Carlos Góngora Trejo
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CONTENIDO Prefacio 4 Prólogo del traductor 5 Introducción 6 El origen del modelo de desarrollo de ayuda 6 Las profesiones de ayuda 10 CAPÍTULO I: LA AYUDA, EL ORIENTADOR Y EL QUE SE ADIESTRA 14 ¿Desorden o riqueza? 14 Un modelo de trabajo para la ayuda 14 La crisis en la ayuda 15 Destrezas y problemas socio-emocionales 17 Retrato de un orientador 19 Retrato del que se adiestra 20 El adiestrador 22 CAPÍTULO II: PANORAMA DE UN MODELO DE DESARROLLO DE AYUDA 23 Introducción 23 Comenzando Comenzando con el final: La naturaleza de dirección a la meta de la orientación 25 La fase de pre-ayuda 26 Etapa I: responder al cliente/Auto-exploración cliente/Auto-exploración del cliente 27 Etapa II: entendimiento integrativo/Auto-entendimiento dinámico 28 Etapa III: facilitar la acción/La acción 29 La lógi lógica ca del del mo mode delo lo de desar esarro roll llo: o: Adie Adiest stra ram mien iento-c to-com omoo-tr trat atam amie ient nto o 30 El orientador como agente de refuerzo y motivación del cliente 31 Usar el modelo de desarrollo como una guía: un ejemplo 33 Adiestramiento sistemático 38 Mutualidad en los grupos de adiestramiento 38 CAPÍTULO III: ATENDER 40 Inteligencia social: La distinción de discriminación/comunic discriminación/comunicación ación 40 Atender: presencia física y psicológica 43 CAPÍTULO IV: ETAPA I: LA RESPUESTA DEL ORIENTADOR Y LA AUTO-EXPLORACIÓN AUTO-EXPLORACIÓN DEL CLIENTE 51 I. Las destrezas del orientador en la Etapa I 52 Empatía exacta a nivel primario 53 Autenticidad: un enfoque conductual 62 Respeto: un enfoque conductual 64 Ser concreto 68 II. Ayudar como una influencia social: La experiencia del cliente 72 La experiencia del cliente en términos de influencia social 72 Motivación del cliente 76 Conclusión 76 III. Auto-exploración 76
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AUTO-ENTENDIMIENTO DINÁMICO AUTO-ENTENDIMIENTO I. Auto-en o-enttend endimie imien nto diná inámico ico: Met Meta a del del clie clien nte para la Eta Etapa IIII Un cambio en perspectiva II. Destrezas del orientador en la Etapa II Mutualidad en asesoramiento y adiestramiento en relaciones humanas 89 Empatía precisa avanzada Auto-descubrimiento del orientador Confrontación 104 Plática mutua y directa (proximidad) Algunas notas de conclusión sobre la Etapa II CAPÍTULO VI: ETAPA III: PROGRAMAS DE ACCIÓN 120 Metas de acción del cliente 122 El carácter evolutivo del proceso del cambio conductual Principios envueltos en el mantenimiento y cambio de conducta 123 Etapas I y II como programas de acción Una metodología completa para la solución de problemas 129 Un enfoque del análisis del campo de fuerzas en la resolución de problemas 131 Conclusión 151 CAPÍTULO VII: EPÍLOGO
85 86 88 89 90 100 114 119
123 128
152
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PREFACIO Este libro se ha escrito en primer lugar para aquellos que estarán aprendiendo sobre la ayuda mediante la práctica de las destrezas que constituyen el proceso de ayuda. Puesto que el ayudar es un arte, se aprende haciéndolo. La lectura extensa de teorías de orientación y psicoterapia tiene un valor limitado a menos que se integr integre e dentro dentro de un proces proceso o de apren aprendiz dizaje aje vivenc vivencial ial.. Tra Tradic dicion ionalm alment ente, e, los prog progra rama mass de adie adiest stra rami mien ento to de orie orien ntado tadore ress han han sido ido muy cogn cognit itiv ivos os.. Frecuentemente, Frecuentemente, los estudiantes han podido discutir las teorías y los l os hallazgos de la investigación pero han sido incapaces de traducir esto en una ayuda efectiva. Este libro, por lo tanto, se dirige no tanto al estudiante sino más bien al que se adiestra. El Orientador Experto presenta un modelo de ayuda en tres etapas y un programa de destrezas de ayuda diseñado para incrementar la confiabilidad del proceso de ayuda ayuda.. El libro libro no es una una introd introducc ucción ión a las difere diferent ntes es teoría teoríass de orient orientaci ación ón psicológica, como tampoco es una presentación detallada de ninguna de ellas. Más bien, presenta un modelo práctico para hacer orientación. Este modelo, aún cuando en primer lugar es práctico, no es sin embargo ateórico. Se basa en la teoría del aprendizaje, en la teoría de la influencia social, en los principios y práctica, de la modificación de la conducta, y en las metodologías de adiestramiento en destrezas y de solución de problemas. El modelo señala las tres etapas principales en el proceso de ayuda y las destrezas que el orientador necesita para implementar cada etapa. Existe una cantidad substancial de evidencia (vea las referencias en la Introducción) que prueba que el uso diestro de este modelo ciertamente incrementa la confiabilidad del proceso de ayuda. Este libro de texto es un intento para integrar el adiestramiento en destrezas, la influencia social, y los enfoques conductuales sobre la ayuda, y para establecer una tecnología de adiestramiento que se aplique tanto al adiestramiento del orientador como al mismo proceso de ayuda. Quis Quisie iera ra agra agrade dece cerr a Don Don Dink Dinkme meye yer, r, Pres Presid iden ente te de la Co Comm mmun unic icat atio ion n and and Moti Motiva vati tion on Trai Traini ning ng Inst Instit itut ute e de Co Cora rall Spri Spring ngs, s, Flor Florid ida; a; a Alle Allen n E. Ivey Ivey de la Universidad de Massachusetts; a Richard L. Bednar de la Universidad de Kentucky; a Ronald R. Schmidt del Arnerican River College en Sacramento, California; a Frank C. Noble de la Universidad Estatal de Arizona; y a Bruce R. Fretz de la Universidad de Maryland por las revisiones que hicieron del manuscrito original de este libro. Sus comentarios fueron sumamente útiles. Tamb También ién quisi quisiera era agrad agradece ecerr a los estud estudian iantes tes del progra programa ma de orient orientaci ación ón y psicoterapia de Loyola. Su entusiasmo, su respuesta al aprendizaje vivencial y sus comentarios críticos continúan haciéndome un aprendiz. Por todo esto estoy muy agradecido.
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PRÓLOGO DEL TRADUCTOR El libro que tiene en sus manos, El Orientador Experto, es una traducción del orig origin inal al titu titula lado do The The Skil Skille led d He Help lper er,, cuyo cuyo auto autorr es el doct doctor or Gera Gerard rd Egan Egan.. Ciertamente una traducción es una nueva creación. Se necesita utilizar el genio de la lengua para expresar y matizar, en la traducción, las ideas y los sentimientos del autor expresados en la obra original. También se debe evitar el riesgo, al traducir, de torcer o equivocar el sentido original y genuino del autor. Esta traducción al español de la obra del Dr. Egan pretende ofrecer la concepción original original del autor. Permít Permítase aseme me ahora ahora añad añadir ir algun algunos os coment comentari arios os sobre sobre El Orient Orientad ador or Expert Experto, o, Primero, la obra presenta una tecnología básica para el adiestramiento y ejercicio en las profesiones de ayuda psicológica. Dicha tecnología se basa en los mejores hallazgos del conocimiento científico en el terreno de la psicología terapéutica y de la relación de ayuda interpersonal; además, la tecnología descrita pide para su puesta en acción un reto personal al orientador y al orientado: una invitación al reto de crecer como seres auténticamente humanos. Segundo, en el proceso de traducción de la obra se tuvo gran cuidado en someter tanto la traducción como la tecnología en ella descrita, a un proceso experimental en varias universidades de México y otros países de la América Latina. La profesora Carmen 1. Rivera, de la Universidad Católica de Puerto Rico, tuvo buen cuidado de leer leer y come coment ntar ar el ma manu nusc scri rito to de la trad traduc ucci ción ón.. A ella ella le debe debemo moss nues nuestr tro o agradecimiento por tan delicada misión y por sus atinados y justos comentarios. También se sometió la tecnología de la relación de ayuda, descrita en la obra, a procesos de convalidación de tipo experimental vivencial, para cerciorarnos de su afinidad y adaptación al carácter y temperamento temperamento de la gente latinoamericana. Tercero, el eclecticismo integrador sistemático que permea la base y estructura cientí científic fico-p o-psic sicoló ológic gica a de la obra obra El Orien Orientad tador or Expert Experto o hace hace que que ésta ésta pueda pueda utilizarse por todo profesional de la relación de ayuda, independientemente de su orientación o ubicación en determinada determinada escuela o corriente de psicología. Cuarto, estoy seguro que El Orientador Experto será de gran utilidad para los alumnos en adiestramiento de las profesiones de ayuda psicológica: orientadores escolares, psicólogos, religiosos y psicoterapeutas. psicoterapeutas. Finalmente, declaro que si tomé el reto de traducir la obra del Dr. Gerard Egan, fue por mi afecto de amigo y admiración profesional que tengo por él y que se inició a
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Universidad Iberoamericana Iberoamericana
INTRODUCCIÓN 1. El modelo de desarrollo se diseña para incrementar la confiabilidad de la ayuda. 2. Este modelo se basa en: a. el trabajo de Carkhuff y otros, quienes ahogan por enfoques sistemáticos en el adiestramiento de destrezas tanto para la ayuda como para el adiestramiento de orientadores b. la teoría de la influencia social c. la teor teoría ía del del apre apren ndiza dizaje je y los los prin rincipi cipios os que que suby subyac acen en en el cam cambio bio y mantenimiento de la conducta 3. Este modelo se ha desarrollado para el beneficio de todos aquellos que se envuelven en la gran variedad de profesiones de ayuda. 4. No se niega la importancia de las teorías psicológicas (por ejemplo, teoría de la personalidad). La teoría de la personalidad sobre la cual se basa este modelo de desarrollo es ecléctica. S. Los Los valo valore ress está están n liga ligado doss al proc proces eso o de ayud ayuda. a. Uno Uno expr expres esa a un valo valorr simplemente simplemente al escoger un sistema particular de ayuda. 6. Las Las dest destre reza zass disc discut utid idas as en este este libro libro son son prin princi cipa palm lmen ente te las las dest destre reza zass necesarias en la relación relación interpers interpersonal onal efectiva. 7. Se prefiere el enfoque de adiestramiento en grupo tanto para la educación de los orientadores como para el tratamiento de los que se ayudan. 8. La terminología que se usa en este texto es variada; se trata de evitar las connotaciones de un determinado rol profesional.
Norman Kagan (1973) sugiere que el asunto básico que confrontan las profesiones de ayuda es su confiabilidad, no su validez.
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han fallado por causa de inadecuación de las teorías sino. Porque el practicante promedio no ha sido adecuadamente educado para implementar la teoría. Esto no se dice para negar que se necesitan mejores teorías, sino más bien para declarar que existe bastante verdad en las ya existentes para mejorar los problemas críticos de la salud mental de nuestro mundo, si sólo pudiéramos trasladar sus implicaciones en una acción eficaz con mayor consistencia (pág. 44).*
El modelo de desarrollo para la ayuda que se presenta en los capítulos de este libro, se diseña precisamente para incrementar la confiabilidad del proceso de ayuda. El origen del modelo de desarrollo de ayuda El modelo presentado en estas páginas es tan nuevo como antiguo, tan simple como sofisticado. Un buen modelo debe integrar las mejores técnicas de ayuda en un esquema sistemático, orientado a metas, como sugiere Aristóteles, "un principio, una parte media, y un final". Una forma rudimentaria de semejante modelo ha existido desde hace mucho tiempo en el sentido común del hombre, pero, como suele suceder con el sentido común, ha sido generalmente ignorado. Este modelo rudimentario de ayuda es uno de tipo de desarrollo en tres etapas; esto es, tiene " un principio, una parte media, y un final", todo ello en una relación dinámica entre etapa etapas. s. Estab Estaba a en la escue escuela la secun secunda daria ria cuand cuando o este este mo model delo o se me presen presentó tó form formal alme ment nte e como como el mo mode delo lo de "Pie "Piens nsa, a, Juzg Juzga, a, Actú Actúa" a".. Esto Esto es, es, expl explor ore e el prob proble lema ma,, comp compre rend nda a sus sus rami ramifi fica caci cion ones es y dema demand ndas as,, y lueg luego o actú actúe e para para solucionarlo. En un contexto de ayuda toma esta forma: establezca el tipo de relación con la persona que viene a pedir ayuda que le permita explorar libremente lo problemático en su vida; después ayúdele a ver objetivamente el problema y a comprender comprender la necesidad de la acción y, finalmente, ayúdele a actuar. El modelo, como aparece en los capítulos de este libro, tiene tres fuentes mayores interrelacionadas. 1. El trabajo de Carkhuff y otros sistemas de adiestramiento sistemático de destrezas. Ha sido el genio de Robert Carkhuff y sus asociados (vea, por ejemplo, Carkhuff, 1969b, 1971, 1972a, b, c, d, 1973; Carkhuff y Berenson, 1967; Truax y Carkhuff, 1967) quien ha tomado este modelo "popular" para forjarlo en modelo científico, a través de investigación y práctica extensas y rigurosas. No sólo lo señala Carkhuff las demandas características de cada etapa del modelo, sino también delínea las destrezas que necesita el orientador para ser efectivo en cada etapa etapa y ela elabo bora ra una una tecno tecnolog logía ía para para selecc seleccion ionar ar orient orientad adore oress en prosp prospect ecto o y adiestrarlos en estas destrezas. El modelo "popular' ha necesitado una tecnología y Carkhuff la ha dado. Pero ha ido más allá de esto. Puesto que las destrezas de ayuda que él delinea son básicamente las mismas destrezas que todos necesitan para vivir efectivamente como un ser humano socio-emotivo, Carkhuff sugiere que el me mejor jor mo modo do de trata tratamie mient nto o es el adies adiestra trarr direct directa a y sistem sistemáti áticam cament ente e al orient orientad ador or en las destre destrezas zas que que necesi necesita ta para para vivir vivir má máss efecti efectivam vamen ente. te. Estas Estas incluyen tanto las relaciones humanas como las destrezas para la solución de problemas. Este paso constituye una revolución en las profesiones de ayuda.
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incluyen más de veinte destrezas específicas, para promover la "comprensión del yo y de los otros". Aún cuando 'está proliferación de etapas y de destrezas causa asombro al principiante, el detalle y la especialidad son muy estimulantes para el orientador experimentado. experimentado. Ivey Ivey y sus sus asocia asociado doss (Boyd (Boyd,, 1973 1973;; Ivey, Ivey, 1971, 1971, 1972; 1972; Ha Haas ase e y DiMatt DiMattia, ia, 1970; 1970; Hackney, Ivey y Oetting, 1970; Ivey, Normington, Miller, Morrill y Haase, 1968; Moreland, Ivey y Phillips, 1973; Wittmer y Lister, 1972) han desarrollado tecnologías sistemáticas para adiestrar orientadores bajo la rúbrica de "micro-orientación". Sus proced procedimi imient entos os de adies adiestra tramie mient nto o sistem sistemáti ático co son tambié también n muy muy útiles útiles en el enfoque de adiestramiento-como-tratamiento para la ayuda. Hackney y Nye (1973) han desarrollado un modelo de ayuda al cual denominan modelo de "discriminación". Este modelo se orienta hacia las metas y la acción, y pone pone énfa énfasi siss en el adies adiestr tram amien iento to de dest destre reza zas. s. Los Los auto autore ress iden identi tifi fica can n los los elementos mayores del modelo de desarrollo de tres etapas, aún cuando no los organizan tan sistemáticamente sistemáticamente como lo l o hace Carkhuff . Kagan y sus asociados (Archer, 1971; Archer et al., 1972; Archer y Kagan, 1973; Danish, 1971; Danish y Kagan, 1969; Dendy, 1971; Goldberg, 1967; Grzegorek, 1970; Hartson, 1971; Heiserman, 1971; Kagan, 1971, 1973; Kagan, Krathwohl y Miller, 1963; Kagan y Schauble, 1969; Spivack y Kagan, 1972; Ward, et al., 1972) han han desarr desarroll ollad ado o un enfo enfoqu que e de micro micro-d -dest estrez rezas as para para el adies adiestra trami mient ento o de orientadores La estrategia general de enseñanza. . . se ha desenvuelto como una progresión secuencial de leccio lecciones, nes, princip principiand iando o con una present presentaci ación ón didáct didáctica ica de concept conceptos, os, despué despuéss sigue sigue una simulación de ejercicios en tensión afectiva interpersonal, luego una retroinformación fisiológica y de video, luego el estudio del yo en la acción, luego la retroinformación por parte de los clientes y, finalmente, la comprensión y destreza en manejar los impactos complejos bilaterales que ocurren cuando dos personas están en relación uno con el otro (Kagan, 1973, pág. 44).
Su mé méto todo do es alta altame ment nte e sist sistem emát átic ico o y se enfo enfoca ca en una una técn técnic ica a llam llamad ada a "rememb "remembranza ranza de proceso proceso interpers interpersona onal" l" (IPR: (IPR: Interpers Interpersonl onl Process Process Recall), Recall), una sesión de investigación en la cual tanto el orientador como el ayudado exploran la experiencia que han tenido juntos en una sesión práctica. Un tercero sirve como mediador en esta sesión. Dura Durant nte e la reme rememb mbra ranza nza tant tanto o el entrev entrevis ista tado dorr como como el clie client nte e está están n pres present entes es.. Un interrogador anima a cada uno a hablar sobre las actitudes no expresadas, las intenciones, los sentimientos, los pensamientos, las estrategias y las expectativas que cada uno ha tenido sobre el otro -cada participante por igual ... Estas sesiones de mutua remembranza proporcionan posibilidades adicionales para el aprendizaje (Kagan, 1973, pág, 49).
Kagan pone énfasis en la tecnología de adiestramiento en destrezas pero no delínea sistemáticamente sistemáticamente el modelo total de ayuda en el cual las destrezas se incorporan. Go1dstein (1973) critica los enfoques psicoterapéuticos psicoterapéuticos tradicionales por fallar en el
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2. Teoría de la influencia influencia social. social. Aún cuando pudiera sonar a algunos como un alejamiento radical de los enfoques tradicionales (especialmente (especialmente no directivos) para la ayuda, decir que la ayuda es un proceso de influencia social es, en cierto sentido, una declaración de lo obvio. Toda la interacción humana se puede conceptualizar (aunque (aunque ciertamente no en forma exclusiva) desde el punto de vista del proceso de influencia social. Tan pronto como yo me envuelvo con mis amigos, llego a ser uno que influencia y uno que es influenciado (vea Berscheid y Walster, 1969; Gergen, 1969; Kelman, 1967; Zimbardo y Ebbesen, 1970). Influencio a otros tanto por actuar (por ejemplo, cuando muestro cuidado por otros, son influenciados para quererme, respetarme, y cooperar conmigo; cuando soy cínico, otros son influenciados para evitarme y temerme) como por no actuar (mi silencio en una reunión influencia otros miembros a pensar de mí como impotente y despreocupado, o a sentir la necesidad de "manejar" mi silencio). Vivimos en una sociedad cargada con fuerzas de influencia social. Todos nosotros nos envolvemos de vez en cuando en intentos de influencia social, abierta o encubiertamente, dándonos cuenta o sin quererlo. Puesto que las leyes de influencia social operan tanto en las transacciones de la vida cotidiana y en las situaciones de ayuda, es sólo natural el que se estudie la ayuda y la relación interpersonal desde el punto de vista de los principios de la influencia social de tal manera que podamos usar estos principios creativamente en vez de ser sus víctimas. Jerome Frank (1961, 1973) fue uno de los primeros en señalar los elementos de la influencia social en los enfoques ampliamente ampliamente divergentes para la ayuda (utiliza las palab palabras ras "pers "persua uasió sión n y cura") cura") en cultu culturas ras difere diferent ntes. es. Strup Strupp, p, al discu discutir tir "los "los ingredientes básicos de la psicoterapia" (vea Garfield, 1973; Strupp, 1973a, b), define la relación de ayuda en términos de los tipos de procesos de influencia social que que cara caract cter eriz izan an las las rela relaci cion ones es padr padres es-h -hij ijos os.. Stan Stanle ley y R. Stro Strong ng (196 (1968) 8) ha desarr desarroll ollad ado o un mo model delo o de dos dos etapa etapass para para la ayuda ayuda (bast (bastan ante te simila similarr al de Carkhuff) basado en la teona de la influencia social. Tanto él como sus asociados (Dell, 1973; Kaul y Parker, 1971; Kaul y Schmidt, 1971; Murphy Murphy y Strong, 1972; Roll, Schmidt y Kaul, 1972; Schmidt y String, 1970, 1971; Strong, 1970; Strong y Dixon, 1971; Strong y Gray, 1972; Strong y Matross, 1973; Strong, Meland y Keierleber, 1972; Strong y Schmidt, 1970a, b; Strong, Taylor, Bratton y Loper, 1971) se han envuelto en investigación básica relacionada con dicho modelo. El modelo, en su forma más simple, declara que en la Etapa I el orientador establece una base de pode poderr o base base de infl influe uenc ncia ia con con el ayud ayudad ado o a trav través és de perc percib ibir ir su peric pericia ia,, confiabilidad, y atractivo; y en la Etapa II utiliza esta influencia para ayudar al clien cliente te a cambia cambiarr tanto tanto - sus sus actit actitud udes es como como su condu conducta cta hacia hacia patro patrones nes de compo comporta rtamie mient nto o má máss constr construct uctivo ivo.. El mo model delo o de Carkhu Carkhuff ff es básic básicam ament ente e un modelo de influencia social, aún cuando él no se refiera a su modelo en esos términos. Ciertamente, enfatiza la autodeterminación del cliente más que el poder del orientador. Sin embargo sigue siendo cierto que las destrezas que Carkhuff ve como críticas para la primera etapa (y, ciertamente, para todo el modelo) son precisamente las destrezas que Strong ve como la base de poder del orientador o
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puesto que (en mi opinión) es completamente imposible evitar los procesos de influencia social en la ayuda, los orientadores deben poner énfasis en la influencia soci social al abie abiert rtam amen ente te ma mani nife fest stad ada, a, basa basada da prin princi cipa palm lmen ente te en el cuid cuidad ado, o, la comprensión y colaboración, y dirigida hacia ayudar a los clientes a que aprendan las destrezas del vivir interpersonal efectivo. De otra manera los orientadores y ayud ayudad ados os tamb tambié ién n se conv convier ierte ten n en las las víct víctim imas as de la ayud ayuda a como como proc proces eso o encub encubiert ierto o de influe influenc ncia ia socia social, l, basa basado do princ principa ipalme lment nte e en la neces necesida idad d del del orientador de controlar y en la desorganización, sugestibilidad y dependencia del ayudado. Aún cuando la teoría e investigación de Strong y sus asociados son comp compon onen ente tess sign signif ific icat ativ ivos os del del mo mode delo lo que que se pres presen enta ta en esta estas, s, pági página nas, s, personalmente tengo alguna preocupación con lo que parece ser un énfasis mayor sobre el control en los escritos de ellos. El modelo de Carkhuff-Strong, sin embargo, es abierto, evolutivo, y el énfasis diferencial sobre una dimensión u otra depende de los sistemas de valor de los diferentes expositores. 3. La teoría del del aprendizaje y los principio pios qu que e suby bya acen al manten mantenimi imient ento o y cambio cambio de la conduc conducta. ta. La tercer tercera a influe influenci ncia a ma mayor yor se relaciona con las dos primeras. Ningún modelo de ayuda que ignora los principios básicos de la conducta humana y del cambio puede llamarse práctico. Skinner (1953) ayudó a desencadenar una revolución en las ciencias de la conducta que todaví todavía a no ha cesad cesado. o. Su traba trabajo jo ha dado dado surgi surgimie mient nto o a un gran gran cúmu cúmulo lo de controversias que se centran alrededor de los valores (vea London, 1969; Matson, 1973; Rogers y Skarmer, 1956). Algunos practicantes se declaran ya sea "en favor" o 11 en contra" de la modificación de la conducta, de un modo político, pero esto no sólo es una simplificación exagerada del planteamiento importante de los valores, sino también es dar un paso atrás en la ciencia y en el arte de ayudar. Dado que la orientación se dirige hacia ayudar a un cliente (1) a mantener transacciones de crec crecim imie ient nto o cons consig igo o mism mismo o y su me medi dio, o, espe especi cial alme ment nte e su me medi dio o am ambi bien ente te interp interpers erson onal, al, (2) a cambia cambiarr aquel aquellas las condu conducta ctass que que son son autod autodest estruc ructiv tivas as y destructivas para otros y (3) a adquirir destrezas que capaciten al cliente para vivir más efectivamente, el orientador debe poseer un completo dominio práctico de los principios que subyacen en al aprendizaje, el desaprendizaje, y el re-aprendizaje, sin importar cómo se sienta él frente al enfoque de modificación de la conducta como como un paqu paquete ete de técnic técnicas. as. Si el orient orientad ador or y/o el ayuda ayudado do ignora ignoran n estos estos princi principio pios, s, serán serán arroll arrollad ados os por por ellos ellos.. Alguno Algunoss client clientes es vienen vienen a busca buscarr ayuda ayuda preci recissam amen ente te porqu rque han est estado com omb batien tiend do en con contra tra de las las ley leyes fun fundame dament ntal ales es de la cond conduc ucta ta (por (por ejem ejempl plo, o, una una ma maes estr tra a se quej queja a de la dependencia de sus alumnos hacia, ella y sin embargo refuerza esta dependencia por por la ma maner nera a como como les respo respond nde). e). Algun Algunos os orient orientad adore oress involu involunt ntari ariam ament ente e refuerzan, la misma conducta que están tratando tratando de erradicar al tratar de ayudar al cliente a cambiar. Aún cuando no es necesario para el orientador promedio poseer un conocimiento teórico sofisticado de estos principios y una conceptualización de la ayuda como un proceso de aprendizaje (Bandura, 1961, 1969; Ferster y Perrott, 1968; Glaser, 1971; Murray y Jacobson, 1971), un dominio elemental pero sólido de
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En síntesis, este libro trata de integrar las tres influencias mayores ya citadas y sirve como una introducción práctica al modelo evolutivo de tres etapas para la ayuda, el cual enfatiza el adiestramiento adiestramiento en destrezas tanto para el orientador en su adiestramiento adiestramiento como para el orientador en su tratamiento. Las profesiones de ayuda ¿Quién ¿Quién necesi necesita ta el tipo tipo de destr destreza ezass que que se descri describe ben n en estas estas págin páginas? as? La respuesta es simple. A todos nosotros en un tiempo o en otro se nos pide que ayud ayudem emos os y todo todoss noso nosotr tros os nos nos envo envolv lvem emos os coti cotidi dian anam amen ente te en rela relaci cion ones es humanas. Muchas profesiones piden dos conjuntos de destrezas: un conjunto se refiere a una tecnología específica (tal como la medicina) y otro se refiere al área de las relaciones humanas. El médico no sólo se encara con una úlcera en la habitación 436 de un hospital; se encara con un ser humano, quizá asustado y dependiente, Ningún Ningún docto doctorr puede puede simple simplemen mente te asign asignar ar la huma humanid nidad ad del pacie pacient nte e a los capellan capellanes, es, orientado orientadores res o voluntar voluntarios ios mientras mientras cuida cuida del cuerpo cuerpo del paciente paciente.. ¿Quién ¿Quiénes es son los orient orientad adore ores-s---- los oficia oficialme lment nte e design designad ados, os, profes profesion ionale ales, s, voluntarios, orientadores cotidianos--- que necesitan las destrezas de ayuda? •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Capellanes Trabajadores Trabajadores en sistemas correccionales Encargados de guarderías de niños Miembros de familia Gente de iglesia Líderes de grupo Trabajadores Trabajadores en desarrollo comunitario comunitario Amigos Orientadores Trabajadores Trabajadores de hospitales Especialistas en relaciones humanas Psicólogos Entrevistadores Trabajadores Trabajadores en rehabilitación Conyugues Directores de residencias universitarias orientadores y asistentes Enfermeras Trabajadores Trabajadores sociales Consultores en desarrollo organizacional Profesores Orientadores compañeros Entrenadores
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servic servicios ios si hubie hubiera ra progra programa mass inteli inteligen gentem tement ente e lleva llevado dos, s, bien bien organ organiza izado dos, s, centrados en la comunidad, dirigidos por orientadores de alto nivel, que proveyeran a los voluntarios un adiestramiento en cualquier destreza que fuera necesaria para un progra programa ma parti particu cular lar.. Justam Justament ente e así así como como los psicó psicólog logos os han han habla hablado do del del potencial no usado que existe dentro de cada individuo i ndividuo (Maslow, (Maslow, 1968), así nosotros podemos hablar de los recursos para la ayuda no utilizados que se dan dentro de cualquier comunidad. Orientadores y teoría psicológica Para poder leer este libro, el estudiante en adiestramiento no necesita muchos antec anteced edent entes es en teoría teoría psico psicológ lógica ica (de (de hecho hecho,, se necesi necesita ta má máss para para lee leerr esta esta introducción que para leer el resto del libro). En el pasado la tendencia fue el sobrecargar al orientador prospectivo con teorías psicológicas. Fue escolarizado (a menudo en el peor sentido del término) en teorías de la personalidad, psicología evolutiva, psicología anormal, y enfoques altamente cognitivos en la orientación y la psic psicot oter erap apia ia -a me menu nudo do a expe expens nsas as de adie adiest stra rami mien ento toss en dest destre reza zass y aprendizaje vivencial. Hasta cierto punto, hoy todavía esto es cierto. Sin embargo, existe existe un conjun conjunto to crecie crecient nte e de opini opinion ones es y eviden evidencia cia (Arch (Archer, er, 1971; 1971; Arche Archerr y Kagan, 1973; Carkhuff, 1968, 1969a; Carkhuff y Berenson, 1967; Carkhuff y Truax, 1965; Dendy, 1971; Goldstein, 1973; Haase y DiMattia, 1970; Hurvitz, 1970; Kopita, 1973; Lamb y Clack, 1974; Pyle y Snyder, 1971; Rappaport, Gross y Lepper, 1973; Rioch, 1966; Suinn, 1974; Truax y Carkhuff, 1967- por sólo nombrar a pocos) que afirma que los orientadores con un extenso adiestramiento en teoría psicológica y una variedadadecuadamente en las destrezas de ayuda, puede llegar a ser muy efectivo aún sin un adiestramiento en teoría psicológica. Ciertamente, si se tuviera que hacer una elección entre adiestramiento en destrezas y aprendizaje cognitivo, sería mejor elegir el primero. Sin embargo, seria mejor si dicha elección no se tuviera que hacer. El orientador orientador en prospecto debería ser entrenado en las materias teóricas sobre la ayuda, psicología evolutiva, psicología anormal, y teoría de la pers person onal alid idad ad;; pero pero esto esto debe deberí ría a tene tenerr un impa impact cto o prác prácti tico co en la habi habili lida dad d prospectiva para ayudar del orientador. Muy a menudo, la teoría permanece sólo teoría teoría,, apris aprision ionada ada en curso cursoss sin rel releva evanc ncia ia que que deben deben sufri sufrirse rse como como ritos ritos de iniciación por los cuales se debe pasar, una pérdida de recursos humanos.
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exploración del sistema de valores del cliente, para averiguar si el cliente está sien siendo do dest destru ruid ido o por por una una búsq búsque ueda da de valo valore ress que que son son de algu alguna na ma mane nera ra contradictorios. contradictorios. Rokeach (1973) ha hecho investigaciones que muestran que mucha gente tiene un conjunto idealizado de valores (valores "nocionales") y un conjunto práctico (valores "reales"). El último conjuntodetermina la conducta. Él describe la confro confront ntaci ación ón de valor valores es como como una una herram herramien ienta ta pode poderos rosa a para para ayuda ayudarr a otra otra persona a que cambie su conducta. Los orientadores con diferentes énfasis de valores eligen diferentes sistemas de ayuda ayuda.. Por eje ejemp mplo, lo, los sistem sistemas as no-d no-direc irectiv tivo o y de influe influenc ncia ia socia sociall se ubica ubican n diferentemente frente a la autonomía del cliente. El primero enfatiza el soltar el potencial y la habilidad del cliente para dirigir su propia vida, mientras que el segundo enfatiza la solución de problemas y hace que el cliente actúe en maneras más productivas. Breggin (Trotter, 1973) dice que el objetivo de la terapia no es el dar atención, amor, cariño o apoyo, sino más bien liberar a la persona para que consiga eso en algún otro lado. Por otro lado, otros ven la terapia 'al menos parcial y actualmente en este momento (sino total e idealmente) como la "compra de la amistad" (Schofield, 1964). Algunos valores enfatizados (al -menos implícitamente) por por el mo mode delo lo evol evolut utiv ivo o son son resp respon onsa sabi bili lida dad, d, auto autode dete term rmin inac ació ión, n, cuid cuidad ado, o, altruismo, solución de problemas (conseguir que se haga el trabajo), cooperación, interdependencia, crecimiento en destrezas interpersonales, desarrollo y uso del pote potenc ncia iall huma humano no,, auto auto-c -con ontr trol ol,, disc discip iplin lina, a, ayud ayuda, a, y vivi vivirr inte intens nsam amen ente te.. El orientador experto conoce tanto lo que son sus valores "reales" como puede ayudar a otros a ue descubran, definan e implementen los propios. Ayuda y/o relaciones humanas Este Este libro libro se enfoca enfoca sobre sobre las rel relaci acion ones es de ayuda ayuda.. Sin embargo embargo,, el términ término o relaciones humanas" aparece en el subtítulo. Como Brammer (1973) señala, las relaciones de ayuda tienen mucho en común con las amistades, las interacciones familiares, y los contactos pastorales. Todas ellas se encaminan hacia llenar las necesidades humanas básicas, y cuando se reducen a sus componentes básicos, parecen muy semejantes" (pág. 48). Para expresar esto en una forma un poquito diferente, las destrezas discutidas en los siguientes capítulos son en primer lugar las destrezas de la relación interpersonal efectiva. Pertenecen. Primeramente a
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grupo de adiestramiento, y yo he argumentado sobre los grupos como el lugar del adiestramiento en relaciones humanas (Egan, 1970, , 1973a, b). Como ya se ha notado, Carkhuff también recomienda el adiestramiento directo de los ayudados en las destrezas de relaciones humanas y de solución de problemas. El modelo que se presenta en este libro se puede considerar de dos maneras. 1. Un modelo de adiestramiento para el orientador. orientador . Este libro de texto provee un programa para el orientador prospectivo. El adiestrado aprende él modelo y las destrezas necesarias para implementar cada etapa del modelo. Después usa el modelo y las destrezas del modelo para ayudar a otros ya sea en situaciones de uno a uno o en grupo. 2. Un modelo de tratamiento para el ayudado. El modelo evolutivo puede también verse como un programa de adiestramiento para el cliente; como Carkhuff (1969b) sugiere, en muchos casos el adiestramiento bien puede ser la mejor forma de tratam tratamien iento to o al me meno noss una una parte parte esenc esencial ial del del proce proceso so de tratam tratamien iento to.. El orientador, una vez que ha ido a través del proceso mismo de adiestramiento y ha dominado tanto el modelo y sus destrezas, puede ayudar a los clientes usando la misma misma me metod todolo ología gía de adies adiestra tramie mient nto o para' para' entre entrena narlo rloss direct directam ament ente e en las destrezas de relación interpersonal y de solución de problemas. En el modelo de Cark Ca rkh huff, ff, el adie adiesstra tramien iento es e1 modo pref referid erido o de trat ratamien iento y el adiestramiento adiestramiento de grupo es la mejor forma de adiestramiento. adiestramiento. En este segundo uso del modelo, el que adiestra aprende no sólo un modelo de ayuda sino, al mismo tiempo, tiempo, una metodolo metodología gía de adiestra adiestramien miento-c to-como omo--tra --tratami tamiento ento.. Dado que este segundo enfoque es mucho menos frecuente que el primero, los ejemplos en los siguientes capítulos se enfocan principalmente en la ayuda de uno a uno. Sin embargo, todo lo que se ha dicho sobre el adiestramiento y la ayuda es aplicable a los grupos. Al igual que Carkhuff, creo que el adiestramiento es un componente del tratamiento extremamente importante, y que las ventajas del adiestramiento y del tratamiento en grupo hacen que se prefieran los enfoques de grupo. Terminología y pronombres ¿Cómo debe uno referirse a la persona que viene buscando ayuda? Carkhuff se refiere a ella como el "ayudado". En los círculos médicos siempre se la ha llamado
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A menudo menudo hablo hablo directam directamente ente al estudian estudiante te adiestra adiestrando ndo usando usando el pronomb pronombre re "usted". Muy a menudo me refiero a mi mismo usando el pronombre "yo" en vez de deci decirr "el "el auto autor" r" u otra otrass pala palabr bras as o expr expres esio ione ness en terc tercer era a pers person ona a que que son son engorrosas y redundantes o indirectas. En todo el libro, uso "él" y "para él" para incluir ambos sexos al referirme al cliente y así evitar expresiones menos felices. Siento que dichas expresiones más bien distraen. Finalmente, mi experiencia con los que adiestran me ha enseñado que la ayuda de alto nivel de ninguna manera se limita a los hombres, y he tratado de lograr un balance entre los sexos en mi elección de ejemplos.
*Kagan, N. "¿Puede la Tecnología ayudarnos hacia la confiabilidad en influir la interacción humana? "Educational Technology, 1973, 13, 44-51. Ésta y otras citas tomadas de la misma fuente se reimprimen con el permiso debido.
CAPÍTULO I LA AYUDA, EL ORIENTADOR Y EL QUE SE ADIESTRA
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escuelas y sistemas, aproximaciones y técnicas,' todos los cuales son propuestos con igual igual seried seriedad ad y reclam reclaman ando do un grado grado muy muy alto alto de éxito. éxito. El princi principia piant nte, e, entonces, necesita una orientación que sea eficaz en sí misma y que le ayude a dar sentido a toda la vasta literatura que trata sobre relaciones de ayuda. En una palabra, el principiante necesita un modelo práctico de trabajo que le diga •
Lo que él debe hacer para ayudar a otros en malestar emocional
•
Qué habilidades necesita para hacerlo
•
Cómo adquirir estas habilidades
•
Lo que debe hacer la persona que viene por ayuda en este proceso
•
Qué habilidades necesita la persona que viene por ayuda para envolverse a sí misma en este proceso
•
Cómo adquiere estas habilidades
•
Qué pasos o etapas forman el proceso de ayuda
Si el prin princi cipi pian ante te asim asimil ila a tal tal model odelo o y las las habi habili lida dad des neces ecesar aria iass para para implementarlo, podrá entonces ver el desorden de sistemas, escuelas y técnicas como riqueza favorable. Podrá hurgar lo que necesite en la literatura sobre ayuda, para para desar desarrol rollar lar y perfec perfeccio ciona narr este este mo model delo o abier abierto to y adqu adquirir irir técnic técnicas as que que le capaciten para extender este modelo a las siempre amplias áreas de los problemas humanos. Un modelo de trabajo para la ayuda Este 1ibro no trata sobre escuelas específicas de orientación y psicoterapia. Una escuela, en el sentido con el cual se describe aquí, tiende a ser identificada con una figura histórica particular, como el psicoanálisis se identifica con Freud. Una escuela también usualmente se la relaciona con una bien elaborada teoría de personalidad
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1. Un marco práctico. El principiante necesita un sistema que le diga a él qué hacer para ayudar. El modelo de ayuda presentado aquí proporciona una estrategia práctica para ayudar. Indica tanto las etapas a través de las cuales, como regla general, se mueve el proceso de ayuda como las destrezas que el orientador debe ejercitar en cada etapa del modelo con objeto de lograr las metas de cada etapa. El model mo delo o presen presentad tado o aquí aquí está está respa respalda ldado do por por una una gran gran cantid cantidad ad de evide evidenci ncia a empírica. Vea los trabajos de Carkhuff, Ivey, y Strong y sus asociados, citados en la intr introd oduc ucci ción ón,, como como suma sumari rios os de esta esta evid eviden enci cia; a; nuev nuevas as evid eviden enci cias as está están n apareciendo continuamente en revistas especializadas. Esta evidencia sugiere (1) que el modelo, si se usa habilidosamente, trabaja; es decir, está relacionado con resultados positivos en la orientación (medidos por una variedad de criterios de resultado) y (2) que las destrezas mencionadas para el modelo son esenciales para su funcionamiento. Por lo tanto, el modelo trabaja si el orientador ha desarrollado las habilidades mencionadas por el modelo y si él usa estas habilidades en el proceso de ayuda. Un ayudante así es llamado de "alto nivel" y se le distingue del orientador de "bajo nivel" que es uno que no ha desarrollado las habilidades del modelo o que no ha dominado e1modelo mismo o que no usa las habilidades que tiene al tratar de ayudar. ¿Por qué se sugiere aquí que el principiante empiece con un modelo práctico de ayuda más que con una teoría o con una revisión de una variedad dé teorías? Algun Alguna a invest investiga igació ción n muest muestra ra que que en los orient orientad adore oress princ principi ipiant antes es hay hay con con frecuencia una brecha entre su postura teórica inicial y su práctica real (Ross y
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Hay muchas profesiones de ayuda: aquéllas asociadas con el ministerio ,sacerdotal, con trabajo social, psiquiatría, orientación, enseñanza, psicología, leyes y otras más. Hay alguna evidencia de que estas profesiones son usualmente desempeñadas por orientadores de relativamente bajo nivel -es decir, orientadores que clasifican bajo en las habilidades esenciales del proceso de ayuda, tales como ser genuinos y concretos, poseer adecuado entendimiento empático y respeto. Por ejemplo, un estudio nacional de los sacerdotes católico-romanos (Kennedy y Heckler, 1971) indi indicó có que que un 70 por por cien ciento to de aque aquell llos os suje sujeto toss estu estudi diad ados os caye cayero ron n en una una categoría titulada "subdesarrollado". Sin duda, una de las áreas principales de su falta de desarrollo eran las relaciones interpersonales. Esto no significa que los sacerdotes en general son pobres seres humanos ni tampoco que ellos sean peores (o mejores) que aquellos que pueblan las otras profesiones de ayuda. De hecho, una de las conclusiones de este estudio fue que "los sacerdotes de los Estados Unido Unidoss son son homb hombres res ordina ordinario rios". s". El proble problema ma es, sin embarg embargo,, o,, que que "homb "hombres res ordinarios" (como se definió en el estudio) no hacen generalmente orientadores efectivos. Hay un inte Hay intere resa san nte para parale lelo lo entr entre e el adie adiest stra rami mien ento to de sace sacerd rdot otes es y el adiestramiento de otros en las profesiones de ayuda. El adiestramiento de los sacerdotes en el estudio antes citado ha sido altamente cognoscitivo en naturaleza, aún cuando ellos estuvieron siendo adiestrados para una profesión ,que demandaba una gran variedad de habilidades prácticas. Los sacerdotes no habían recibido prácticamente prácticamente ningún adiestramiento en habilidad las relaciones humanas y
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Ivey Ivey (197 (1973) 3) pone pone en tela tela de juic juicio io el cons conser erva vadu duri rism smo o de la prof profes esió ión n de orientación:
Nosotros Nosotros hemos sabido sabido por años que lo que hemos estado haciendo no es particularmente particularmente efectivo (Eysenck, 1952; Bergin, 1971). Enfoques tradicionales de orientación y psicoterapia simplemente no rinden. Hay también nuevas técnicas tales como las discutidas por Carkhuff que sí rinden. Aún así, ¿qué ¿qué encontr encontramos amos en nuestr nuestros os centros centros de orient orientació ación, n, en los centros centros de salud salud mental mental para para la comunidad, en los hospitales? Todavía encontramos una predominancia de los mismos descuidados e ineficientes métodos de trabajo que Eysenck expuso tan claramente veinte años atrás (pág. 3).
La presente crisis puede verse o como un problema o como un aprieto. Cuando se ve como aprieto, se retuercen las manos y se critica, la clase de crítica que no hace nada más que suscitar más crítica. Sin embargo, si la presente crisis se ve como problema, podemos empezar a dar los pasos necesarios para resolverlo. Si existe una extensa literatura sugiriendo que los presentes programas de adiestramiento no producen orientadores efectivos, nosotros podemos diseñar programas que sí lo hagan. Si vemos que una de las fallas principales de estos programas es que ellos no proveen el adiestramiento sistemático en habilidades que se ha demostrado ser efectivas en el proceso de ayuda (Ivey, 1971; Matarazzo, Wiens y Saslow, 1966; Whitely, Whitely, 1969), 1969), podemos podemos desarrolla desarrollarr programa programass basado basadoss en tal adiestram adiestramiento iento sistemático. Este libro intenta ser una introducción para tales programas. Como Peter Drucker (1968) nota, todas las organizaciones son por sunaturaleza conservadoras. Aún los negocios cambian solamente cuando tienen que cambiar; y tienen tienen un criter criterio io rel relati ativam vamen ente te claro claro para para el éxito éxito o el fracas fracaso: o: ganan ganancia ciass y
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pared porque no tiene las destrezas necesarias para treparla, rodearla o alejarse de ella. Quizás su última solución sea sentarse catatónicamente catatónicamente en la base de la pared. Entonces, ¿cómo se ayuda a la gente? Una respuesta es que se les ayuda al ser adiestrados en las destrezas que necesitan para vivir la vida y para enfrentarse a sus sus cris crisis is má máss efec efecti tiva vame ment nte. e. Un conj conjun unto to de habi habili lida dade dess es de supr suprem ema a importancia: habilidades para las relaciones humanas básicas, las habilidades que se necesitan para un efectivo envolvimiento con otros. ¡Con cuánta frecuencia se descubre que la gente casada no tiene siquiera las destrezas necesarias para ser honesta uno con el otro! Anthony (1973) llevó a cabo un experimento sugiriendo que la destreza en el uso de destre destrezas zas de rel relac acion iones es huma humana nass puede puede ser usad usada a como como un índice índice de ajuste ajuste psicológico total. Pierce y Drasgow (1969) demostraron que el mejoramiento en el funcionamiento interpersonal conduce al mejoramiento en otras áreas de la vida. Cuando ellos adiestraron a pacientes severamente perturbad os directamente en destrezas de relaciones humanas, estos pacientes mejoraron de acuerdo a una variedad de criterios. ¿Por qué son relativamente pocas las personas más realizadas que los "hombres ordinarios" del estudio sobre los sacerdotes? Una respuesta es que cuando los inexperto inexpertoss en relacione relacioness humanas humanas se juntan juntan íntimame íntimamente nte con otros otros inexpertos inexpertos (como en el matrimonio y la vida familiar), no hay crecimiento humano o sus interacciones se vuelven destructivas. Todos los contactos human para bien o
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Yo estoy sugiriendo que la conducta humana errática e inmadura puede darse en parte a una falta de habilidades y que el déficit de habilidades puede ser un compo compone nente nte import importan ante te de cualq cualquie uierr proble problema ma de condu conducta cta.. Si esto esto es así, así, entonces el adiestramiento en destrezas, como Carkhuff (1969b) e Ivey (1971) sugie sugieren ren,, será será una una mo moda dalid lidad ad prefer preferida ida para para tratar tratar una una am ampli plia a varied variedad ad de problemas de la conducta. La mayoría de nosotros probablemente ha visto parejas como la de Juan y María que resuelven mucho de la problemática en sus vidas después de haber aprendido habilidades básicas de comunicación honesta. White (1963) sugiere que la destreza en las relaciones interpersonales es un factor crític crítico o en el desar desarrol rollo lo de un sentid sentido o de identi identida dad. d. Enton Entonces ces,, es totalm totalment ente e asom asombr bros oso o que que la form formac ació ión n de la dest destre reza za inte interp rpers erson onal al se deje deje tant tanto o a la casualida casualidad d en nuestra nuestra sociedad sociedad.. Es también también asombros asombroso o que nuestros nuestros .sistema .sistemass educativos no hayan llenado el vacío creado en el hogar. No hay dudas en mi mente de que que los los niño niñoss debe deben n ser ser sist sistem emát átic icam amen ente te adie adiest stra rado doss en dest destre reza zass de relaciones humanas. humanas. (Nótese que tal adiestramiento no es el mismo que se necesita en el enfoque de un grupo de encuentro, al cual se le pide un alto descubrimiento de sí mismo en las relaciones humanas que tanta gente teme). Tal adiestramiento exigirla maestros que se relacionen unos con otros a niveles relativamente altos y, si la invest investiga igació ción n de Carkhu Carkhuff ff está está correc correcta, ta, el ma maest estro ro "prom "promedi edio" o" qued queda a y demas demasiad iado o lejos lejos de esta esta me meta. ta. ¿Qué ¿Qué apren aprenden den los niños niños sobre sobre las rel relaci acion ones es humanas en la escuela o en sus contactos humanos diarios? La evidencia indica que ellos aprenden:
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Posee una adecuada inteligencia básica, es consciente de sus propias posibilidades inte intele lect ctua uale les, s, resp respet eta a el mund mundo o de las las idea ideas. s. En refe refere renc ncia ia a su capa capaci cida dad d intelectual ni se subestima, ni pretende que tiene más de lo que realmente tiene. Puesto que las ideas son importantes para él, lee. Lee activa y ávidamente pues está ansioso en ampliar su vista acerca del mundo. Respeta la buena literatura y el mundo del mito y la metáfora, Respeta la buena teoría y la buena investigación, pero es una persona práctica, un "traductor", que hace que lo que lee trabaje para él. Porque es un buen aprendiz, es un buen traductor. Puede transformar la buena teoría teoría y la buena buena invest investiga igació ción n en progra programa mass práct práctico icoss que que le capa capacit citen en para para ayudar a otros más efectivamente y tiene la destreza adecuada para evaluar estos programas.
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un solo curso de acción. Cuando usa una variedad de técnicas en el proceso de orientación, es el maestro de las técnicas que usa; él las posee, ellas no lo poseen a él. Sigue un modelo de orientación, pero no tiene miedo a divergir de él cuando tal divergencia podría probar ser más constructiva. Finalmente, no tiene necesidad de modelos o técnicas específicas, porque está viviendo efectivamente y ayudar es algo instintivo en él. El buen orientador está a gusto con la gente. No teme entrar en el mundo de otro, con toda su tensión; no se intimida por la problemática en las vidas de sus clientes. La intimidad del proceso de orientación no es un sustituto para él, porque no está incompleto, ni es una persona necesitada que se siente bien cuando encuentra gente con problemas como los suyos. Puede manejar crisis, puede movilizar sus
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adiestradores de alto nivel que sean orientadores efectivos), los practicantes traten con con mater ateria iall real real en su prác prácti tica ca de inte intera racc ccio ion nes. es. El con conteni tenido do de esta estass interacciones debe ser relevante para sus estilos interpersonales y de ayuda. Al principio, los practicantes pueden hablar sobre asuntos menos amenazantes (pero rea reales les) hasta asta que la armo rmonía y la con confia fianza nza hayan yan sid sido esta estab bleci lecid das y posteriormente posteriormente hablar sobre temas más críticos. De esta manera, el programa ideal proveerá tanto un adiestramiento como un tratamiento (en la medida en que este último sea necesario). Es obvio, entonces, que los practicantes no llevarán el mismo paso, pues algunos tendrán más problemas con los que trabajen que otros; así pues, la suposición de que todos deben llevar el mismo paso no es correcta. Estas son las princ principa ipales les razon razones es por por las que que yo prefie prefiero ro usar usar proble problema mass rea reales les de clientes, más que el role-playing en sesiones de práctica. El que se adiestra en un
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Una destreza personal que el adiestrado debe adquirir durante el programa, es la de evaluar sus puntos fuertes y deficiencias reales en ayudar y en relaciones huma humana nas. s. El mo model delo o de adies adiestra tramie mient nto o provee provee un criter criterio io para para esta esta clase clase de evalua evaluació ción. n. En mi experi experienc encia ia con los que que se adies adiestra tran n para para ser orient orientad adore ores, s, descubrí pronto que, en general, ellos no eran buenos para su auto-evaluación: no podían ver un panorama concreto de sus áreas de fuerza y déficit. Esta destreza también debe enseñarse durante el programa de adiestramiento. adiestramiento. A medida en que el que se adiestra domina el modelo de desarrollo básico y empieza a leer más ampliamente la literatura sobre la ayuda, puede empezar a descubrir técnicas de otros enfoques de ayuda que ampliarán su repertorio de habilidades habilidades y lo capacitarán a continuar continuar desarrollando desarrollando el modelo básico.
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2. El modelo puede comprenderse mejor si se consideran las metas conductuales del proceso de ayuda. El cambio constructivo constructivo de la conducta conducta es la meta primera. 3. El modelo tiene una fase de preayuda que acentúa la importancia de prestar atención y escuchar. 4. Las etapas del modelo son: a. Etapa 1: El orientador responde al mundo del cliente con objeto de ayudarle a explorarse a sí mismo. b. Etapa II: El orientador usa las habilidades de empatía precisa avanzada, propio descub descubrim rimien iento, to, confro confronta ntació ción n y proxim proximida idad d para para ayuda ayudarr al client cliente e a ver un panorama más objetivo de él mismo y darse cuenta de la necesidad de cambiar su conducta. c. Etapa III: El orientador ayuda al cliente a escoger e implementar las clases de
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comp comple leta tame ment nte e como como es nece necesa sari rio; o; por por ejem ejempl plo, o, falla fallará rá al disc discut utir ir área áreass
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emocionales de la vida; cambiar patrones autodestructivos y destructivos en el vivir
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La cond conduc ucta ta pued puede e ser ser públ públic ica a o priv privad ada, a, inte intern rna a o exte extern rna, a, encu encubi bier erta ta o
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a discu iscuttir lo que rea realmen lmente te le moles olestta. El buen orien rienta tad dor, aunqu nque es
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lo que está diciendo sobre si mismo. En cierto sentido, él debe ver el mundo del
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Cuando el orientador “da en, el clavo”, el cliente avanza y empieza a explorar más dimens dimension iones es de su proble problema ma.. En un sentid sentido, o, no hay hay una una respu respuest esta a em empá pátic tica a hermosa en si misma. Es hermosa hasta la medida en que sea efectiva. Empatía adecuada avanzada. Un mejor entendimiento del nivel primario de la empatía adecuada puede recogerse al compararlo con la empatía adecuada avanzada (una destreza de la Etapa II, explicada en detalle en el siguiente capítulo). capítulo). La empatía adecuada avanzada consigue no solamente que el cliente declare y exprese lo que siente sino también lo que él implica y deja sin declarar o no expresa claramente. Por ejemplo, Pedro explora sus sentimientos y su conducta hasta cierto punto pero parece dejar temas delicados en el centro de la problemática de su vida. También muestra, señales de fatiga y frustración Etapa I: La respuesta del orientador y la auto-exploración del cliente Durante las sesiones de orientación. El orientad todas estas señales juntas y dice: Orientador: Orientador: Pedro, parece que usted está dejando algunos de los temas que más le molestan y quizá el huir cuesta más trabajo y es más deprimente que enfrentarse a ellos directamente. Es muy doloroso para usted ponerse directamente sobre el caldero. Esta no es empatía adecuada de nivel primario porque Pedro nunca ha expresado abiertam abiertamente ente estas ideas, ideas, aún cuando ellas se han mostrado mostrado encubiertam encubiertamente ente duran durante te las sesion sesiones es de orient orientaci ación ón.. Otra Otra vez, vez, el criter criterio io último último para para el nivel nivel avanzado de empatía adecuada es la respuesta que surge del cliente: Pedro: Sabía que tenía que decirlo tarde o temprano. No sé qué es lo que temo. Es estúpido de mi parte invertir mi tiempo en orientación y luego no hacer -buen uso de mi tiempo. Pedro avanza. El tema está ahora abierto y puede tratarse más creativamente. Sin embargo, si la empatía adecuada avanzada se usa demasiado pronto en el proceso de orientación, puede atemorizar al cliente o hacerle regresivo. Puede negar las declaraciones del orientador aunque aunque él sepa que son verdaderas. La armonía que se ha construido sufre un deterioro, En la Etapa I, es ineficiente confundir, asustar, o enojar al cliente con respuestas prematuras de nivel avanzado de empatía precisa. Cuand Cuando o el client cliente e em empie piece ce a explor explorars arse e má máss librem librement ente, e, el orien orientad tador or puede puede empezar a avanzar de la Etapa I a la Etapa II. Algunos problemas comunes en comunicar el nivel primario de empatía adecuada Muchos de los siguientes problemas afectan al orientador principiante, aunque no sólo se restringen al principiante. Falla en lograr la empatía adecuada. Hay un sinnúmero de formas en las cuales el orientador puede fallar en ser adecuadamente empático. Usaré un ejemplo para señalar algunas de las fallas comunes. El cliente, obviamente obviamente nervioso, dice: Cliente: Lo que parece que realmente me está molestando es un problema sexual. No sé siquiera si soy un hombre o no y estoy por graduarme en la universidad. ¿Cuáles son algunos ejemplos de respuestas pobres a tal cliente? Primero que todo el orientador podría no decir nada, como si lo que el cliente ha dicho no valiera la pena de responderse. 0 podría decir: Orientador A: ¿Qué problemas está teniendo con el sexo, Juan? Otra vez, él falla en responder a la nerviosidad de Juan y su respuesta también
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de tal respuesta es: "Usted realmente no tiene un problema, por lo menos no uno serio". Orientador C: Esta cosa sexual es probablemente sólo un síntoma, Juan. Apuesto que hay algo más que está realmente molestándole. Esta Esta es una una corru corrupc pció ión n de un inte intent nto o fuer fuera a de luga lugarr de em empa patí tía a adec adecua uada da avanzada. El orientador falla en responder a los sentimientos del cliente y también distorsiona el contenido de la comunicación del cliente. La respuesta indica que lo que es realmente importante está escondido para el cliente. Orientador D: Demos una mirada a su desarrollo sexual, encontremos dónde está usted y veamos qué tan adecuada es su información acerca del sexo. El orientador D también ignora los sentimientos del cliente y brinca a un casi programa de acción con sobretonos de educación sexual. Será absolutamente útil encontrar dónde se encuentra el joven en su desarrollo sexual, pero e orientador se está yendo por el camino equivocado. Orientador E: ¿No lo ve, Juan? La inmadurez sexual es sólo otra parte del todo que nosotros hemos estado viendo en su vida. Usted está tratando de detenerse en su niñez y su seguridad. Este Este es otro otro uso uso prema prematu turo ro de la empatí empatía a adecu adecuad ada a avanza avanzada da,, un intent intento o de colocar las cosas juntas en un panorama mayor. Tales intentos son ordinariamente inapropiados durante la Etapa I. Más aún, esta particular puñalada de empatía adecuada avanzada es una interpretación psicodinámica de una validez altamente cuestionable. Orientador F: La madurez sexual es para usted un tema importante y perturbador en este momento de su vida. El orientador F responde con el nivel primario de empatía adecuada. Reconoce que el cliente está perturbado y que esa preocupación por su sexualidad subyace su ansie ansieda dad. d. Esta Esta es la clase clase de respu respuest esta a de Etapa Etapa 1 que que probab probablem lement ente e va a fortalecer la armonía entre el cliente y el orientador y a estimular la ulterior autoexploración. Inadecuación. Si la respuesta del orientador es inadecuada, inadecuada, el cliente puede hacérselo saber en una variedad de formas: él puede pararse en seco, Etapa I: La respuesta del orientador y la auto-exploración del cliente Chapucear, salirse por la tangente, decirle "no es exactamente lo que yo quería decir". Puede incluso tratar de entender al orientador orientador y regresarle a la ruta correcta. Cliente: Mi esposa no siempre se entromete en mi vida. Hay veces, aún en casa, cuando ella hace intentos de ser cooperativa en nuestro intento de educar a los chicos o manejar el presupuesto. presupuesto. Orientador: Usted se siente frustrado por la interferencia de ella, cuando menos. Es insensato que ella trate de ejercer tanto control. Cliente: Bueno, sí y no. Torne a los chicos. Yo me llevo muy bien con ellos. Estoy tan cerca de Tomás, el mayor, como un padre podría estar. El orientador no es adecuado. Pierde el punto y el cliente pescado fuera de guardia por la inexactitud, se va por la tangente. Quizá el orientador estaba tratando de jugar un juego de "cachar". Su respuesta quizá habría sido excelente si hubiera tenido uno o dos intercambios previos, pero no encaja aquí. El "cachar" y la buena voluntad no son sustitutos para ser exacto en el punto. ¿Qué puede el orientador
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Orientador: El cuadro no es totalmente negativo, entonces. Hay veces que su esposa no está controlando demasiado. Ella puede aún ser bastante cooperadora. Cliente: ¡Cua ¡Cuand ndo o ella ella coop coopera era,, las las cosa cosass son son real realm mente ente fabu fabulo losa sas! s! La vida vida canturrea. Al menos ésta es la forma en que yo la veo. Creo que no le estoy dando un cuadro parcial, pero es posible que esto esté sucediendo. Una respuesta adecuada produce una declaración más productiva del cliente. Él empieza a explorar la posibilidad de que haya dos caras en la l a moneda. Aparentar entendimiento. Algunas veces es difícil entender lo que el cliente está diciendo aún cuando uno le presta atención completamente. Él está confuso, distraído, en un estado altamente emocional; todas estas condiciones afectan la claridad de lo que está diciendo de sí mismo. Por otro lado, el orientador mismo podría distraerse y fallar en seguir al cliente. En tales ocasiones el orientador no debe aparentar entendimiento. entendimiento. Esto es falso. La autenticidad exige que él admita que está perdido y luego trabaje para regresar a la ruta otra vez. "Creo que lo perdí. ¿Podríamos repasarlo una vez más?" Si el orientador está confundido, está bien que él admita esta confusión. "Lo siento. No creo que entendí lo que usted ha dicho. ¿Podríamos ¿Podríamos repasarlo un poco más lentamente" Tales declaraciones son señales de que el orientador piensa que es importante importante estar con el cliente. Indican su preocupación preocupación por el diente. Admitir que uno está perdido es infinitamente preferible a esos clichés como "uh, huh", . ummmm" y "entiendo". Si el orientador siente que no ha entendido completamente lo que el cliente está tratando de expresar, debe ser tentativo en sus respuestas y dar al cliente lugar para avanzar. Él entonces se sentirá libre para corregir al orientador o darle un cuadro más claro de lo que quiere decir. Orientador: Usted parece estar diciendo que sus estudiantes no confían en usted porque sus emociones cambian demasiado día a día. ¿Es algo así? Cliente: En parte. Pero también pienso que el ánimo de la clase cambia de día a día, día, así así que que hay hay much muchos os días días que que mis mis em emoc ocio ione ness y las las de ello elloss pare parece cen n no mezclarse. Este Este client cliente e sient siente e que que tiene tiene lugar lugar para para avanz avanzar. ar. La respu respuest esta a tenta tentativ tiva a del del orientador le ayuda a clarificar lo que él quiere decir. Brammer (1973) llama a este proceso de verificar con el cliente siempre que usted está confuso o inseguro: "verificando la percepción" (pág. 86). Repetir como loro. La empatía adecuada no es repetir como loro. El orientador mecá me cáni nico co corr corrom ompe pe el nive nivell prim primar ario io de la em empa patí tía a adec adecua uada da por por repe repeti tirr simplemente simplemente lo que el cliente ha dicho: Cliente: Yo me siento deprimida porque todos mis chicos se han ido de casa y ahora estoy sola, sin nada que hacer. Orientador: Usted se siente sola porque sus chicos se han ido, usted está sola y no tiene nada que hacer. El orientador de alto nivel está siempre buscando el punto central de lo que está siendo expresado por el cliente y se convierte en un experto en indagar este punto y comunicárselo al cliente. La buena respuesta llega a la esencia de (la "carne", lo cual da significado y dirección potencial a) lo que el cliente ha expresado. No es sólo una paráfrasis o repetición. El orientador de alto nivel trata de comunicar entendimiento más que sólo regurgitar lo que el cliente ha dicho. Solamente puede entonces el cliente avanzar más profundamente en explorarse a sí mismo.
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reforzando el divagar. Los monólogos tanto de parte del orientador como del cliente no son son ordina ordinaria riamen mente te útiles útiles.. Por Por lo tanto tanto,, el orien orientad tador or debe debe respo respond nder, er, con relativa relativa frecuenc frecuencia, ia, al cliente, cliente, sin interrum interrumpir pir lo que es importan importante te o haciend haciendo o perder al cliente el hilo de su pensamiento. El uso frecuente de empatía adecuada da una gran cantidad de dirección al, proceso de orientación. Aunque es cierto que el cliente debe explorar los temas que tienen la mayor relevancia para él (este es otro camino para decir que las necesidades del cliente determinan la dirección de la orient orientaci ación ón), ), todaví todavía a el orient orientad ador or de alto alto nivel nivel deberá deberá estar estar rápida rápidamen mente te en contacto con estas… Etapa I: La respuesta del orientador y la auto-exploración del cliente …necesidades (con frecuencia más rápidamente que el cliente) y así estará en posición de ayudar al cliente a estar en contacto con ellas. Note que el uso habilidoso del nivel primario de la empatía adecuada es en sí mismo una expresión de dos dimensiones del proceso de influencia social: (1) establecer una base de influencia: el poder del orientador se aumenta porque se le ve más y más comprensivo y confiable; y (2) el uso de influencia: el orientador responde con frecuencia pero selectivamente a lo que el cliente tiene que decir. Esta selectividad hace la interacción más enfocada y concreta y por lo tanto más direccional. Obviam Obviamen ente, te, hay hay veces veces que que el client cliente e habla hablará rá extens extensam ament ente e -por -por eje ejemp mplo, lo, al principio, cuando vierte su historia por vez primera. Si esto parece lo mejor, el. ori orient entador ador,, le pres restará tará atenci enció ón lo mejo ejor posible ible,, tanto físi física ca como, psicológicamente, Debe también preguntarse a sí mismo cuáles parecen ser los temas importantes tanto de sentimientos como conductuales-en lo que el cliente está diciendo. Al final, sin embargo, es imposible para el orientador responder de una sola vez con empatía adecuada a todo lo que el cliente ha dicho. Necesita, por lo tanto, alguna forma de regresar a los temas más sobresalientes y explotarlos más. Algunas de las siguientes expresiones pueden usarse al final de un largo monólogo del cliente. Orientador: Todo Orientador: Todo esto realmente le ha golpeado fuerte. Veamos si no podemos ir poco a poco. Orientador: Hay mucha pena y confusión en lo que usted acaba de decirme. Veamos si yo he entendido lo que ha dicho. Orientador: Usted ha dicho bastante. Veamos si podemos centramos más en lo que le está molestando. Mientras el cliente está hablando, el orientador puede estarse preguntando a sí mismo: ¿qué es lo que realmente está molestando a esta persona? ¿Qué está tratando de comunicarme? ¿Qué lo está bloqueando? ¿en qué forma está luchando vida inefectivamente El orientador de alto nivel se enfocara sobre los sentimientos y conducta que tienen el más profundo significado para el cliente. Si estos no son claros, el orientador debe volverse atrás sobre el campo cubierto, parte por parte, hasta que el punto real aparezca en la superficie. Adelantarse a uno mismo. El orientador puede retardar el proceso por adelantarse adelantarse a sí mismo, avanzando demasiado rápidamente a las Etapas II y III antes de hacer el trabajo de la Etapa I adecuadamente. Por ejemplo, introduce el nivel avanzado de la empatía empatía adecuada adecuada demasia demasiado do pronto pronto (confund (confundiend iendo o o amenaza amenazando ndo al cliente), cliente), conf confro ront nta a sin sin colo coloca carr una una base base de ente entend ndim imie ient nto o y armo armoní nía a o da cons consej ejo o (direccionalidad prematura de la Etapa III). Estas respuestas prematuras algunas veces indican una falta de respeto para el cliente: (Yo quiero avanzar a un paso que me place a mí, no al que es bueno para él). La ayuda, aún cuando es dirigida por el
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tan rarificada que no es significativa. Deja de contribuir sustancialmente a la etapa de solución del problema en el proceso de orientación. Aquí, la ayuda degenera en un juego juego que que podr podría ía ser ser llama llamado do "caza "caza de percep percepció ción n interi interior" or".. La percep percepció ción n interior de los sentimientos de la conducta de uno ciertamente juega una parte importante importante en el proceso de ayuda, pero no debe permitirse que se convierta en un fin por sí misma. Empatía de tono y de maneras. maneras. Si un client cliente e habla habla animada animadamen mente te con el orientador, diciéndole el gozo que experimenta por varios éxitos en su vida y el orientador responde en una voz plana, sosa, su respuesta no es completamente empática -aún cuando lo que él diga podría bien ser adecuado en identificar los sentimientos sentimientos y las experiencias que hay bajo estos sentimientos. Cliente: Esta semana he intentado ser más comprensiva con mi hijo. En lugar de gritarle cuando él hizo algo equivocado, traté de enfocarme en otras clases de interacción con él. Cuando habló, yo sólo traté de entender lo que estaba diciendo y se lo hice saber. Usted sabe, ¡funcionó! No quiero decir que sólo era una técnica y que yo era falsa. ¡Estaba con él en una forma diferente! Orientador: Esta es una experiencia nueva y muy recompensante. Y todo esto por sólo tratar de estar con él en una forma comprensiva y sencilla. La respuesta del orientador es buena escrita sólo sobre el papel, pero si la entregó con poco entusiasmo, no está realmente "con" su cliente. Saltan Saltando do demasi demasiado ado rápidam rápidament ente. e. El prin princi cipi pian ante te con con frec frecue uenc ncia ia salt salta a dema demasi siad ado o rápi rápida dame men nte cuan cuando do el clie client nte e hace hace una una paus pausa: a: "dem "demas asia iado do rápidamente" porque él mismo todavía no ha formulado su respuesta. Puede darse tiempo a sí mismo, especialmente si el tiempo se ve como una preocupación acerca de lo que va a decir. La demasiada precipitación parece torpeza. La mayoría de los principiantes tienen que practicar el esperar cuando, el cliente hace una pausa. Durante la pausa el orientador se pregunta a sí mismo: ¿cuáles son los sentimientos aquí? ¿Cuáles son los puntos reales? Esto no significa que el orientador deba perder su espontaneidad. Él debe hablar en cualquier momento que piense que puede ayudar al cliente, aún si tiene que interrumpir. Una interrupción espontánea puede ser una intervención muy útil. El orientador, de alto nivel interrumpe o hace pausas en una forma no aprensiva. Está tan "con" el cliente que no tiene que, preguntarle si debe hablar o permanecer callado. Lenguaje. El orientador es más efectivo cuando su lenguaje está a tono con el lenguaje del cliente. Considere los siguientes ejemplos: Cliente de diez años de edad: Mi maestra piensa que estoy loco. Ella empezó con eso desde el primer día de clases. Yo no bromeo ni más ni menos que los demás de la clase, pero ella me pesca siempre en lo que hago. Yo creo que ella me ésta vigilando porque no le caigo bien. Ella no le grita a Memo Torres y él bromea más que yo. Orientador: Tú estás perplejo. Te preguntas por qué ella te señala con tanta especialidad para la disciplina. La respuesta del orientador es adecuada en un sentido, pero no es la clase de lenguaje que comunica entendimiento entendimiento a un niño de diez años de edad. La siguiente respuesta tendría mucho más significado para el niño: Orientador: Estás enojado porque porque ella se fija en ti y parece que no le caes bien. Al escoger las palabras el orientador refleja su habilidad para asumir el marco de
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En las sesiones de práctica, tales fórmulas como "usted siente porque son útiles, porque ellas le recuerdan al que se adiestra a enfocarse tanto en los sentimientos como en las experiencias subyacentes del cliente. Después de poco tiempo, sin embargo, pierden su utilidad porque simplemente no son del orientador; o sea que generalmente no habla en esa forma y suena altisonante cuando lo hace así. Orientador: Usted está realmente solo. Ella era la única amiga que usted tenía. Esto llega al centro de los sentimientos sentimientos del cliente y de su experiencia en una forma que es más humana que el "usted siente... porque. . . ". A medida que el que se adiestra se vuelve más hábil y más cómodo con la situación de orientación, será más capaz de usar un lenguaje que sea tanto "suyo" como que esté a tono con el lenguaje del cliente. Una precaución más: no se debe adoptar un lenguaje con el cual él no se esté cómodo, sólo para estar en la "onda" del cliente. , Orientador: Hombre, a menos que usted encuentre algún pan, ese gato lo va a dejar a usted muerto. Si el orientador es una persona blanca de clase social media que ordinariamente no habla así, probablemente sonará ridículo. Puede usar lenguaje informal pero sin adoptar ningún argot. Hablar aburridamente. Hablar aburridamente aburridamente es otro tropiezo que el principiante principiante debe evitar. Las respuestas del orientador deben ser relativamente frecuentes pero también lisas y llanas. Al tratar de ser preciso, el principiante se puede volver locuaz, algunas veces hablando más largamente que el cliente al tratar de elaborar una una respu respuest esta a interc intercam ambia biable ble.. Esto Esto suced sucede e con frecue frecuenc ncia ia cuan cuando do trata trata de responder demasiado rápidamente. Se da cuenta que sus primeras oraciones no han dado en el blanco así que sigue hablando en espera de que finalmente lo logre. Cliente: Yo Cliente: Yo nunca he sido muy espontáneo en situaciones sociales. Puesto que soy tímido, soy de la clase que se sienta a un lado al menos figurativamente y espero a ver cómo puedo entrar en la conversación. Como resultado, la conversación con frecuencia me pasa en el tiempo en que estoy listo para decir algo. Luego, ni siquiera estoy en el mismo punto de la conversación como los otros. He estado dentro de mí mismo y no sé qué está pasando. . Orientador: (saltando inmediatamente) Usted es realmente tímido y esto corta su espon espontan taneid eidad ad.. $e muest muestra ra especi especialm alment ente e así así cuand cuando o un grupo grupo está está reunid reunido o hablando. Usted está escuchando bien, sabe lo que la gente está diciendo, Pero entonces empieza a preguntarse a sí mismo: ¿Qué debo decir? No debo estar aquí para parado do como como un estú estúpi pido do.. Pero Pero cuan cuando do uste usted d ha pens pensad ado o qué qué deci decir, r, ya es precisamente demasiado tarde. No, esto es peor que eso. Ahora ha perdido el hilo de la conversación y es dos veces más difícil tratar de regresar. Su timidez le resulta contraproducente en más de una forma. No impo importa rta qué qué tan acert acertad ada a pudie pudiera ra ser esta esta respu respuest esta, a, cierta ciertamen mente te no es
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que que tenga tenga los antec antecede edent ntes es rel religi igioso ososs para para comp compren rende derr su medio medio am ambie bient nte. e. Orientadores de alto nivel que tienen poco en común con ciertas poblaciones más que tratar de orientar ellos mismos, harán mejor en adiestrar orientadores nativos de estas poblaciones. Por ejemplo, orientadores de alto nivel podrían adiestrar exadictos, adictos, alcohóli alcohólicos cos reformad reformados, os, ex-presid ex-presidiario iarios, s, hombres hombres y mujeres mujeres de órdenes órdenes religi rel igiosa osas, s, perso persona nall del del ejé ejérci rcito to y reside resident ntes es de ghett ghettos os para para conver convertir tirse se en orientadores de clientes, en estas situaciones (Mezz y Calia, 1972; Weitz, 1972). Respondiendo a sentimientos o a contenido. En los ejemplos dados hasta aquí, ilustr ilustrand ando o lo que que es correc correcto to hacer hacer,, el orien orientad tador or cada cada vez respo respond ndía ía tanto tanto a sentimiento como a contenido. Tanto a sentimientos como a contenido. Ordinariamente, esta es la mejor clase de respuesta. Sin embargo, en un momento dado, una o la otra podría ser la más importante, importante, Por ejemplo: Cliente: Esta semana traté de conseguir que mi madre viera al doctor, pero ella rehusó a pesar de que se ha desmayado un par de veces. Los chicos no tienen escuela, así que andan por el suelo casi constantemente. Yo no he podido terminar un trabajo para una clase de literatura inglesa. Y hoy no tengo mucha energía para hablar con usted. Orientador: Ha sido una semana desastrosa. Aquí el orientador elige responder solamente a los sentimientos sentimientos del cliente debido a que él cree que lo que predomina en su conciencia es que todas estas cosas han contribuido a sus sentimientos presentes de frustración e irritación. El énfasis con otro cliente podría haber sido completamente diferente: Cliente: El año pasado mi papá me gritó todo el tiempo por mi estilo de cabello. Pero precisamente la semana pasada le escuché diciendo a alguien que me veo bien, con pelo y todo. Él le grita a mi hermana por las mismas cosas que ignora cuando mi hermano menor las hace. Algunas veces él es realmente agradable con mi madre y otras es terriblemente molesto, exigente, gruñón, gruñón, sarcástico. Orientador: Orientador: ¿Él parece ser bastante inconsistente para usted, o no? En esta respuesta el orientador se enfoca sobre el contenido ya que él siente que éste es el mensaje del cliente. El punto en estos dos ejemplos es que el orientador debe usar cualquier clase de respuesta de empatía adecuada que ayude al cliente a explorarse a sí mismo más completamente. La pregunta principal sigue siendo todavía "¿Cuál es el centro de las observaciones del cliente?" Si el cliente se asusta fácilmente por la discusión de sus sentimientos, Hackney y Nye (197 (1973) 3) sugie sugieren ren que, que, al respo respond nder, er, el orient orientad ador or em empie piece ce por por enfati enfatiza zarr el contenido y proceda sólo gradualmente a tratar con los sentimientos. Este plan constituye un proceso de desensibilización para el cliente. Más adelante, los autores sugieren que una forma tentativa de llegar a los sentimientos del cliente es hacer
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Pregunta cerrada: ¿Está teniendo problemas con su esposa? Pregunta abierta: ¿En qué formas lo irrita su esposa? Las preguntas cerradas pueden contestarse lacónicamente con un "sí" o con un i o". Puesto Puesto que que estas estas respu respuest estas as no ayuda ayudan, n, el orien orientad tador or intent intenta a otra otra vez, vez, con frecuencia haciendo una pregunta cerrada diferente. Algunas veces las preguntas no son preguntas preguntas sino declaraciones disfrazadas. disfrazadas. Orientador: ¿Se enojó cuando su marido la ignoró? El orientador probablemente quiera decir: "Usted se enojó cuando su marido la ignoró". La pregunta puede ser respondida con un "si" o con un "no", mientras que la declaración, especialmente si es un ejemplo de empatía adecuada, pide una auto-exploración auto-exploración posterior. Una pregunta es una clase de sondeo. El sondeo es absolutamente útil en un modelo de ayuda basado en parte sobre la teoría de influencia social; agrega a la direccionalidad del proceso y pide exigencias legítimas al cliente para ser concreto. Pero debe tenerse cuidado al hacer las preguntas. Si la pregunta es buena y abierta, debe conllevar la información que se necesita para que sea entendida a través de la empatía adecuada. Las preguntas que meramente apilan información que no es entendida ni usada, son contraproducentes. La información no es un fin en sí misma. Una vez que el cliente está listo para hablar, por la influencia del orientador, merece ser comprendido. Reglas sumarias para el uso del nivel primario de empatía adecuada
1. Prestar Prestar atención atención cuidado cuidadosame samente, nte, tanto tanto física física corno corno psicológ psicológicam icamente ente,, a los mensajes transmitidos transmitidos por el cliente. 2. Escuchar especialmente a los mensajes básicos o centrales. 3. Responder en forma moderada frecuente, pero brevemente, a estos mensajes principales, pero ser flexible y suficientemente tentativo para que el cliente tenga espacio para avanzar (afirmar, negar, explicar, clarificar o cambiar el énfasis). 4. Ser gentil, pero no dejar al cliente huir de los temas importantes. importantes. 5. Responder tanto a los sentimientos corno al contenido a menos que haya alguna razón para enfatizar uno u otro. 6. Avanzar gradualmente hacia la exploración de tópicos o sentimientos críticos. 7. Después de que usted haya respondido, prestar atención cuidadosamente a las claves que confirmen o nieguen la exactitud de su respuesta. ¿Puede el cliente avanzar en una forma centrada? 8. Note las señales de tensión o resistencia del cliente y trate de juzgar si éstas emergen porque usted ha carecido de adecuación o ha sido demasiado adecuado. ¿Réquiem para la empatía precisa?
Gendlin y Rych1ak (1970) declaran que los psicólogos orientados como ingenieros de la conducta pueden manipular clientes hacia la salud y felicidad sin unas "tiernas
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autenticidad. Lástima de la sociedad que vea el entendimiento y la autenticidad como lujos sacrificables. La empatía precisa y la autenticidad son destrezas, duras de dominar y fuertes en su impacto. Algunas personas están envueltas en una controversia sobre la misma existencia de la empatía precisa y, si existe, de si (casi en y de sí misma) "cura" o no (Chinsky y Rappaport, Rappaport, 1970; Rappaport Rappaport y Chinsky, 1972; Truax, 1972). Para nuestro propósito, propósito, la empatía precisa es lo que está descrito en este capítulo y en el próximo. Ninguna Ninguna proclama se hace de que "cura". Se proclama que es efectiva en ayudar al cliente a explorar sus sentimientos, actitudes, experiencia y conducta y llegar a un mejor entendimiento de sí mismo. Otra forma de establecer esto es que el uso del alto nivel de la empatía precisa (y otras destrezas de la Etapa I) aumenta la probabilidad probabilidad de que el cliente se explorará a sí mismo y la problemática en su vida en una forma más concreta, enfocada y direccional. Si estas proclamas son justificadas o no el lector tendrá qué decidir por sí mismo -parcialmente al leer la l a algo escasa literatura de investigación sobre empatía pero más que todo por experimentar los efectos de la em empa patí tía a prec precis isa a en el proc proces eso o mism mismo o de ayud ayuda. a. En el área área de la em empa patí tía a adecuada, adecuada, la evidencia clínica es todavía la más fuerte. AUTENTICIDAD: UN ENFOQUE CONDUCTUAL La autenticidad, como se discute aquí, se refiere no a una propiedad o cualidad moral o metafísica, sino a una serie de conductas de orientación esenciales para un proceso de ayuda de alto nivel. De acuerdo con esto, uno que se adiestra puede aprender a ser genuino. genuino. Para hacerlo, necesita, primero que todo, una comprensión comprensión conductual de lo que significa ser genuino. La calidad moral de ser genuino es importante - se presume aquí que es un valor humano que debe ser ejercido -pero esta estass pági página nass trat tratan an má máss con con la aute autent ntic icid idad ad como como part parte e de un proc proces eso o de comunicación. En las relaciones de ayuda, hace poco bien el ser genuino si esta genuinidad no se traslada a la conducta. Rogers y Truax (1967) describen la autenticidad bajo la rúbrica de "congruencia" y la relacionan con la terapia: En relación con la terapia, [la congruencia] significa que el terapeuta es lo que es, durante el encuentro con el cliente. El está sin un frente o una fachada, abierto a los sentimientos y actitudes que en el momento están aflorando en él, Envuelve el eleme ele ment nto o del del propio propio darse darse cuent cuenta, a, signif significa icand ndo o que que los sentim sentimien ientos tos que que el terapeuta terapeuta está experimentan experimentando do están disponibles disponibles para él, disponib disponibles les para su conciencia y también que él es capaz de vivir estos sentimientos, de estar con ellos en la relación y es capaz de comunicarlos sí es apropiado. Significa que él llega a un encue encuentr ntro o direct directo o perso persona nall con su client cliente, e, encon encontrá tránd ndole ole sobre sobre las bases bases de persona-a-persona. persona-a-persona. Significa que él está siendo él mismo, no negándose negándose a sí mismo (pág. 101). La persona genuina es una que, en su interacción, es básicamente ella misma. Está a gusto con ser ella misma y por tanto puede cómodamente ser ella misma en todas todas sus sus intera interacci ccion ones. es. Esto Esto signif significa ica que que no cambia cambia cuan cuando do está está con gente gente
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frecuencia un título académico. Los profesionales funcionales, por otro lado, son aquel aquellos los que que posee poseen n las destre destreza zass discu discutid tidas as en este este libro. libro. Los profes profesion ionale aless funcionales pueden tener o no credencial; los profesionales con credencial pueden ser o no funcionales. Puesto que las destrezas descritas en este libro son también las necesarias para la vida interpersonal de alto nivel, parece ser algo inadecuado llamar a alguien que las posea "profesional". Gibb (1968) mantiene que la orientación puede estar libre de roles y que los que se adies adiestr tran an para para orien orienta tado dore ress debe deben n ir a trav través és de un prog progra rama ma vive vivenc ncia iall de adiestramiento adiestramiento en el cual ellos puedan aprender a volverse libres de un papel. ¿Qué quiere decir él? Dice que el que se adiestra debe aprender cómo: Expresar directamente a otro lo que está experimentando actualmente Comunicar sin distorsionar sus mensajes Escuchar a otros sin distorsionar sus (de ellos) mensajes Revelar su verdadera motivación en el proceso de comunicar comunicar su menaje Ser Ser espo espontá ntáne neo o y libre libre en sus comunic comunicaci acion ones es con otros má máss que que usar usar estrategias habituales o planeadas. Respo Respond nder er inmedi inmediata atame mente nte al estad estado o o necesi necesida dad d del otro otro en lugar lugar de aguardar por el tiempo “correcto” o darse a sí mismo suficiente tiempo para llegar con la respuesta “correcta”. Manifestar sus vulnerabilidades y, en general, en general, el “relleno” de su vida interior Vivir en y comunicarse comunicarse acerca del aquí-y-ahora aquí-y-ahora Esforzarse por la interde rdependencia más que la dependencia o contradependencia en sus relaciones con otros Aprender a disfrutar la cercanía psicológica Ser concreto en sus comunicaciones Estar dispuesto a entregarse a otros. • • • • •
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• • •
Lo que Gibb defiende de ninguna forma hace al orientador la clase de "espíritu libre" que se impone sobre otros. Indudablemente, los orientadores de "espíritu libre" pueden aún ser peligrosos (Lieberman, Yalom y Miles, 1973, págs. 226~267). Estar libre de un papel no es licencia; libertad del rol significa que el orientador no puede usar el rol o fachada de orientador para protegerse a sí mismo, para sustituir la efectividad o para hacer tonto al cliente. Espon Espontan taneid eidad ad.. La perso persona na genuin genuina a es espon espontán tánea. ea. Mucha Muchass de las condu conducta ctass sugeridas por Gibb son formas de ser espontáneo. El orientador de alto nivel, aún tenien teniendo do tacto tacto (como (como parte parte de su respe respeto to por por otros otros)) no está está consta constant nteme ement nte e pensando lo que dice. No pone un número de filtros entre su vida interior y lo que expr expres esa a a los los otro otros. s. Es aser aserti tivo vo en el proc proces eso o de ayud ayuda a sin sin ser ser agre agresi sivo vo.. Yo encuentro que uno de los problemas cardinales con los que se adiestran es que ellos ellos tienen tienen miedo miedo de ser asert asertivo ivos. s. Algun Algunos os desean desean estab establec lecers erse e como como una una caricatura del "orientador no directivo" porque con esto se sienten más cómodos. Puesto que no salen y se encuentran encuentran a otros espontáneamente espontáneamente en sus vidas diarias,
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un cliente expresa actitudes negativas hacia ella, trata de entender lo que el cliente está pensando y sintiendo y continúa trabajando con él. Tome el siguiente ejemplo. Cliente: Yo no creo que esté sacando algo en lo absoluto de estas sesiones. Las cosas van igual de mal en la escuela. ¿Por qué debo perder mi tiempo en venir aquí? Orientador A: Creo que usted es el que está perdiendo el tiempo. No quiere hacer nada. Orientador B: Esa es su decisión. Orientador C: No ha habido aquí ningún resultado positivo para usted. Parece ser sólo un montón de trabajo pesado sin resultados. Los orientadores A y B están a la defensiva. El orientador C trata de entender y da al cliente la oportunidad de llegar al punto de responsabilidad en el proceso de ayuda. La persona genuina está a gusto consigo mismo (aunque no en una forma relamida) lo suficiente para que pueda permitirse el examinar la crítica negativa sinceramente. El orientador C, por ejemplo, sería el que más probablemente se preguntaría a sí mismo si está contribuyendo al estancamiento que parece existir. La persona que está siempre defendiéndose de ser lastimada no puede ayudar a otros efectivamente. Los que se adiestran y que sienten en esta forma tienen que trabajar en sus temores y sus recelos antes de tratar de ayudar a otros. Consistencia. La persona genuina tiene pocas discrepancias. Por ejemplo, no tiene un juego de valores "nocionales" (tales como justicia, amor, paz) diferente de sus valores "reales" (influencia, dinero, comodidad). No piensa o siente una cosa y dice otra. Al mismo tiempo no vierte sus pensamientos y sus sentimientos sobre otros sin discreción. Cliente: Yo Cliente: Yo quiero saber lo que usted realmente piensa de mi. Orientador A: Yo creo que usted es flojo y que le gustaría que las cosas se lograran mejor si pudiera ser por magia.
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RESPETO: UN ENFOQUE CONDUCTUAL El respeto, como la autenticidad, puede ser considerado como una cualidad moral. Sin embargo, nosotros estamos interesados en las clases de conductas que son generadas por el respeto. Mayeroff (1971) ha dicho que "el cariño es más que buena buenass inten intencio ciones nes y cálido cálidoss afecto afectos" s" (pág (pág.. 69). 69). Lo mismo mismo puede puede decirs decirse e del del respet respeto. o. Cuand Cuando o alguie alguien n está está intera interactu ctuan ando do con usted usted,, ¿cómo ¿cómo sabe sabe que que él lo respeta? ¿Cuáles son las conductas que indican respeto? ¿Cómo se expresa el respeto en la situación de orientación? Estas son algunas de las preguntas que nosotros nosotros intentar intentaremo emoss responde responder. r. El respeto respeto se expresa expresa diferente diferentemen mente te en las diferentes etapas del modelo. En este capítulo estamos interesados tanto en un panorama general del respeto como en las clases de conductas de respeto que se proporcionan para la Etapa 1 del modelo. Hacia una definición de respeto
El respet respeto o es una una noció noción n fundam fundamen ental tal que, que, como como la ma mayor yoría ía de las nocio nociones nes fundamentales, fundamentales, elude una definición. La palabra viene de una raíz latina que incluye la noci noción ón de "vien "viendo do"" o "con "conte temp mpla land ndo" o".. Sin Sin duda duda,, el resp respet eto o es una una form forma a particular de contemplar a otra persona. El respeto significa apreciar a otra persona simplemente porque es un ser humano. Implica que ser un ser humano tiene valor en sí mismo. El elegir apreciar a otros simplemente por su humanidad es también un valor. Es difícil ver que nadie pudiera comprometerse a ayudar a otros a menos que esto fuera un valor para él. Pero un valor es un valor solamente en el grado en que se convierta en alguna clase de acción. Yo le pregunto, "¿Es leer un valor para usted?" Usted dice, "Sí". Luego yo pregunto, "¿Cuánto lee usted y qué clase de libros?" Usted dice, Bueno, aunque yo veo la lectura como valiosa, no encuentro mucho tiempo para leer. o estoy muy ocupa o en el trabajo y en casa. De hecho, no he leído ningún libro este año". Leer no es un valor para usted si usted no encuentra el tiempo para leer. Es más, ver la lectura como valiosa es una actitud. Usted tiene una opinión favorable sobre leer. Usted cree que usted (y quizás otros) leerían si tuvieran la oportunidad. Por otro lado, leer es un valor para el hombre que realmente lee. Él encuentra el tiempo o se da el tiempo porque la lectura es una de sus prioridades. El respeto, como se discute aquí, opera de la misma manera. No es sólo una actitud, no es sólo
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En un sent sentid ido, o, la "ori "orien enta taci ción ón haci hacia" a" cont contie iene ne las las acti actitu tude dess que que debe deben n ser ser convertidas en conductas concretas concretas si el respeto es verdaderamente un valor. Ser “para” el cliente. La manera del orientador indica que él está "para" el cliente simplemente porque el cliente es humano. Esta no es una actitud tierna o sentimental. El orientador es una persona cariñosa no sentimental, con los pies en la tierra. El respeto finalmente requiere colocar exigencias en el cliente. Este estar "para", entonces, se refiere a la humanidad básica del cliente y a su potencial para ser más humano de lo que lo es ahora. El respeto es tanto gracioso como duro. Voluntad para trabajar con el cliente. El orientador está disponible para el cliente. Siente que puede comprometerse, con el cliente. La voluntad del orientador orientador no tiene significado, por supuesto, hasta que tenga los recursos necesarios para ayudar al cliente. Para el orientador de alto nivel, ayudar es un valor y no sólo una tarea. Puesto que es un valor, está disponible para el cliente de una manera en la cual no lo está el orientador de bajo nivel. Un orientador de bajo nivel podría decir "Este es mi trabajo". El orientador de alto nivel dirá "Esto vale la pena para invertir mi tiempo y mi energía". Puesto que la orientación pide mucho trabajo, hecha por alguien con mucha destreza, tal declaración es difícilmente vista como sentimental. sentimental. Considerar al cliente como único. La individualidad de otros es también un valor para el orientador. Está comprometido a apoyar al cliente en su ser único y ayudar a desarrollar los recursos que le hacen único. Aunque está comprometido a ayudar al cambio del cliente, esto no significa que el orientador está decidido a hacer al cliente a su imagen y semejanza. Considerar la autodeterminación del cliente. La actitud básica del orientador es que el cliente sí tiene los recursos para ayudarse a vivir más efectivamente. Estos recursos pueden estar bloqueados por una variedad de formas o pueden estar sólo sólo aban abando dona nados dos.. El traba trabajo jo del del orien orientad tador or es ayuda ayudarr al client cliente e a libera liberarr sus sus recursos o a cultivarlos. Él espera que el cliente esté auto-determinado pero de modo que realce su humanidad. Él puede también ayudar al cliente a evaluar realme rea lment nte e sus sus recurs recursos os para para que que las aspir aspirac acion iones es del del client cliente e sean sean rea realis lista tas. s. Finalmente, si el cliente elige vivir menos efectivamente de lo que él puede, el
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vale la pena escucharse. Yo no estoy realmente comprometido a trabajar por tus intereses". Suspender juicios críticos. En la Etapa 1, el respeto toma la forma de suspender juicios críticos sobre el cliente. Rogers (1961, 1967) siguiendo a Standal (1954) llama a esta clase de respeto "aceptación positiva incondicional`, significando que "el terapeuta comunica a su cliente un positivo y genuino cariño por él como persona con potencialidades, un cuidado no contaminado por evaluaciones de sus pensamientos, sentimientos o conductas" (Rogers, 1967, pág. 102). Considere las diferencias en las siguientes observaciones observaciones del orientador. Cliente: Yo Yo real realme ment nte e soy soy sexu sexual alme ment nte e prom promis iscu cuo. o. Me dejo dejo llev llevar ar por por las las tendencias sexuales siempre que aparecen y siempre que puedo encontrar una pareja. Esta ha sido la historia al menos en los últimos tres años. Orientador A: El sexo inmaduro no ha sido la respuesta, ¿verdad? últimamente es sólo otra forma de hacerle a usted infeliz. Orientador B: Así que dejarse ir sexualmente sexualmente es parte del panorama también. 1 El orientador B ni juzga ni perdona. Él meramente trate de comunicar comprensión al cliente (comprensión no es obviamente sinónimo de aprobación) así que tanto el orientador como el cliente puede empezar a ver el contexto de la conducta del cliente; él sabe que el enfoque del cliente hacia la vida necesita ser entendido. El orientador no es ingenuo. Se da cuenta de que algunas de las experiencias del cliente deben ser trascendidas y que algunas de sus conductas deben cambiar, pero aún respeta al cliente como el sujeto de estas experiencias. Le da al cliente lugar para avanzar, lugar para explorarse a sí mismo. Su función en la Etapa 1 es ayudar al cliente a explorar tanto su conducta como los valores de los cuales esta conducta emana y se da cuenta que una conducta de juicio de su parte cortaría pronto tal exploración. El respeto, aún en la Etapa I, no es completamente completamente incondicional. El respeto incluye consideración por los recursos del cliente. En la Etapa I significa consideración consideración por la habilidad del cliente de darse a sí mismo al proceso de auto-exploración. El
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comun comunica icació ción n de la empat empatía ía precis precisa, a, sin em emba bargo rgo,, son condu conducta ctass que que indica indican n respeto. Cultivando los recursos del cliente. El cultivo de los recursos del cliente sigue a la actitud del orientador hacia el ser único, la individualidad, individualidad, del cliente. Él busca los recursos del cliente y le ayuda a identificarlos. No actúa por el cliente a menos que sea absolutamente absolutamente necesario y solamente como un escalón para ayudar al cliente a actuar por sí mismo. Considere el siguiente ejemplo: Cliente: Hay un montón de cosas que yo realmente encuentro difícil de hablar. Yo preferiría que usted me hiciera preguntas. Eso sería más fácil para mí. Orientador A: Está bien. Usted mencionó que tenía problemas en la escuela ¿Qué clase de problemas eran? ¿Cómo empezó todo? Orientador B: Si yo le hago hago un mo montó ntón n de pregunta preguntas, s, temo temo que que lograr lograría ía un mont mo ntón ón de infor informa mació ción n que que podr podría ía pensar pensar que que es import importan ante, te, pero pero no estoy estoy convencido de que sería importante para usted. Ponerse en la línea como ahora, es realmente nuevo para usted y usted lo está encontrando bastante penoso. El orien orienta tado dorr B pres presum ume e que que el clie client nte e si tien tiene, e, en algú algún n lado lado,, los los recu recurs rsos os necesarios para hacer la auto-exploración. Él expresa sus propios sentimientos y trata trata de enten entender der el bloqu bloqueo eo del del clien cliente. te. Está Está dispu dispuest esto o a ayuda ayudarr al client cliente e a trabajar a través de su pena con objeto de conseguir los recursos que el cliente podría realmente poseer (o sea, su habilidad para dar dirección al proceso de la auto-exploración). Cord Co rdia iali lida dad. d. Gazc Gazcla la (1973 1973)) ve la cord cordia iali lida dad d com como la expr expres esió ión n físi física ca de entendimiento y cariño, la cual ordinariamente se comunica a través de medios no verbales tales como gestos, postura, tono de voz, toque y expresión facial. La cordialidad es solamente una forma de mostrar respeto. No es la mejor manera y se puede fácilmente hacer mal uso de ella. El orientador debe ser inicialmente cordial, pero no debe mostrar un papel de cordialidad (cordialidad estándar del orientador) o la cordialidad que él brindaría a un buen amigo. El cliente simplemente no es un buen buen am amigo igo.. Demas Demasiad iados os orient orientad adore oress se vuelve vuelven n má máqu quina inass de cordia cordialid lidad ad,, proporcionando proporcionando aceptación positiva incondicional continuamente. continuamente. Tal cordialidad
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Orientador A: No se sienta tan mal. No puede esperar un cambio inmediato en su forma de vivir. Orientador Orientador B: Usted siente que se deprimió un poco. Y quizá también aprendió que no va a dejar el hábito con sólo admitirlo. El orientador A podría bien haber reforzado la conducta auto-engañosa del cliente. El orientador B trata de recoger los sentimientos del cliente: no está juzgando, pero no está perdonando la conducta del cliente de ninguna forma. El cliente no perdona su propia conducta, así que ¿por qué debería hacerlo el orientador? Cliente: No tomé ni un solo trago toda la semana. Esta es la primera vez que esto ha sucedido desde que tengo memoria. Orientador A: Bien. Veamos si puede usted repetir eso esta próxima semana. Orientador B: Oiga, esto es algo nuevo y lo hace a usted sentirse bien consigo mismo. El orientador B comunica entendimiento en una forma positiva que refuerza lo que el cliente ha hecho. Autenticidad como respeto. Siendo genuino en la relación de uno con el otro es
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El que se adiestra: adiestra: Algunas veces me siento chistoso. Ciertamente esto es lo suficientemente vago. Él habla acerca de sus sentimientos sobre sí mismo, pero sólo en los términos más vagos. En seguida, pido a los que se adiestran que hagan sus declaraciones concretas. El que se adiestra: Algunas veces, cuando estoy estudiando solo en casa por la noche, me empiezo a sentir bastante solo. Sé que el sentimiento va a pasar, pero esto me hace sentir inquieto. Esta declaración es infinitamente más concreta que el lacónico "algunas veces me siento chistoso" ¿Por qué? Trata con sentimientos específicos (soledad e inquietud) y una experiencia específica (estudiante en casa por la noche). Finalmente, pido a los que se adiestran que hagan sus declaraciones tan concretas como ellos puedan (tod (todav avía ía sin sin reve revela larr nada nada que que ello elloss pref prefer erir iría ían n no disc discut utir ir en la sesi sesión ón de adiestramiento). El que se adiest adiestra: ra: Algunas veces, cuando estoy en casa solo en la noche estudiando, me empiezo a sentir bastante solo. Más aún, empiezo a pensar que no tengo ningún amigo -aún cuando sé que este no es el caso. Llego a sentir pena de mí mismo. Finalmente, siento tanta que me levanto y salgo a una taberna cercana, no para ahogar mis penas sino sólo para estar con la gente. Esta declaración es excelente por ser concreta. Los sentimientos son específicos (soledad, auto4ástima), la situación misma es concreta (en casa solo en la noche estudiando) y la reacción conductual es concreta (ir a la taberna para estar con la gente). La auto-exploración es más concreta si es concreta en todas estas formas.
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Algunas veces un cliente hablará muy concretamente acerca de algo que realmente no le molesta, pero cuando la conversación se vuelve hacia un área más delicada, un área de su vida que él no está manejando bien, empieza la vaguedad. Su vaguedad se vuelve una clave señalando a un área de problema. Cliente: Mi hijo y yo pudimos habernos habernos llevado mejor. No es la cosa ideal de padrehijo, pero en estos días no tiene eso mucha gente, me imagino. Hay poca información aquí. Suena como si esta área no valiera la pena hablarse. Sin embargo, quizá el cliente realmente quería decir algo como esto: Cliente: Constantemente Constantemente mi hijo y yo pelearnos. Prácticamente no hay un punto en que estemos de acuerdo desde el largo de su pelo hasta a qué colegio debe ir. Esto ha empeorado tanto, que últimamente nos sentamos en silencio a la hora de la merienda. Él se siente tan mal como yo ahora que la contienda está en todo su apog apogeo, eo, pero pero creo creo que que yo debí debí haber haber empeza empezado do esta esta horrib horrible le espira espirall en que que estamos atrapados los dos. Puesto que esta clase de ser concreto puede ser doloroso, es evidente por qué algunos clientes se refugian en generalidades. generalidades. Ser concreto del orientador La siguiente pregunta es: ¿cómo puede el orientador ayudar al cliente a ser más concreto? Primero que todo, el orientador debe tratar de ser tan concreto como sea posible en sus respuestas, aún cuando el cliente sea vago.
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que son más pertinentes. Quizá hay algo de verdad en todo esto, pero yo todavía creo que lo mejor de la orientación es que incluye mucho diálogo. Si el orientador responde frecuentemente, frecuentemente, especialmente si sus respuestas son lisas y concretas, el cliente puede alcanzar un grado de dirección en el proceso de orientación que está casi siempre libre del contar largas historias. El orientador que está dispuesto a escuchar largas historias sin interrumpir al cliente podría estar mostrando respeto, pero pero tamb también ién podr podría ía esta estarr haci hacien endo do la únic única a cosa cosa que que él pued puede e hace hacerr bien bien -escuchar -escuchar pasivamente. pasivamente. Una tercera posibilidad es pedir directamente al cliente información más específica, especialmente la información que aclare las declaraciones vagas. Las preguntas hecha hechas, s, sin embarg embargo, o, deben deben ser pocos pocos frecue frecuent ntes, es, rel relati ativam vamen ente, te, abier abiertas tas,, y segu seguid idas as por por resp respue uest stas as de em empa patí tía a prec precis isa. a. Las Las preg pregun unta tass que que arro arroja jan n la información más completa son aquéllas que preguntan los "qué" y “cómo” y “con qué qué sentim sentimien iento” to” má máss que que pregu pregunta ntan n los “por “por qué”: qué”: “¿Qué “¿Qué hizo hizo usted usted que que le moles mo lestó tó?” ?” “¿Cóm “¿Cómo o regres regresó ó ella ella con usted?” usted?” “¿Cóm “¿Cómo o le hizo hizo sentir sentir a usted usted la separación de ella?” Las preguntas de "por qué" no siempre tienen buen resultado: "¿Por qué ustedes dos empezaron a pelear?" Si el cliente realmente no sabe exactamente por qué, con frecuencia inventará una respuesta para satisfacer al orientador. Cliente: Bueno, yo no sé exactamente. No creo que ella se haya llevado bien con su padre. Y tampoco su madre y yo nunca nos llevamos bien. Por encima las cosas parecían estar bien, pero nunca lo estuvieron.
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no necesita ser evitado, no debe ser el foco. Las investigaciones sobre el pasado simplemente no producen la clase de material que es útil para la solución de problemas y las programas de acción. Una palabra final sobre el ser concreto El ser ser conc concre reto to es extr extrem emad adam amen ente te impo import rtan ante te en orie orient ntac ació ión. n. Sin Sin eso, eso, la orientación pierde esa intensidad o densidad que pone en orden las energías de] cliente y las canaliza en una acción constructiva. Los orientadores de bajo nivel con frecuencia prefieren hacer que los clientes hablen sobre generalidades. Parece que piensan que la sola plática es suficiente sin importar el enfoque. El ser concreto significa que el cliente sé debe arriesgar más en las interacciones de orientación, pero pocas cosas suceden sin riesgos y sin encararse a las crisis que se precipitan por tomar riesgos razonables. Si las sesiones de orientación son aburridas, tanto el orientador como el cliente deben preguntarse a sí mismos qué tan concretas son las interacciones. Inevitablemente, en sesiones aburridas, el nivel de ser concreto es bajo. Esto es verdad tanto en la orientación como en las sesiones de adiestramiento en relaciones humanas. II. AYUDAR COMO UNA INFLUENCIA SOCIAL: LA EXPERIENCIA DEL CLIENTE Hasta aquí he discutido lo que el orientador debe hacer con objeto de establecerse a sí mismo como un orientador efectivo. El último criterio de comunicación efectiva del orientador es cómo el cliente actúa en esta comunicación. Si los mensajes de la Etapa I son hábilmente formulados y enviados por el orientador y si son recibidos
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segundo estado es peor que el primero: no solamente está enferma sino también está proscrita. La dinámica de tal cura es difícil de explicar empíricamente. Es obvio que los eleme ele ment ntos os del del proce proceso so de curac curación ión se descri describe ben n como como el poner poner en orden orden las energ energías ías y los recurs recursos os em emoci ocion onale aless de la person persona a afligi afligida da.. Ella Ella experi experimen menta ta esperanza y otras emociones positivas, las cuales quizá no ha experimentado por largo tiempo. Toda la situación moviliza tanto sus recursos como le exige al cliente que se cure. Presenta a la persona afligida con un oportuno, aceptable, favorable y legítimo tiempo (kairós) para dejar su' antigua forma de vida y tomar una nueva. El poder de la sugestión en tales casos es grande y aún asombroso. El orie orien ntado tadorr de alto alto nive nivell está está con conscie scient nte e de esto estoss proc proces esos os y los los usa usa especialmente en las etapas iniciales de la orientación para ventaja del cliente.
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el despertar la colaboración del cliente más que manipular al cliente hacia la salud. Una de sus metas es ver al cliente convertirse, en el grado que sea posible, en agente de su propia vida. Con esta precaución en mente, discutamos ahora la ayud ayuda a como como un proc proces eso o de infl influe uenc ncia ia soci social al en térm términ inos os de los los prin princi cipa pale less elementos de este proceso: la percepción del cliente sobre el orientador experto, digno de confianza y atractivo. Ser experto
¿Qué es ser experto? En la teoría de la influencia social, es la creencia del cliente de que el orientador tiene alguna información, destreza o habilidad para ayudarle. Puesto que el cliente normalmente no espera que el orientador actúe directamente en su conducta (si él está teniendo problemas con un patrón tirano, no espera que
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Menos obvias pero quizá más importantes son las evidencias de pericia en la conducta del orientador. La mayoría de los orientadores prestan considerable atención para estructurar la entrevista. Puntualizan los papeles y requisitos del cliente y del orientador en la entrevista, las secuencias del proceso y los probables sucesos que ocurran a medida en que ellos trabajen en la solución del problema. Tal estructura, estructura, ya sea explícita explícita o implícita, implícita, da evidencia de la pericia pericia del orientador. Ya que el cliente debe percibir que el orientador sabe lo que está haciendo, el estructurar estructurar explícitamente explícitamente puede ser más efectivo efectivo que el estructurar estructurar implícitamente. implícitamente. Hay alguna evidencia de que la estructura explícita sí acrecienta la efectividad de la orientación (Truax, 1966). El estructurar también acrecienta la "influencia de información" del orientador (Raven (Raven,, 1965). 1965). Se propor proporcio ciona na al cliente cliente un marco marco de trabaj trabajo o "racio "racional" nal" de observ observar ar su problema, los medios de solución del problema y la importancia de sus esfuerzos e información posterior. Así, él es más capaz de guiar sus propios esfuerzos hacía la solución del problema (pág. 221).
Por supuesto, el orientador debe ser capaz de entregar lo que promete después de
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(le guste o no al orientador) y este hecho pone una carga tanto sobre la integridad del orientador como sobre sus destrezas. Reputación de ser digno de confianza. La reputación de ser digno de confianza se refier refiere e a la reputa reputació ción n del del orien orientad tador or sobre sobre la sincer sincerida idad d e integr integrida idad. d. Los clientes actuales o anteriores y otros orientadores son las fuentes usuales de tal testimonio. "El es un hombre excelente", "Puede confiarse en él", "Usted no tendrá ninguna preocupación con él". Declaraciones como éstas se refieren tanto a que el orientador es digno de confianza como a que es un experto. Conducta de ser digno de confianza. Nuevamente, la conducta del orientador es la causa más importante de que se perciba que es digno de confianza. Él puede
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El papel, la reputación y la conducta de ser experto, digno de confianza y la atracción son variables altamente interactivos en el proceso de ayuda. Todavía no sabemos lo suficiente acerca de ellas y cómo interactúan precisamente, pero el orientador de alto nivel instintivamente se da cuenta de ellas y las usa en formas consonantes consonantes con los valores que ve como esenciales para la ayuda. MOTIVACIÓN DEL CLIENTE El cambio en la actitud y la conducta se facilitan cuando el cliente está altamente envuel envuelto to en el proces proceso o de influe influenci ncia. a. ¿Cuále ¿Cuáless son, son, enton entonces ces,, las causas causas de la motivación del cliente? 1. La motivación del cliente es generalmente alta si está con una pena psicológica. La desorganización en su vida le hace susceptible a la influencia del orientador. Él
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lugar el descubrimiento? Por ejemplo, no parece apropiado revelar contenido íntimo una reunión casual.
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Este cliente expresa sus sentimientos sólo de una manera vaga, él no delinea o
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ejemp eje mplo, lo, el client cliente e A podr podría ía estar estar presu presumie miend ndo o que que todo todoss los adult adultos os son tan
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Aún cuando el orientador sea muy experto en la Etapa 1, el cliente con frecuencia ón íci nú
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entendimiento como propio. Su pregunta es ahora: "¿Cómo puedo revertir este proceso?" Está listo para un programa de acción. Y esta es una de las funciones de la confrontación: preparar el cliente para la acción. Orientador: Tú Orientador: Tú realmente no eres esta persona débil e incapaz que has hecho de ti. De hecho, tienes un número de fuerzas interpersonales: puedes ser directo, abierto y sincero. Eres capaz de interesarte en otros aún cuando puedas haber evitad evitado o esto esto en el pasad pasado. o. Tie Tienes nes un deseo deseo de comun comunida idad, d, aún aún cuan cuando do has has permitido que esto fuera impedido. Sabes admitir tus errores, enfrentarte a ellos, y quieres hacer algo acerca de ellos. Creo que nosotros hemos visto todo esto en las entrevistas. El orientador sigue enumerando algunas de las fuerzas que el cliente posee pero que no ha usado efectivamente en su vida interpersonal. El cliente tiene que decidir cuán intensamente intensamente quiere vivir, porque él tiene la capacidad de vivir intensamenteal menos más intensamente de lo que está viviendo ahora. Listar sus recursos de por sí lo estimula a actuar. Evasiones. Los clientes tienen una forma de evitar temas reales porque los temas reales son, por supuesto, dolorosos. Una forma de hacer esto es culpar a otros por todo lo que está saliendo mal en la vida de uno. Orientador: Yo tengo un sentimiento bastante bueno de lo que tu maestra está haciendo mal. ¿Qué s lo que tú crees que haces para enojarla? Estudiante: Yo Estudiante: Yo no hago nada. Me meto en mis propias cosas. Orientador: Déjame ponerlo de otra manera. ¿Qué es lo que tú crees que ella cree que tú haces mal? ¿Qué diría ella acerca de ti si se estuviera quejando de ti con alguien? Estudiante: Bueno, ella diría que soy flojo, que no le presto atención en clase, que mi trabajo es desaliñado. El orientador no está tratando de tomar un lado, sino que está tratando de ver ambos lados del asunto. Ahora tiene más indicios como guías para examinar el asunto. Algun Algunos os client clientes es trata tratan n de decir decir,, direct directa a o indire indirecta ctame mente nte,, que que no tienen tienen los recursos para un programa de acción particular. Cliente: He tratado de dejar de beber, pero simplemente no puedo. Orientador: ¿Puedes decirme algunas de las cosas que has intentado? El hacer a un cliente más concreto acerca de sus generalizaciones (y por lo tanto menos evasivo) es una clase de confrontación. Hay muchos modos en los cuales el clien cliente te puede puede ser ser defens defensivo ivo (Gazda (Gazda,, 1973 1973,, Págs. Págs. 42ff) 42ff).. La confro confront ntaci ación ón debe debe ayudar al cliente a salirse de una postura defensiva, pero no debe hacerle sentir indefenso. Conducta versus valores. ¿Debe el orientador confrontar la conducta del cliente o la fuen fuente te de su cond conduc ucta ta,, esto esto es, es, sus sus valo valore res? s? Demo Demoss una una mira mirada da a una una confrontaci6n de conducta improductiva. Orientador: Juan, Orientador: Juan, cuando hablas hay casi siempre un dejo de hostilidad en tu voz. Y aún veo en ti una persona que es fundamentalmente "para" otros pero quizá también temerosa de ternura o cercanía. Esta es una confrontación de la conducta del cliente, pero también incluye una
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otros). Consideremos un caso en el cual el orientador confronta un valor que el cliente sostiene. Orientador: Memo, te envuelves demasiado en el trabajo. El trabajo realmente no realza tu vida, te aprisiona. Tú no posees tu trabajo, él te posee a ti. Cliente: Es mi vida y es lo que me gusta hacer. ¿Tengo que ser como todos los demás? El trabajo es un valor legítimo, y si el orientador lo ataca directamente, él puede esperar que el cliente reaccione defensivamente. Sin embargo, el orientador debe desafiar al cliente al sondear sus valores y lograr una visión más clara de lo que son sus valores prioritarios para que el cliente pueda ver qué conflictos de valores exis existe ten n en su vida vida.. Si el clie client nte e está está sigu siguie iend ndo o valo valore ress auto autode dest stru ruct ctiv ivos os o destructivos para otros, estos deben ser desafiados directamente. Si, por otro lado, él está está siguie siguiend ndo o valore valoress tan tan diverg divergen entes tes que que lo están están desga desgarra rrand ndo, o, debe debe ser empujado a establecer valores prioritarios. Orientador: Tomás, Orientador: Tomás, te gusta tu trabajo, es satisfactorio en sí mismo, y la paga es buena. Pero te mantiene lejos de tu familia muchísimo. Te has quejado de falta de comunicación entre tú y tu esposa y entre tú y tus niños. Trabajo y familia no se están mezclando bien. Podría ser tiempo de darle una mirada seria a esto. Cliente: Estoy tan metido en mi trabajo que no creo que quiera siquiera pensar en cambiar de trabajo. Pero tú tienes razón, la situación en casa se sigue deteriorando y la única forma en que yo he manejado esto ha sido pasando más tiempo en el trabajo. No es la función del orientador tratar de conseguir que el cliente adopte su serie de valores o las prioridades de valores que él aboga. Pero debe ayudar al cliente a encarar los conflictos de valores que están causando disturbios en su vida. La manera de confrontar
La cuestión no es si el orientador debe confrontar al cliente o no, sino cómo debe hacerlo si ve que tal confrontación podría ayudar. Su manera de confrontar debe aumentar aumentar la probabilidad de alcanzar sus metas: aumentado aumentado el auto-entendimiento auto-entendimiento y la acción del cliente. ¿Cómo, entonces, debe tener lugar la confrontación? confrontación? En el espíritu de la empatía precisa. Nosotros ya hemos visto que la empatía precisa avanzada es, con frecuencia confrontación en sí misma. Como Carkhuff señala, "El nivel más profundo de empatía dirá al orientador que el que recibe la ayuda no quiere tanto el ser reforzado por una comprensión que se comunica de su propia existencia expresada sino que quiere ser capacitado para librarse de los procesos confusos y sofocantes de la vida" (Carkhuff, 1969a, Pág. 210). Aún si una expresión dada de confrontación no se ve como idéntica a la de la empatía precisa avanza avanzada da,, debe debe toda todavía vía expres expresars arse e en el espíri espíritu tu de tal tal empatí empatía. a. Toda Todass las interacciones con el cliente deben estar basadas en un entendimiento preciso del cliente. Orientador: Si yo puedo reunir todo lo que tú estás diciendo, María, hay dos temas. Tú amas a tu marido y le muestras tu amor estando disponible para él, cuidando de él, por la forma en que trabajas en casa y con los niños, y expresando tu felicidad cuando las cosas van bien para él. Pero hay también un tema de desconfianza, alejamiento, y quizá de disgusto. Por ejemplo, tú realmente no le has perdonado perdonado su pasada infidelidad: ya no estás dispuesta a compartir con él lo l o que es más profundo en tí y por tu cinismo pudieras estarle destruyendo en pequeñas formas. ¿Còmo ves esto?
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Tentativamente. Como en el caso de todas las intervenciones de la Etapa II, la confrontación debe tener lugar tentativamente, especialmente en la primera parte de esta etapa. Orientador: ¿Podría ser que la ira que te "tragas" en las reuniones de la facultad no se "aplaque"? De lo que tú has dicho, parece que se escurre en observaciones cínicas, alejamiento y conducta no cooperativa. ¿Tiene esto sentido para ti? Me pregunto si tengo el cuadro correcto. El hecho es que esta declaración del orientador está llena de delicadezas que capacitan al cliente a aceptar el cuadro más fácilmente, sumarse a ella, y calificarla sin sentirse acusado por el orientador. Si el orientador descarga un montón de ladrillos sobre el cliente, el cliente tendrá que gastar su energía en recuperarse del golpe más que en tratar de asimilar y trabajar con la confrontación. Vea qué diferente suena el siguiente ejemplo de intervención de los precedentes. Orientador: Tú realmente no te "tragas" tu ira. Se está escurrien iendo improductivamente todo el tiempo. Yo creo que tú sólo te estás haciendo el tonto. Esta es la confrontación pero la manera del orientador es acusadora. La sesión de orient orientaci ación ón no debe debe ser una una escena escena de juzgad juzgado o en la cual cual el orient orientad ador or está está tratando de probar su caso contra el cliente. Más aún muchos orientadores caen en esta trampa, y por sus acciones indican que el estar correctos es lo más importante. Olvidan la regla fundamental: la ayuda es para el cliente. Con cuidado. El respeto básico exige que el orientador confronte con cuidado. Tratemos de operacionalizar la expresión "con cuidado". Envolvimiento. La confrontación debe ser en una forma en la cual el orientador orientador se envuelva él mismo con el cliente. Si, a través de la confrontación, el orientador encuentra encuentra que está lejos del cliente, probable probablemen mente te no está confrontan confrontando do con cuidado. Motivación. El motivo del orientador debe ser ayudar al cliente, no sólo tener la razón, castigar, regresar al cliente, o ponerlo en su lugar. Algunos orientadores tienden a dar salida a sus frustraciones a través de la confrontación, no dándose cuenta que su falta de destreza es con frecuencia el canal real de su frustración. Un orientador que parece estar trabajando por otro motivo que no sea el de ayudar es visto por el cliente como indigno de confianza y pierde su base de influencia. Rela Relaci ción ón entre entre el clie client nte e y el orien orienta tador dor.. La confro confront ntaci ación ón debe debe estar estar proporcionada proporcionada a la relación entre el orientador y el cliente. Todos nosotros sabemos sabemos que estamos más dispuestos a oír palabras fuertes de unos que de otros. Si el orientador ha hecho poco por establecer armonía con el cliente, probablemente no habrá confrontación. Cuidar la confrontación presupone alguna clase de intimidad entr entre e el conf confro ront ntad ador or y el conf confro ront ntad ado. o. Esta Esta inti intimi mida dad d debe debe ser ser real real y no meramente alguna clase de rol de intimidad que se presuma existe debido a la relación de la orientación misma. El estado del cliente. El orientador debe juzgar la habilidad presente del cliente para asimilar lo que está diciendo. Si el cliente es desorganizado y está confuso en el momento, hace poco bien agregar a su desorganización desorganización a exigir más de él. Cliente: Chico, no tenía idea de que los cosas fueran tan mal como las veo ahora. Es como estar medio borracho -ni siquiera quiero mirarme por un momento. Orientador A: Aún ahora estás escapando de lo que estoy diciendo. Es la misma
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Orientador B: Lo que estás aprendiendo de ti aquí es doloroso y penoso. Necesitas tiempo para dejar todo esto comprendido y dirigido y lograr tomar tu rumbo de nuevo. El orient orientad ador or B recon reconoce oce la desorg desorgan aniza izació ción n del client cliente e y trata trata de ayuda ayudarle rle y apoyarle a entender lo que pasa (nivel primario de empatía precisa). El orientador A, por otro lado, se mueve para matar, porque él quiere oír una respuesta (una confesión de culpa) ahora mismo que lo satisfaga a él. El método método de aproximació aproximación n sucesiva. sucesiva. En muchos casos, la confrontación será mucho más efectiva si es gradual. El cliente tiene que asimilar lo que se le está diciendo; él tiene que hacer lo propio o no durará. Una buena técnica de modif mo difica icació ción n de condu conducta cta no exige exige todo todo del del clien cliente te de una una sola sola vez. vez. Las exigencias conductuales son espaciadas, y los éxitos son recompensados. Este movimiento en pequeños pasos, cada uno de los cuales se refuerza, hacia una meta conductual se llama el método de "aproximación sucesiva". Para usar este método, el orientador tiene que desmenuzar la conducta indeseable del cliente en componentes o unidades más simples. Será más probable que él tenga éxito si empieza con unidades concretas que no son tan cruciales como otras y que son relativamente fáciles de cambiar. Demos una mirada a un ejemplo de lo que no se hace. Orientador: Si quieres deshacerte de estos sentimientos de soledad, tienes que salir hoy y empezar a interactuar efectivamente con otras gentes. Este orientador no es concreto y pide todo de una sola vez. Si él pide de una sola vez, probablemente no conseguirá nada. Tomemos otro ejemplo, en el cual el orientador está mucho más consciente del método de aproximación sucesiva. El cliente está preocupado por el hecho de que él crea una pobre impresión en los demás. Nosotros tomamos la entrevista en algún punto en la Etapa II. Orientador: Orientador: Has dicho que haces una pobre impresión a la gente -que parece, casi invariablemente, que empiezas con el pie equivocado. Una cosa que podría ayudar es tratar de ser más atento con otros, precisamente desde el principio. Cuando nosotros estamos juntos aquí, por ejemplo, tu postura frecuentemente parece decir que que está estáss en algu alguna na otra otra part parte. e. Creo Creo que que los los demá demáss podr podría ían n ver ver que que está estáss interesado en ellos si tú simplemente les prestas atención más cuidadosamente. cuidadosamente. Este orientador se da cuenta de que podría haber muchas cosas equivocadas en el enfoque de su cliente a los demás, pero su enfoque es sistemático: empieza con una conducta que es relativamente fácil de cambiar y empuja al cliente a cambiar su conducta aquí y ahora, en la misma sesión de orientación. Consideremos otro ejemplo. En este caso el cliente es demasiado pasivo y termina siendo ignorado por los otros. Orientador A: Has sido demasiado pasivo, Teodoro. Tienes que salir y apoderarte de la vida si esperas que los demás te presten atención. El concepto "pasivo" es demasiado general, y la solución ofrecida es demasiado vaga, para que Teodoro la tome. "Ser pasivo" debe ser desmenuzado en conductas concretas que puedan ser aprendidas gradualmente. Orientador B. Teodoro, podría ser que una razón por la que la gente no te hace caso o te ignora, es que tú no te haces valer mucho. Puesto que tú retrocedes, pronto nadie te estará notando. Por ejemplo, tu voz es tan suave y tranquila que algunas veces es difícil de oir. Podría ayudar que empezaras hablando más fuerte. El orientador B se da cuenta que Teodoro necesita algún grado de adiestramiento para hacerse valer. Confronta al cliente con una visión general de su conducta, pero es explícito inmediatamente. También usa la misma situación de orientación corno
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La respuesta del cliente que es confrontado
Aún cuando la confrontación es una respuesta a una súplica de un cliente para ser ayuda ayudado do a vivir vivir má máss efect efectiva ivame mente nte,, genera generalm lment ente e precip precipita ita algún algún grado grado de desorganización en el cliente. Como hemos visto, diferentes escritores se refieren a esta experien experiencia cia bajo diferentes diferentes términos términos:: "crisis" "crisis" (Carkhuf (Carkhuff), f), "desorga "desorganiza nización ción"" (Douds), (Douds), "un sentido sentido de inadecua inadecuación ción"" (Mehrabi (Mehrabian), an), "desequi "desequilibri librio" o" (Piaget) (Piaget),, e Incert Incertidu idumb mbre re benéfi benéfica" ca" (Beie (Beier). r). Todos Todos estos estos autor autores es sugie sugieren ren que que las crisis crisis precipitadas por la orientación pueden ser benéficas para el cliente. Si lo son o no depende, en gran medida, de la destreza del orientador. La teoría de la influencia social dice que una persona que siente que es inadecuada, está abierta (para bien o para mal) a los procesos de influencia social en mayor grado que otras. La confrontación, puesto que generalmente sí induce algún sentido de inadecuación en el cliente, puede dejarle más abierto a la influencia. Una forma de mirar la confrontación es desde el punto de vista de la teoría de disonancia cognoscitiva. cognoscitiva. La confrontación confrontación induce a la l a disonancia. Por ejemplo, si el cliente está jugando un juego con el orientador, la confrontación le arrebata de la seguridad del juego. 0 si el orientador le señala al cliente que él está castigando a otros bajo el pretex pretexto to de ayuda ayudarlo rlos, s, el client cliente e así "descu "descubie bierto rto"" o desafi desafiad ado, o, experi experimen menta ta confusión o disonancia. Puesto que la disonancia es un estado incómodo, el cliente tratará de deshacerse de él. Examinemos las formas típicas en las cuales una persona experimentando experimentando disonancia disonancia intenta deshacerse de este desconcierto. Desacreditar al confrontador. Atacar al confrontador, desacreditarlo, mostrarle que él no es mejor que nadie. Cliente: Es fácil para ti sentado allí sugerir que yo debo ser más "responsable" en mi matrimonio. Tú nunca has tenido la experiencia de la miseria en la cual vivimos. Tú nunca has experimentado la brutalidad de él. Probablemente tú vivas en uno de esos "lindos" matrimonios de la clase media. Esta Esta es una una de las má máss prepo prepond ndera erant ntes es estrat estrategi egias as para para enfren enfrentar tarse se con con la confrontación: confrontación: el contra ataque. El orientador que despierta esta clase de respuesta de su cliente sabe que está haciendo algo mal. Él no está siendo experimentado como alguien que "está con" el cliente, y por lo tanto su ayuda es vista como ataque. El contra-ataque es apenas una respuesta creativa a la confrontación, así que el orientador no debe provocarla. Persuadir al confrontador que cambie sus puntos de vista. Razonar con él; mostrarle que tú realmente no eres tan malo o que él está malinterpretando lo que tú haces. Aquí el cliente razona su conducta: Cliente: No estoy seguro de que mi enojo en la casa no sea necesario. Creo que es parte de mi identidad, al menos en el sentido de que si yo fuera a acostarme y morir, me volvería un tapete de la casa. Creo que usted me ve como una persona bastante razonable. Yo no me enojo aquí porque no hay por qué. Algunas veces un cliente como éste llevará al orientador incauto a un argumentar acer acerca ca de su cond conduc ucta ta.. Un clie clien nte que que está está alta altam mente ente em empe peñ ñado ado en la racion racionali alizac zaciòn iòn es difíci difícill de tratar tratar,, pero pero el argum argument entar ar no es un instru instrumen mento to efectivo. Devaluar la importancia de] tópico que está siendo discutido. Esta es otra forma de racionalización. Por ejemplo si el cliente está siendo confrontado acerca de su sarcasmo, señala que raramente es sarcástico, que "burlarse de otros" es una parte menor de su vida y no vale la pena de gastar tiempo en ello. El hecho de que el cliente algunas veces evada los tópicos que son demasiado dolorosos enfatiza la necesi necesida dad d de un entend entendim imien iento to preci preciso so de los sentim sentimien ientos tos,, experi experienc encias ias y conducta del cliente. El cliente tiene derecho a devaluar un tópico si realmente no
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una forma de buscar apoyo para los puntos de vista de uno, donde sea. Pero un cliente puede permanecer con un orientador y aún buscar tal apoyo donde sea. Cliente: Le pregunté a mi esposa acerca de mi sarcasmo. Ella dice que piensa que mis amigos lo ven como buen humor y como parte de mi estilo. Este Este es un mo modo do indi indire rect cto o de deci decirl rle e al orie orient ntad ador or que que está está equi equivo voca cado do.. El orie orient ntad ador or bien bien podr podría ía esta estarr equi equivo voca cado do pero pero si el sarc sarcas asmo mo del del clie client nte e es realmente realmente disfunc disfunciona ionall en su vida interpers interpersona onal, l, el orientado orientadorr debe debe encontra encontrarr alguna forma de presionar sobre el tema. Si la orientación tiene lugar en un grupo, es mucho más difícil para un cliente encontrar y presentar un apoyo inexistente para sus propios puntos de vista. Juana: ¿Alguien aquí me ve como mordaz y sarcástica? Susana: Creo que tú eres sarcástica de cuando en cuando. La única razón por lo cual no he dicho nada acerca de ello hasta ahora porque tú no has sido sarcástica conmigo. Juana puede tener retroinformaciòn directa del grupo sobre su conducta. Es mucho máss difí má difíci cill para para ella ella juga jugarr jueg juegos os de raci racion onal aliz izac aciò iòn n con con sus sus comp compañ añer eros os participantes. Cambiar el conocimiento para corresponder al del confrontador. El cliente puede estar de acuerdo con el orientador, ver su punto. Esto, también, puede ser un juego. Cliente: Creo que tú estás bien. Soy demasiado descortés y radical cuando hablo. Debo tratar de pensar qué impacto voy a causar antes de abrir la boca. Un cliente puede estar de acuerdo con las confrontaciones del orientador con objeto de lograr que el orientador "dé la espalda". Si tales confesiones no conducen a un cambio cambio condu conductu ctual, al, sin embarg embargo, o, la sincer sincerida idad d del del client cliente e es susce suscept ptibl ible e de sospecha. La meta del orientador en la confrontación no es tener al cliente de acuerdo con él sino hacer que el cliente reexamine su conducta con objeto de entenderse mejor a sí mismo y actuar más efectivamente. Examinar su conducta con ayuda del orientador. La respuesta ideal del cliente a la confrontación incluiría la indicación del cliente de que entiende lo que el orientador está diciendo. Consideremos Consideremos un ejemplo. Orientador: Siempre que tu hijo explica cómo se siente acerca de su relación contigo, tú tiendes a explicar lo que él ha dicho en una forma que concuerda con tus propios puntos de vista de la relación. No estoy seguro de que tú lo escuches atentamente, puesto que lo que tú estás diciendo suena tan diferente de lo que él está diciendo.
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buscando las claves en tu conducta que me digan si estoy haciendo lo correcto" o no. El cliente se pesca a sí mismo en una conducta improductiva y se confronta él mismo. Una vez que reconoce la conducta improductiva, puede explorarla con el orientador y tratar de llegar a las medidas que eviten el que se presente una y otra vez. Precauciones y conclusión Contexto. Hablar acerca de la confrontación separadamente le confiere una clase de importancia que no tiene en el proceso de ayuda. Los orientadores prospectivos comienzan a pensar que puede separarse de otras destrezas, especialmente las destre destrezas zas de la Etapa Etapa I. El orien orientad tador or que que carece carece de un am ampli plio o repert repertori orio o de destrezas de ayuda, especialmente las de la empatía precisa y las necesarias para ayudar al cliente a envolverse en programas de acción efectivos, con frecuencia tratará de enmascarar su falta de destrezas con respuestas demasiado reactivas y en confrontar negativamente. La ayuda es un proceso orgánico y la confrontación debe debe crecer crecer en ella ella orgán orgánica icame mente nte.. El espec especial ialist ista a en confro confront ntaci ación ón es con frecuencia una persona muy destructiva, una persona que no es siquiera buena en su propia especialidad. La discusión sobre confrontación de las últimas páginas incluye un número de precaucio precauciones. nes. Con mucha mucha frecuencia frecuencia el principia principiante nte ignora ignora estas estas precaucio precauciones. nes. Seria mucho mejor para el principiante volcar su energía en aprender el arte de empatía precisa avanzada que en idear nuevos enfoques de la confrontación. En una una palab palabra, ra, la confro confronta ntació ción n es signif significa icativ tiva a solam solament ente e en el contex contexto to de la orientación como ha sido descrito hasta este punto. La confrontación y el orientador efectivo. La investigación muestra que el orientador efectivo confronta confronta más que el orientador de bajo nivel, pero la calidad de su confrontación es alta, y no queda sólo como un ser que confronta. Pongámoslo francamente: el proceso de ayuda entero es de confrontación. Cuando se conduce hábilmente, coloca muchas exigencias en el cliente. El orientador de alto nivel es el agente de este proceso confrontativo, pero no se enfoca en la confrontación como una técnica separada. Un orientador de bajo nivel confronta debilidades, mientras que el orientador de alto nivel tiende a confrontar fuerzas, capacidades y recursos no usados por el cliente. Cuando llega a la confrontación directa, un orientador de bajo nivel persiste en sus confrontaciones aún cuando ellas no están haciendo nada bueno. El orientador de alto nivel, por otro lado, es un buen discriminador, él sabe cuándo desenmascarar, cuándo desafiar. Confrontación y el efecto "MUM". El efecto "MUM" se refiere a la tendencia de la gente a rehusar las malas noticias de otros (Rosen y Tesser, 1970, 1971; Tesser y Rosen, 1972; Tesser, Rosen y Batchelor, 1972; Tesser, Rosen y Tesser, 1971). En los tiempos antiguos con frecuencia el portador de malas noticias era muerto. En los tiempos modernos podría no temer a la muerte, pero sí teme algo. La investigación
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efectivamente, efectivamente, gravita hacia la Etapa II; si la Etapa II se lleva efectivamente, gravita hacia la Etapa III. Si este proceso dinámico no tiene lugar, el orientador debe volver atrás y ver, si posiblemente, posiblemente, él haya caído víctima del efecto MUM. La confrontación confrontación envuel envuelve ve rie riesg sgos os interp interpers erson onale ales, s, pero pero si son razon razonab ables les y son son llevad llevados os en un ambiente de cuidado y envolvimiento, deben tomarse. PLÁTICA MUTUA Y DIRECTA (PROXIMIDAD) Los clientes que buscan orientación y psicoterapia generalmente presentan una amplia amplia variedad variedad de quejas quejas - depresió depresión, n, ansieda ansiedad, d, insomnio insomnio,, aburrimi aburrimiento, ento, una variedad de síntomas físicos, experiencias de fracasos, etc. -pero, no importa lo que sea la queja presente, toma poca exploración el descubrir el hecho de que ellos están también teniendo problema en las relaciones interpersonales. interpersonales. Por ejemplo, un empleado de oficina podría quejarse que no le gusta su trabajo, se siente deprimido porque es tan difícil cambiar de trabajo debido al escaso mercado de trabajo, y no ve solución inmediata a su problema. La exploración, sin embargo, muestra que ha cambiado trabajos tres veces, cada vez por la gente de ahí". Él nunca ha aprendido cómo relacionarse efectivamente con otros y con frecuencia él termina alejándose de sus compañeros de trabajo. 0 considere al cliente que es altamente exitoso pero que es también altamente ansioso. La exploración revela una serie de relaciones negati negativas vas con adult adultos os signif significa icativ tivos os duran durante te sus sus años años de forma formació ción. n. Duran Durante te aquellos años, él aprendió a no gustarse a sí mismo: era la única lección disponible. disponible. Desde entonces, él ha estado tratando de probar a sí mismo su valía teniendo éxito. Pero puesto que su éxito presente en los negocios no ha resuelto su problema de autoauto-est estima imació ción, n, se ha vuelt vuelto o un indivi individu duo o altam altament ente e ansio ansioso. so. Los asun asuntos tos de negocios, por supuesto, dejan poco tiempo para contacto con gente sobre bases socio-emocionales: él está "fuera de la comunidad". Y sin embargo, solamente en una comunidad de gente que genuinamente se interese por él, aprenderá que es valioso en sí mismo y no sólo por lo que ha logrado. Un buen buen lugar lugar para para em empez pezar ar a explor explorar ar cualq cualquie uierr habil habilid idad ad del client cliente e para para relacionarse interpersonalmente es la relación misma del cliente-orientador. Si la orie orient ntac ació ión n tien tiene e luga lugarr en un grup grupo, o, los los miem miembr bros os tien tienen en una una opor oportu tuni nida dad d espléndida no solamente para formar relaciones unos con otros sino también para explorar directamente éxitos y fracasos al relacionarse. Una destreza que necesitan con objeto de explorar las relaciones interpersonales interpersonales se llama comunicación comunicación mutua, directa" directa" (Higgin (Higgins, s, Ivey y Uhleman Uhlemann, n, 1970; 1970; Ivey, 1971) o proxirnid proxirnidad" ad" (Carkhuf (Carkhuff, f, 1969a, b): es la habilidad de discutir directa y abiertamente abiertamente con otra persona lo que está sucediendo en el aquí-y-ahora de una relación interpersonal. Yo algunas veces me refiero a ella como la plática de "tú-yo". Demos una mirada a un ejemplo de esta clase de comunicación. El que se adiestra A: Esta es la primera vez que tú y yo hemos estado juntos practicando destrezas. Debo admitir que me siento muy incómodo contigo ahora mismo. Te veo como una persona muy fuerte, una persona con mucha iniciativa
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Orientador A: Todo A: Todo esto no parece ir a ninguna ninguna parte, así que es frustrante y difícil de soportar. Cliente: ¡Ciertamente que si! Cliente: Todavía no estoy convencido del valor de la orientación. Te sientes y hablas de ti mismo mucho, pero las cosas no parecen mucho mejor. Y no es siquiera fácil seguir hablando de ti mismo. Orientador B: Memo, de un número de cosas que has dicho hasta ahora, tengo la sensación de que no estás seguro de si puedes confiar en mí o no. Todavía no estás convencido de que estoy de tu lado. En este ejemplo, el orientador A responde con el nivel primario de empatía precisa, pero, como la respuesta del cliente muestra, no va a ninguna parte. Puede ser que el orientador A esté atorado en la Etapa I. El orientador B, por otro lado, ha sacado algunas claves indicando que una razón por lo que el proceso de orientación está detenido es que el cliente todavía no esté convencido de que puede confiar en el orientador. El cliente puede responder algo como esto: Cliente: Bien, no estoy seguro de que te guste. Sé que estás ocupado, y no sé por qué debes darme el tiempo del día. Sólo soy otro muchacho sin ningún valor que está confundido. Aquí el orientador sabe que ha dado en el blanco, porque el cliente, también, ha respondido con proximidad. La comunicación es ahora directa y mutua. La función de las respuestas de proximidad El propósito de las respuestas de proximidad de parte del orientador es ayudar al clien cliente te a entend entenders erse e a sí mismo mismo má máss claram clarament ente, e, espec especial ialmen mente te lo que que está está hacie haciend ndo o y cómo cómo se está está rel relaci acion onand ando o en el aquíaquí-y-a y-aho hora ra de la entrev entrevist ista a de orientación o de la experiencia del grupo de orientación. El orientador modela una clase de conducta que ayudará al cliente a volverse más efectivo en todas sus relaciones. La lógica de la orientación en esta instancia es que el orientador inicia la proximidad para que el cliente pueda aprender a ser próximo en esta relación cliente-orientador cliente-orientador para que, a su vez, él pueda finalmente volverse más próximo en sus relaciones fuera de las sesiones de orientación. La comunicación directa y mutua, a pesar de lo grande que es su potencial para estimular el crecimiento interpersonal, es sin embargo bastante rara en la vida diaria. Es una forma de procesar lo que está sucediendo en el aquí-y-ahora de cualquier relación en un salón de clase, por ejemplo. Maestro: ¿Qué está pasando en este salón de clase, quiero decir aparte del hecho de que el aprendizaje aprendizaje no parece estar ocurriendo hoy? Estudiante A: Yo creo que estamos en una clase de lucha de poder. Usted está tratando de que nosotros hagamos algo que la mayoría no quiere hacer.
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Ser cauto en las respuestas de proximidad
Una función de la Etapa II es ayudar al cliente a entenderse a sí mismo y al mundo desde un punto de vista más objetivo. La proximidad contribuye a esta meta. El cliente, en la seguridad de la relación de ayuda, aprende a hacer lo que mucha gente tiene miedo de hacer en la vida diaria: él aprende a "procesar" una relación, él apre aprend nde e que que pued puede e ser prod produc ucti tivo vo tan tanto que que le diga digan n cómo cómo lo está están n expe experi rime ment ntan ando do dent dentro ro de una una rela relaci ción ón como como deci decirl rle e a otro otro cómo cómo lo está están n experimentando dentro de una relación. Puesto que esta mutualidad no sucede en la vida diaria, es generalmente una experiencia nueva y bastante exigente para el cliente. El orientador debe darse cuenta de esto y, como con todas las técnicas de la Etapa II, proceder tentativa y cautelosamente. Su meta es ayudar al cliente a entenderse mejor a sí mismo, no atemorizarlo. Orientador A: Tú A: Tú no confías en mí. Eso es el por qué estamos estancados aquí. Cliente: No sé lo que estamos tratando de hacer. Orientador B: Tengo el sentimiento de que todavía es difícil para ti hablarme como si todavía no estás seguro de que yo estoy de tu lado. Cliente: Bueno, creo que estoy empezando a creer que lo estás, pero no estoy acostumbrado a tener a nadie de mi lado. Me hace un poco precavido y asustado. No estoy acostumbrado a ello todavía. El instinto básico del orientador A es bueno: o sea, él sabe que la proximidad es apropiada cuando la relación entre él y el cliente parece no estar yendo a ninguna parte parte;; pero pero su eje ejecu cució ción n es pobre pobre.. Su comun comunica icació ción n direct directa a suena suena como como una una acusación y genera una respuesta defensiva del cliente. El orientador B es mucho más cauto y evita parecer que culpa al cliente, quien a su vez responde con mucho mayor candor. Si el orientador es hábil, el cliente primero aprende a aceptar la comunicación directa del orientador y luego aprende a dirigirse al orientador en la misma forma. Pero si el orientador no sabe cómo aceptar la proximidad él mismo, difícilmente puede esperar que el cliente aprenda la destreza. Cliente: A veces tú me empujas demasiado duro. Como ahora mismo. Y eso me asusta. Tú me estás ayudando, pero por favor más despacio. Orientador A: Empujar es parte de la ayuda. Tienes que esperar algo de eso. Orientador B: Yo realmente no estoy empujando. Te lo parece a ti porque estás empezando empezando a cambiar, y eso es doloroso. Orientador C: Tú C: Tú sientes que lo harías tan bien - o quizá mejor - si yo me detuviera un poco. Esto tiene sentido. Has estado trabajando duro. Los orientadores A y B responden defensivamente. A se embarca en una clase de
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que él falla en actuar sobre lo que ve que está sucediendo en la entrevista. Parte del proceso de adiestramiento de Kagan es tener al que se adiestra recordando tanto como pueda de una corta entrevista de adiestramiento adiestramiento con un cliente. Supervisor: ¿Qué experimentó usted durante la entrevista? El que se adiestra: Noté que el cliente se mantenía mirando lejos de mí. Empecé a estar un poco irritado porque pensé que estaba evitando los temas reales en su vida. Cuando me preguntó lo que pensaba acerca de terminar la educación de uno antes de casarse, pensé que estaba tratando de mover la discusión a un plano intelectual. Creo que también le dejé hablar demasiado largo sin interrumpirlo. Sentí que no me diò suficiente oportunidad de responder. Quizá yo debla haber cortado cortado con más frecuenci frecuencia. a. Nosotros Nosotros realmente realmente no estábam estábamos os metidos metidos en un diálogo. El que se adiestra recuerda muchas cosas acerca de la entrevista en las que él no actuó durante la entrevista misma. Su razón para no tratar directamente con estos temas en la entrevista misma no era que él estuviera inconsciente de ellos. Si este fuera el caso, él no podría recordarlos después de la entrevista en la plática con su supervisor. El propósito de estas sesiones de repaso es hacer al que se adiestra consciente, en una forma reflexiva, de los puntos que él falla en usar en el aquí-yahora de la entrevista de orientación. Una vez que él ve la riqueza de este material no usado, puede aprender a retroceder en la entrevista misma, ver lo que el cliente está haciendo, ver lo que él mismo está sintiendo y haciendo (o no haciendo), y usar lo que, nota inmediatamente, inmediatamente, si es apropiado. Esto es proximidad. proximidad. Cliente: El año pasado pasé mucho tiempo leyendo. Y aún tomé un par de cursos de psicología por mí mismo sólo porque deseaba. El que se adiestra: Juan, he estado observando mis reacciones contigo, y noto que estoy empezando a retorcerme un poco en mi silla. Me gustaría cotejar algo contigo. Parece que, cuando empezamos a hablar de tu vida social, con frecuencia nos vamos por otro lado a algún otro tópico-un tópico importante, como lo que estás haciendo para seguir hablando intelectualmente. Creo que quizá es justo lo tá di do ah Mi ntim ntimie ie to di tú ás
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confro confront ntaci ación, ón, pues pues combin combina a a am amba bas. s. El orient orientad ador or tanto tanto revela revela sus sus propio propioss pens ensamien ientos tos com como en alg alguna form forma a confro fronta o desa esafía al clie clien nte. te. Indud Indudab ablem lement ente, e, algun algunos os siente sienten n que que la proxim proximida idad d debe debe prove proveer er el vehícu vehículo lo prima primario rio para para el autoauto-des descub cubrim rimien iento to del del orient orientad ador. or. El descu descubri brimie mient nto o del del orient orientad ador or debe debe ser "exist "existenc encial ial"" - tratan tratando do con los sentim sentimien ientos tos ace acerca rca de la relación aquí-y-ahora-más aquí-y-ahora-más que ser una revelación de secretos pasados o presentes. Las siguientes podrían ser áreas fructíferas para la plática de "tú-yo". Una palabra de precau precaució ción: n: Las Las siguie siguient ntes es decla declarac racion iones es del orient orientad ador or se toman toman fuera fuera de contexto, y por lo tanto es difícil juzgar si son apropiadas. Estilos Diferentes. Orientador: A través de nuestras sesiones, he aprendido que tú y yo tenemos diferentes enfoques de la vida. El tuyo parece ser libre y fácil, mientras el mío es más orientado a una meta y ordenado. ordenado. En estas sesiones, nosotros parecemos parecemos ir en diferentes direcciones a veces. Tú estás cómodo con un estilo más amplio. Yo estoy ávido de avanzar hacia la acción, así que termino un poco frustrado. Temas de confianza. Orientador: Estoy empezando a sentir que tú no confías en mí. Me hace sentir como si mis manos estuvieran atadas. No estoy seguro de si es difícil para ti confiar en alguien, o si tienes un problema especial conmigo. Dependencia. Orientador: Según reviso lo que hemos estado haciendo aquí, encuentro que yo he elegido la mayoría de los tópicos que hemos discutido. Y algunas veces tengo el sentimiento de que tú ves mi retroinformaciòn como más importante que como la ves de ti mismo. ¿No te llega esto de la l a misma manera? Contradependencia. Orientador: Espero que lo que voy a decir suene más como una observación que como una acusación. De cualquier manera mi siento un poco nervioso por decirlo.
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La conf confro ront ntac ació ión n y la prox proxim imid idad ad son son destr estrez ezas as que pued pueden en ense enseña ñars rse e vive vivenc ncia ialm lmen ente te a los los miem miembr bros os de los los grup grupos os de adie adiest stra rami mien ento to.. Lueg Luego o los los part partic icip ipan ante tess pued pueden en usar usarla lass en sus sus inte intera racc ccio ione ness de uno uno con con otro otro.. En mi expe experi rien enci cia a con con grupo ruposs de adie adiest stra rami mien ento to (tan (tanto to en adie adiest stra rami mien ento toss de orientadores como en grupos de relaciones humanas), los miembros tienden a mal usar la confrontación (al descargar sus frustraciones y hostilidad en el otro) y a evitar evitar la proxim proximida idad d (lo que que signif significa ica.. poner ponerse se ellos ellos mism mismos os en la línea) línea).. Los miembros de una comunidad de aprendizaje deben desafiarse uno al otro, pero deben hacerlo responsablemente, responsablemente, deben tratar con los temas del aquí-y-ahora. aquí-y-ahora. que son obstáculos para su aprendizaje. En el modelo de ayuda de adiestramientocomo-tratamiento, como-tratamiento, a los clientes se les debe enseñar estas destrezas directamente. En los grupos de adiestramiento en relaciones humanas, la clase de plática directa, mutu mutua, a, urgida urgida aquí aquí es una una de las má máss impo importa rtant ntes es me metas tas del adies adiestra tramie mient nto. o. Indudablemente, la proximidad es el punto central de la mutualidad. Algunas precauciones En las fases iniciales de la Etapa 11, el orientador debe ser cuidadoso al iniciar la plática de "tú-yo". Según la relación entre él mismo y el cliente crece más fuerte, sin embargo, las respuestas de proximidad pueden también volverse más fuertes, pero la proximidad no es todavía un fin en sí misma. Tal como es útil para los amigos "procesar" sus relaciones de tiempo en tiempo - especialmente en tiempos de tensión o cuando la relación parece vacía o sin dirección -así el orientador y el cliente deben envolverse en comunicación directa, mutua, siempre que sea útil, especialmente en tiempos de tensión y cuando la relación parece sin objeto. Tanto el poco uso como el sobre uso de la proximidad en las relaciones interpersonales, incluyendo la orientación, son embrutecedoras. La plática constante de "tú-yo" es una señal de temor mutuo, desconfianza, desconfianza, o dependencia, dependencia, más que una cura de ello. Finalmente, tal como la empatía, las respuestas de proximidad son útiles en el grado grado en que que ellas ellas sean sean preci precisas sas.. Si el orient orientad ador or ve temor temor o descon desconfia fianza nza o depend dependenc encia ia quede quede hecho hecho no exist existen, en, él debe debe examin examinars arse e a sì mismo mismo y qué qué requeridas podría estar llenando en su relación con este cliente particular. ALGUNAS NOTAS DE CONCLUSIÓN SOBRE LA ETAPA II
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respuesta asignada para aclarar y distinguir una categoría, sino ver si ayuda al cliente a avanzar hacia adelante. El orientador no debe tratar de convertirse es un experto en cualquier clase dada de interacción o intervención, especialmente las intervenciones de la Etapa II. Las intervenciones de la Etapa II se sostienen sobre los hombros de las destrezas de la Etapa I: ellas deben tomarse en el espíritu de la Etapa I, tal como las intervenciones de la Etapa I deben tener dentro de ellas un dinamismo que mueve el proceso de orientación hacia la Etapa II. Aún cuando el orientador debe ser experto en las respuestas de la Etapa II, no debe pensar en términos de estas respuestas sino en términos de la meta del cliente: el auto-entendimiento que prepare al cliente para la acción. Si está en sus huesos el dicho "la ayuda es para el cliente", el orientador será capaz de elegir la respuesta apropiada en el tiempo apropiado. Las intervenciones de la Etapa II son medicina fuerte. Bien podría a veces inducir algún grado de crisis en el cliente. Las crisis, si se enfrentan, son puntos de crecimiento en la vida del cliente; pero si las intervenciones del orientador inducen alguna clase de crisis en la vida del cliente (aumento (aumento de ansiedad, desorganización, lágr lágrim imas as,, depr depres esió ión, n, ira, ira, conf confus usió ión) n),, el orie orient ntad ador or debe debe ayud ayudar ar al clie client nte e a sobrepasar sobrepasar la crisis y a crecer a través de ella.
CAPÍTULO VI ETAPA III
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motivación del cliente o de fuerza de voluntad, con frecuencia sólo significa una pobre configuración. configuración. 3. Las Etapas 1 y II del proceso evolutivo de ayuda pueden constituir por sí mismas, en ciertos casos, programas de acción. Ayudan a los clientes de relativamente alto nivel a liberar sus recursos bloqueados. Una vez que estos recursos se liberan, los clientes actúan por ellos mismos. 4. El enfoque de análisis del campo de fuerza para la solución de problemas es una técnica sistemática, de sentido común que puede usarse para ayudar al cliente a actuar en formas más constructivas. constructivas. a. Identificar y clarificar el problema. Esto se hace en las Etapas I y II. b. Si hay varios problemas, establecer prioridades que funcionen relacionadas con la tensión de] cliente y su sistema de valores. c. Establecer metas concretas y que puedan trabajarse. d. Hacer un censo de los medios disponibles para alcanzar estas metas. Listar significa que la ayuda reduce las fuerzas restrictivas: listar significa que la ayuda aumenta las fuerzas facilitadores. Subraye los medios más funcionales en cada lista. e. Escoja Escoja los medios medios dispo disponib nibles les má máss efecti efectivos vos:: los medios medios que que conser conservan van el sistema de valores del cliente y que tienen la mayor probabilidad de éxito. f. Establecer un criterio conductual concreto por el cual el éxito y el fracaso del programa de acción pueda medirse. g. Implemente el programa de acción. Durante el programa de acción el orientador debe usar las destrezas de la Etapa I y II para sostener, reforzar y estimular al cliente. 5. Adiestramiento-como-tratamiento. Sólo cuando el cliente puede ser adiestrado en las destrezas de las Etapas I y II él mismo puede volverse su propio orientador, así también él puede ser adiestrado directamente en metodologías de solución de problemas. 6. Los orientadores de bajo nivel o nunca llegan a la Etapa III o tratan de empezar la Etapa III prematuramente, sin ninguna preparación. 7. El criterio último para juzgar cualquier proceso de ayuda es si ayuda o no, realmente, al cliente a cambiar.
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3. Ord Orden de proce roced dimie imien ntos. tos. ¿Cuá Cuál será erá el orden rden de aplic licació ación n de los los procedimientos? 4. Cambiar procedimientos. ¿Podrían haber cambios en los procedimientos según progrese la terapia, y cuál será el criterio para introducir tales cambios? 5. Características del terapeuta. ¿Qué características personales del terapeuta le pued pueden en hace hacerr má máss o me meno noss conv conven enien iente te o incl inclin inad ado o a usar usar proc proced edim imie ient ntos os particulares con clientes particulares7 6. Características del cliente. ¿Qué características personales del cliente pueden hace hacerl rle e má máss o me men nos incl inclin inad ado o a busc buscar ar un tera terape peu uta famo famoso so por por usar usar procedimientos procedimientos particulares? Evaluando cambios conductuales 1. Medidas Medidas de cambio. cambio. ¿Qué instrumento instrumentoss de medición medición y escalas escalas de puntuac puntuación ión será serán n usad usadas as para para expr expres esar ar la exte extens nsió ión n del del camb cambio io tera terapé péut utic ico o para para cada cada componente de la conducta más adaptable? 2. Ponde Ponderac racion iones es para para las difere diferent ntes es fuent fuentes es de juicio juicio.. ¿Cuále ¿Cuáless son los pesos pesos relativos a darse a los juicios del terapeuta, del cliente, de la familia y amigos del cliente, y de observadores independientes? independientes? 3. Criter Criterios ios de éxito éxito y termin terminaci ación. ón. ¿Qué ¿Qué criter criterios ios se usan usan para para decidi decidirr si los objetivos conductuales han sido alcanzados y/o para decidir que el tratamiento debe terminarse? 4. Influencias de la vida diaria. ¿Cómo pueden ser aislados los cambios debidos a procedimientos de tratamiento específico de aquéllos debidos a factores variables
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Exploración del problema. Tomás está metido en las drogas. Se ha vuelto un traficante de medio tiempo con objeto de poder pagar por su hábito de las drogas. Está Está tanto tanto ansio ansioso so como como deprim deprimido ido porqu porque e está está opera operand ndo o contra contra sus valore valoress person personale aless y porqu porque e tiene tiene miedo miedo de ser atrap atrapad ado. o. Encon Encontró tró fatuo fatuo su plan plan de estudios en la escuela aún antes de que empezara a experimentar con drogas. No está seguro de que quiere obtener un grado escolar. Metas. Romper el hábito de las drogas. Encontrar otras fuentes de ingreso y no trafic traficar. ar. Encon Encontra trarr un progra programa ma académ académico ico estimu estimulan lante te y benéfi benéfico co o dejar dejar la escuela y encontrar un trabajo conveniente. Estar "en comunidad" con algunos amigos en la escuela. El problema que se presenta. Carolina está tan altamente ansiosa en el trabajo que la calidad de su trabajo está sufriendo. Está haciendo la clase de errores que podrían costarle su trabajo. Exploración del problema. Carolina tiene mucho miedo de su jefe, pero la clase de trabajo que está haciendo exige contacto diario con él. Ella se retira de él emocionalmente y él reacciona volviéndose más exigente. Ella también tiene un pobre desempeño de su trabajo como telefonista. Metas. Ayudar a Carolina a mejorar las destrezas interpersonales que necesita con objeto de ser más efectiva con la gente. Desensibilizarla a la presencia de su jefe.
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EL CARÁCTER EVOLUTIVO DEL PROCESO DEL CAMBIO CONDUCTUAL Lo que a mí me parece es que existe una dicotomía infortunada e improductiva entre algunos programas contemporáneos de adiestramiento adiestramiento para orientadores. orientadores. Por una parte, algunos programas son todavía bastante "no directivos"; o sea, enfatizan las destrezas de la Etapa I (y, quizá, la empatía precisa avanzada de la Etapa II) pero generalmente ignoran las destrezas de preparación para la acción de la Etapa II y los programas de acción de la Etapa III. Los proponentes de tales programas tradicionalmente tradicionalmente han visto al orientador como uno que ayuda al cliente a sortear los temas problemáticos de su vida más que como uno que tanto prepara al cliente directamente para el cambio conductual y le asiste a través' del proceso mismo de cambio. cambio. Los proponentes proponentes de tales programas programas son también también muy precavidos precavidos del proceso de influencia social. Temen que tal proceso necesariamente ocasiona que el orientador se vuelva un solucionador solucionador de problemas para (más que con) el cliente. Por otro lado, hay programas que enfatizan las técnicas de la teoría del aprendizaje y modificación de la conducta pero no enseñan adecuadamente adecuadamente las destrezas de las Etapas 1 y II. De aquí la dicotomía. Sin embargo, el modelo de desarrollo sugiere que el mejor orientador es el que tiene el repertorio más amplio de destrezas de ayuda y el que puede fácilmente disponer de cualquiera de estas destrezas para hacer frente a las diferentes necesidades de cualquier cliente. El orientador que se restringe a sí mismo a cualquier serie de destrezas específicas de una etapa dada, está haciendo un mal servicio a sus clientes.
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estos principios (vea Bandura, 1969; Ferster y Perrott, 1968; Sherman, 1973), para empezar a ser hábil en las tecnologías de ayuda que directa o indirectamente fluyen de estos principios (vea Rimm. y Masters, 1974), usarlas para ayudar a otros a desarrollar enfoques más constructivos para la vida. Mientras más amplio sea el repertorio de enfoques sobre el cambio conductual conductual que un orientador posea, mayor será la probabilidad de que él pueda colaborar con su cliente en programas de cambios conductuales y mayor la probabilidad de que él pueda enseñar al cliente las clases de metodología para solución de problemas y de cambio de conducta que le capacitará para ejercer un mayor control sobre su propia conducta. El orientador expert experto, o, no obsta obstant nte, e, y lo espera esperamo mos, s, inmun inmune e a las noved novedad ades, es, está está siemp siempre re abierto a nuevos programas de acción, metodologías de solución de problemas y tecnologías de cambio conductual, ya que éstos aumentan su habilidad para servir las necesidades de su cliente. Los principios básicos del aprendizaje, según se aplican a la conducta humana, algunos de los cuales se ilustran en las páginas siguientes, ayudan al orientador a contestar ciertas preguntas claves: ¿Còmo se estimula o promueve una conducta deseab deseable le pero pero no opera operant nte e en el prese presente nte?? ¿Còmo ¿Còmo se elimin elimina a una una condu conducta cta indese indeseab able? le? ¿Còmo ¿Còmo una una condu conducta cta que que es en el prese present nte e parte parte del repert repertori orio o conductual conductual de una persona puede ser mantenida mantenida y fortalecida? Revisaré unos pocos de los principios que' nos ayudarán a contestar estas preguntas y a ilustrar Còmo ellos están relacionados tanto con las conductas del orientador y del cliente en las Etapas I y II y con la metodología de solución de problemas delineada más adelante en este capítulo.
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La falta de refuerzo hace que aún conductas constructivas constructivas y deseables se extingan o sea, desaparezcan (Juana hace su tarea cuidadosamente; el maestro recoge los papeles y nunca se refiere al trabajo otra vez; Juana cae en hacer su tarea a la ventura). Una de las mejores recompensas es la satisfacción que viene del hecho mismo de una conducta deseable (leer un buen libro se vuelve una recompensa en sí mismo). Las recompensas generalmente funcionan mejor cuando no se postergan sino que se dan tan pronto como la conducta es actuada (de aquí la naturaleza ideal de las conductas deseables que son recompensantes en ellas mismas). Las recompensas postergadas tienden a trabajar mejor si la persona recibe algún símbolo o prenda indica indicand ndo o concre concreta ta e inmed inmediat iatam ament ente e que que la recom recompen pensa sa será será confer conferida ida (los (los pacientes en los hospitales mentales reciben fichas por conducta cooperativa que pueden ser más tarde cambiadas por otros objetos en la comisaría). Estos principios de refuerzo se aplican a las Etapas I y II del proceso de ayuda y a las metodologías de solución de problemas y programas de acción de la Etapa III. Consideremos algunos ejemplos. El orientador que comunica entendimiento empático preciso y respecto refuerza la conducta auto-explora auto-exploratoria toria del cliente. El orientador que adiestra al cliente en las destrezas de las Etapas 1 y II usa el refuerzo social (como el elogio) para recompensar el esfuerzo hecho en aprender las destrezas, y los clientes encuentran las destrezas recién adquiridas (tales como escuchar y responder considerada y adecuadamente) como recompensantes en ellas mismas. Cuando los clientes usan estas destrezas y ven que funcionan en
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una conducta particular. Indudablemente, puesto que las conductas son general y parci parcialm alment ente e sosten sostenida idass por por la propia propia condu conducta cta encub encubier ierta ta del client cliente e (sus (sus pensamientos, pensamientos, sentimientos, imágenes, y reacciones psicológicas), psicológicas), la clase de autoexplor explorac ación ión dirigi dirigida da que que tiene tiene luga lugarr en las Etapa Etapass I y II es extrem extremad adam ament ente e importante importante en determinar el refuerzo y potencial actual. Castigo
El cast castig igo, o, como como se defi define ne aquí aquí,, se refi refier ere e a la adic adició ión n de algú algún n estí estímu mulo lo desagradable que sigue a uña conducta (recibir una multa por la infracción de correr; ser ignorado después de revelarse uno mismo íntimamente a otra persona). Aún si uno no intenta castigar al otro, su conducta podría ser sentida por el otro como punitiva. El castigo es una forma tramposa, y aún peligrosa, de control de
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Memo y María han estado casados por más de veinte años. Ellos se comunican relativamente poco excepto en aquellas ocasiones cuando están en desacuerdo sobre algo. Entonces rompen en encuentros de gritos, usando las palabras como garrotes, desahogando resentimientos almacenados y diciendo cosas que ellos no quisieran decir. El orientador les ayuda a ver que gritarse mutuamente mutuamente es, en parte, una forma de refuerzo, puesto que es casi la única vez que ellos se dan alguna clase de atención intensa; que su conducta mutua punitiva es improductivamente auto-indulgente (cada uno se siente "rnejor" después de que él o ella le grita al otro): y que sus tácticas punitivas constituyen una forma barata e improductiva para tratar de suprimir conductas indeseables en el otro. En este caso el orientador adiestra a la pareja en destrezas básicas de comunicación; o sea, les ayuda a sustituir su comunicación mutuamente punitiva por una conducta más productiva.
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Angela viene al orientador porque está deprimida y sola. Tiene algunos conocidos pero no amigos. Se sostiene sola y vive sola en una gran ciudad geográficamente alejada de su pueblo de origen. El orientador descubre que una vida de hogar caótic caótica a y unas unas pocas pocas fallas fallas traum traumáti áticas cas en situa situacio ciones nes interp interpers erson onale aless la han han causado retirarse de cualquier intento serio de establecer relaciones de cualquier cercad cercada. a. Puest Puesto o que que ha tenido tenido poca poca experi experienc encia ia interp interpers erson onal, al, sus destr destreza ezass sociales son mínimas. El orientador hace lo que puede para ayudarla a reducir sus temores de relacionarse con otros. Se da cuenta de que su relación con ella en la situación de ayuda es una parte importante de su reeducación emocional. Él usa técnicas de desensibilización (vea Carkhuff, 1969a, Págs. 271-290; Sherman, 1973, Págs. 49-89, para una introducción a estas técnicas) para prepararla a entrar en un grup grupo o pequ pequeñ eño o de, apoy apoyo, o, en el cual cual el adie adiest stra rami mien ento to en dest destre reza zass de
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desarrollar y usar la tecnología (técnicas de modificación de conducta) basada en estos principios. El uso humanista de las técnicas de modificación de conducta es uno de los caminos en los cuales la dimensión de la influencia social de la ayuda se extiende a la Etapa III. Y, puesto que los principios de cambio de conducta han demostrado ser efectivos aún cuando sean abiertamente comunicados al cliente, la colaboración, más que el control y la manipulación, puede caracterizar la ayuda del orientador al cliente para traducir el entendimiento entendimiento dinámico a la acción. ETAPAS I Y II COMO PROGRAMA DE ACCIÓN Como ya he suge Como sugerid rido, o, algu alguno noss prob problem lemas as de clien cliente tess pued pueden en ma mane neja jars rse e o solucionarse por las clases de interacci6n que constituyen las Etapas 1 y II del
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Se pierde en el anonimato de la vida de la ciudad. No tiene contacto social con sus compañeros compañeros de trabajo o con sus vecinos en el condominio. condominio. Empieza a darse cuenta de que nunca ha tenido amigos y que en la forma en que van las cosas, no va a tener ninguno. Se siente sin valor. Realmente, el orientador era la primera persona que llevaba una conversación externa con ella. Esta sesión era la primera vez que ella sentía afecto directo e .interés activo. A medida en que ella experimentaba el cuidado del orientador, empezó a aprender numerosas cosas acerca de ella misma que que era intelig inteligen ente te y atract atractiva iva,, por por eje ejemp mplo, lo, cualid cualidad ades es que que había había ma mante ntenid nido o escondidas bajo su blanda manera. Sus modales se abrillantaron tanto dentro de las sesion sesiones es de orient orientaci ación ón como como afuera afuera,, porq porque, ue, siend siendo o aprec apreciad iada, a, apren aprendió dió a apreciarse a si misma. La gente empezó a notarla, una vez que ella emergió de detrás de su blanda fachada, no sólo porque era atractiva sino porque estaba más
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resolv resolver er sus sus proble problema mass bebien bebiendo do excesi excesivam vamen ente; te; su esposa esposa está está tratan tratando do de reformarlo regañándole regañándole constantemente) o porque ellos están
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Cualquier metodología metodología efectiva debe ser sistemática y basada en el sentido común. ía
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El cliente no puede cambiar la complejidad del mundo o la posibilidad de una ató óm
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Hacer Hacer que el client cliente e presen presente te el problem problema a concre concretam tament ente. e. Nosotros Nosotros ya
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Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.
Trusted by over 1 million members
Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.
Trusted by over 1 million members
Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.
Trusted by over 1 million members
Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.