ÍNDICE RESUMEN ............................................................................................................................ 1 ABSTRACT .......................... ............. ......................... .......................... ........................... .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... .................. ..... 1 INTRODUCCIÓN .................................................................................................................. 2 MARCO TEÓRICO ............................................................................................................... 3 1.- Poder ........................................................................................................................ 3 2.- Relaciones de Poder ................................................................................................ 5 3.- Poder Político ........................................................................................................... 5 4.- Elite de Poder ........................................................................................................... 6 5.- Formas de Gobierno en la Antigüedad: Antigüedad:.......................... ............. .......................... .......................... .......................... ................ ... 7 6. Formas de Gobierno Actuales: .................................................................................10 7. Burocracia ................................................................................................................17 APORTES .......................... ............ .......................... ......................... .......................... ........................... ........................... ......................... .......................... ....................20 ......20 CONCLUSIONES ................................................................................................................36 BIBLIOGRAFÍA ....................................................................................................................38 ANEXOS.......................... ............. .......................... .......................... .......................... .......................... ........................... ........................... .......................... .....................39 ........39 NOTAS: ...............................................................................................................................50
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RESUMEN Desde que el hombre se establece en comunidades, surge una relación de dominioobediencia, la cual es establecida con diferentes perspectivas a través del tiempo. El presente trabajo ha tomado como punto de referencia; las formas de gobierno como una constante histórica, manera de expresión del poder dentro de un sistema social, mientras que analiza el modelo modelo de la burocracia; para ello toma como base la teoría del cataclismo cataclismo cíclico, para explicar esta constante histórica (el poder) como medio organizador de los miembros de una sociedad.
Palabras Clave: poder, formas de gobierno, burocracia, burocracia, sociedad ABSTRACT Since man established himself in communities, a relationship of dominion-obedience arises, which it is established with different perspectives over time. The present work has taken as a point of reference; the forms of government as a historical constant, way of expressing power within a social system, while analyzing the model of bureaucracy; bureaucracy; for it takes as base the theory of the cyclic to explain this historical constant (the power) as an organizing medium of the members of a society.
Keywords: power, forms of government, bureaucracy, society
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INTRODUCCIÓN Un buen gobierno es como una buena digestión; mientras funciona, casi no la percibimos. Erskine Caldwell
“Lo político” consiste en las relaciones de poder en la sociedad. Platón decía que la diferencia de la decisión política con otro tipo de decisiones es que esta a diferencia de aquellas tienen un efecto en toda una colectividad, de allí se desprende el carácter relacional y plural de la actividad política. Dado que cada persona, grupo, población, tiene diversos intereses y recursos, y procura que los suyos (el mío, el nuestro) prevalezcan sobre otros (de ellas, de ellos), en toda sociedad hay relaciones conflictivas, a esto se suma la realidad asimétrica que crea desigualdad. Con el fin de evitar el enfrentamiento permanente y violento, a lo largo de la historia se fueron definiendo autoridades que procuraban mantener relativamente ordenadas las relaciones de poder. De este modo, se entiende “la política” com o el espacio público y los procesos (actores, estructuras, relaciones) que regulan permanentemente(procedimientos, normas, leyes, instituciones, mandatos y ordenanzas) las relaciones de poder en una sociedad, y que son válidas, legítimas (en democracia) y obligatorias (en otros sistemas y regímenes, pero también en democracia) para todos sus integrantes. El ejercicio de esta autoridad pública es lo que se conoce en términos amplios como “gobierno”. La política y lo político existen en democracia, pero no s olamente en la democracia. Hay relaciones de poder reguladas hasta en tiranías y dictaduras. ¿Quiénes son las autoridades reconocidas como tales? ¿Cómo se ejerce esa autoridad? ¿Cuáles son sus límites y alcances? ¿Por qué período o tiempo se ejerce la autoridad pública? Estas constituyen las principales interrogantes a las que el pensamiento y las teorías políticas han dado respuesta para diferenciar y clasificar a la democracia de otras modalidades de gobierno. Todos y cada uno de los Estados poseen un sistema de gobierno instaurado con el propósito de establecer reglas que guíen y controlen el comportamiento de los individuos que lo integran; además de garantizar y preservar la estabilidad política y la continuidad del Estado
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MARCO TEÓRICO 1.- Poder
1.1.- Concept C oncepto o Poder es un término polisémico que además de tener diversos significados en una misma comunidad lingüística, adquiere distintos sentidos según el contexto particular del acto de habla. Por su raíz latina potere, poder significa en primera instancia ser capaz o tener potencia. La primera definición que aparece en el Diccionario de la de la lengua española es: "Tener expedita la facultad o potencia de hacer algo" (Real Academia Española, 2001: 1215). Según Foucault, Foucault, el poder se define define como una relación asimétrica asimétrica que está constituida constituida por dos entes: la autoridad y la obediencia; una situación estratégica estratégica que se da en una una determinada sociedad; el poder incita, suscita y produce. Mientras que para Jacques Maritain el poder es la fuerza mediante la cual se puede obligar a otro a obedecer. El ejercicio del mismo se da en diferentes diferentes modalidades, modalidades, como; la fe, la religión, la fuerza física, el poder psicológico psicológico o mental, el poder del dinero, que son mecanismos mecanismos que tienen influencia en la conducta del ser humano. Aristóteles en Política distingue tres formas típicas de poder; el poder del padre con sus hijos, del amo sobre los esclavos y del gobernante sobre los gobernados. Se puede decir entonces que el poder es la relación entre el dominado y el dominante, uno depende del otro. Según el politólogo italiano Mario Stoppino (1935-2001) las relaciones de poder son relaciones “triádicas”: para definir una relación de poder hay que indicar al sujeto que lo ejerce, a las personas o grupos que están sometidos al mismo y, tercer elemento fundamental, la esfera del poder. Stoppino define el poder, como construcción cultural histórica y socialmente determinada, es definido en forma general por el autor como “la capacidad de producir efectos, y puede ser referida tanto a individuos o grupos humanos como a objetos o fenómenos de la naturaleza. (UNSTA, 2016) En cambio, en el sentido social, lo traduce como la “capacidad del hombre para determinar
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Ante la arbitrariedad y el exceso de quien ejercita el poder, sería absurdo negar el derecho o facultad de los gobernados a poner por la vía jurídica un límite a dichos abusos o incluso a ponerles un fin. Bertrand de Jouvenel analizó el creciente alcance del poder en las sociedades occidentales. En una vena liberal cercana a Benjamin Constant, señalo cómo el gobierno se había ampliado y había invadido esferas de la política/sociedad que estaban previamente fuera de su alcance. El poder significa la “esfera” del gobierno, no solo el ejecutivo o el sistema político, mientras que la iniciativa política es la lucha tanto por “tomar el poder” como por definir sus límites. Otros autores, llevando más allá esta idea, sostienen que la lucha por el poder está en todos lados y que esa ubicuidad, en cambio, proviene de su Naturaleza Humana o, según una visión más hobbesiana, del miedo y la escasez. (Guzzini, 2015-2016) Weber sostiene que “... poder poder se define como como la posibilidad de imponer imponer la propia voluntad dentro de una relación social, aun contra toda resistencia y cualquiera que sea el fundamento de esa probabilidad...”. Norberto Bobbio define el poder como “...una relación entre dos sujetos, de los cuales uno le impone al otro su voluntad y le determina a su pesar el comportamiento...”
1.2.-Orig 1.2.-Orig en del P oder oder El poder es un fenómeno social el cual se establece en un grupo, no puede desarrollarse en una sola persona, por ello es que el poder existe desde que empiezan a formarse las primeras comunidades manifestándose manifestándose a través de las relaciones sociales. Desde sus inicios el poder ha sido una necesidad en un grupo social, en las primeras grandes civilizaciones el poder fue justificado a través del mito, y esa fue su constante histórica (La divinización, creencia en que el poder era otorgado por los dioses a una persona y/o grupo de personas). Con el tiempo su concepción ha ido variando así como también el ejercicio del mismo; en el caso de Perú, donde actualmente su forma de gobierno es la democracia, es en ella el la donde el poder emana del pueblo, el cual le otorga a un grupo de personas (Estado) la capacidad de gobernar la Nación. Ello implica tomar e imponer decisiones las cuales afectaran a la
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2.- Relaciones de Poder Las relaciones de poder en las organizaciones se manifiestan tanto interna como externamente. Son una relación de fuerzas que no se excluyen sino que comparten relaciones de oposición y de complementariedad. Los sistemas de relaciones que llevan implícitas acciones de poder se insertan en una microfísica, la estructura del Estado, y se configuran en una red que ejerce poder en uno u otro campo, de uno a otro individuo, microfísica, o viceversa; de esta manera, se constituye el poder en el hilo invisible que teje las estructuras sociales, políticas, culturales, religiosas, de una nación. Tales relaciones enmarcadas en torno al llamado desarrollo económico y legitimadas por las políticas de Estado. La relación de poder se sustenta sobre la base de dos elementos: un “otro” (sobre el cual se ejerce el poder) que actúa y que, frente a una relación de poder pueda abrirse un campo completo de respuestas, reacciones, resultados o invenciones posibles; dado que “el otro”, sobre quien se ejerce la acción de poder, es un ser que actúa y que al actuar da cuenta de sus propias acciones, al confrontarse las acciones de unos y de otros, desencadena como resultado el consenso o la violencia. Las relaciones de poder, no siempre son coordinadas, casi siempre se establecen en un juego de jerarquías en donde la acción, como en un juego, se invierte y allí el lenguaje, en sus más diversas manifestaciones, juega también su papel fundamental. (Sánchez, 2010)
3.- Poder Político El poder político es aquel que se ejerce dentro de un Estado y el cual afecta a una totalidad; son las personas que ocupan un cargo representativo dentro de un sistema de gobierno en un país, las que permiten que se dé el poder político en la toma de decisiones. El poder político es legítimo cuando es elegido conforme a las normas de cada país y es ilegítimo cuando utiliza mecanismos no autorizados por las leyes y se toma el poder gubernamental sin tener la legitimidad del pueblo, es el pueblo el que mediante m ediante el voto popular decide quien representará a la Nación. Sin embargo, cuando un grupo de sujetos se muestra contrarios a las decisiones de quienes ejercen el poder, se toma a la coerción o coacción (Puede ser
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A ello el poder político está basado basado en la posibilidad de ejercer la coacción, de de usar la fuerza legal, lo cual equivale a la aplicación de la ley misma, pues ese poder político está juridificado. (UNAM) Es el Estado el que posee poder político, en donde puede verse que según la cantidad y tipo de derechos que que los individuos ceden, se encuentran los límites y las características características del poder político. A su vez esta cesión cesión depende de de la visión que cada cada uno de los autores tenga del Estado de Naturaleza y de la condición humana en general, condicionando así el pacto que los contratantes hacen para llegar a la sociedad civil. Es importante observar que en la visión contractualista, el poder político ya no tiene origen divino, sino que quienes gobiernan lo hacen en virtud de la voluntad de individuos libres y formalmente iguales. El Estado surge de una creación humana, la cual se produce por la conveniencia y no por la naturaleza social de los hombres. (Rossi)
4.- Elite de Poder Según La Real Academia Española define el término elite, proveniente del francés élite, como una minoría selecta o rectora. El concepto de élite nos sugiere la capacidad moldeadora de grupos sociales. Las teorías sobre las élites políticas surgen en Europa a finales del siglo XIX. La segunda mitad del siglo se ha caracterizado en toda Europa por los grandes cambios económicos, sociales y políticos. La renovación tecnológica proveniente de la Revolución industrial, la modificación de la relación entre la ciudad y el campo, los cambios en la estructura demográfica que todo ello comporta ha producido los grandes movimientos revolucionarios de finales de siglo.
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y otra tendencia contraria de las nuevas fuerzas sociales a establecer la elección en la formación de las élites. La historia dice que la primera tendencia es la triunfadora y que la elección, es decir la capacidad de las nuevas élites para penetrar en el poder es solo una corrección de la tendencia dominante que es la herencia, o la cooptación. Pero lo que da poder a la élite es su organización. La organización es "el complejo de procedimientos empleados por los que pertenecen a la clase superior para mantener su propia cohesión y ejercer su dominio" (Baras) Son estos grupos de minoría los que toman las decisiones políticas, y los cuales existen en todas las formas de organización, organización, como si fuera parte o característica del ser ser humano (una constante); aun así no se puede erradicar la idea de que las elites rompen con las ideas idealistas de democracia, pues al momento de conceptualizar la democracia, las elites son antagonistas.
5.- Formas de Gobierno en la Antigüedad: Antigüedad: Cuando se vive en grupo, el hombre necesita un conjunto de normas y leyes que permitan regular la convivencia. Desde la Edad de Piedra hasta hoy día las formas de gobierno han evolucionado adaptándose a las nuevas necesidades y creencias. No cabe duda que normalmente el nivel cultural de la población es proporcional a la calidad de su gobierno, pues los ignorantes son fáciles de engatusar con demagogias. Así puede afirmarse que en los lugares donde la falta de educación es el pan nuestro de cada día los gobernantes corruptos proliferan, de hecho ellos mismos fomentan la necedad para perpetuarse en el poder. Pan y circo para el pueblo. En el polo opuesto encontramos a un país como Islandia, el cual tiene el índice más alto de lectura de libros por habitante, ya sabemos lo bien que saben gobernarse y lo poco que han tardado en expulsar de su gobierno a los corruptos en fechas recientes, incluso no han dudado en cambiar su constitución para evitar futuras
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imperfecto. Un emperador sabio puede hacer feliz a sus súbditos y ser mucho más eficaz que cualquier democracia degenerada o no. Como pronto comprobaremos, actualmente las palabras que designan las formas de gobierno se han corrompido enormemente.
5.1 Monarquía: Monarquí a: Del griego monárkhes, formado con monós "uno" y árkho "yo mando". Suele identificarse a menudo con el reino al ser el rey la cabeza de gobierno de una nación, pero en sí mismo una monarquía abarca cualquier sistema de gobierno liderado por un solo individuo.
5.2 A narquía: narqu ía: Del griego anarkhía, derivado de anarkhos "sin jefe" y éste de árkho "yo mando". La anarquía es el caos absoluto como forma de gobierno. En teoría todo está permitido, lo bueno y lo malo así que solo puede llegar a ser positivo en lugares de escasa población que acepte unos valores morales mínimos. La única ley que funciona es la del más fuerte. Zonas fronterizas, remotas o inexploradas suelen ser buenos lugares para una anarquía. Asimismo puede aflorar en cualquier lugar en épocas convulsas como revoluciones o guerras civiles.
5.3 Olig arquía: arquí a: Del griego oligarkhía, con oligoi "pocos" y árkho "yo mando". A difer encia de la monarquía la oligarquía la dirigen unas pocas personas. El típico gobierno oligarca está constituido por familias poderosas. Los oligarcas son dueños de propiedades, tierras o de grandes acumulaciones de dinero. A veces gobiernan en la sombra gracias a sus fuertes influencias económicas.
5.4 R epúblic epúbli c a: Del latín res publica (la cosa pública, el estado). Raíz r e- "dotar, otorgar". En esta forma de gobierno la prioridad por encima de otros intereses es el propio pueblo. La iniciativa privada queda supeditada al interés de la l a población.
5.5 D emocraci emocr acia: a: Del griego democratia, compuesto de demos "público" "popular" y krateo
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5.6 Plutocrac Plutoc racia: ia: Del griego plutos "riqueza" y kratéo "yo domino". Es el gobierno de los ricos. El dinero es principal requisito para obtener poder e influencia. Aquellos que carezcan de medios están condenados a ser simples esclavos de sus dirigentes. Debido a estas razones sus gobernantes forman parte de poderosas élites financieras: banqueros, comerciantes, etc. El equivalente medieval es el feudalismo, cuya raíz es peku- (riqueza, bienes muebles), del latín feudum "contrato que da ciertos derechos de posesión del que tenía la soberanía" "vasallaje".
5.7 A ris ri s tocraci tocr acia: a: Tomado del griego aristokratía, compuesto de áristos "el mejor" y krátos "yo domino". La aristocracia es el gobierno de los nobles, en sí mismo los más capacitados, hoy día se llama "meritocracia". Teóricamente es el sistema de gobierno más eficaz pues en cada puesto gobiernan los mejores en sus campos respectivos.
5.8 Timocr Ti mocraci acia: a: Procedente del griego timé "honor" y kratéo "yo domino". Los dirigentes timocráticos son carismáticos líderes que alcanzan el poder gracias a sus proezas y buena reputación, esto mismo les facilita enormes riquezas y propiedades. Aquellos de dudosa reputación (mercenarios, delincuentes, comerciantes) forman la casta más baja y miserable de la población siendo a menudo meros esclavos. Un buen ejemplo sería la antigua Esparta o el Japón medieval.
5.9 Teocrac Teoc racia: ia: Del griego theós "Dios" y kratéo "yo domino". Es el gobierno de los sacerdotes, ya sean monoteístas o politeístas.
5.10 Talas Talasocr ocraci acia: a: Del griego thálassa "mar" y kratéo "yo gobierno". Son gobiernos basados en el poder de su flota naval. Buenos ejemplos serían los fenicios o la civilización minoica.
5.11 Imperio Imper io:: Del latín imperare "mandar, ordenar". Los emperadores son poderosos monarcas que gobiernan vastos territorios. En los países musulmanes su equivalente es el
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religiosos. No siempre contaban con el apoyo de toda la comunidad musulmana, siendo a menudo aceptados o rechazados por unos y otros.
5.14 Clept C leptoc ocrr acia: aci a: Del griego clepto "robar" y kráteo "yo gobierno". Es término moderno que define a la perfección cualquier sistema de gobierno diseñado para robar a los ciudadanos una parte de los impuestos con impunidad jurídica. Para conseguirlo los cleptócratas modelan a su antojo -por medio de la demagogia- un sistema jurídico, económico, propagandístico y político a fin a sus intereses. Esto mismo favorece que el clientelismo político y el soborno sean hábitos comunes. El paraíso de las cleptocracias son aquellos lugares donde existe una fuente importante de ingresos económicos y el pueblo es fácil de engañar dada su incultura. Una república, un reino, una democracia, etc., puede llegar a convertirse bajo cuerda en una cleptocracia o gobierno mafioso. No cabe duda que en la Antigüedad las cleptocracias existieron tanto como hoy.
6. Formas de Gobierno Actuales: El gobierno es la organización del Estado, constituido por un conjunto de dignidades e instituciones políticas. Ahora bien, no todos los gobiernos son iguales; existen muchas formas distintas que determinan el poder político que se ejerce sobre toda una sociedad.
6.1. ¿ Qué es es una forma forma de gobierno? A lo largo de la historia de la humanidad, los hombres han diseñado diversas instituciones que de acuerdo con sus creencias, costumbres y hábitos de obediencia, les han permitido gobernarse manteniendo la estabilidad y el orden social para la consecución de los fines colectivos de paz, progreso y justicia, lo que ha significado el crear formas de organización política y con ello han venido surgiendo diferentes regímenes políticos y formas de gobierno.
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gobierno. Desde la perspectiva de la teoría clásica de la división y equilibrio de poderes diseñada por el Barón de Montesquieu y en las categorizaciones de los sistemas políticos modernos y que reúnen las características de una democracia, los regímenes pueden clasificarse en dos tipos, según la preponderancia en la relación entre los poderes. Estos dos sistemas son por una parte, el sistema presidencial en el cual se observa una preponderancia del órgano Ejecutivo sobre el poder Legislativo y por otra parte el parlamentario, en el cual existe preeminencia del Legislativo e incluso en muchos casos el propio poder Ejecutivo emana del parlamento para configurar el gabinete de gobierno. Por ello a este último se le denomina parlamentario.
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estableció el culto a la Diosa Razón), soviética (que establecía la libertad de culto y de propaganda antirreligiosa) y la china (especialmente durante la Revolución Cultural).
6.4. Cla C lass ificación ifi cación de Forma F ormass de Gobierno G obierno exis exi s tente tentess en el mundo actual ctual 6.4.1. Repúblicas Una república es la forma de gobierno en la que el jefe del estado no es un monarca, sino un cargo público cuyo ocupante no tiene derecho por sí mismo a ejercerlo, sino que lo ha obtenido mediante un procedimiento de elección pública directa o indirecta (nominado por un parlamento) y está sometido al escrutinio público. El republicanismo identifica como valores republicanos los de la Revolución francesa (libertad, igualdad y fraternidad). 6.4.1.1. Repúblicas presidencialistas Se trata de sistemas en los que un presidente es la cabeza activa de la rama ejecutiva del gobierno y es elegido y se mantiene en el cargo independientemente de la legislatura. El presidente es a la vez jefe de Estado y jefe de gobierno. Los siguientes estados son repúblicas presidencialistas: Angola, Benín, Burundi, Burundi, Comoras, Gambia, Comoras, Gambia, Ghana, Ghana, Kenia, Kenia, Liberia, Malaui, África: Angola, Benín, Nigeria, Seychelles, Nigeria, Seychelles, Sierra Sierra Leona, Sudán Leona, Sudán del Sur, Zambia, Sur, Zambia, Zimbabue Zimbabue
América: Argentina, Bolivia, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, República
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África: Camerún, República Centroafricana, Chad, Centroafricana, Chad, República del Congo, Costa Congo, Costa de Marfil, Gabón, Marfil, Gabón, Guinea, Guinea, Guinea Guinea Ecuatorial, Ruanda, Ecuatorial, Ruanda, Sudán, Sudán, Tanzania, Tanzania, Togo, Togo, Uganda, Uganda, Yibuti,
América: Guyana, Perú Guyana, Perú Sur, Tayikistán, Uzbekistán Uzbekistán Asia: Corea del Sur, Tayikistán,
Europa: Bielorrusia 6.4.1.3. Repúblicas semipresidencialistas En sistemas semipresidenciales, hay por lo general tanto presidente como un primer ministro. En tales sistemas, el presidente, mantiene el cargo independientemente de la legislatura, tiene la autoridad genuina ejecutiva, a diferencia de en una república parlamentaria, pero parte del papel del jefe del gobierno es ejercido por el primer ministro que suele ser nombrado por el presidente pero es responsable ante la cámara legislativa. Los siguientes estados son repúblicas semipresidencialistas:
África: Argelia, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, República Democrática del Congo, Guinea-Bisáu, Egipto, Madagascar, Malí, Madagascar, Malí, Mauritania, Mozambique, Namibia, Mozambique, Namibia, Níger, Níger, Sahara Occidental(RASD) Occidental (RASD),, Santo Tomé y Príncipe, Senegal, Príncipe, Senegal, Túnez, Túnez, Yibuti Yibuti
América: Haití
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Europa: Albania, Alemania, Austria, Bosnia y Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croacia, Eslovaquia, Eslovenia, Estonia, Finlandia, Grecia, Hungría, Islandia, Italia, Irlanda, Letonia, Lituania, Macedonia, Malta, Moldavia, Montenegro, Polonia, República Checa, San Checa, San Marino, Serbia Marino, Serbia
Oceanía: Fiyi, Samoa, Fiyi, Samoa, Vanuatu Vanuatu 6.4.1.5. República parlamentarias mixtas En estos sistemas el poder ejecutivo está en manos del presidente y su gobierno elegidos al mismo que la legislatura. Sin embargo ellos no están sujetos a la confianza del parlamento (pueden estar algunos miembros); las excepciones son Sudáfrica donde el Presidente puede ser forzado a dimitir por el Parlamento, y Kiribati, donde una moción de confianza exitosa contra el presidente fuerza a una nueva elección presidencial.
África: Botsuana, Sudáfrica, Botsuana, Sudáfrica, América: Surinam Asia: Myanmar (Birmania) Marino, Suiza Europa: San Marino, Suiza
Oceanía: Kiribati, Estados Kiribati, Estados Federados de Micronesia, Islas Micronesia, Islas Marshall, Nauru Marshall, Nauru
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se elige, bien por cooptación del propio monarca, bien por un grupo selecto (monarquía electiva -las monarquías de los pueblos germánicos o la primitiva monarquía romana). Las formas de monarquía, tal como se sucedieron históricamente en Europa Occidental entre la Edad Media y la Edad Moderna, fueron la monarquía feudal (durante la Plena Edad Media), la monarquía autoritaria (desde la crisis bajomedieval) y la monarquía absoluta (desde el siglo XVII). La crisis del Antiguo Régimen significó, en su aspecto político, su sustitución por repúblicas o por formas de monarquía con poderes limitados: 6.4.2.1. Monarquías constitucionales o parlamentarias Tanto en las monarquías m onarquías constitucionales como en las monarquías parlamentarias actuales, el monarca, aun manteniendo su posición como el jefe de estado, tiene poderes muy limitados o meramente simbólicos o ceremoniales. El poder ejecutivo es ejercido en su nombre por el gobierno, dirigido por un jefe de gobierno, primer ministro o presidente del gobierno. Éste es nombrado a través de procedimientos fijados por la ley o la costumbre, que en la práctica significan el nombramiento del líder del partido o coalición con mayor representación en un parlamento o cuerpo legislativo elegido democráticamente. Las siguientes son monarquías constitucionales o parlamentarias:
África: Lesoto Asia: Camboya, Japón, Malasia, Tailandia
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América: Antigua y Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belice, Canadá, Granada, Jamaica, San Jamaica, San Cristóbal y Nieves, Santa Nieves, Santa Lucía, San Lucía, San Vicente y las Granadinas
Europa: Reino Unido Oceanía: Australia, Nueva Australia, Nueva Zelanda, Papúa Zelanda, Papúa Nueva Guinea, Islas Guinea, Islas Salomón, Tuvalu Salomón, Tuvalu 6.4.2.3. Monarquías constitucionales con monarcas activos También llamadas monarquías semi-constitucionales porque, a pesar de regirse por un texto constitucional y poseer instituciones legislativas elegidas, judiciales con mayor o menor independencia y un ejecutivo dirigido por un primer ministro; el monarca conserva poderes significativos, que puede utilizar a discreción, y control sobre todos los poderes, de forma en cierto modo similar a como se ejercía el poder monárquico con una carta otorgada. otorgada. Son monarquías semiconstitucionales semiconstitucionales o constitucionales con fuerte poder regio:
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6.4.5. Estados con gobierno provisional Es: Libia Es: Libia (república parlamentaria)
7. Burocracia
7.1. Modelo Ideal de Bur B urocr ocra aci a de Max Max Weber W eber Max Weber, sociólogo alemán del siglo XIX y principios del siglo XX, ejerció una gran influencia, a veces no reconocida, no solo en la sociología burguesa contemporánea, sino en la concepción de los principios de administración y de dirección. Dirigido contra la teoría marxista de las formaciones económico – económico – sociales, sociales, se basa en las construcciones mentales de “tipo ideal” que no refleja la realidad. El término burocracia describe determinado tipo de organización social y las relaciones sociales que supone, en el cual el aspecto jerárquico administrativo a gran escala es el
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•
División del trabajo: Considerada ley de la naturaleza, naturaleza, el objeto es producir más y mejores resultados con la misma cantidad de esfuerzo, de manera que el trabajador que se ocupa de hacer siempre lo mismo, adquiere una destreza, seguridad y exactitud.
•
Autoridad y responsabilidad: Autoridad Autoridad es el derecho a mandar y de hacerse hacerse obedecer. Se reconoce que un buen director es aquel que tiene autoridad estatutaria otorgada por el cargo y también la autoridad personal, resultado de sus conocimientos y cualidades éticas y morales. No se concibe autoridad sin responsabilidad.
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Disciplina: Consiste Consiste en obedecer y guardar guardar una actitud dentro de los límites fijado por el convenio entre la empresa y sus empleados.
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Unidad de mando: Un Un empleado empleado tiene tiene que que recibir recibir instrucciones instrucciones sobre sobre una una operación operación particular de un solo hombre, regla que se aplica en todo momento y en todas las circunstancias.
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•
Orden: Un Un lugar lugar para para cada cada uno y cada uno en su lugar. lugar.
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Equidad: Al personal hay que tratarlo con amistad, y la equidad es el resultado de combinar la amistad con la justicia, sin excluir la energía ni la firmeza.
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Estabilidad del personal: personal: Un empleado necesita algún tiempo para adaptarse adaptarse a una nueva función.
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Solidaridad: Hay que desarrollar desarrollar la armonía armonía y la unión unión entre entre el personal.
Los requisitos profesionales son considerados méritos, y los puestos de jerarquía son ocupados a partir de una selección por promoción.
7.3. C rítica rí tica al al model modelo o burocr ático: Críticos no faltaron, señalando la insuficiencia de aspectos ideológicos y técnicos de una sociedad democrática, maximizando “el ejercicio de un control imperativo sobre los seres humanos”, al decir del autor. El propio Weber dijo que se había inspirado en la organización
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APORTES Una política que no cuestiona políticas. Si tendríamos que resumir las siguientes paginas diríamos: “no quiero expresar cómo es que tienen que dirigirme si no saber cómo he de dirigirme”. El cataclismo cíclico es una teoría inventada ya hace mucho tiempo por el historiador griego Polibio, que si bien tiene en su biografía muchos datos interesantes y de gran valía, no es nuestra intención decir lo que él ya mencionó en su momento. Nuestra intención es plantear un nuevo punto de vista a través de su teoría, usándola como unos lentes para ver al mundo, pero nunca dejando que eso nos limite el placer de discrepar, pero si bien no es nuestra nuestra intención hacer un reencuentro teórico aburrido; aburrido; sí nos interesa introducir lo principal de dicha teoría para así dar al lector las bases para poder entender y si es oportuno cuestionar lo que plantearemos.
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manera ideal y luego de manera práctica, son hombres que no nacen acorde a sus épocas y que por ellos no se ven contentos con la forma en la que se desarrolla la vida. Tan solo bastaría imaginar a Platón discutiendo con Rousseau sobre si es mejor la aristocracia o la democracia. Más nos alegramos pues ya hemos llegado al punto capital dada por nosotros en forma de pregunta ¿En qué tiempo nos hallamos? , se hace fácil responder esta pregunta, muchos
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poco conocimiento nos es difícil saber si hubo una etapa donde habían españoles “nobles” (tomamos la palabra como virtud), En la época de la independencia es donde surgen más problemas para nuestra teoría, pues el libertador San Martin quería un monarquía constitucional, pero el pueblo peruano rechazó esta idea y se decidió por una democracia esto le llevó a convocar el primer congreso constituyente que fue elegido, precisamente, democráticamente.
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Una democracia que respalda a unos pocos y olvida a la población y sus necesidades básicas. No podríamos decir que el Perú se rige mediante un gobierno oligárquico, ni muchos menos en una tiranía, pero estamos presenciando rasgos, pequeños rasgos que nos hacen pensar que no existe democracia en el Perú. En el Perú se ejerce una democracia nominal, es decir una democracia que se ejerce en
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Entonces es hora ya de cambiar nuestra situación política en el país porque aunque el poder lo ejerza el presidente y nuestras autoridades, al final, el poder es de todos y debemos empezar a construir democracia en el Perú. Los Estados en América Latina han sido descritos como “leviatanes de papel”, formalmente poseedores de enorme poder, pero con serios problemas para hacer cumplir sus leyes o llevar a buen puerto sus reformas. Si bien sabemos que hay excepciones, el diagnóstico es
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Podemos decir que en nuestro país nosotros somos los responsables del mal de nuestros gobiernos, pero es claro que echamos la culpa a nuestras autoridades, a nuestras leyes y a nuestra forma de gobierno en la que vivimos. No es necesario argumentar dicho accionar pues eso lo escuchamos a diario en las calles, impreso en algún periódico y diversos medios de comunicación que critican a los gobernantes y autoridades sin saber que fueron ellos quienes los eligieron.
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En el Perú no es extraño decir que las personas somos unos “vagos”, un término algo
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Existen diversos factores que demuestran que en nuestro país no podremos gozar de un
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presente que se puede llegar a un punto medio y equilibrado, como un péndulo, que a pesar
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Pues estos es producto de que el ser humano, que es el centro de todo, no puede no hacer
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En la modernidad el deber ser es algo esencial en el derecho y corresponde al término sujeto
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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Trusted by over 1 million members
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