Pharmacognosy

PHARMACOGNOSY

Pharmacognosy For the students of Pharmacy Technicians (Category-B) Compiled By Syed Bilal Hussain Lecturer Lahore College of Pharmaceutical Sciences Under Supervision of Dr. Shehla Akbar M.Phil (Pharmacognosy) Assistant Professor Lahore College of Pharmaceutical Sciences

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Dedication To Prof. Dr. Naim Anwar Muzaffar “The Father of Pharmacy” Whose Dedications Toward Pharmacy Education Are Priceless.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Acknowledgement I am very grateful to Ch. Muhammad Shamoon, Secretary, Punjab Pharmacy Council, Lahore, who give me honor to compile PHARMACOGNOSY Book for the students of Pharmacy Technician. I am very thankful to my teachers Dr. Shehla Akbar who generously contributed their time and efforts to help me make this book as accurate and useful as possible. Special thanks to Hafiz Muhammad Zubair & Haroon Shahzad and Dr. Sara for providing help in composing and proof reading of the text.

Syed Bilal Hussain

Lecturer Lahore College of Pharmaceutical Sciences

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Contents PHARMACOGNOSY

9

INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY

9

SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY

9

CRUDE DRUGS

11

CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

11

Alphabetical Method

11

Morphological Method

11

Taxonomical Method

11

Pharmacological Method

12

Chemical Method

12

TERMINANOLOGY AND DIFFERENT PARTS OF PLANT

12

Leaves

12

Leaflets

13

Stems

13

Flowers

13

Fruit

14

Pulp

14

Seeds

14

Roots

15

Bark

15

Wood

15

Bulb

16

Rhizomes

16

Herb

16

Medicinal Herb

16

Essential Oil (volatile oils)

17

Fatty Oil (non-volatile vegetable oils)

17

Gum

17

Resins

17

EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

18

Organoleptic Evaluation or Morphological Evaluation

18

Microscopic Evaluation

18

Chemical Evaluation

19

Physical Evaluation

19

Biological Evaluation

19 -4-

PHARMACOGNOSY

INTRODUCTION, CASE HISTORY, SKIN TEST, TREATMENT AND MECHANISM OF ALLERGY

20

ALLERGY

20

Definition

20

Allergen

21

Types of Allergen

21

Inhalants

21

Contactants

21

Ingestants

21

Injectants

21

Sings & Symptoms of Allergy

22

TYPES OF ALLERGY

22

Environmental Allergy

22

Airborne particles

22

Pollen Allergy

23

Insect bites and Stings

23

Physical & Psychometric Allergy

23

Anaphylactic Allergy (Anaphylaxis)

23

Cytotoxic Allergy

23

Delayed Hypersensitivity Allergy

23

MEDICAL CASE HISTORY

23

General Examination Includes…

23

Vital Signs

24

Clinical Examination Includes…

24

Investigation

24

SKIN TEST FOR ALLERGY

24

Scratch Test for Allergy

25

Patch Tests (contact allergy testing)

25

Intradermal Test

25

THE MECHANISM OF AN ALLERGIC REACTION

25

GENERAL MECHANISM OF ALLERGIC RESPONSE

25

METHODS OF TREATMENT IN ALLERGY

26

Avoidance

26

Vaccinations

27

Pharmacological Methods of Treatment in Allergy

27

ENZYMES OBTAINED FROM PLANT SOURCE (PHYTO-ENZYMES)

28

Definitions

28

Difference Between Enzymes & Catalyst

28 -5-

PHARMACOGNOSY

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES

28

Catalytic Property

29

Enzymatic Property

29

Solubility

29

pH

29

Temperature

29

Specificity

29

Protein Nature

30

CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES

30

Oxidoreductases

30

Transferases

30

Hydrolases

31

Lyases

31

Isomerases

31

Ligases

31

FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES

31

BROMELAIN

33

PAPAIN

34

SEPARATION AND ISOLATION OF PLANT CONSTITUENTS

35

Difference Between Extraction and Chromatography

35

CHROMATOGRAPHY

35

Applications of Chromatography

35

Stationary phase

36

Mobile Phase

36

Rf value

36

STYLE OR TECHNIQUES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY

36

Ascending Chromatography

37

Descending Chromatography

37

Circular or Radial Chromatography

37

TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY

37

PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

37

Stationary Phase in Paper Chromatography

37

Mobile Phase in Paper Chromatography

37

Procedure of Paper Chromatography

37

Styles of Paper Chromatography

38

Application of Paper Chromatography

38

THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)

38

Stationary Phase in Thin Layer Chromatography

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Mobile Phase in Thin Layer Chromatography

38

Procedure of Thin layer Chromatography

39

Styles of Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)

39

Application of Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)

39

COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY

40

Stationary Phase in Column Chromatography

40

Mobile Phase Column Chromatography

40

Procedure of Column Chromatography

40

Application of Column Chromatography

40

EXTRACTION

41

Extraction Definition

41

Theory of Extraction

41

Manstrum

41

Marc

41

EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES/ METHODS

42

Infusion

42

Procedure for Infusion Extraction Decoction Procedure for Decoction Extraction Maceration

42 42 43 43

Procedure for Maceration Extraction

43

Multiple Maceration

43

Procedure for Double Maceration

43

Percolation Procedure for Percolation Extraction

44 44

Continuous Hot Extraction

44

POISONOUS PLANTS

45

PLANTS CAUSING GIT TOXICITY

45

Mouth or Oral Cavity Toxic Plants

45

Plants Toxic to Gastric Mucosa

46

Plants Causing Dryness of Mouth

47

Plants Causing intestinal Motility

49

PLANTS CAUSING CVS DISTURBANCES

50

PLANTS CAUSING CNS DISTURBANCES

51

CYANOGENETIC PLANTS

53

GENERAL INTRODUCTION, CLASSIFICATION AND MEDICINAL USES OF IMPORTANT PLANTS

54

Glycosides Containing Plant

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Alkaloids

54

Volatile Oils (essential oils)

54

Resins and Resin Combination

54

Carbohydrates

54

Tannins

54

Lipids (Fixed oils, fats and related compounds waxes)

54

GLYCOSIDES

54

Medically Important Glycoside Containing Plants

55

ALKALOIDS

56

Medically Important Alkaloids Containing Plants

56

VOLATILE OILS (ESSENTIAL OILS)

57

Medically Important Volatile Containing Plants

57

RESINS

58

Medically Important Resins Producing Plants

58

CARBOHYDRATES

59

Medically Important Carbohydrates Containing Plants

59

TANNINS

59

Medically Important Tannins Containing Plants

60

FIXED OILS

60

Medically Important Fixed Oils Containing Plants

60

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PHARMACOGNOSY

PHARMACOGNOSY Pharmacognosy is the study of medicines derived from natural sources. The

American

Society

of

Pharmacognosy

defines

Pharmacognosy as “the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug substances or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources.” INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY The word “Pharmacognosy” is derived from the Greek words Pharmakon (drug) and gnosis or (knowledge). The term Pharmacognosy was used for the first time by the Austrian physician Schmidt in 1811. Originally during the 19 th century and the beginning of the 20 th century “Pharmacognosy” was used to define the branch of medicine which deals with drugs in their crude, or unprepared, form. Crude drugs are the dried, unprepared material of plant, animal or mineral origin used for medicine. Although most Pharmacognostic studies focus on plants and medicines derived from plants other types of organisms are also regarded as Pharmacognostically interesting in particular various types of microbes (bacteria, fungi, etc.) and recently various marine organisms. SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY The Pharmacognosy has played an important role in the development

of

various

departments

of

the

science.

Pharmacognosy gives a sound knowledge of the vegetable drugs under botany and animal drugs under zoology. It also includes plant taxonomy, plant breeding, plant pathology, and plant genetics, by this knowledge one can improve the cultivation methods for both medicinal and aromatic plants. Nowadays phytochemistry (plant chemistry) has undergone the significant improvement. This includes a variety of substances that are accumulated by plants and synthesized by plants. A vital contribution to the advancement of natural and physical science This has done by the advanced technologies of cultivation, purification, identification (characterization) of pharmaceuticals from nature. Concepts of biochemistry and chemical -9-

PHARMACOGNOSY

engineering help in the improvement of collection, processing and storage technologies of pharmaceuticals. It also gives knowledge of chemotaxonomy, biogenic pathways for the formation of acute ingredients. A vital link between pharmacology and medicinal chemistry Newly detected plant drugs are converting into medicine as purified Phytochemicals. Pharmacognosy is essential for the evolution of new medicines because crude drugs are used for the preparation of sources of therapeutically active metabolites. In short Pharmacognosy is an important link between pharmaceuticals and basic science as well as ayurvedic and allopathic system of medicines. So Pharmacognosy is a science of active principles of crude drugs and which can be help in dispensing, formulating, and manufacturing of dosage forms. In other way the complete knowledge of Pharmacognosy will help in the recent trend that is in industries, as a research tools and in new drug delivery systems, and all the departments of pharmaceuticals and one can improve the healthcare facilities across the world.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

CRUDE DRUGS A crude drug is any naturally, occurring, unrefined substance derived from organic or inorganic sources such as plant, animal, bacteria, organs or whole organisms intended for use in the diagnosis, cure treatment or prevention of disease in man or other animals. Or Crude drugs are vegetable or animal drugs that consist of natural substances that have undergone only the process of collection & drying. CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS Crude Drugs can be classified in following ways. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Alphabetical Method Morphological Method Taxonomical Method Pharmacological Method Chemical Method

ALPHABETICAL METHOD In this method drugs are classified according to initial letter of their names e.g. Acacia

Belladonna

Camphor

Datura

Ephedra

Fennel

Books follow this method  

European Pharmacopoeia (EP) British Pharmacopoeia (BP)

MORPHOLOGICAL METHOD In this method drugs are classified according to their part used e.g. Roots Drugs

Leaf Drugs

Bark Drugs

Seeds Drugs

Glycyrriza

Senna

Cinchona

Coffee Beens

Books follow this method 

Pharmacognosy by Wallis

TAXONOMICAL METHOD In this method, drugs are classified according to their distinguishing characteristics (i.e. Families) e.g.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Family Umbelliferae: Funnel, Caraway Family Labiatae: Thyme, Peppermint. Books follow this method Pharmacognosy by Trease &Evans PHARMACOLOGICAL METHOD In this method drugs are classified according to their therapeutic effects e.g. Analgesic Drugs: Aconite, opium Diuretic Drugs: Salvia, Ocimum Books follow this method 

Pharmacology by Lippincott

CHEMICAL METHOD In this method drugs are classified according to their principle constituents e.g. Members of Family Umbelliferae contain Volatile Oils Members of Family Solanaceae contain Alkaloids Books follow this method 

Pharmacognosy by Tyler

TERMINANOLOGY AND DIFFERENT PARTS OF PLANT LEAVES Flattened structures of a higher plant, typically green and blade-like, that are attached to a stem

are called leaves.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

LEAFLETS One segment of a compound leaf is called leaflet

STEMS Stems do many things. Support the upper parts of plants, They act like the plant's plumbing system, conducting water and nutrients from the roots and food in the form of glucose from the leaves to other plant parts. All plants have stems. Stems grow up into the air and towards the

light. The leaves and flowers are on the stems. FLOWERS A flower is the reproductive structure found in plants. The flowers of plants have always been

popular in traditional medicine. Examples include clove and chamomile flowers.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

FRUIT A "fruit" is the seed-bearing part of a plant; Fruits have been heavily used for medicinal purposes. Dried whole fruits or portions of fruits can be used. Many members of the carrot family

have fruits that are used in medicine including fennel fruit and anise.

PULP The soft, juicy, edible part of a fruit is called pulp.

SEEDS A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. The seeds of many plants are used for their medicinal properties. Seeds may

be contained within a fruit or are sometimes used on their own.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

ROOTS The part of a plant which attaches it to the ground or to a support, typically underground, conveying water and nourishment to the rest of the plant via numerous branches and fibers. The fleshy or woody roots are used for medicinal purposes. Roots may be solid (ginseng), fibrous

(stinging nettle), or fleshy (devil’s claw).

BARK The protective outer layer of a tree trunk that is formed by layers of living cells above the wood. Active ingredients are often found in higher concentrations in the bark. Examples of bark used

for medicinal properties are quinine bark, oak bark. WOOD The hard fibrous material that forms the main substance of the plant is called wood. Thick stems

or the wood of trees or shrubs are used for medicinal properties.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

BULB A bulb is defined as a fleshy structure comprised of numerous layers of leaf bases otherwise known as bulb scales. Onion species and garlic bulbs are popular for medicinal uses.

RHIZOMES A rhizome is defined as a fleshy or woody elongated stem that usually grows horizontally below the ground. Rhizomes often produce leaves above the ground and roots into the ground.

Several medicinal plants are used primarily for their rhizomes including: ginger, wild columbine, and bloodroot. HERB Herb, in botany, is a plant that does not form a woody stem, and in temperate climates usually dies, either completely (annual herb) or back to the roots (perennial herb) by the end of the growing season. MEDICINAL HERB A medicinal herb is different from botanic term “herb”. It refers to any plants used for medicinal purposes. For example, a medicinal herb can be a real herbal plant, a shrub (bush), other woody plant, or a fungus. The used part may be the seeds, berries, leaves, barks, roots, fruits, or other parts of a plants, or mushroom, which may be considered "herbs" in medicinal use. ESSENTIAL OIL (VOLATILE OILS) These are defined as volatile oils that are generally extracted from plants using a steam distillation process and have essence (smell). Examples include camphor and peppermint oil. - 16 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

FATTY OIL (NON-VOLATILE VEGETABLE OILS) These are defined as non-volatile vegetable oils that are pressed from the seeds or fruits of plants and are insoluble in water and leave a spot on paper after drying. Examples of fatty oils used in medicine are castor oil, olive oil, and safflower oil. GUM Gums are solids that are mixtures of polysaccharides (sugars). They are water-soluble and are in part digestible by humans. RESINS Resins are a mixture of essential oils and terpenes that are usually not soluble in water. They are excreted by specialized cells or in ducts of plants. Examples include frankincense, myrrh, and mastic.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS Identification of drug and determination of its quality and purity is called Evaluation of Drug. Following method are frequently employed for the determination of quality and purity of Crude Drugs. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Organoleptic Evaluation or Morphological Evaluation Microscopic Evaluation Chemical Evaluation Physical Evaluation Biological Evaluation

ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION OR MORPHOLOGICAL EVALUATION It means evaluation of drug by the organs of sense (skin, eye, tongue, nose and ear) or macroscopic evaluation and it includes evaluation of drugs by color, odour, taste, size, shape and special feature, like touch, texture etc. For example 

Color means external color which varies from white to



brownish black are important diagnostic characters. General appearance (external marking) of the weight of a crude drug often indicates



whether it is likely to comply with prescribed standard Taste is specific type of sensation felt by epithelial layer of tongue. It may be acidic



(sour), saline (salt like), saccharin (sweetish), bitter or tasteless (possessing no taste). Aromatic odor of umbelliferous fruits and sweet taste of liquorices are the examples of



this type of evaluation Odor of drug depends upon the type and quality of odorous principles (volatile oils) present.

MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION It involves detailed examination of the drug and it can be used to identify the organized drugs by their known histological characters. It is mostly used for qualitative evaluation of organized crude drugs in entire and powder forms with help of microscope. Using microscope detecting various cellular tissues, trichomes, stomata, starch granules, calcium oxalate crystals and aleurone grains are some of important parameters which play important role in identification of certain crude drug.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

CHEMICAL EVALUATION Most of drugs have definite chemical constituents to which their biological or pharmacological activity is attributed. Qualitative chemical test are used to identify certain drug or to test their purity. The isolation, purification, identification of active constituents is based on chemical methods of evaluation. These qualitative chemical tests are useful in identification of chemical constituents and detection of adulteration. PHYSICAL EVALUATION Physical constants are sometimes taken into consideration to evaluate certain drugs. These include moisture content, specific gravity, optical rotation, refractive, melting point, viscosity and solubility in different solvents. All these physical properties are useful in identification and detection of constituents present in plant. BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION Some drugs have specific biological and pharmacological activity which is utilized for their evaluation. Actually this activity is due to specific type of constituents present in the plant extract. For evaluation the experiments were carried out on both intact and isolated organs of living animals. With the help of bioassays (testing the drugs on living animals), strength of drug in its preparation can also be evaluated.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

INTRODUCTION, CASE HISTORY, SKIN TEST, TREATMENT AND MECHANISM OF ALLERGY ALLERGY DEFINITION According to British immunological society the allergy can be defined as… “Allergy is a specific hypersensitivity of an individual to foreign particles usually a protein to which a specific individual is exposed.” OR “An allergy is sensitivity to a normally harmless substance one that does not bother most people. Allergies are abnormal immune system reactions to things that are typically harmless to most people. When you're allergic to something, your immune system mistakenly believes that this substance is harmful to your body. (Substances that cause allergic reactions, such as certain foods, dust, plant pollen, or medicines, are known as allergens.) In an attempt to protect the body, the immune system produces IgE antibodies to that allergen. Those antibodies then cause certain cells in the body to release chemicals into the bloodstream, one of which is histamine. The histamine then acts on the eyes, nose, throat, lungs, skin, or gastrointestinal tract and causes the symptoms of the allergic reaction. Future exposure to that same allergen will trigger this antibody response again. This means that every time you come into contact with that allergen, you'll have an allergic reaction. Allergic reactions can be mild, like a runny nose, or they can be severe, like difficulty breathing. An asthma attack, for example, is often an allergic reaction to something that is breathed into the lungs by a person who is susceptible.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

ALLERGEN An allergen is any substance (antigen) that is recognized harmful by the immune system and causes an allergic reaction. The allergen can be a food, dust particles, drug, insect venom, or mold spores, as well as pollen. Allergic people often have sensitivity to more than one substance”. TYPES OF ALLERGEN

There are four categories of allergens

1. Inhalants 2. Contactants 3. Ingestants 4. Injectants

INHALANTS These allergens affect the body when they come in contact with the lungs or membranes of the nostrils. Pollen is the most common inhaled allergen, including such substances as dust, pollen, feathers, and animal dander.

CONTACTANTS Allergens that come in contact with your skin and produce a reaction, such as the rash and itching are called contactant allergens e.g. cosmetics, detergents, fabrics, and dyes.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

INGESTANTS Ingestant allergens are those that are swallowed. A variety of foods and medications can act as ingestant allergens. Common ingestant allergens are milk, eggs, peanuts, chocolate etc.

INJECTANTS Injectant allergens are substances that penetrate the skin, such as insect venom and drugs that are injected.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

SINGS & SYMPTOMS OF ALLERGY Common Symptoms Affected Organ Symptom Nose Swelling of the nasal mucosa (allergic rhinitis) Sinuses Allergic sinusitis Eyes redness and itching of the conjunctiva (allergic conjunctivitis) Sneezing, coughing, bronchoconstriction, wheezing and dyspnea, Airways

sometimes outright attacks of asthma, in severe cases the airway constricts due to swelling known as laryngeal edema Feeling of fullness, possibly pain, and impaired hearing due to the lack

Ears Skin Gastrointestinal tract

of eustachian tube drainage. Rashes, eczema and hives (urticaria) Abdominal pain, bloating, vomiting, diarrhea

TYPES OF ALLERGY     

Environmental Allergy Physical & Psychometric Allergy Anaphylactic Allergy (Anaphylaxis) Cytotoxic Allergy Delayed Hypersensitivity Reaction

ENVIRONMENTAL ALLERGY Environmental allergy refers to any allergy to pollen, dust, animal dander, smoke etc. Allergic rhinitis, asthma are common types of reactions to these allergens. Environmental allergies happen when your body's immune system overreacts to a substance in the environment. Antibodies in your immune system identify the substance as dangerous even though it's often not. AIRBORNE PARTICLES These are the most common allergens. Examples of airborne particles that can cause allergies are dust, animal dander and pollen from grass, ragweed, and trees. POLLEN ALLERGY Pollen (male sex cells of the plant) is small, light, dry protein particles produced by trees, grasses, flowers etc that may be spread by the wind. Pollen is a potent stimulator of allergic responses. It enters into the nose and in other parts of the respiratory tract causing irritation and histamine reactions. - 23 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

INSECT BITES AND STINGS The venom (poison) in insect bites and stings can cause allergic reactions, and can be severe PHYSICAL & PSYCHOMETRIC ALLERGY The primary cause of physical & psychometric allergy is problematic shocks of tissue, cold water, high or low temperature, extreme anger, sorrow, jealousy, depression, mania & anxiety are mainly. ANAPHYLACTIC ALLERGY (ANAPHYLAXIS) Anaphylaxis is a serious, life-threatening allergic response that is marked by swelling, rashes, lowered blood pressure, and dilated blood vessels. In severe cases, a person will go into shock. If it is not treated immediately, it can be fatal. Common causes include insect bites, stings, foods, and medications. CYTOTOXIC ALLERGY This is due to toxic material of allergen when it is ingested by our body. It produces lgG in response to allergen. DELAYED HYPERSENSITIVITY ALLERGY Delayed hypersensitivity is a major mechanism of defense against various intracellular pathogens. Delayed Hypersensitivity Allergy reaction takes two to three days to develop. Unlike the other types, it is not antibody mediated but rather is a type of cell-mediated response. In these types of Allergy T-Lymphocytes releases which trigger a series of inflammation reactions. MEDICAL CASE HISTORY To determine the circumstances surrounding the patient’s allergy, doctor must record all details regarding the allergic attacks, including data on the type of occupation and the familial background. GENERAL EXAMINATION INCLUDES…      

Name and sex Marital status Chief complaint Present illness Age Date of first attack

    

Place Time Mode of onset Seasonal Variation Duration

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PHARMACOGNOSY

VITAL SIGNS Some scientific tools are applied to prove the disease. By using following tools the severity of allergy can be diagnose.   

B.P Temperature Breathing Rate

  

Pulse Rate Cardiac output Heart Rate

 

Urinary Tract Reproductive Systems

 

CLINICAL EXAMINATION INCLUDES…

  

Respiratory tract Cardiovascular System GIT

INVESTIGATION Investigational tests includes scratch test, patch test, intradermal test etc SKIN TEST FOR ALLERGY Skin testing for allergies is used to identify the substances that are causing your allergy symptoms. It is often performed by applying an extract of an allergen to your skin, scratching or pricking the skin to allow exposure, and then evaluating the skin's reaction. It may also be done by injecting the allergen under the skin, or by applying it to a patch that is worn on the skin for a specified period of time. Types of skin tests for allergy The procedure varies depending on what type of allergy skin test you are having. The three main types of skin tests are 1. Scratch Test 2. Intradermal Test 3. Patch Test

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PHARMACOGNOSY

SCRATCH TEST FOR ALLERGY This test involves placing a small amount of suspected allergy causing substance on the skin (usually fore-arm, upper arm or the back) and scratching or pricking the skin so that the allergen is introduced under the skin surface. The skin is observed closely for signs of a reaction, which are usually swelling and redness. The results of this test can be obtained with in 20 minutes.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

PATCH TESTS (CONTACT ALLERGY TESTING) In patch test, an allergen is applied to a patch, which is then placed on your skin. This type of test can detect delayed allergic reactions. It's generally done to see whether a particular substance is causing allergic skin irritation or not. INTRADERMAL TEST Intradermal allergy testing is another method of skin testing to help determine whether an individual is allergic to a specific allergen. The test involves injection of a small amount of the suspected allergen under the surface of the skin. After about 20 minutes the area is examined for a reaction at the site of injection. A typical reaction looks like a small rash with swelling and redness. THE MECHANISM OF AN ALLERGIC REACTION Normally, a person's immune system clearly distinguishes between harmful and harmless foreign bodies and it reacts only to harmful bodies like various pathogenic bacteria and virus. When immune system fails to recognize harmless bodies as "harmless" it reacts to them and produces various symptoms in the form of allergic manifestations.

GENERAL MECHANISM OF ALLERGIC RESPONSE     

When an allergen enters our body, the IgE are produced. Then IgE & Mast cell form a complex. On re-exposure Allergen binds with this complex. As a result the mast cell bursts and releases histamine. This histamine produces allergic symptoms such as redness, swelling, heat, itching etc.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

METHODS OF TREATMENT IN ALLERGY AVOIDANCE In some cases, like food allergies, avoiding the allergen is a life-saving necessity. That's because, unlike allergies to airborne particles that can be treated with shots or medications, the only way to treat food allergies is to avoid the allergen entirely. For example, people who are allergic to peanuts should avoid not only peanuts, but also any food that might contain even tiny traces of them.

Avoidance can help protect people against non-food or chemical allergens, too. In fact, for some people, eliminating exposure to an allergen is enough to prevent allergy symptoms and they don't need to take medicines or go through other allergy treatments.

Here are some things that can help you avoid airborne allergens:



Keep family pets out of certain rooms, like your bedroom, and bathe them if necessary.



Remove carpets from your room (hard floor surfaces don't collect dust as much as carpets do).



Clean frequently - 28 -

PHARMACOGNOSY



Use special covers to seal pillows and mattresses if you're allergic to dust mites.



If you're allergic to pollen, keep windows closed when pollen season's at its peak, change your clothing after being outdoors and don't mow (plant cutting or grass cutting) lawns.



If you're allergic to mold, avoid damp areas, such as basements, and keep bathrooms and other mold-prone areas clean and dry.

VACCINATIONS After the confirmation of specific Allergy type & kind of allergen a specific vaccine is injested to the patient & he/she remain save from the attack of this particular allergy for specific period of time. PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS OF TREATMENT IN ALLERGY In pharmacological interventions usually Histamine blocking agents e.g. cetrizine Levocetrizine etc are used. If the Allergy is infectious than suitable antibiotic can be added.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

ENZYMES OBTAINED FROM PLANT SOURCE (PHYTO-ENZYMES) DEFINITIONS Enzymes are organic catalysts produced by living organisms. Enzymes are important group of bio-molecules synthesized by the living cells. They are catalysts of biological systems, colloidal, thermo-labile and protein in nature. Catalysts A catalyst is an agent, which in minute amount increases the velocity of a reaction without appearing in the final product of the reaction. Substrates Substances on which enzymes act to convert them into products are called substrates. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ENZYMES & CATALYST

Enzymes

Catalysts



All the enzymes are organic



All the catalysts are inorganic



substances Enzymes mostly destroyed



substances Catalysts are not destroyed in the



during the reaction Enzymes are more specific in



chemical reaction Catalysts are non-specific in



Nature Enzymes are very complex in



Nature Catalysts are very simple



Nature Speed of the enzyme reaction



compounds or substances Speed of catalyst reaction will

does not depend on the

depends upon the concentration

concentration

of catalyst

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES 

Catalytic property



Enzymatic property



Solubility



pH



Temperature - 30 -

PHARMACOGNOSY



Specificity



Protein nature

CATALYTIC PROPERTY Small amount of enzyme can catalyzed the large amount of substrate in biological reactions. ENZYMATIC PROPERTY The velocity of the enzymatic reaction increase as the concentration of the substrate increases up to certain maximum. But after certain period of time it decreases. SOLUBILITY Enzymes are mostly soluble in water and diluted alcohol solution. The enzymes ca precipitate in concentrated Alcohol, Ammonium Sulphate, Tricholoro Acitic Acid. PH

Acid: Acid deactivates those enzymes that act at alkaline pH, e.g Trypsin. At acidic pH, it will destroy, (Trypsin is very important enzyme that secreted by Pancreas and very important for proper digestion of food). Base: Base deactivates the enzymes that act at acidic pH, e.g. Pepsin, at alkaline pH, it will destroy. TEMPERATURE Optimum temperature for enzymatic activity is 35 o C to 40o C. At 0 o C o

inactive o

At 10 C to 20 C

very little active

At 35 o C to 40 o C

max. Active

At 50 o C

inactive

At 60 o C

destroy

In solid condition, it may be stable up to 100 o C. SPECIFICITY Enzymes are usually very specific as to which reactions they catalyze and the substrates that are involved in these reactions.

- 31 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

PROTEIN NATURE In general with the exception of “Riboizymes, which are few RNA molecules with enzymatic activities” all enzymes are protein in nature with large molecular weight. CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES Enzymes are generally named after adding the suffix “ase” to the name of the substrate, e.g. enzymes acting on “nucleic acid” are known as “nuclease”. Even-though few exceptions such as Trypsin, Pepsin, and Chymotrypsin are still in use. Further, few enzymes exist in their inactive forms and called as Proenzymes or Zymogens e.g. Pepsin has Pepsinogen as its zymogen. There are six main classes of enzymes 1. Oxidoreductases 2. Transferases 3. Hydrolases 4. Lyases 5. Isomerases 6. Ligases (Catch word to remember the classes of enzymes: OTH-LIL) OXIDOREDUCTASES These enzymes catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions, e.g. Alcohol dehydrogenase, Lactate dehydrogenase. Examples… 

Oxidases



Reductases

TRANSFERASES Enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a functional group (e.g., a methyl or phosphate group) from one molecule (called the donor) to another (called the acceptor). For example, an enzyme that catalyzed this reaction would be a transferase. AX + B → A + BX In this example, A would be the donor, and B would be the acceptor. The donor is often a coenzyme. There are many types of transferases, some important are - 32 -

PHARMACOGNOSY



Transaminases



Phosphotransferases



Transmethylases



Transpeptideases

HYDROLASES These enzymes catalyze hydrolysis, e.g Pepsin, Trypsin They have many subgroups some important are 

Carbohydrases



Aminohydrolases



Lipids Hydrolyzing Enzymes

LYASES Enzymes that facilitate removal of small molecules from a large substrate, e.g. Histidine Decarboxylase, Carbonic Anhydrase. ISOMERASES Enzymes involved in isomerization of substrate, e.g. Retinal Isomerase. LIGASES Enzymes involved in joining together two substrates, e.g. RNA synthetase, Glutamine Synthetase. FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES Enzyme plays a vital role in our daily life. They perform following important functions. 

Decrease in activation energy



For cancer treatment



Digestion



Curing of diseases



Cheese making



Blood clotting



Sweetener



Alcoholic beverages



As detergent



Meat tenderizing



As drug

     Decrease in Activation Energy 

Enzymes decrease activation energy.

 - 33 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

     Digestion 

Enzymes play important role in digestion for the conversion of large complex and non-

diffusible molecules into smaller, simple and diffusible molecules, e.g. Trypsin, Lipase, Amylase.      Cheese Making 

Enzymes are also used in the manufacturing of cheese.

     Sweetener 

Some enzymes are used as sweetener,



e.g. Sucrose (glucosidase enzyme) Glucose + Fructose



Glucose is 72% sweeter while fructose is 132% sweeter than sucrose.

     As Detergent 

Carbohydrate and protein breaking enzymes are heat stabilizer and are used as detergent,

e.g. Proteases      As Drug 

Some enzymes are used as drugs if there is any disturbance in the digestive system.

     For cancer Treatment 

Some enzymes are used for cancer treatment, e.g. L. Asparginase

     Curing of Diseases 

Enzymes are also play important role in curing of diseases such as rickets and jaundice,

for heart problem Lactate Dehydrogenase, and for liver problem certain Kinases are used.      Blood Clotting 

Enzymes also cause blood clotting by protein thrombin.

     Alcoholic Beverages 

Amylase is used in manufacturing of alcoholic beverages.

     Meat Tenderizing - 34 -

PHARMACOGNOSY



Trypsin, Pepsin and Papain are meat tenderizing to facilitate the process of digestion.



- 35 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

 

BROMELAIN



Bromelain belongs to a group of a protein digesting enzymes

obtained commercially from the fruit or stem of pineapple plant that helps digest protein when taken with food. However, When taken without food (that is, with plain water on an otherwise empty stomach), bromelain have natural antihistamine properties and as such is believed to help support the normal function of the respiratory tract.      Sources of Bromelain 

Bromelain is an enzyme derived from the stems of pineapples

     Color 

Yellowish-white to tan powder

     Solubility 

Readily soluble in water, insoluble in most organic solvents such as acetone, ether, ethanol

and methanol.      Molecular Weight 

Approximately 33,000

     Uses     

Bromelain a potential anti-inflammatory agent It is used as a supporting agent in the treatment of inflammation and edema It is widely used in leather factory It is used in the production of protein Along with papain, bromelain is one of the most popular substances to use for meat



tenderizing. Bromelain can prevent aggregation of human blood platelets in vivo and in vitro.



- 36 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

 

PAPAIN



Papain, enzyme present in the leaves, roots, and fruit of the

papaya plant that catalyzes the breakdown of proteins by hydrolysis (addition of a water molecule).      Source 

It is obtained from the leaves, roots, and fruit of the papaya plant

     Color 

It has amorphous light whitish color powder

     Solubility 

It is easily soluble in water but insoluble in alcohol, ether and acetone

     Molecular Weight 

The pure crystalline enzyme, papain, has a molecular weight of 21000

     Uses      

Papain is used in biochemical research involving the analysis of proteins Tenderizing of meat Clarification of beverages (soft and hard drinks) Papain is used in enzyme-action cleansing agents for soft contact lenses It is used to remove the protein molecules It is also used in toothpastes and cosmetics and in preparations of various remedies for indigestion, ulcers, fever, and swelling

 

- 37 -

PHARMACOGNOSY



SEPARATION AND ISOLATION OF PLANT CONSTITUENTS

 

Medicinal plant contains number of constituents located in different concentration in

different parts of it. The plants are also very complex in nature and method for separation and isolation depending on it. Various steps are involved in the isolation of chemical constituents.  

Extraction is the most important first step for isolation of any compound. The solvent used

for the extraction is based on the polarity of the active constituent. Different solvent systems are available to extract the bioactive compound from natural products.  

Once extract is prepared, separation techniques e.g. chromatography is used for further

separation of the active constituents.  

Chromatography and extraction are two most common processes used to isolate or

separate the plant constituents; we will discuss these two processes in detail.  

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXTRACTION AND CHROMATOGRAPHY

 

Extraction



The compounds are separated on the basis of relative solubility.

 

Chromatography



The compounds are separated on the basis of polarity.

 

CHROMATOGRAPHY



Chromatography is a process of chemistry in which mixture of different compounds is

separated on the basis of their relative polarity difference.  

APPLICATIONS OF CHROMATOGRAPHY



The fundamental applications of Chromatography are following.     

It is involve in the separation of different protein molecule. It is also involve in the separation of different pharmaceutical chemicals. Chromatography is also used to separate different tissue and biological fluids. It is also an important techniques used in analysis of medicines. Environmental Protection Agencies use chromatography to test drinking water and to



monitor air quality Ion exchange chromatography separates compounds based on net surface charge - 38 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

 

STATIONARY PHASE



The phase or components of Chromatographic procedure that are non-mobile phase or

fixed is known as stationary phase.  

For example     

Chromatography paper Tale Mg-oxide Al-oxide Activated charcoal

 

MOBILE PHASE



This is the phase or components of Chromatography procedure which has ability to move

e.g. solvent used in paper Chromatography.  

The most popular mobile phase is used Chromatography are…    

Petroleum ether Propanol Ethanol Acetone

 

RF VALUE



The retention factor, Rf, is a quantitative indication of how far a particular compound travels

in a particular solvent. If the Rf value for the unknown compound is close or the same as the Rf value for the known compound then the two compounds are most likely similar or identical.  

We can say that, Rf value is the ratio between the distance covered by any substances to

the distance covered by the Mobile Phase/ Solvent  

Rf = Distance covered by substance / Distance covered by solvent

 

STYLE OR TECHNIQUES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY

 1. Ascending Chromatography 2. Descending Chromatography 3. Circular or Radial Chromatography 

- 39 -

PHARMACOGNOSY



ASCENDING CHROMATOGRAPHY



In ascending Chromatography the solvent are tends to move upward and the components

of mixture are separated in the form of spot.  

DESCENDING CHROMATOGRAPHY



In descending Chromatography the solvent tends to move downward. The compounds of

mixture separated in the form of spots.  

CIRCULAR OR RADIAL CHROMATOGRAPHY



In circular Chromatography the solvent tends to move in circular form and the different

compounds of mixture are separated in the form of rings.  

TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY

 1. Paper Chromatography 2. Thin Layer Chromatography 3. Column Chromatography  

PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY



Paper Chromatography is one of the most common types of

chromatography. It uses a strip of paper as the stationary phase. Capillary action is used to pull the solvents up through the paper and separate the solutes.  

STATIONARY PHASE IN PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY



Chromatographic paper is used as stationary phase in paper

Chromatography.  

MOBILE PHASE IN PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY



Mostly ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile phase.

 

PROCEDURE OF PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

 1. First of all we will take Chromatographic paper and cut it down according to the style of Chromatography e.g. redial , ascending, or descending 2. In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom sides in case of descending the line is drown on upper of Chromatographic paper. The line is called baseline. The distance of this baseline from the final edge is 1.5 cm. - 40 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

3. The sample is applied in the center of baseline and the paper is applied into mobile phase in a Chromatographic tank. After the appropriate time the components of sample will separate and finally Rf value of each component is calculated. 4. In case of radial Chromatography the sample is applied in the center and thread has been passed in through the center the mobile phase will move under the papillary action and components of sample will separate in the form or rings finally Rf value of all the components is calculated.  

STYLES OF PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY



Paper Chromatography can be done by following styles

   

Ascending Chromatography Descending Chromatography Redial Chromatography

 

APPLICATION OF PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

      

It is used in pharmaceutical industries to separate different kinds of (API) It is used to determine the polarity and evaporation power of any given compound It is used in the identification of poison It is used in the analysis of different medicine It is used in the separation of different body tissue It is used in forensic medicine for investigational purpose

 

THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)



Thin-layer

Chromatography

uses

an

absorbent

material on flat glass or plastic plates.  

STATIONARY PHASE IN THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY



The layer of adsorbent is known as the stationary

phase.  

MOBILE PHASE IN THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY






- 41 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

  

PROCEDURE OF THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY 

First of all we will take special thin layer chromatographic paper coated with the absorbent and cut it down according to the style of chromatography e.g. radial, circular



ascending descending In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom side which case of descending the line is drawn on upper of chromatographic paper. The line is called



baseline. The distance of this baseline from the final edge is 1.5 cm. After drying the plate, the sample is applied in the center of baseline and the plate enclosed into mobile phase in a chromatographic tank. After the appropriate time, the components of sample will separate and finally Rf value of each component is calculated.

 

STYLES OF THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)



Paper Chromatography can be done by following styles

   

Ascending Chromatography Descending Chromatography Redial Chromatography

  

APPLICATION OF THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)  

This is a simple and rapid method to check the purity of an organic compound Thin-layer chromatography is also used in forensics to analyze the dye composition of

    

fibers. Determination of the components a plant contains Detection of pesticides or insecticides in food and water Analyzing the dye composition of fibers in forensics sciences Identifying compounds present in a given substance Assaying the radiochemical purity of radiopharmaceuticals

 

- 42 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

 

COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY



In column chromatography, the stationary

phase, a solid adsorbent, is placed in a vertical glass (usually) column. The mobile phase, a liquid, is added to the top and flows down through the column by either gravity or external pressure.  

STATIONARY PHASE IN COLUMN

CHROMATOGRAPHY 

The stationary phase or adsorbent in column chromatography is a solid. The most common

stationary phase for column chromatography is silica gel, alumina, cellulose powder has often been used.  

MOBILE PHASE COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY




 

PROCEDURE OF COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY



The classical preparative chromatography column is a glass tube with a diameter from

50mm and a height of 50cm to 1m with a tap at the bottom. The stationary phase is a powdered adsorbent which is placed in a vertical glass column. The mixture to be analyzed is loaded on top of this column.  

The mobile phase is a solvent poured on top of the leaded column. The solvent flows down

the column causing the components of the mixture to distribute between the powdered adsorbent and the solvent thus separating the components of the mixture so that as the solvent flows out of the bottom of the column some components elute with early collections and other components elute with late fractions.  

APPLICATION OF COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY

    

It is used in the separation of benzodiazepines It is used in the Analysis of medicine It is used for the purification of water & other organic solvents in pharmaceutical industry It is used in the separation of different body tissue

  - 43 -

PHARMACOGNOSY



EXTRACTION



Extraction is a very common laboratory procedure used when isolating or purifying a

product. Plants contain a broad range of bioactive compounds such as lipids; Phytochemicals, pharmaceutics, flavors, fragrances and pigments.  

Extraction Techniques are used to obtain such valuable natural compounds from plants for

commercialization.  

EXTRACTION DEFINITION



Separation of medicinally active portions of plant or animal tissues from the inactive or inert

components by using selective solvents is called extraction procedures. Or  

It is the specialized type procedure that involves the separation of different compounds on

the basis of their relative solubility in two different immiscible solvent. OR  

The extraction is a complex pharmaceutical procedure in which the active pharmaceutical

ingredient (API) is removed from crude drug (animal or plant origin).  

THEORY OF EXTRACTION



Any extraction procedure depends upon some fundamental principles and these are very

much common on all types of extraction.        

Suitable size reduction of crude drug Selection of suitable solvent Penetration of solvent into the crude drug The cell should be at right position to collect to solution Supply of appropriate heat Separation of solvent from marc Evaporation technique is applied to get purified solid drug

 

MANSTRUM



Any liquid that is used for extractions procedure is called manstrum.

 

MARC



The waste material that left after extraction is called marc.



- 44 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

 

EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES/ METHODS

 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Infusion Decoction Maceration Percolation Digestion Continuous Hot Extraction

 

INFUSION



Infusion is the process of extracting chemical compounds or flavors from plant material in a

solvent such as water, oil or alcohol, by allowing the material to remain suspended in the solvent over time.  

This process or technique is usually used for soft nature of drug. The extracts that are

formulated through infusion process have shelf life of only 24 hours, so it is recommended to use these kinds of extracts freshly.  

A common example of an infusion is tea, and many tisanes (herbal tea) are prepared in the

same way. Herbal infusions in water and oil are both commonly used as herbal remedies. Coffee can also be made through infusion, but is more often made through percolation.   

PROCEDURE FOR INFUSION EXTRACTION      

First of all the nature of the drug is checked If the nature of the drug is soft, no need to cut or crush it into pieces if drug has little harder, then cut or crush it in to pieces place the drug into the infusion pot Now heat the manstrum up to 200c to 250c Pour the hot manstrum on the drug and allow to settle for 15 minutes or according to the



requirement Finally filter it and the extract is ready to use

 

DECOCTION



It is the techniques of extraction in which the drug is used in the form of powder or coarse

particles. Drugs are together boiled with water for certain are given period of time then cooled and filtered. Decoction preparation always used freshly because their half life is about 24 hours.  - 45 -

PHARMACOGNOSY



Decoctions are suitable for roots, barks, large seeds & berries, and other dense material,

or for lighter materials where maximum extraction is required of constituents (such as tannins) that are stable to heat.  

PROCEDURE FOR DECOCTION EXTRACTION

      

Decoction is the technique of extraction in which water is used as manstrum. The drug that is selected for decoction procedure should be hard. The drug should be in powder or coarse particles form Put the entire drug in large beaker (1000ml) and poured the manstrum on the drug. Heat the drug and manstrum mixture to boil. After the definite period of time the burner should be closed and allow the mixture to cool

 

down. After the cooling phase filter the mixture. The filter mixture is now ready to use as an extract.

 

MACERATION



This method requires prolong time. In this method drug is powdered and cover up in the

porous cloth then it is dipped in the manstrum for 2 to 14 days as required.  

PROCEDURE FOR MACERATION EXTRACTION

    

Drugs are triturate to fine powders Cover up the drug in the porous cloth or pouch. Select suitable manstrum After this the pouch containing drug powder is suspended in to the manstrum for 2 to 14

 

days. The pouch is removed after the definite time Finally adjust the volume of extraction as required.

 

MULTIPLE MACERATION



Multiple maceration is very important and effective procedure as far as its accuracy is

concern. The basic aim of this procedure is to remove the remaining (API) in to manstrum. 

In multiple maceration, we prefer the alcohol as manstrum on other manstrum like wise

water.  

PROCEDURE FOR DOUBLE MACERATION

   

Drugs are triturate to fine powders Cover up the drug in the porous cloth or pouch. Select suitable manstrum - 46 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

 

The manstrum is divided into two portions A and B The crude drug pouch is dipped into manstrum A for specific period of time. After that

  

time the manstrum A is separated and preserved the marc. The marc is again dipped into the manstrum B for specific period of time After that time the marc is pressed and manstrum B is separated Mixed the manstrum A and B and adjust the volume.

 

PERCOLATION



It is an extraction technique in which a communicated drug is enclosed in a porous vessel

known as percolator and manstrum is allowed to pass through the communicated drug. The extract that we obtained from the percolation and procedure is called percolate. The percolation procedure can be properly explained under following heading.   

PROCEDURE FOR PERCOLATION EXTRACTION 

The drug should be of suitable size, it will enhance the surface area of drug and the



movement of manstrum becomes slow. The solid ingredients are moistened with an appropriate amount of the specified

  

manstrum and allowed to stand for approximately 4 h in a well closed container Then drug is packed in percolator and the top of the percolator is closed Additional manstrum is added to form a shallow layer above the mass mixture is allowed to macerate (soften or become softened by soaking in a liquid) in the

 

closed percolator for 24 h The outlet of the percolator then is opened and collect the extraction Sufficient menstruum is added to produce the required volume

 

CONTINUOUS HOT EXTRACTION



In continuous hot extraction the drug is enclosed in a drug chamber and Manstrum is

placed in lower flask. A reflex condenser is placed at the upper portion. When heat is applied to the manstrum it converts itself into vapors. These vapors are condensed by reflux condenser. The drops of manstrum tickle down in the drug chamber and purified extract is obtained from collection point.   

- 47 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

 

POISONOUS PLANTS



(WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PAKISTAN)

 

There are many plants available in northern areas & ground areas of Pakistan. Theses

plants have the ability to produce some harmful and long-term effects on the human body.  

These poisonous plants can be classified as

    

Plants Causing GIT Toxicity Plants Causing CNS Toxicity Plants Causing CVS Toxicity Cyanogenetic Plants

 

PLANTS CAUSING GIT TOXICITY

 1. Mouth or Oral Cavity Toxic Plants  Arisaema triphyllum  Colocasia esculenta  2. Plants Toxic to Gastric Mucosa  Narcissus tazetta  Amaryllis  3. Plants Causing Dryness of Mouth  Datura stramonium  Atropa belladonna  4. Plants Causing Intestinal Motility  Conium maculatum  Nicotiana tobaccum   

MOUTH OR ORAL CAVITY TOXIC PLANTS

     Name of Plants: Arisaema triphyllum, Colocasia esculenta  

Family: Araceae

 

Habitat: sindh, Gilgit, Swat, Ayubia and Nathiagli - 48 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

 

Toxicology



The fundamental compound due to which mouth or oral cavity toxicity occur is calcium

oxalate.  

Symptoms   

  

Intense burning sensation Mouth less of sensation Dermatitis

Blister on tongue Increase salivation Loss of voice is also reported







Colocasia esculenta







Arisaema triphyllum

  

PLANTS TOXIC TO GASTRIC MUCOSA

     Name of Plants: Narcissus tazetta, Amaryllis  

Family: Amaryllidaceae

 - 49 -

PHARMACOGNOSY



Habitat: Gilgit, Swat Wally Punjab, Sindh

 

Toxicology



There are various alkaloids in these plants that cause multiple symptoms

 

Symptoms



Inflammation and burning sensation

  

of mouth

Gastritis Headache Increase salivation nasal secretion







Narcissus tazetta







Amaryllis

 

PLANTS CAUSING DRYNESS OF MOUTH



   Name of Plants: Datura stramonium  

Family: Solanaceae

 

Habitat: swat, Gilgit, chitral, muree and Kashmir. - 50 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

 

Toxicology



There are different compound present in Datura stramonium mainly hyoscine and



hyocyamine if any human ingested there raw plants they can cause toxicity If leaves and flowers of this plant eaten by some animal and their meat is used by human can caused toxicity



Symptoms

  

Dryness of mouth Dyspnea Fatigue

 

Eye sight weakness Muscular weakness







Datura stramonium

    Name of Plants: Atropa belladonna  

Family: Solanceae

 

Habitat: Muree, Hazara, Nansehra, and Chitral

 

Toxicology



The main chemical compound which is present in Atropa belladonna is atropine.

 

Symptoms

  

Dryness of mouth Muscular relaxation Fever

 

Nausea Vomiting



- 51 -

PHARMACOGNOSY





Atropa belladonna

 

PLANTS CAUSING INTESTINAL MOTILITY



   Name of Plants: Conium maculatum  

Family: Umbelliferae

 

Habitat: Hazara, Abottabad, and hills of muree and Chitral

 

Toxicology



There are many alkaloids present in Conium maculatum that cause multiple symptoms

 

Symptoms

  

Increase the intestinal motility Paralysis of motor Nerve ending Paralysis of spinal card

 

Respiratory Depression Drowsiness







Conium maculatum



   Name of Plants: Nicotiana tobaccum  - 52 -

PHARMACOGNOSY



Family: Solanaceae

 

Habitat: it is widely available in rural sindh, Punjab and N.W.F.P.

 

Toxicology



There are mainly alkaloids available in Nicotiana tobaccum. But the most effective is nicotine.

 

Symptoms

 

Enhance the motility of intestine Diarrhea







Nicotiana tobaccum

 

PLANTS CAUSING CVS DISTURBANCES

 1. Digitalis purpurea 2. Digitalis lanata 3. Nerium indicum 

   Name of Plants: Digitalis purpurea, Digitalis lanata  

Family: Scrophulariaceae

 

Habitat: Hazara, Azad Kashmir

 

Toxicology



These are two plants contain many glycosides. In which the most active are Digoxin, Digitoxin and Gitoxin.

 - 53 -

PHARMACOGNOSY



Symptoms

  

Ventricular tachycardia Vomiting Sinus arrhythmia

  

shortness of breath Drowsiness Fatigue







Digitalis purpurea

   Name of Plants: Nerium indicum  

Family: Apocynaceae

 

Habitat: Muree, Chitral and Azad Kashmir

 

Toxicology



Roots, barks and seeds contain toxins the most active are “nerodine” and karabin.

 

Symptoms

   

Hypertension Cardiac arrhythmia Ventricular tacky cardia Increase impulse rate

  

Nausea Vomiting Chest pain





Nerium indicum

- 54 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

 

PLANTS CAUSING CNS DISTURBANCES

 1. Cannabis sativa 2. Cicuta virosa 

   Name of Plants: Cannabis sativa  

Family: Cannabinaceae/ Moraceae

 

Habitat: it is widely available in NWFP and Punjab

 

Toxicology



The glandular trichomes of Cannabis sativa is secreted a resin which usually a waste material called as Narcotic resin.

 

Symptoms

    

Shrinkage of mouth Dryness of mouth Dry cough Constipation Depression



The addict person will not enjoy the

  

color of life Vomiting Headache Hallucination





Cannabis sativa

   Name of Plants: Cicuta virosa  


 

Habitat: hilly area of Azad Kashmir

 

Toxicology - 55 -

PHARMACOGNOSY



In Cicuta virosa there is a mixture of toxic substances called cicutoxin is a slightly alcoholic in nature the barks of the Cicuta virosa is more toxic then the seeds and leaves of this plant.

 

Symptoms

  

Depression Tremor Respiratory

depression

which

  

Increase salivation Nausea Vomiting

ultimately leads to respiratory failure

- 56 -







Cicuta virosa

 

CYANOGENETIC PLANTS



   Name of Plants: Manihot esculenta  

Family: Euphorbiaceae

 

Habitat



It is easily available in the forests of Northern area

 

Toxicology



There is a toxic substances name cyanogenocyte which can produce harmful effect on the living systems

 

Symptoms

   

Convulsion Muscular weakness Liver damage Vomiting





Manihot esculenta



GENERAL INTRODUCTION, CLASSIFICATION AND MEDICINAL USES OF IMPORTANT PLANTS

 

GLYCOSIDES CONTAINING PLANT

1. Cassia angustifolia 2. Cassia fistula 3. Aloe barbadensis 4. Urginea maritima  

ALKALOIDS

1. Rauwolfia serpentina 2. Catharanthus roseus 3. Ephedra sinica  


1. Foeniculum vulgare 2. Carum carvi 3. Curcuma longa  

RESINS AND RESIN COMBINATION

1. Citrullus colocynthis 2. Styrax benzoin  

CARBOHYDRATES

1. Acacia senegal 2. Astragalus gummifer  

TANNINS

1. Acacia catechu

2. Quercus infectoria   

LIPIDS (FIXED OILS, FATS AND RELATED COMPOUNDS WAXES)

1. Prunus amygdalus 2. Aloe barbadensis   

GLYCOSIDES



Glycosides are a class of molecules in which, a sugar molecule is bonded to a "nonsugar" molecule. Glycosides play important role in our lives. Many plants store medicinally important chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. The non-sugar portion contains the biochemically active properties of medical interest. Once the glycoside is split into its two components (sugar and non-sugar parts), the non-sugar component is now free to exert its chemical effects on the body.

 

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT GLYCOSIDE CONTAINING PLANTS 

1. Cassia angustifolia 2. Cassia fistula 3. Aloe barbadensis 4. Urginea maritima   

Botanical Name: Cassia angustifolia



Drug: Senna, Senna is a natural medicine containing Sennosides that are derived from the leaves of the Senna plant.



Chemical Class: Glycoside



Family: Leguminosae



Chemical Constituent: Sennosides



Medicinal Uses: Cathartic, Laxative, Senna is also used for weight loss.

  



Botanical Name: Cassia fistula



Drug: Cassia






Family: Leguminosae



Chemical Constituent: Sennosides



Medicinal Uses: Cathartic, the fruit pulp is considered a purgative

  

Botanical Name: Aloe barbadensis



Drug: Aloe






Family: Liliaceae



Chemical Constituent: Aloin



Medicinal Uses: Cathartic, speed up the process of healing to burns and other wounds, moisturizes and softens your skin

  

Botanical Name: Urginea maritima



Drug: Squill






Family: Liliaceae



Chemical Constituent: Scillaridin-A



Medicinal Uses: Diuretic, Anti-emetic, Squill is a cardio tonic similar to digitalis. It also has been used in hair tonics to treat dandruff

 

ALKALOIDS



Alkaloids are naturally occurring chemical compounds containing basic nitrogen atoms. The name derives from the word alkaline and is used to describe any nitrogen-containing base and organic compounds.

 

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT ALKALOIDS CONTAINING PLANTS

 1. Rauwolfia serpentina

2. Catharanthus roseus 3. Ephedra sinica  

Botanical Name: Rauvolfia serpentina



Drug: Rauwolfia



Chemical Class: Alkaloids



Family: Apocynaceae



Chemical Constituent: Reserpine



Medicinal Uses: Alkaloids present in this plant reduce blood pressure, depress activity of the central nervous system and act as hypnotics and Sedative.

  

Botanical Name: Catharanthus roseus



Drug: Catharanthus






Family: Apocynaceae



Chemical Constituent: Vinblastine and Vincristine



Medicinal Uses: Anti Cancer, the leaf juice or water decoction of Catharanthus roseus is used for the treatment of diabetes.

 





Botanical Name: Ephedra sinica



Drug: Ephedra






Family: Ephedraceae



Chemical Constituent: Ephedrine



Medicinal Uses: Anti asthmatic, Bronchodilator. Ephedra is widely used by athletes as a performance-enhancing drug. Ephedra has been used as a weight-loss aid, sometimes in combination with aspirin and caffeine.

  




Volatile oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds (fragrance) from plants. Volatile oils are also known as Essential oils.

 

Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Essential oils have been used medicinally in history. Medical applications proposed by those who sell medicinal oils range from skin treatments to remedies for cancer.

 

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT VOLATILE CONTAINING PLANTS

 1. Foeniculum vulgare 2. Carum carvi 3. Curcuma longa  

Botanical Name: Foeniculum vulgare



Drug: Fennel



Chemical Class: Volatile oil






Chemical Constituent: Fenchone



Medicinal Uses: Carminative, Flavoring agent

  

Botanical Name: Carum carvi



Drug: Caraway









Chemical Constituent: Limonene



Medicinal Uses: Carminative, Flavoring agent

  

Botanical Name: Curcuma longa



Drug: Curcuma






Family: Zingiberaceae



Chemical Constituent: Curcumin



Medicinal Uses: Anti inflammatory, Use in jaundice, Use in gall stones

 

RESINS



A natural or synthetic organic compound, consisting of non-crystalline, solid, viscous liquid substance or mixture. Natural resins are usually transparent or translucent yellow to brown and can melt and burn.



The resin produced by most plants is a viscous liquid, composed mainly of volatile fluid terpenes, with lesser components of dissolved non-volatile solids which make resin thick and sticky.

 

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT RESINS PRODUCING PLANTS

 1. Citrullus colocynthis 2. Styrax benzoin  

Botanical Name: Citrullus colocynthis



Drug: Colocynth






Family: Cucurbitaceae



Chemical Constituent: corocynthix, peciten phosphate



Medicinal Uses: Cathartic

   

Botanical Name: Styrax benzoin



Drug: Benzoin






Family: Styraceae



Chemical Constituent: Coniferyl benzoate



Medicinal Uses: Antiseptic, Expectorant

  

CARBOHYDRATES



A carbohydrate is a large biological molecule, or macromolecule, consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms.

 

Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms. Polysaccharides serve for the storage of energy (e.g., starch and glycogen), and as structural components (e.g., cellulose in plants).

 

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT CARBOHYDRATES CONTAINING PLANTS

 1. Acacia senegal 2. Astragalus gummifer  

Botanical Name: Acacia senegal



Drug: Acacia Gum



Chemical Class: Carbohydrate



Family: Leguminosae



Chemical Constituent: Arabic acid



Medicinal Uses: Acacia gum is used as a demulcent (a substance that relieves irritation of the mucous membranes in the mouth by forming a protective film). It is used topically for healing wounds and has been shown to inhibit the growth of some bacteria. It is also used as a binding agent.

  

Botanical Name: Astragalus gummifer



Drug: Tragacanth



Chemical Class: carbohydrate



Family: Leguminosae



Chemical Constituent: Tragacanthin



Medicinal Uses: Tragacanth has been used for constipation; Modern pharmaceutical uses include an adhesive agent for pills and tablets, and for emulsifying oil droplets in lotions, creams and pastes. Its superior water absorbing qualities make it an excellent thickening agent.

 

TANNINS



Any of a class of yellowish or brownish solid compounds found in many plants and used as tanning agents, mordents, or medical astringents.

 

(Tanning is the process of treating skins of animals to produce leather)



(A mordant is a substance used to set dyes on fabrics or tissue)



(An astringent substance is a chemical compound that tends to shrink or constrict body tissues)

 

The tannin compounds are widely distributed in many species of plants, where they play a role in protection from predation, and perhaps also as pesticides, and in plant growth regulation.

 

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT TANNINS CONTAINING PLANTS

 1. Acacia catechu 2. Quercus infectoria  

Botanical Name: Acacia catechu



Drug: Catechu



Chemical Class: Tannin



Family: Leguminosae



Chemical Constituent: Catechin



Medicinal Uses: Catechu is used in traditional medicine for sore throats and diarrhea; it is also used as anti-inflammatory, anti-diuretic. It enhance digestion and curing skin disorders.

  

Botanical Name: Quercus infectoria



Drug: Nut gall



Chemical Class: Tannin



Family: Fagaceae



Chemical Constituent: Gallic acid



Medicinal Uses: Nut gall extracts are widely used in pharmaceuticals, food and feed additives, dyes and inks manufacturing.

 

FIXED OILS



Non-volatile oils especially fatty oils of vegetable origin are called fixed oils. Fixed oils do not evaporate like essential oil and are often called carrier oils.

 

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT FIXED OILS CONTAINING PLANTS

 1. Prunus amygdalus 2. Aloe barbadensis 

Drug: Almond



Botanical Name: Prunus amygdalus



Chemical Class: Lipids (Fixed oil)



Family: Rosaceae



Chemical Constituent: Sphingolipid



Medicinal Uses: Regulation of cholesterol, Immune System Strength, Anti-Inflammation, Regulation of blood pressure, Prevention of cancer

 

Botanical Name: Aloe barbadensis



Drug: Aloe vera



Chemical Class: Lipids (fixed oil)



Family: Asphodelaceae



Chemical Constituent: Saponins & salicylic acid



Medicinal Uses: Used for moisturizing skin, it is used in creams & lotions, It is a well known healing and soothing agent for damaged and dry skin, It is soothing and healing for burns skin irritations.

  Course Outlines  

PHARMACOGNOSY (WRITTEN)



Paper 3





1.

Introduction and scope of Pharmacognosy

2.

Classification of crude drugs.

Part-1



(100) Marks

3.

Terminology used in Pharmacognosy.

4.

Evaluation of crude drugs i.e. organoleptic, physical, chemical and biological.

5.

Introduction, case history, skin test, treatment and mechanism of allergy.

6.

Enzymes obtained from plant source (Phyto-enzymes)

7.

General introductions of poisonous plants with special reference to Pakistan.

8.

Separation and isolation of plant constitutions. An introduction to

chromatography and chromatographic techniques e.g. a)

Column chromatography

b)

Paper chromatography

c)

Thin layer chromatography

9.

Introduction to extraction and extraction techniques.

10.

General introduction, classification and medicinal uses of important plants

containing: 

a)

Glycosides



b)

Alkaloids



c)

Volatile oils (essential oils)



d)

Resins and Resin combination



e)

Carbohydrates



f)

Tannins



g)

Lipids (Fixed oils, fats and related compounds waxes)

Pharmacognosy

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