas to eplain and find solutions to current issues )b- $ore"design variation of the life"centred situations design is the core"design model. ocus is still on the pressing problems of society8 the difference being that certain problem are selected to form the core. It is carefully planned before students enter school and ad(usted when necessary. The core problems are taught to all students in a block"time format whereby two or more periods of class time is used. problem solving approach is adopted in analysing social problems. #tudents select a problem through consensus and work either individually or in groups. ata is collected, analysed, interpreted and presented in class. indings are evaluated and discussed. 4oints to keep in mind are: •
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7ow relevant are the teaching and learning methods to the content and learning outcomesH 7ow are practical skills going to be taught and supervisedH 7ow are students supported in independent learning and study )eg self directed learning-H !hat resources are re'uired and available to ensure effective teaching and learningH oes the teaching promote critical and logical thinking at the level of the learnerH 32
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES • •
!hat are the constraints affecting the teaching and l earning processH re the teaching and learning methods appropriate for the selected assessment methodsH
Pe$sonne% n! Mte$#% se%ect#on •
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•
•
$urriculum planners who are developing whole programmes need to think at a strategic level about the resources re'uired and how these can be used effectively and efficiently. Teachers, technical and administrative staff P there should be sufficient staff to deliver and support the delivery and assessment of the course. #taff should be appropriately skilled )in pedagogical as well as technical areas- and 'ualified and should be aware not only of their own areas of the course but also of the course as a whole in order that they can contetualise the learners2 learning eperiences. 9'uipment including IT and J e'uipment, models and simulators, laboratory and clinical e'uipment, whiteboards, flip charts. inances " the course will re'uire ade'uate funding to sustain its activities. Books, (ournals and multimedia resources P lists of core tetbooks for each part of the course and other resources including reference tets should be identified by teachers and purchased for use by learners. These should be supported by other resources such as (ournals )printed and online- and multimedia packages. The library will be the main support structure for these resources but additional resources may also be delivered through an Intranet or via departmental
Assess&ent n! E5%"t#on
33
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES In designing the assessment methods that measure students2 performance, the starting point should always be the stte! %e$n#n; o"tco&es. ssessments must check that st"!ents +5e c+#e5e! t+e %e$n#n; o"tco&es #n 5$#o"s conte*ts n! t+"s t+t t+e content +s een co5e$e!. Teaching and learning methods must support the assessment strategy, if students or trainees are epected to perform well in M$Vs for eample, then a 4roblem"Based +earning type course with a facilitative teaching approach will not be appropriate. Teachers should check a number of aspects relating to assessment: re the assessment methods which relate to the assessment of knowledge, skills and attitudes appropriateH o the teaching and learning methods support the assessment strategyH re the assessment methods reliable and validH •
• •
•
•
re the assessment methods designed so that learners can achieve the minimum performance standards set in the curriculum and is there capacity for learners to demonstrate higher standards of performance )i.e. do the assessments enable discrimination between candidates-H re the students;trainees being assessed sufficiently or are they being over"assessedH re the regulations governing assessment procedures and awards clear and easy to follow and are they being applied appropriately and consistentlyH
9valuation is a system of feedback, providing information to planners, teachers;trainers, students, parents and decision"makers. 9valuation is a process involving ongoing activities aimed at gathering timely information about the 'uality of a programme. !hy do we need to evaluate our coursesH To identify successes and failures of the curriculum with a view to correcting deficiencies. To measure if stated ob(ectives have been achieved. •
• •
•
To assess if the curriculum is meeting the needs of learners, community etc. To measure the cost effectiveness of the curriculum.
#ome 'uestions to ask when evaluating a course or programme: !hether the learning ob(ectives are realistic and relevant. • •
•
!hether the different parts of the course relate to each other meaningfully in terms of se'uence and organisation. !hether the sub(ect matter and content is relevant, accurate and up to date.
34
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES !hether the learners2 entry re'uirements are well defined and at the right level. !hether the materials and delivery are pitched at the right level for the learners at different points in the course. !hether the balance of teaching and learning methods is appropriate and whether there is enough time to ensure learning. !hether teachers have the knowledge and skills re'uired to deliver the curriculum. !hether the learning resources that have been identified are ade'uate, appropriate and available. Mon#to$#n; n! S"ppo$t •
•
•
•
•
!hat should be monitoredH #tudent recruitment and selection processes: o the candidates meet the selection criteriaH o the criteria provide students who are appropriate for the courseH Teaching staff P are the teachers available, motivated and capable of teaching the new courseH 7ave any training needs for teachers been identified and addressedH •
•
• •
•
•
•
The teaching and learning process: P 7ow is the written curriculum translated into practiceH P re the teaching and learning methods appropriateH P Is the balance between different types of learning mode appropriate in achieving the stated outcomesH ssessment P re the assessments appropriate in terms of level, reliability and validity and do they discriminate between assessing skills, knowledge and attitudesH P re the regulations and procedures appropriate and are they being followedH +earning resources " re the recommended books and (ournals and other teaching materials availableH " Is access to the library and other resources ade'uateH 4erformance standards P re the minimum performance standards being reflected and achievedH
Const$#nts !hat are the program constraintsH Technological: I$T, lab, +$s etc. "Timing: Implementation, eadiness " uration: +ength P lectures, " $o"curriculum, practicum, internship, etc •
35
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES •
!ho is going to provide the cost of the trainingH llowances, other payments etc
S"&&$( $urriculum design is a comple activity both conceptually and its implementation. esigning a curriculum re'uires a vision of education2s meaning and purpose. $urriculum design must be carefully considered so that the curriculum imparts essential knowledge, skills and attitudes.
ela and move on to the net topic when you are ready.
TOPIC 9
CURRICULUM AND T3E TEAC3ER
9.0 SYNOPSIS Topic E introduces you to the roles of a teacher in educational development and the relationship between teacher beliefs and curriculum implementation. 9.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of Topic E, you will be able to: W discuss therole of teachers as decision"maker, analyst, practitioner and researcher Wdiscuss therelationship between teacher beliefs and curiculum implementation 9.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPIC
C"$$#c"%"& n! t+e tec+e$
Ro%e o) tec+e$ 36
Re%t#ons+#p et7een tec+e$ e%#e)s n! c"$$#c"%"& #&p%e&entt#on
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES
CONTENT
9.8 ROLE OF TEAC3ERS IN CURRICULUM DE:ELOPMENT PROCESS teacherQs role may vary among cultures. Teachers may provide instruction in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion, civics, community roles, or life skills.
E*e$c#se 1 a. efine a teacherH b. !hat are the roles of teachers in curriculum developmentH W #hare them with your friends. W $ompare differences and similarities. Curriculum and the Teacher !ithout doubt, the most important persons in the curriculum implementation process
are
the
teachers.
!ith
their
knowledge,
eperience
and
competencies, teachers are central to any curriculum improvement effort. egardless of which philosophical belief the education system is based on, there is no denying that teachers influence studentsQ learning. Better teachers foster better learning. Teachers are most knowledgeable about the practice of teaching and are responsible for introducing the curriculum in the classroom. The key to getting teachers committed to a curriculum is to enhance theirknowledge of the curriculum. This means teachers need to be trained and workshops have to be organised for professional development. 37
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES Gnfortunately, in any curriculum implementation process not all teachers will have the benefit of such eposure. There are (ust too many teachers and insufficient funds to go around. The most common approach is to have one" day workshops given by eperts with the lecture method being the dominant pedagogical strategy. mong the many etrinsic factors identified that may impede curriculum change are ade'uacy of resources, time, school ethos and professional support. The intrinsic factors are: professional knowledge, professional ade'uacy and professional interest and m otivation. 7ence, professional development of teachers is an important factor contributing to the success of curriculum implementation. To what etent have teacher education programmes re'uired prospective teachers to study curriculum developmentH > id we study curriculum development in our training as a teacherH ? $ertainly an ade'uate teacher education programme should include curriculum development )both the theory and the work of curriculum development- if teaching is to be a profession and if educational opportunities for learners are really to be improved. #ome topics to be addressed in designing professional development opportunities for teachers who are implementing a new curriculum: •
•
•
4rogramme philosophy: It is important for teachers to understand both the philosophy behind the programme as well as how the new programme may impact students, parents, administrators and other stakeholders. $ontent: Teachers may find the curriculum introduces content with which they are unfamiliar, which they have not taught for a while, or which is familiar but presented in an unfamiliar way. or eample, using a problem" solving approach rather than a topical approach. 4edagogy: Teachers need opportunities to become familiar with the new programmeQs pedagogical approach. They may need to work on particular teaching skills emphasised in the new programme, such as teaching of values, or perhaps to become familiar with a tool such as the internet. $omponents of the programme: Teachers will need opportunities to learn about the components of the new programme early in the implementation phase. or eample, the new programme might place greater emphasis on school"based assessment while teachers are more accustomed to national or centralised assessment.
•
,actors influencin the implementation of a curriculum in schools-
38
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES actors #chool ethos
escription *verall school beliefs towards the new curriculum. #tatus of the curriculum as viewed by staff, administrators and community8 e.g. school administration recognises the importance of the sub(ect in the overall school curriculum.
de'uacy of resources
de'uacy of e'uipment, facilities and general resources re'uired for implementing a new curriculum.
4rofessional support
#upport for teachers from both within the school and outside8 e.g. opportunities to receive ongoing curriculum professional support
4rofessional knowledge
Anowledge and understanding which teachers possess of the new curriculum8 e.g. different ways of teaching to foster student learning.
4rofessional attitudes
ttitudes and interest of teachers toward the new curriculum8 e.g. keen to teach the sub(ect.
Time
Time available for preparing and delivering the re'uirements of the new curriculum8 e.g. teachers need enough time to develop their own understanding of the sub(ect they are re'uired to teach.
Interest
Teachers2 own ability and competence to teach the curriculum8 i.e. confidence in teaching.
A/eacher resist change 'ecause they lac competencies, ownership, incentives an$ time.
un$erstan$ing,
9.8.1 I&po$tnt Ro%es o) Tec+e$ #n C"$$#c"%"& De5e%op&ent
•
+eader who can inspire and influence students through epert and referent power but never coercive power. This teacher knows his students well and is kind and respectful towards his students. 7e has high standards and epectations coeisting with encouragement, support and fleibility. The teacher empower students and get them to do things of which they did not think they were capable. $oach;guide who helps students to improve on their skills and insights.
•
isseminator of knowledge and skills
•
39
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES ole model to the student8 practises what he preaches. 7e upholds moral values and humanitarian principles in all his actions. Teachers conduct their day Pby"day doing in such a way that their behaviour can be cherished by the learners. Teachers should be a human model for learners therefore, they must uphold all codes of ethical conduct that are necessary and essential in human modeling and moral education. Innovator, creative, resourceful and encourages diversity and individuality in his students. 9.8.2 Co!e o) Et+#cs •
•
•
•
•
9thical responsibilites to students " Teachers will educate students to high standards of achievement. The teacher shall use best professional practices and materials and the teacher is knowledgeable of and delivers the standards"based curriculum. Teacher shall engage in practices and select materials that include all students, celebrate diversity and never eclude them from opportunities on the basis of their race, gender, ethnicity, religion, national origin, language, ability or the status, behaviour or beliefs of their parents " The teacher is committed to developing the skill sets needed to best accelerate the learning of the students currently in their classrooms " The teacher creates a classroom environment that is respectful, emotionally secure and physically safe for students. 9thical esponsibilities to amily;$ommunity " The teacher shall inform families of program philosophy, policies and personnel 'ualifications and eplain why we teach as we do, which should be in accordance with our ethical responsibilities to students. The teacher shall involve families in significant decisions affecting their student and regularly communicate student progress with families. The teacher shall inform the family of accidents involving their student, of risks such as eposures to contagious disease that may result in infection and of occurrences that might result in emotional stress. The teacher shall maintain confidentialilty and shall respect the family2s right to privacy, refraining from disclosure of confidential information and intrusion into family life, ecept when a student2s welfare is at risk. The teacher shall be ob(ective and accurate in reporting the knowledge upon which we base our programs, assessments and professional practices. The teacher shall cooperate and team with other professionals who work with students and families. The teacher shall eercise care in epressing views regarding students. #tatements shall be respectful and based on firsthand knowledge. 9thical esponsibilities to $olleagues " The teacher shall show respect for personal dignity and for the diversity found among staff members, 40
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES and to resolve matters collegially. The teacher shall eercise care in epressing views regarding the professional behaviour or conduct of co"workers and;or students.The teacher agrees to carry out the program at the site to which we are assigned. !hen we do not agree with the program policies, we shall first attempt to effect change through constructive action within the organiKation. Teachers who do not meet program standards shall be informed of areas of concern and, when possible, assisted in improving their performance. In making assessments and recommendations, the teacher shall make (udgements based on fact and relevant to the interests of students and programs. 9.8.8 Kno7%e!;e n! s#%% p$ct#t#one$ 1. The teacher is a professional is an educator and a practitioner in knowledge and skills. 7e is an effective practitioner and analyst who, through teacher education, is competent in applying his theoretical knowledge in various pedagogic contets. 7e provides education for discipline, for knowledge, for character, for life, for growth, for personal fulfillment and aesthetic refinement. 6. The practitioner understands the central concepts, tools of in'uiry, and structures of the discipline he teaches and creates learning eperiences that make these aspects of sub(ect matter meaningful for students. . 7e understands how children learn and develop and can provide learning opportunities that support their intellectual, social and personal development. 7e also understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage students2 development of critical thinking, problem solving and performance skills. E. 7e is eclectic in the sense of being able to synthesise rather than merely select what is available. The teacher should possess the ability to harmonically arrange what has been selected to be offered to the students. D. The practitioner has to adopt technology as a means for becoming more effective in producing his own materials, accessing the Internet to gain information, ideas and core materials which will provide the basis for presentation to the students. 9.8.9 E!"c$e n! e!"ce$e 4P$ct#t#one$ 1. 9ducation arises from two +atin terms that is educare and educere. 9ducare is
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES 6. Vuestions pertaining to the effects that emerge when one thinks of education in this way: " !hat or where are we trying to lead students toH " !hat are we trying to bring out of themH " $an we truly draw out some pre"determined intellectual and personal 'ualitiesH " o we really think that children are all really alike, the same inside, and that if we locate the best method, then we can teach them all and they will learn the same thingH . 9ducere is to rear or bring up8 allow to emerge as needed. If educere is the act of emerging ,then as teachers, we must begin to ask ourselves: Soc#% ;ent 4An%(st 1. The teaching;learning process is basically and essentially an interaction between humans. This interaction is carried within a social contet. There are, generally, clearly defined teacher and student roles in these learning environments. The student tends to epect that the teacher will influence the learning environments. The student tends to epect that the teacher will influence the learning process to some significant etent. 6. The role of the teacher as a social agent is an important part of the learning process. This is very clear as different individuals interact with a teacher and other students to widely varying degrees. . The teacher2s role may be include the management of the social interaction that is conducted as part of the learning process. In the primary school, the teacher has a large role in guiding the behaviour of the young pupils. *ften the teacher is re'uired to set boundaries as to where pupils may be at a particular time, whether they may talk or 42
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES need to be 'uiet and listening and what activities they should be performing. E. The teacher plays a number of other social roles in the teaching;learning process. The teacher is often a motivator for pupils, encouraging or reproving them as appropriate. The approval of the teacher can be a strong motivating factor, particularly for younger pupils. The teacher is also an arbiter of success8 measuring and 'uantifying pupils2 efforts. The teacher may also pass on cultural and social values. D. The role of the teacher as social agent is an important part of the learning process, it is also clear that different individuals interact with a teacher and other students to widely varying degrees. These individuals are self"motivated, do not re'uire any third party encouragement to learn, and can seek out and assimilate the re'uired body of knowledge. 9.8.? A;ent o) c+n;e 4Dec#s#on &e$6An%(st 1. change agent is an individual who influences clients2 innovation decisions in a direction deemed desirable by a change agency. s a change agent, one has to directly work with the teachers to adopt an innovation and encourage them to become opinion leaders in their own interpersonal network. 6. *ne has to teach the teachers to use the various pieces of technology and it goes further by assisting the teachers to learn to be constructivist teachers that can incorporate technology into their curriculum. It is this balance of bringing the technology into the curriculum through constructivist methods that is the i nnovation. . gent of change develops his;her own professional learning which has encompassed strategies and interpersonal skills essential for managing change within the school. Through significant steps, one has to update and improve the culture of the school, to influence the staff to become more collaborative and reflective in their practice, to be fleible and more responsive to the positive outcomes of change and the development of their own professional learning, creating a learning community. 9.8. Rese$c+e$ 1. Teacher as a researcher involves the commitment to systematic 'uestioning of one2s own teaching as a basis for development. The commitment and skills to study one2s own teaching and concern to 'uestioning and testing theory in practice by using skills and readiness to allow other teachers to observe your work directly or through recordings and to discuss it with them on an honest basis.
43
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES 6. Teacher plays a role in investigating pedagogical problems through in'uiry. ccording to ewey )1/6/- teacher2s investigations not only lead to knowledge about the school but also led to good teaching. . The benefits for teachers who attempt to become researchers in their own classrooms are: " the development of clearer theory of language and learning " increased knowledge and understanding of classroom practice, and increased teaching skills " easier collaboration with pupils and the potential to develop a shared commitment to the desired improvements 9.8. Mento$ 4P$ct#t#one$6Dec#s#on &e$ 1. mentor is one who guides and supports students to ease them through difficult transitions8 it is about smoothing the way, enabling, reassuring as well as directing, managing and instructing. 7e should be able to unblock the ways to change by building self confidence, self esteem and a readiness to act as well as to engage in ongoing constructive interpersonal relationships. 6. Individual engaged in a one"to"one teaching;learning relationship in which the mentor serves as a fundamentally important model with respect to values, beliefs, philosophies and attitudes as well as a source of more specific information. . Mentoring implies a close relationship within which the model may be a role model, consultant, advisor, source of wisdom Peven a sort of protector. E. Mentoring is defined as a nurturing process in which a more skilled or more eperienced person, serving as a role model, teachers, sponsors, encourages, counsels and befriends a less skilled or less eperienced person for the purpose of promoting the latter2s professional and;or personal development. Mentoring functions are carried out within the contet of an ongoing, caring relationship between the mentor and the protXgX D. Mentoring is used to describe a combination of coaching, counseling and assessment where a classroom teacher in a school is delegated responsibility for assisting newly 'ualified teachers in their professional development F. mentor tries to develop individual2s strengths to maimiKe their professional and personal potential and also that of students who come under their care within a classroom situation. 9.8.B Mn;e$4Dec#s#on &e$
44
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES 1. The teacher structures the learning environment. In this role, all decisions and actions re'uired to maintain order in the classroom, such as laying down rules and procedures for learning activities. 6. Teacher must manage a classroom environment. Teachers are environmental engineers who organiKe the classroom space to fit their goals and to maimiKe learning. The way the physical space of the classroom is organiKed can either help or hinder learning. . It involves modeling a positive attitude towards the curriculum and towards school and learning in general. Teachers who reveal a caring attitude towards learning and the learning environment help to instill and reinforce similar attitudes in their students. E. Teachers are re'uired to manage and process great amounts of clerical work. There are papers to be read and graded, tests to be scored, marks to be entered, attendance records and files to be maintained, notes and letters to be written etc. The role of teacher is often formal and ongoing, carried out at a school or other place of formal education. In many countries, a person who wishes to become a teacher must first obtain specified professional 'ualifications or credentials from a university or college. These professional 'ualifications may include the study of pedagogy, the science of teaching. Teachers, like other professionals, may have to continue their education after they 'ualify, a process known as continuing professional development. teacher who facilitates education for an individual may also be described as a personal tutor or historically, a governess. In some countries, formal education can take place through home schooling. Informal learning may be assisted by a teacher occupying a transient or ongoing role, such as a family member, or by anyone with knowledge or skills in the wider community setting. eligious and spiritual teachers, such as gurus, mullahs, rabbis, pastors;youth pastors and lamas, may teach religious tets such as the Vuran, Torah or Bible The teacherQs role in the curriculum process is critical because he is responsible for implementing the school curriculum in the classroom Teachers and students involved in curriculum development each have different roles and responsibilities. Teachers want to en(oy teaching and watching their students develop interests and skills in their interest area. Teachers also want to discover the effective practices of their teaching profession. They create lesson plans and syllabi within the framework of the 45
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES given curriculum. The teachers2 responsibilities are to implement the curriculum to meet student needs.
9.9 Re%t#ons+#p et7een tec+e$ e%#e)s n! c"$#c"%"& #&p%e&entt#on !ithout doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation process is the teacher. !ith their knowledge, eperiences and competencies, teachers are central to any curriculum improvement effort. egardless of which philosophical belief the education system is based on, there is no denying that teachers influence studentsQ learning. Better teachers foster better learning. Teachers are most knowledgeable about the practice of teaching and are responsible for introducing the curriculum in the classroom. The key to getting teachers committed to a curriculum is to en+nce t+e#$ no7%e!;e o) t+e c"$$#c"%"&. This means tec+e$s nee! to e t$#ne! n! 7o$s+ops +5e to e o$;n#se! )o$ p$o)ess#on% !e5e%op&ent. Gnfortunately, in any curriculum implementation process not all teachers will have the benefit of such eposure. There are (ust too many teachers and insufficient funds to go around. The most common approach is to have one" day workshops given by eperts with the lecture method being the dominant pedagogical strategy. mong the many etrinsic factors identified that may impede curriculum change are ade'uacy of resources, time, school ethos and professional support. The intrinsic factors are: professional knowledge, professional ade'uacy and professional interest and m otivation. 7ence, professional development of teachers is an important factor contributing to the success of curriculum implementation. To what etent have teacher education programmes re'uired prospective teachers to study curriculum developmentH $ertainly an ade'uate teacher education programme should include curriculum development )both the theory and the work of curriculum development- if teaching is to be a profession and if educational opportunities for learners are really to be improved.
46
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES E*e$c#se 2 new curriculum is going to be implemented8 implemented8 a teacher must ask@. •
7ow do I do itH
•
!ill I ever get the %hang& of itH
•
!ho can I trust to help me H
•
m I getting it rightH
•
Is it really helping my studentsH
•
Anow it is going to take time...
T"to$#% Ts
In grou groups ps disc discuss uss the differ different ent roles roles of of the the teach teacher er.. In group groups s discus discuss s why is it impor importan tantt for teac teacher hers s to be invo involve lved d in curriculum planning. In groups groups discuss discuss how how you you can can informally informally evaluate evaluate your own teaching teaching )including how you enact curricula4resen 4resentt the outco outcome me of your your discu discussi ssions ons in in 5raphi 5raphic c organis organiser er..
Gseful terms to remember for curriculum implementation: •
,idelit$ of Use- #taying very close to the prescribed written document. The
•
Mutual./daptation- Individual, Mutual./daptation- Individual, creative versions of the written curriculum.
47
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES The
S"&&$( Teachers eachers occupy the central position in curriculum decision making. They decide which aspects of the curriculum, newly developed or on" going, to implement or stress in a particular class. teachers decide hoow much time to spend on developing basic or critical thinking skills. !ith collaboration, teachers can create 'uality programme and also modify eternal programmes to personaliKe them to the specific needs of their learners.
That2s all you have to do.
Take Take a break and move on to topic D when you are ready
48
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES
TOPIC >
CURRENT ISSUES IN CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
>.0 SYNOPSIS Topic D introduces you to the curent issues in curriculum implementation.s a classr classroom oom practi practitio tioner ner,, it is import important ant that that you you know know what what is involv involved ed in implementing the prescribed curriculum. The aim of this unit is therefore to take you through the processes and stages of curriculum im plementation. >.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of Topic D, you will be able to: • • •
outline factors that influence curriculum implementation discuss the current issues in curriculum implementation eplore current issues in curriculum implementation
>.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPIC C"$$ent #ss"es n! c"$$#c"%"& #&p%e&entt#on
L#te$c(
Access
E"#t(
49
M"%t#%n;"%#s&
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES
Tec+no%o;#c% #nno5t#on
Un#t(
Spec#%nee!s
E*e$c#se !hat do you understand by the term %curriculum implementation&H
>.8 >.8
De)# De)#n# n#t# t#on on o) o) C"$$ C"$$#c #c"% "%"& "& I&p I&p%e %e&e &ent ntt t#o #on n
$urr $urric icul ulum um impl implem emen enta tati tion on enta entails ils putt puttin ing g into into prac practi tice ce the the offi offici cial ally ly prescribed courses of study, syllabuses and sub(ects. The process involves helping the learner ac'uire knowledge or eperience. It is important to note that curriculum implementation cannot take place without the learner. The learne learnerr is theref therefore ore the centra centrall figure figure in the curric curriculu ulum m implem implement entati ation on process. Implementation takes place as the learner ac'uires the planned or intended eperiences, knowledge, skills, ideas and attitudes that are aimed at enabling the same learner to function effectively in a society. Jiewed from this perspective, curriculum implementation also refers to the stage when the curriculum curriculum itself, as an educational educational programme, programme, is put into effect. 4utt 4uttin ing g the the curr curric icul ulum um into into oper operat atio ion n re'u re'uire ires s an impl implem emen entin ting g agen agent. t. #tenho #tenhouse use )1/3/)1/3/- identi identifie fies s the teache teacherr as the agent agent in the curricu curriculum lum implementation process. #he argues that implementation is the manner in which which the teache teacherr selec selects ts and mies mies the vario various us aspec aspects ts of knowle knowledge dge contained in a curriculum document or syllabus. Implementation takes place when when the the teac teache her"c r"con onst stru ruct cted ed syll syllab abus us,, the the teac teache her2s r2s pers person onal ality ity,, the the teaching materials and the teaching environment interact with the learner. $urriculum implementation therefore refers to how the planned or officially desi design gned ed cour course se of stud study y is tran transl slat ated ed by the the teac teache herr into into sylla syllabu buse ses, s, schemes of work and lessons to be delivered to students.
50
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES T"to$#% Ts
In groups, discuss some of the factors that influence curriculum >.9
Fcto$s T+t In)%"ence C"$$#c"%"& I&p%e&entt#on
The Teacher s !hitaker )1/3/- asserts in the Gniversity of Rimbabwe )1//D- module, the teachers view their role in curriculum implementation as an autonomous one. They select and decide what to teach from the prescribed syllabus or curriculum. #ince implementation takes place through the interaction of the learner and the planned learning opportunities, the role and influence of the teacher in the process is indisputable. Nou could be thinking, %I understand that teachers are pivotal in the curriculum implementation process, but what is their role in the curriculum planning processH& If the teacher is to be able to translate curriculum intentions into reality, it is imperative that the teacher understand the curriculum document or syllabus well in order to implement it effectively )Gniversity of Rimbabwe, 1//D-. If the curriculum is what teachers and students create together, as !olfson )1//3- states, the teacher must play a more significant role in designing the curriculum. Teachers must be involved in curriculum planning and development so that they can implement and modify the curriculum for the benefit of their learners. The Learners +earners are also a critical element in curriculum implementation. !hile teachers are the arbiters of the classroom practice, the learners hold the key to what is actually transmitted and adopted from the official curriculum. The official curriculum can be 'uite different from thecurriculum that is actually implemented. The learner factor influences teachers in their selection of learning eperiences,hence the need to consider the diverse characteristics of learners in curriculum implementation. or eample, home background and learner ability can determine what is actually achieved in the classroom. Resource Materials and ,acilities rom your eperience, you are aware that no meaningful teaching and learning take place without ade'uate resource materials. This applies to curriculum implementation as well. or the officially designed curriculum to be fully implemented as per plan, the government or Ministry of 9ducation should supply schools with ade'uate 51
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES resource materials such as tetbooks, teaching aids and stationery in order to enable teachers and learners to play their role satisfactorily in the curriculum implementation process. In Curriculum#mplementation )Gniversity of Rimbabwe, 1//D-, it issuggested that the central government must also provide physical facilities such as classrooms, laboratories, workshops, libraries and sports fields in order to create an environment in which implementation can take place. The availability and 'uality of resource material and the availability of appropriate facilities have a great influence on curriculum implementation.
Interest 0roups $an you identify interest groups in your country that could influence the implementation of curriculaH number of these groups eist in almost all #outhern frican evelopment $ommunity )#$- countries. These include parents, parents2 and teachers2 associations, #chool evelopment ssociations )#s- and #chool evelopment $ommittees )#$s- in Rimbabwe, religious organisations, local authorities, companies and private school proprietors. These groups can influence implementation in the following ways: 4rovide schools with financial resources to purchase re'uired materials. emand the inclusion of certain sub(ects in the curriculum. Influence learners to re(ect courses they consider detrimental to the interests of the group. It is therefore important to involve these groups at the curriculum planning stage. The School En!ironment *ne other factor that influences curriculum implementation concerns the particular circumstances of each school )Gniversity of Rimbabwe, 1//D-.#chools located in rich socio"economic environments and those that have ade'uate human and material resources can implement the curriculum to an etent that would be difficult or impossible for schools in poor economic environments. Culture and Ideolo$ $ultural and ideological differences within a society or country can also influence curriculum implementation. #ome communities may resist a domineering culture or government ideology and hence affect the implementation of the centrally planned curriculum. 52
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Instructional Super!ision $urriculum implementation cannot be achieved unless it has been made possible through the supervisory function of the school head. The head does this through: • • • •
deploying staff, allocating time to sub(ects taught at the school, providing teaching and learning materials, and creating an atmosphere conducive to effective teaching and learning.
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s stated in Curriculum #mplementation )Gniversity of Rimbabwe, 1//D-, the head %monitors and guides curriculum implementation through ensuring that schemes of work, lesson plans and records of marks are prepared regularly&. The headteacher maintains a school tone and culture that create the climate of social responsibility. 9ffective curriculum implementation does not take place in a school where the head is incapable of eecuting supervisory functions. /ssessment ssessment in the form of eaminations influences curriculum implementation tremendously. ue to the great value given to public eamination certificates by communities and schools, teachers have tended to concentrate on sub(ects that promote academic ecellence and little else. This action by the teacher obviously can affect the achievement of the broad goals and ob(ectives of the curriculum.
Se%)@Assess&ent rom what you have read so far, list what you can identify as determinants of curriculum implementation. >.>
C"$$ent Iss"es #n C"$$#c"%"& I&p%e&entt#on
>.>.1 L#te$c( L#te$c( is the ability to read and write. The inability to do so is called #%%#te$c( or n%p+et#s&. Jisual literacy also includes the ability to understand visual forms of communication such as body language, pictures, maps, and video. 9volving definitions of literacy often include all the symbol systems relevant to a particular community. +iteracy encompasses a comple set of abilities to understand and use the dominant symbol systems of a culture for personal and community development. In a technological society, the concept of literacy is epanding to include the media and electronic tet, in addition to alphabetic and number systems. These abilities vary in different social and cultural contets according to need, demand and education. The primary sense of literacy still represents the lifelong, intellectual process of gaining meaning from a critical interpretation of the written or printed tet. The key to all literacy is reading development, a progression of skills that begins with the ability to understand spoken words and decode written words, and culminates in the deep understanding of tet. eading development involves a range of comple language underpinnings including awareness of speech sounds ) phonology-, spelling patterns )orthography-, word meaning )semantics-, grammar )synta- and patterns of word formation )morphology-, all of which provide a necessary platform for reading fluency and comprehension. *nce these skills are ac'uired, the reader can attain full 54
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language literacy, which includes the abilities to approach printed material with critical analysis, inference and synthesis8 to write with accuracy and coherence8 and to use information and insights from tet as the basis for informed decisions and creative thought.
>.>.2 Access to E!"ct#on ccess toeducation is the ability of people to have e'ual opportunity in education, regardless of their social class, gender, ethnicity background or physical and mental disabilities. ccess to education encourages a variety of pedagogical approaches to accomplish the dissemination of knowledge across the diversity of social, political, cultural, economic, national and biological backgrounds. Initially developed with the theme of e'ual opportunity access and inclusion of students with learning or physical and mental disabilities, the themes governing universal access to education have now epanded across all forms of ability and diversity. 7owever, as the definition of diversity is within itself is a broad amalgamation, teachers eercising universal access will continually face challenges and incorporate ad(ustments in their lesson plan to foster themes of e'ual opportunity of education. 5)uita'le access cross the globe, GCI$9 is committed to nothing less than full and complete access to free, 'uality education for every child. Gniversal access to 'uality education is not a privilege P it is a basic human right. !ith progress towards universal enrolment slowing, it is now without doubt that the world will not meet its most prominent global education. The current financial crisis has put etra pressure on stretched public funding. The aid to education has fallen by 1 per cent since 61. If funds become scarcer, access to education will continue to stagnate and the 'uality of schools will decline, denying the most vulnerable children in the world2s poorest countries their basic human right to 'uality education: without it, their future opportunities are dramatically limited. GCI$9 is deeply committed to creating a world in which all children, regardless of their gender, socio"economic background or circumstances, have access to free, compulsory and 'uality education. In education, GCI$9 supports the 9ducation for ll )9- and the Millennium evelopment 5oals 6 and to ensure that all children have access to and complete a full course of primary schooling, and to eliminate gender disparity in education by 61D. *ther global goals echoing these commitments include the !orld 9ducation orum2s akar ramework for ction, which stresses the rights of girls, ethnic minorities and children in difficult circumstances8 and the emphasis in !orld it for $hildrenon ensuring e'ual access to and achievement in basic education of good 'uality.
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>.>.8 E"#t( #n E!"ct#on In education, the term e"#t( refers to the principle of %airness. !hile it is often used interchangeably with the related principle of e)uality , e'uity encompasses a wide variety of educational models, programs and strategies that may be considered fair, but not necessarily e'ual. It is has been said that %e'uity is the process8 e'uality is the outcome,& given that e'uityZwhat is fair and (ustZmay not, in the process of educating students, reflect strict e'ualityZwhat is applied, allocated, or distributed e'ually. The growing importance of education e'uity is based on the premise that now, more than ever before, an individual2s level of education is directly correlated to the 'uality of life he or she will live in the future. Therefore, an academic system that practices educational e'uity is a strong foundation of a society that is fair and thriving. 7owever, ine'uity in education is challenging to avoid, and can be broken down into ine'uity due to socioeconomic standing, race, gender or disability. 8ocio3economic e)uity in e$ucation Income and class Income has always played an important role in shaping academic success. Those who come from a family of a higher socioeconomic status )#9#- are privileged with more opportunities than those of lower #9#. Those who come from a higher #9# can afford things like better tutors, rigorous #T; $T prep classes, impressive programs, and so on. 4arents generally feel more comfortable intervening on behalf of their children to ac'uire better grades or more 'ualified teachers. 4arents of a higher #9# are more willing to donate large sums of money to a certain institution to better improve their childQs chances of acceptance, along with other etravagant measures. This creates an unfair advantage and distinct class barrier. $osts of education The etraordinarily high cost of the many prestigious high schools and universities in the Gnited #tates makes an attempt at a =level playing field= for all students not so level. 7igh"achieving low"income students do not have the means to attend selective schools that better prepare a student for later success. Because of this, low"income students do not even attempt to apply to the top"tier schools for which they are more than 'ualified. In addition, neighborhoods generally segregated by class leave lower" income students in lower"'uality schools. or higher"'uality schooling, students in low"income areas would be re'uired to take public transport which they do not have the means to pay for. ewer than percent of students in the bottom 'uarter of incomes even enroll in a four"year school and among that group, fewer than half graduate. 7igher education has become too epensive and doesn2t do enough to help lower income students succeed. 56
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Tracking nother contributor to the ine'uality in the education system is tracking. Tracking sorts students into different classes or groups based on ability or future plans. The point of tracking is to create an environment in which the studentQs abilities match both the curriculum as well as the other studentQs in the class. This separation, however, creates an ine'uality within itself. #tarting at an etremely young age, the sorting of students mimics hierarchy similar to one which will form later on in life. #tudents are both viewed and treated differently depending on which track they take. The 'uality of teaching and curricula vary between tracks and as a result, those of the lower track are disadvantaged with inferior resources, teachers, etc. In many cases, tracking stunts students who may develop the ability to ecel past their original placement. acial e'uity in education rom a scientific point of view, the human species is a single race. It is therefore misleading to use terms such as races and racial groups. Cevertheless, the term racial group is enshrined in legislation, and phrases such as race e'uality and race relations are in widespread official use. acial e'uity in education means the assignment of students to public schools and within schools without regard to their race. This includes providing students with a full opportunity for participation in all educational programs regardless of their race. The educational system and its response to racial concerns in education vary from country to country. Below are some eamples of countries that have to deal with racial discrimination in education. •
•
G# epartment of 9ducation: The $ommission on 9'uity and 9cellence in 9ducation issues a seminal report in 61. It is not a restatement of public educationQs struggles, nor is it a mere list of recommendations. ather, this is a declaration of an urgent national mission: to provide e'uity and ecellence in education in merican public schools once and for all. This collective wisdom is a historic blueprint for making the dream of e'uity, and a world" class education, for each and every merican child a reality. The struggle for e'uality of access to formal education and e'uality of ecellent educational outcomes is part of the history of education in this country and is tied up with the economic, political, social history of the peoples who are part of it. rom the beginning of this nation, there were many barriers to the schooling and education of girls and racial, national origin, and language groups not from the dominant culture. pproaches and resources for achieving e'uality and e'uity in the public schooling of girls and ethnic, racial, and language minority groups are still evolving. sia"4acific egion: 5lobaliKation of the economy, increasingly diverse and interconnected populations, and rapid technological change are posing new 57
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and demanding challenges to individuals and societies alike. #chool systems are rethinking the knowledge and skills students will need for success and the educational strategies and systems re'uired for all children to achieve them. !ithin the sia"4acific region, for eample, Aorea, #hanghai"$hina, and Uapan are eamples of sian education systems that have climbed the ladder to the top in both 'uality and e'uity indicators. •
#outh frica : ma(or task of #outh fricaQs new government in 1//E was to promote racial e'uity in the state education system. uring the apartheid era, which began when the Cational 4arty won control of 4arliament in 1/E0 and ended with a negotiated settlement more than four decades later, the provision of education was racially une'ual by design. esources were lavished on schools serving white students while schools serving the black ma(ority were systematically deprived of 'ualified teachers, physical resources and teaching aids such as tetbook and stationary. The rationale for such ine'uity was a matter of public record.
*igher e$ucation 7igher education plays a vital role in preparing students for the employment market and active citiKenship both nationally and internationally. By embedding race e'uality in teaching and learning, institutions can ensure that they acknowledge the eperiences and values of all students, including minority ethnic and international students. en$er e)uity in e$ucation 5ender e'uity in practicality refers to both male and female concerns, yet most of the gender bias is against women in the developing world. 5ender discrimination in education has been very evident and underlying problem in many countries, especially in developing countries where cultural and societal stigma continue to hinder growth and prosperity for women. 5lobal $ampaign for 9ducation )5$9followed a survey called =5ender iscrimination in Jiolation of ights of !omen and 5irls= states that one tenth of girls in primary school are QunhappyQ and this number increases to one fifth by the time they reach secondary schools. #ome of the reasonings that girls provided include harassment, restorations to freedom, and an inherent lack of opportunities, compared to boys. Gnited Cations 9ducational, #cientific and $ultural *rganiKation )GC9#$*- understands 9ducation as a = fundamental human right and essential for the eercise of all other human rights. It promotes individual freedom and empowerment and yields important development benefits.= GC #pecial apporteur Aatarina Tomasevki developed the QEQ framework on the ight to 9ducation. The QQEQ framework encompasses availability, accessibility, acceptability and adaptability as fundamental to the institution of education. nd yet girls in many underdeveloped countries are denied secondary education. $ountries 58
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like #udan, #omalia, Thailand and fghanistan face the highest of ine'uity when it comes to gender bias. 5ender based Ine'uity in education is not (ust a phenomenon in developing countries. ew or /imes article QTeaching boys and girls separatelyQ highlights how education systems, especially public school systems, tend to segregate. Boys and girls are often taught with different approach which programs children to think that they are different and deserve different treatment. 7owever, studies show that boys and girls learn differently and therefore should be taught differently. Boys learn better when they are kept moving while girls learn better sitting in one place with silence. Therefore, segregation of gender for this reasoning promotes gender e'uity in education as both boys and girls have optimiKed learning. Causes o% gen$er $iscrimination in e$ucation J#* is a leading independent international development organiKation that works towards eliminating poverty and one of the problems they tackle is gender ine'uity in education. J#* published a paper that categoriKes the obstacles )or causes- into: •
•
$ommunity +evel *bstacles: This category primarily relates to the bias displayed for education eternal to the school environment. This includes restraints due to poverty and child labour, soil"economic constraints, lack of parental involvement and community participation. 7armful practices like child marriage and predetermined gender roles are cultural hindrances. #chool and 9ducation #ystem +evel *bstacles: +ack of investment in 'uality education, inappropriate attitudes and behaviors, lack of female teachers as role models and lack of gender"friendly school environment are all factors that promote gender ine'uity in education.
"est#on 1 !hy do you think ine'uities occur in the education systemH +ist down your recommendations and solutions.
D#sc"ss#on To what etentdoes racial, gender, and socioeconomic discrimination still eistH Is discrimination no longer a ma(or problem in Malaysian society or in public educationH
>.>.9 M"%t#%#n;"%#s&
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The definition of multilingualism is a sub(ect of debate in the very same way as the definition of language fluency. *n one end of a sort of linguistic continuum, one may define multilingualism as complete competence and mastery in another language. The speaker would presumably have complete knowledge and control over the language so as to sound native. *n the opposite end of the spectrum would be people who know enough phrases to get around as a tourist using the alternate language. #ince 1//6, Jivian $ook has argued that most multilingual speakers fall somewhere between minimal and maimal definitions. $ook calls these people multi3competent . In addition, there is no consistent definition of what constitutes a distinct language. or instance, scholars often disagree whether #cots is a language in its own right or a dialect of 9nglish. urthermore, what is considered a language can change, often for purely political purposes, such as when #erbo"$roatian was created as a standard language on the basis of the 9astern 7erKegovinian dialect to function as umbrella for numerous #outh #lavic dialects, and after the breakup of Nugoslavia was split into #erbian, $roatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin, or when Gkrainian was dismissed as a ussian dialect by the ussian tsars to discourage national feelings. Many small independent nationsQ schoolchildren are today compelled to learn multiple languages because of international interactions. or eample in inland, all children are re'uired to learn at least two foreign languages: the other national language )#wedish or innish- and one alien language )usually 9nglish-. Many innish schoolchildren also select further languages, such as 5erman or ussian. In some large nations with multiple languages, such as India, school children may routinely learn multiple languages based on where they reside in the country. In ma(or metros of $entral, #outh and 9ast India, many children may be fluent in four languages )the mother tongue, the state language, and the official languages of India, 7indi and 9nglish.- Thus a child of 5u(arati parents living in Bangalore will end up speaking his or her mother tongue )5u(arati- at home and the state language )Aannada-, 7indi and 9nglish in school and his or her surroundings.
9ultilingual in$ivi$uals &"%t#%#n;"% person is someone who can communicate in more than one language, either actively )through speaking, writing, or signing- or passively )through listening, reading, or perceiving-. More specifically, the terms 'ilingual and trilingual are used to describe comparable situations in which two or three languages are involved. multilingual person is generally referred to as a polyglot. Multilingual speakers have ac'uired and maintained at least one language during childhood, the so"called first language )+1-. The first language )sometimes also referred to as the mother tongue- is ac'uired without formal education. $hildren 60
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ac'uiring two languages in this way are called simultaneous bilinguals. 9ven in the case of simultaneous bilinguals, one language usually dominates over the other. In multilingual societies, not all speakers need to be multilingual. #ome states can have multilingual policies and recognise several official languages, such as $anada )9nglish and rench-. In some states, particular languages may be associated with particular regions in the state )e.g., $anada- or with particular ethnicities )e.g., Malaysia and #ingapore-. !hen all speakers are multilingual, linguists classify the community according to the functional distribution of the languages involved: •
!#;%oss#: if there is a structural functional distribution of the languages involved, the society is termed QdiglossicQ. Typical diglossic areas are those areas in 9urope where a regional language is used in informal, usually oral, contets, while the state language is used in more formal situations. risia )with risian and 5erman or utch- and +usatia )with #orbian and 5ermanare well"known eamples. #ome writers limit diglossia to situations where the languages are closely related, and could be considered dialects of each other. This can also be observed in #cotland where, in formal situations, 9nglish is used. 7owever, in informal situations in many areas, #cots is the preferred language of choice. similar phenomenon is also observed in rabic" speaking regions. The effects of diglossia could be seen if you look at the difference between !ritten rabic )Modern #tandard rabic- and $ollo'uial rabic. 7owever, as time goes, the rabic language somewhere between the two have been created which we would like to call Middle rabic or $ommon rabic. Because of this diversification of the language, the concept of spectroglossia has been suggested. &#%#n;"%#s&: a region is called ambilingual if this functional distribution is not observed. In a typical ambilingual area it is nearly impossible to predict which language will be used in a given setting. True ambilingualism is rare. mbilingual tendencies can be found in small states with multiple heritages like +uembourg, which has a combined ranco"5ermanic heritage, or Malaysia and #ingapore, which fuses the cultures of Malays, $hina, and India. mbilingualism also can manifest in specific regions of larger states that have both a clearly dominant state language )be it $e ure or $e %acto- and a protected minority language that is limited in terms of distribution of speakers within the country. This tendency is especially pronounced when, even though the local language is widely spoken, there is a reasonable assumption that all citiKens speak the predominant state tongue )e.g., 9nglish in Vuebec vs. $anada8 #panish in $atalonia vs. #pain-. This phenomenon can also occur in border regions with many cross"border contacts.
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#p$t@%#n;"%#s&: if more than one language can be heard in a small area, but the large ma(ority of speakers are monolinguals, who have little contact with speakers from neighbouring ethnic groups, an area is called Qbipart"lingualQ. n eample of this is the Balkans. T+#n#n; "est#on 7ow far is multilingualism practiced in Malaysian schoolsH
>.>.> Tec+no%o;#c% #nno5t#ons The tec+no%o;#c% #nno5t#on s(ste& is a concept developed within the scientific field of innovation studies which serves to eplain the nature and rate of technological change. Technological Innovation #ystem can be defined as
TSL3143 CURRICULUM STUDIES
these class blogs, the teacher can use free website hosting services like wordpress.com or blogger.com. Jia these platforms, the teacher will create a blog under a sub domain of that host. or eample, &tc+c%ss.7o$!p$ess.co&, so students will find all academic assignments via that blog. It is very easy to manage and post data to a blog, because they have simple 7TM+ editors. 8. Use o) !#;#t% &#c$op+ones #n t+e c%ss$oo&: Big classrooms are characteriKed by endless noise, so teachers can resort to these wireless digital microphones. The microphone will transmit the voice to the loud speakers and every student will hear their teacher clearly. This helps the teacher not to strain their voice while trying to eplain points to their students. These digital microphones are not too epensive so even a small income generating school can manage to buy a wireless microphone for every classroom. lso students can use the same microphone when asking 'uestions to their teachers in class, or when they are eplaining a sub(ect to their fellow students during a classroom debate. 9. Use o) &o#%e !e5#ces: Teachers and students can use smart"phones for academic purposes in the classroom. Mobile learning is becoming so popular. It is similar to e"learning or long distance education. Though its based on mobile phones. M"+earning is convenient because it is accessible from anywhere. Mobile phones are very light yet they can also have the same application a simple 4$ can have, a student can access academic information like assignments via an educational mobile application )44-. Teachers can tell their students to use mobile apps like . Use o) s&$t #nte$ct#5e W+#teo$!s: Modern smart white boards have a touch screen functionality, so the teacher can illustrate points using a pen or their finger. Gsing a pro(ector, teachers can display visual images on these white boards which improves the learning process. #tudents will learn more easily with visual images. lso students can use a white board to draw, write or manipulate images. #mart whiteboards come in various siKes, the wide ones are better, because they can show a lager image and can also be used by two students at a time. Most of them are electronically powered , so they can be switched on with a button, and they can also save teachers work for latter use. ?. Use o) on%#ne &e!#: Teachers and students can both use online streaming Medias to learn in the classroom. !ith the aid of a pro(ector, computer, internet and a white board, a teacher displays a real"time eample using sites like Yo"t"e.co&. This website has videos which can be used for academic reference. <<+et2s take a simple eample on how a 5eography class can use technology. Teachers can eplain volcanic activities and its impacts on the environment using live stream NouTube videos about the sub(ect. This type of illustration will attract the student2s attention and they will learn easily.& 63
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. Use o) on%#ne st"!( too%s : *nline study tools like &ynamic 4eriodic Table& )ptable.com- which can be used by $hemistry students in keeping elements apart , &oldit& )fold.it- this tool can help biology students easily understand basics about proteins. &Mathway& )Mathway.com- this helps math students solve math challenges, students can simply select a sub(ect and hit solve, the e'uation will be solved by the tool. ll these academic tools can improve the way students learn. "est#on 2 +ist down other types of technologies found in your institute
>.>.? Un#t( #n E!"ct#on Gnity is the state of being undivided or unbroken. Building unity through education Malaysia2s uni'ue diversity " ethnic, religious, and cultural " has always been its greatest strength, and its greatest challenge. s Malaysia increasingly finds itself in a world where differences can divide, it has never been more important for Malaysians to forge a Malaysian identity and to embrace our diverse heritage. s a shared space for all Malaysians, schools have a uni'ue potential to be a place to foster unity. The challenge is that to date, the system has struggled to measure unity in a systematic manner. The best available data suggests that student and teacher diversity in Cational schools has decreased, although there is still a fair degree of interactivity across ethnicities inside and outside the classroom. Gnity, a vital component in Malaysia2s truly uni'ue social contet, is a key factor in realising a society of balanced and harmonious individuals as envisioned in the Cational 9ducation 4hilosophy. To that end, the Ministry has taken a range of actions, from ensuring that all ethnicities are fairly represented in the teaching materials used in schools, to organising school"based programmes eplicitly focused on building unity. The critical 'uestion, however, is how unity can be measured. This section considers several possible measures to paint a picture of where the system stands. #tudent enrolment in the overall public education system remains broadly reflective of national demographics. 7owever, there are specific schooling options that have homogenous environments. or eample, primary school students across all optionsare in highly homogeneous environments. The challenge is that these homogeneous environments make it less likely for students to receive eposure to students of different cultures and ethnic groups, and thus less likely to develop the respect for diversity critical for unity. 7owever, there is some convergence in secondary school. Most students from the various primary schools enrol in a single secondary school format8 the #MA. Cevertheless, some students still receive limited 64
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eposure to diversity8 for eample, a child who transfers from a #UA)$- to an independent $hinese school or that moves from an #A to a Cational religious secondary school or #ekolah Menengah Aebangsaan gama )#MA-. In addition, there is a small but growing minority of students that leave the public education system and enrol in private schools, and therefore move beyond the Ministry2s sphere of influence. iversity of schools in Malaysian education The Malaysian education system comprises over 6 schooling options at both the primary and secondary levels. a- 4ublic primary schools. The primary level comprises three main types of schools: #A, #UA)$-, and #UA)T-. 9ach type of school is defined by different mediums of instruction and (ointly accounts for almost //[ of total primary enrolments. In addition, there are numerous school types serving niche groups, such as religious)Islamic- and special education schools. b- 4ublic secondary schools. The secondary school system is marked by the convergence of most students from the different types of primary schools into a single school format. These Cational secondary schools )#MA- are taught in Bahasa Malaysia. #MAs comprise 00[ of total secondary enrolments. small but growing percentage of students also opt for alternative schools such as religious schools. Gpon completion of lower secondary school )orm -, students also have a choice to pursue alternate pathways at technical, vocational, sports, arts, and other schooling options. c- 4rivate schools. small but growing number of students enrol in private schools. These schools operate at both the primary and secondary level and include private schools that teach the national curriculum, international schools, religious schools, and Independent $hinese schools. $urrently, private schools comprise 1[ of total primary enrolments and E[ of total secondary enrolments. #urf the internet to get more information on this topic. >.>. Spec#% nee!s #pecial needs education is the practice of educating students with special needs in a way that addresses their individual differences and needs. Ideally, this process involves the individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted e'uipment and materials, accessible settings. These interventions are designed to help learners with special needs achieve a higher level of personal self"sufficiency and success in school and their community, than may be available if the student were only given access to a typical classroom education. 65
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In the Gnited Aingdom, special needs often refers to special needs within an educational contet. This is also referred to as spec#% e!"ct#on% nee!s )#9C-. In the Gnited #tates, 10.D percent of all children under the age of 10 )over 1.D million children- had special health care needs as of 6D. More narrowly, it is a legal term applying in foster care in the Gnited #tates, derived from the language in the doption and #afe amilies ct of 1//3. It is a diagnosis used to classify children as needing =more= services than those children without special needs who are in the foster care system. It is a diagnosis based on behavior , childhood and family history and is usually made by a health care professional.
#igns of +earning isabilities: Trouble learning the alphabet, rhyming words, and connecting letters to sounds. Making many mistakes when reading aloud Cot understanding what they are reading wkward pencil grip and poor handwriting skills Trouble understanding (okes and sarcasm Trouble following multiple directions Trouble organiKing thoughts and what they want to say Cot following social rules of conversation $onfusing mathematical symbols and numbers Cot being able to tell a story in order Cot knowing where to begin a task 9motional and;or social issues Trouble sleeping or getting along with family
C"ses n! R#s Fcto$s Co one knows for sure what causes learning disorders. #ometimes there is no apparent reason. #tudies have shown that possible risk factors include: 3e$e!#t( #ometimes, learning problems run in families
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P$o%e&s !"$#n; P$e;nnc( o$ /#$t+ isabilities can result from fetal eposure to alcohol or drugs, low birth weight, oygen deprivation or by premature birth. Acc#!ents A)te$ /#$t+ 7ead in(ury, malnutrition or toic eposure can increase a childQs risk. Soc#%@En5#$on&ent Fcto$s +iving in a high risk neighborhood and poor living conditions have been linked to children being more vulnerable to disabilities.
In!#5#!"% nee!s special education program should be customiKed to address each individual studentQs uni'ue needs. #pecial educators provide a continuum of services, in which students with special needs receives varying degrees of support based on their individual needs. #pecial education programs need to be individualiKed so that they address the uni'ue combination of needs in a gi ven student. #tudents with special needs are assessed to determine their specific strengths and weaknesses. 4lacement, resources, and goals are determined on the basis of the studentQs needs. ccommodations and Modifications to the regular program may include changes in the curriculum, supplementary aides or e'uipment, and the provision of specialiKed physical adaptations that allow students to participate in the educational environment as much as possible. #tudents may need this help to access sub(ect matter, physically gain access to the school, or meet their emotional needs. or eample, if the assessment determines that the student cannot write by hand because of a physical disability, then the school might provide a computer for typing assignments, or allow the student to answer 'uestions verbally instead. If the school determines that the student is severely distracted by the normal activities in a large, busy classroom, then the student might be placed in a smaller classroom such as a resource room. Spec#% sc+oo%s special school is a school catering for students who have special educational needs due to severe learning difficulties, physical disabilities or behavioural problems. #pecial schools may be specifically designed, staffed and resourced to provide appropriate special education for children with additional needs. #tudents attending special schools generally do not attend any classes in mainstream schools. #pecial schools provide individualised education, addressing specific needs. #tudent to teacher ratios are kept low, often F:1 or lower depending upon the needs of the children. #pecial schools will also have other facilities for children with special needs, such as soft play areas, sensory rooms, or swimming pools, which are necessary for treating students with certain conditions.
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In recent times, places available in special schools are declining as more children with special needs are educated in mainstream schools. 7owever, there will always be some children, whose learning needs cannot be appropriately met in a regular classroom setting and will re'uire specialised education and resources to provide the level of support they re'uire. n eample of a disability that may re'uire a student to attend a special school is intellectual disability. 7owever this practice is often frowned upon by school districts in the G# in the light of +east estrictive 9nvironment as mandated in the Individuals with isabilities 9ducation ct. n alternative is a spec#% "n#t or spec#% c%ss$oo&, also called a se%)@cont#ne! c%ss$oo&, which is a separate room or rooms dedicated solely to the education of students with special needs within a larger school that also provides general education. These classrooms are typically staffed by specially trained teachers, who provide specific, individualiKed instruction to individuals and small groups of students with special needs. #elf"contained classrooms, because they are located in a general education school, may have students who remain in the self"contained classroom full"time, or students who are included in certain general education classes. In the Gnited #tates a part"time alternative that is appropriate for some students is sometimes called a resource room. Inst$"ct#on% st$te;#es ifferent instructional techni'ues are used for some students with special educational needs. Instructional strategies are classified as being either accommo$ations or mo$i%ications. n accommo$ation is a reasonable ad(ustment to teaching practices so that the student learns the same material, but in a format that is more accessible to the student. ccommodations may be classified by whether they change the presentation, response, setting, or scheduling of lessons. or eample, the school may accommodate a student with visual impairments by providing a large"print tetbook. This is a presentation accommodation. mo$i%ication changes or adapts the material to make it simpler. Modifications may change what is learned, how difficult the material is, what level of mastery the student is epected to achieve, whether and how the student is assessed, or any another aspect of the curriculum. or eample, the school may modify a reading assignment for a student with reading difficulties by substituting a shorter, easier book. student may receive both accommodations and modifications. 9amples of modifications: •
#kipping sub(ects: #tudents may be taught less information than t ypical students, skipping over material that the school deems inappropriate for the studentQs abilities or less important than other sub(ects. or eample, students 68
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with poor fine motor skills may be taught to print block letters, but not cursive handwriting. •
•
•
•
#implified assignments: #tudents may read the same literature as their peers but have a simpler version, such as #hakespeare with both the original tet and a modern paraphrase available. #horter assignments: #tudents may do shorter homework assignments or take shorter, more concentrated tests. 9tra aids: If students have deficiencies in working memory, a list of vocabulary words, called a wor$ 'an , can be provided during tests, to reduce lack of recall and increase chances of comprehension. #tudents might use a calculator when other students do not. 9tended time: #tudents with a slower processing speed may benefit from etended time for assignments and;or tests in order to have more time to comprehend 'uestions, recall information, and synthesiKe knowledge.
9amples of accommodations: •
•
•
•
esponse accommodations: Typing homework assignments rather than hand" writing them )considered a modification if the sub(ect is learning to write by hand-. 7aving someone else write down answers given verbally. 4resentation accommodations: 9amples include listening to audio books rather than reading printed books. These may be used as substitutes for the tet, or as supplements intended to improve the studentsQ reading fluency and phonetic skills. #imilar options include designating a person to r ead to the student, or providing tet to speech software. This is considered a modification if the purpose of the assignment is reading skills ac'uisition. *ther presentation accommodations may include designating a person to take notes during lectures or using a talking calculator rather than one with only a visual display. #etting accommodations: Taking a test in a 'uieter room. Moving the class to a room that is physically accessible, e.g., on the first floor of a building or near an elevator . rranging seating assignments to benefit the student, e.g., by sitting at the front of the classroom. #cheduling accommodations: #tudents may be given rest breaks or etended time on tests )may be considered a modification, if speed is a factor in the test-. 69
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S"&&$( The 'uality of an education system encompasses multiple dimensions. The assessment of 'uality in this chapter focuses largely on the intellectual dimension of academic student outcomes, with the benefit of available and measurable data. It is acknowledged that the numbers alone tell only one side of the story. There are other critical aspects vital to the 'uality of education such as a student2s spiritual, emotional, and physical development. Conetheless, children who are unable to master core intellectual skills such as literacy and numeracy, as well as higher"order thinking, will be less likely to succeed in today2s rapidly changing economy and globalised society.
9alaysian 5$ucation Blueprint "1E3""
ela for a while. !hen you are ready, move on to the net Topic.
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TOPIC ?
CURRICULUM E:ALUATION
1.0 SYNOPSIS Topic F introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to curriculum evaluation. It provides insights to the various forms of evaluation in curriculum. It also discusses a variety of methods and tools can be used to conduct evaluation. 1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of Topic F, you will be able to: eplain the term curriculum evaluation eplain forms of evaluation summarise the purposes of curriculum evaluation discuss a variety of methods used in conducting the evaluation • • • •
1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
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CONTENT SESSI2 2E 3 ours5 1.2.1 De)#n#t#on o) C"$$#c"%"& E5%"t#on
9valuation is a disciplined in'uiry to determine the worth of things.
•
•
9valuation is the systematic and ob(ective assessment of an activity, pro(ect, programme,strategy, policy, topic, theme, sector, operational area or institution. s an essential part of thepolicy development process, evaluation provides timely assessments of the relevance, efficiency,effectiveness, impact and sustainability of interventions. 9valuation is essentially about P are we$oing the right thing, are we $oing it right an$ are there 'etter ways o% achieving the results< 9valuations should: provide assessments of what works and why, highlight intended and unintended results, and provide strategic lessons to guide decision"makers and inform stakeholders8 \provide evidence"based information that is credible, reliable and useful, enabling thetimely incorporation of findings, recommendations and lessons8 \feed into management and decision"making processes as a key component to managingfor results8 \inform the planning, programming, budgeting, implementation and reporting cycle8 improve the institutional relevance and the achievement of results, optimiKe the use ofresources, provide client satisfaction and maimiKe the impact of activities8 and \involve a rigorous, systematic and ob(ective process in the design, analysis and •
•
•
•
•
•
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•
interpretation of information to answer specific 'uestions, based on agreed criteria andbenchmarks among key partners and stakeholders.
9valuation is the process of collecting data on a programme to determine its value or worth with the aim of deciding whether to adopt, re(ect, or revise the programme. 4rogrammes are evaluated to answer 'uestions and concerns of various parties. The various parties include the public who want to know whether the curriculum implemented has achieved its aims and ob(ectives8 teachers who want to know whether what they are doing in the classroom is effective8 and the developer or planner who wants to know how to improve the planned curriculum. s such curriculum assessment is concerned about the assessment of the merit and worth of a program of studies, a field of study, or a course of study. $urriculum evaluation should be concerned with assessing the value of a p$o;$& o) st"!( )all the planned learning eperiences over a multiyear period for a given group of learners-, a )#e%! o) st"!( )all the planned learning eperiences over a multiyear period in a given discipline or area of study-, and a co"$se o) st"!( )all the planned learning eperiences for a period of 1 year or less in a given field of study-.$urriculum evaluation can be defined as the collection and provision of evidence, on the basis of which decisions can be taken about the feasibility, effectiveness and educational value of curricula . The following are some thoughts about curriculum evaluation: McCeil )1/33- stated that %curriculum evaluation is an attempt to throw light on two 'uestions: o planned learning opportunities, programmes, courses and activities as developed and organised actually produce desired resultsH 7ow can the curriculum offerings best be improvedH& •
•
•
•
5ay )1/0D- argued that the aim of curriculum evaluation is to identify its weaknesses and strengths as well as problems encountered in implementation8 to improve the curriculum development process8 to determine the effectiveness of the curriculum and the returns on finance allocated. !orthen and #anders )1/03- defined curriculum evaluation as %the formal determination of the 'uality, effectiveness, or value of a programme, product, pro(ect, process, ob(ective, or curriculum& *liva )1/00- defined curriculum evaluation as the process of delineating, obtaining, and providing useful information for (udging decision alternatives. The primary decision alternatives to consider based upon the evaluation results are: to maintain the curriculum as is8 to modify the curriculum8 or to eliminate the curriculum.
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•
*rnstein and 7unkins )1//0- defined curriculum evaluation as %a process or cluster of processes that people perform in order to gather data that will enable them to decide whether to accept, change, or eliminate something" the curriculum in general or an educational tetbook in particular&
4hases of $urriculum 9valuation The evaluator determines what is to be evaluated 1. Aspects o) t+e which may be the total school system, a particular c"$$#c"%"& to e district, a particular grade level or a particular e5%"te! sub(ect. The ob(ectives of the evaluation activity are clearly stated. Identify the information to be collected and the tools for collecting the data which may involve interviews, 2. Dt Co%%ect#on giving of 'uestionnaires, tests, collection of documents and so forth. The evaluator also identifies the people from whom data is to be collected.
8. An%(s#s o) In)o$&t#on
9. Repo$t#n; o) In)o$&t#on
The data collected is analysed and presented in the form of tables and graphs. #tatistical tools are often used to compare significant differences and to establish correlation or relationship between variables.
eports are written describing the findings and interpretation of the data. Based on the findings, conclusion is made on the effectiveness of curriculum implementation efforts. ecommendations are made to reconsider certain aspects of the curriculum.
1.2.2 Fo$&s o) E5%"t#on 9valuation is the process of determining the significance or worth of programmes or procedures. #criven )1/F3- looked at evaluation as formative evaluation and summative evaluation. 1.2.2.1 Fo$&t#5e e5%"t#on s the term %ormative indicates, data is gathered during the formation or development of the curriculum so that revisions to it can be made. ormative evaluation may include determining whonee$s the programme )e.g. students-, how great is the nee$ )e.g. students need to be taught I$T skills to keep pace with epansion of technology- and how to meet the nee$ )e.g. introduce a sub(ect on I$T compulsory for all students-. In education, the aim of formative evaluation is usually to obtain information to improve a programme. In curriculum evaluation, formative evaluation can beconsidered to be the process that looks for evidence of successor
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failure of a curriculum programme, a syllabus or a sub(ecttaught during implementation. In formative evaluation, one would evaluate the fit between the instructional strategies and materials used, and the learning outcomes or what it aims to achieve. #ometimes, the learning outcomes in a curriculum plan and the learning activities may not fit or match. or eample, teachers may want their students to develop speaking skills but there are no learning activities which provide opportunities for students to practise speaking skills. eview of the curriculum plan through formative evaluation may provide useful information for modifying or adapting selected strategies. In formative evaluation students may be included to review the materials to determine if they can use the new materials. rom these formative reviews, problems may be discovered. or eample, curriculum documents may contain spelling errors, confusing se'uence of content, inappropriate eamples or illustrations. The feedback provided by the students could be used to revis e and improve instruction as well as make decisions on whether to adopt or adapt a programme. 1.2.2.2 S"&&t#5e e5%"t#on s the term summative indicates, data is collected at the end of the implementation of the curriculum programme. The effectiveness of a programme can be throughsummative evaluation which can be done after new course materials have been implemented in full or several months to years after the materials have been implemented in full. This type of evaluation assesses whether or not the pro(ect orprogramme can perform as the designersintended. It considers cost effectiveness in terms of money,time and personnel. It also assesses the training that teachersmight need in order to implement a programme successfully. Itdetermines whether a new curriculum programme, syllabus orsub(ect is better than the one it is intended to replace or otheralternatives. These evaluation outcomes can be determined through formal assessment tasks such as marks obtained in tests and eaminations. *ther than 'uantitative data to determine how well students met specified ob(ectives, data could also be collected through 'ualitative methods such as interviews, direct observations, and document analyses 1.2.8 P"$poses o) E5%"t#on 9valuation is the process of obtaining information and using it to make (udgments which in turn are used in decision"making. It is systematic, natural and on"going activity which is planned and purposeful. There are many purposes of evaluation. These include: Implement changes to improve teaching learning outcomes of future courses emedy weaknesses of course in progress 9plain or confirm eisting procedures 9stablish accountability ) value for money75
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9tend teacher2s knowledge about practice. )$4-
1.2.9 E5%"t#on Met+o!s n! Too%s The methods of data collection and the instruments used are more or less similar for both formative and summative evaluation. The common evaluation methods used in curriculum evaluation are interviews, observations, tests, survey, documents and portfolios which are record of work or products. 1.2.9.1S"$5e(s n! "est#onn#$es #urvey is a useful data collection method if one needs to 'uickly and easily get lots of information from people in a non threatening way. Vuestionnairesare the common instrument used in this data collection method. Vuestionnaires can be completed anonymously, can be administered to many people and is relatively inepensive to administer. ata collected from this method is 'uantitative in nature, thus, it is easy to compare and analyse. Massive amount of data can be obtained through 'uestionnaires.s there are many sample 'uestionnaires already in eistence, 'uestionnaires are relatively easy to design.*ne of its weaknesses is the information obtained may not be accurate as it relies on how truthfully sub(ects respond to the items in the 'uestionnaire. In addition, there is also the fear that the wordings used can bias respondents2 responses. Vuestionnaires are also impersonal. Moreover, since only a sample of sub(ects is given the instrument, we not get the whole picture. 1.2.9.2 Inte$5#e7s n! "est#ons Interviews are usually one"on"one situations in which an individual asks 'uestions to which a second individual )a teacher, principal, student or parent- responds. The person asking the 'uestions is called the interviewer while the person giving answers to the 'uestions is called the interviewee. Interviews are used when you want to fully understand someoneQs impressions, opinions or eperiences, or learn more about their answers to 'uestionnaires. There are two general types of interviews depending on the etent to which the responses re'uired which are unstructured or structured. In an unstructured interview, the interviewer does not follow a rigid script and there is a great deal of fleibility in the responses. #ince the response from the interviewee may be varied,it makes the task of keeping track of responses more difficult. The open"endedness of the 'uestion will re'uire that the interviewer record all responses and analyse and interpret the data later. 7owever, one of the advantages of the unstructured interview is that it allows one to gather a variety of information, especially in relation to the interviewee2s knowledge, beliefs or feelings toward a particular situation. In a structured interview, the 'uestions asked usually re'uire very specific responses. egardless of which type of interview is used, evaluators should ensure that each 'uestion is relevant for its intended purpose. The data collected isto be translated into 76
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a form that can be analysed and this is to be done well to ensure accuracy and to maintain the sense of the data. The advantage of interviews is that it can get a full range and depth of information and it develops a relationship with teachers and students and it is more fleible. 7owever, interview is time consuming, can be hard to analyKe and compare, can be costly and the interviewer can be biased towardsrespondent2s responses.
1.2.9.8 Ose$5t#ons n! c+ec %#sts *bservationis useful data collection method o gather accurate information about how a program actually operates, particularly about processes especially to view operations of a program as they are actually occurring. The instrument generally used is a check list. 1.2.9.9Doc"&ents To get impressions of how a programme operates without interrupting the programme8 one can review the memos, minutes, etc to get a comprehensive and historical information about the implementation of the programme. 7owever, one has to be 'uite clear about what looking for as there may be massive amount of documents. Met+o!
surveys
interviews
O5e$%% P"$pose
A!5nt;es
"can complete anonymously "inepensive to administer "easy to compare and when need to 'uickly analyKe and;or easily get lots of "administer to many information from people in people a non threatening way "can get lots of data "many sample 'uestionnaires already eist when want to fully understand someoneQs impressions or eperiences, or learn more about their answers to 'uestionnaires
"get full range and depth of information "develops relationship with client "can be fleible with client
"get comprehensive and when want impression of historical information how program operates "doesnQt interrupt documentation without interrupting the programme or clientQs review program8 is from review of routine in program applications, finances, "information already eists memos, minutes, etc. "few biases about information observation
to gather accurate information about how a
"view operations of a programme as they are 77
C+%%en;es "might not get careful feedback "wording can bias clientQs responses "are impersonal "in surveys, may need sampling epert " doesnQt get full story
"can take much time "can be hard to analyKe and compare "can be costly "interviewer can bias clientQs responses "often takes much time "info may be incomplete "need to be 'uite clear about what looking for "not fleible means to get data8 data restricted to what already eists "can be difficult to interpret seen behaviors
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actually occurring program actually operates, "can adapt to events as particularly about they occur processes
"can be comple to categoriKe observations "can influence behaviors of program participants "can be epensive
"'uickly and reliably get common impressions "can be efficient way to get much range and depth of information in short time " can convey key information about programmes
"can be hard to analyKe responses "need good facilitator for safety and closure "difficult to schedule F"0 people together
"fully depicts clientQs eperience in programme input, process and results "powerful means to portray programme to outsiders
"usually 'uite time consuming to collect, organiKe and describe "represents depth of information, rather than breadth
eplore a topic in depth through group discussion, e.g., about reactions to an focus groups eperience or suggestion, interview understanding common complaints, etc.8 useful in evaluation and marketing
case studies
to fully understand or depict clientQs eperiences in a program, and conduct comprehensive eamination through cross comparison of cases
Table: #ummary of ata $ollection Methods
E*e$c#se
1. !hy do you need to evaluate curriculumH 6. !hat2s the difference between formative and summative evaluationH . !hat data collection methods and instruments can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the A## 9nglish language curriculumH
No7 te $e e)o$e (o" &o5e on to t+e ne*t top#c.
TOPIC
CURRICULUM C3ANGE
1.0 SYNOPSIS Topic F introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to curriculum change. It provides definitions of curriculum change and innovation. It also discusses contet 78
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of curriculum change, strategies of evaluation and planning an implementation of curriculum change.
1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of Topic 3, you will be able to: 1.
efine
6.
iscuss the political and ideological influences on curriculum innovation.
.
9valuate the models that eplain how changes take place.
E. 9plain factors that influence the diffusion and dissemination of change nd innovation in the curriculum.
1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT SESSI2 2E 3 ours5 1.2.1 De)#n#t#on o) C"$$#c"%"& C+n;e n! Inno5t#on 7oyle )1//D- defines change asembracing the concepts of innovation, development, renewaland improvement of a curriculum. $hange has magnitude anddirection and 79
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takes place within a definite time frame. In the contet of curriculum, curriculum change isdictated by the changes in the economic, social andtechnological aspects of a society. $hange is a process not an event8 it re'uires time, energy and resources. It is achieved incrementally and entails development in feelings and skills in using new programmes. $hange should lead to improvement 7arris et al. )1//D- describesinnovation as %an intentional and deliberate process to bringout desired effects and change&. s such, curriculum innovation refersto ideas or practices that are new and different from those thateist in the formal prescribed curriculum.!esterly )1/F/- and ichard )1/FD-, state that curriculum innovationis anyimprovement that is deliberate, measurable, durable andunlikely to occur fre'uently. $urriculum innovations occurs when human and material resources are created, selected, organised and used in ways where the outcomes are higher achievement of curriculum goalsand ob(ectives. The difference between innovation and change is innovation is alwaysplanned while change may occur in response to eternalevents. $urriculum innovationsbecome meaningful andeffective, if they are planned and organised. It is possible thatother types of changes may occur when they are not planned.
1.2.2 Conte*ts o) C"$$#c"%"& C+n;e $urriculum change and curriculum innovation are made necessarydue to a country2s political, social, economic, cultural andtechnological environments. The education system changes in order to address the needs and demands brought about by these factors. t the national level, curriculum change and innovation arisefrom deliberate policy decisions. $hanges in the education system in Malaysia occur when the central authority decides to adopt a new idea. This change is usually made known througha circular. *ne such eample is the introduction of the ?uriulum 8tan$ar$ 8eolah @en$ah )A##- or the 4rimary #chool #tandard $urriculum. nother reason for curriculum change and innovation is the desire ofauthorities at various levels to deliberately change establishedpractices in order to tackle eisting problems or identify newproblems and seek ways of dealing with these problems. $urriculumchange and innovation can also be a due to development in technology. or eample, computers are being usedin almost every aspects of our society. Thus, the education systemand its curriculum must adapt to this new development. $omputers must not be seen as merely a tool for administrative purposes, but also to makethe computer and related technological advancements part and parcel of the curriculum.
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$hange can be classified as hardware and software types. 7ardware types of changes involve the additionsto eisting facilities such as new classrooms, e'uipment, books andplay grounds. *n the other hand, software types affect the content and range of thecurriculum. These may be related to the methods ofdelivery suggested by curriculum designers anddevelopers. $hange can occur in the different forms. In substitution, one element replaces anotherpreviously in use. or eample new tetbooks, new e'uipmentor the replacement of teachers and administrators. lteration on the other hand involves change in eisting structures ratherthan a complete replacement of the whole curriculum, syllabusor course of study. ddition is the introduction of a new component withoutchanging old elements or patterns. Cew elements are added tothe eisting programme without seriously disturbing the mainstructure and content of the prescribed curriculum. Thesecould be support inputs such as audio"visual aids, workshopsand e'uipment.estructuring involves the rearrangement of thecurriculum in order to implement desired changes. It may alsoinvolve the sharing of resources among a group of schools orinstitutions. 1.2.8 St$te;#es o) E5%"t#on The strategiesfor implementing the curriculum must be considered carefullyfor change and innovation to succeed. strategy of innovation refers to the planned procedures andtechni'ues used in the desire for change. 7arris et al.)1/30-, developed some models to eplain how the strategies work.The strategies include are as mentioned below. 1.2.8.1 P$t#c#pt#5e P$o%e&@So%5#n;. This strategy focuses on theusers, their needs and how they satisfy these needs. Thesystem identifies and diagnoses its own needs, finds its ownsolution, tries out and evaluates the solution and implementsthe solution if it is satisfactory. 7ere the emphasis is on localinitiative.
1.2.8.2 P%nne! L#n;e. The intermediate agencies,such as schools, bring together the users of the innovation in this model. 1.2.8.9 Coe$c#5e St$te;#es. These strategies work on the basis ofpower and coercion by those in authority, using laws,directories, circulars and others. Ministries of 9ducation generally used these strategies. Tanner and Tanner )1/0-, suggest three principal models which demonstrate how change takes place. 1.2.8.1T+e Rese$c+ De5e%op&ent n! D#))"s#on Mo!e% 81
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In thismodel, an innovation is thought out at the head or centre andthen fed into the system. This views the processes of change asa logical se'uence of phases in which an innovation is: 1. invented or discovered, 6. developed, . produced, and E. disseminated to the user. 1.2.8.2 P$o%e&@So%5#n; Mo!e% This model is built with the user ofthe innovation in mind. The user of the innovation would follow the steps below. 1. etermine the problem. 6. #earch for an innovation. . 9valuate the trials. E. Implement the innovation.
1.2.8.8Soc#% Inte$ct#on Mo!e% In this model, change proceeds ordiffuses through formal or informal contacts betweeninteracting social groups. The model stresses the importance of interpersonal networks ofinformation, opinion, leadership and personal contact. This model is based on the following: awareness of innovation interest in the innovation trial adoption for permanent use.
1.2.9 P%nn#n; n! I&p%e&entt#on or change to be implemented in thecurriculum, a process has to take place. This process involvesfour ma(or factors. ccording to Bishop )1/0F-, these factors include: T+e c+n;e ;ent $hange agentsinclude teachers, school heads, local authorities or theMinistry of 9ducation. The agent initiates the innovationor curriculum change in general. T+e #nno5t#on This involves eecuting the changeitself8 in other words putting it into use or operation. T+e "se$ s(ste& 82
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This relates to the person or group ofpeople at which the innovation is directed. T#&e Innovation is a social process, which takes placeover a period of time. These factors interact with change andare changed by each other during the process of innovation. The curriculum change agent isinvolved with the process, the planning and the strategies, andis also fre'uently the user of the innovation. T+e Inno5t#on P$ocess Innovation and change generally follow several logical steps: 1. Identify a problem, dissatisfaction or need that re'uiresattention. 6. 5enerate possible solutions to the identified problem orneed. . #elect a particular solution or innovation that has beenidentified as the most appropriate. E. $onduct a trial. D. 9valuate the proposed solution. F. eview the evaluation. 3. If the innovation has solved the identified problem, implement it on a wide scale. 0. dopt and institutionalise the innovation or search foranother solution.
Inno5t#on P%nn#n; 9ffective planning for innovation cannot take place unless thefollowing elements are considered in the process: the personnel to be employed the specification of the actual task the strategy or procedure to be used to undertake thetask the e'uipment needed the buildings and conducive environment the costs involved social contets time involved se'uencing of activities rationale for undertaking the innovation evaluation of the conse'uences or effects of the innovation. Con!#t#ons )o$ S"ccess)"% I&p%e&entt#on o) Inno5t#ons 4otential usersof an innovation are more likely to accept it if the conditionsbelow are met. The innovation must be relevant to them. It must be feasible in their particular organiKationalcontet. 83
