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PJM3106 TAJUK 1: PENGENALAN KEPADA ANATOMI DAN FISIOLOGI
STRUKTUR DAN FUNGSI
KONSEP ASAS Definisi Anatomi Anatomi berasal daripada perkataan Greek yang bermaksud ―memotong atau membelah anggota badan‖. Anatomi ialah bidang sains yang berkaitan dengan struktur tubuh manusia. Anatomi juga dikenali sebagai morfologi atau sains bentuk. ANATOMI KASAR terbahagi kepada beberapa bahagian. 1. Anatomi kawasan (regional) - Semua struktur badan dalam bahagian atau kawasan tubuh yang dikaji secara berkumpulan. - Sebagai contoh, anatomi bahagian ABDOMEN ATAU KEPALA. 2. Anatomi bersistem (systemic) - Semua organ yang mempunyai fungsi yang ada kaitan antara satu sama lain akan dikaji secara bersama. - Pendekatan anatomi bersistem ini sesuai bagi melihat hubungkait antara struktur dan fungsinya. 3. Anatomi permukaan (surface) - Kajian ini melibatkan struktur – struktur tubuh yang dapat dilihat dan dirasa pada permukaan tubuh. Definisi Fisiologi
Anatomi berkait rapat dengan fisiologi iaitu mengkaji fungsi struktur tubuh badan. Sebagai contoh, tulang-tulang kaki yang panjang dan tebal seperti femur, tibia dan fibula dapat menyokong berat badan kita.
Sistem integumentari Komponen utama – KULIT, RAMBUT dan KUKU FUNGSI utama:1. Pembalut luar tubuh 2. Melindungi dan mengelak kecederaan pada tisu –tisu dalaman. 3. Sintesis vitamin D. 4. Lokasi pengesan rasa. (sakit, tekanan, sejuk, panas dan sentuhan). 5. Lokasi kelenjar peluh dan kelenjar minyak. 6. Mengkumuhkan air, asid urik dan lebihan garam mineral
Sistem Rangka Komponen Utama - TULANG RANGKA, KARTILEJ, LIGAMEN, SENDI FUNGSI Utama :1. melindungi organ penting lain seperti tulang dada melindungi paru-paru 2. menyokong tubuh manusia dalam kedudukan tegak 3. tempat melekatkan otot pada satu tempat yang kukuh bagi membolehkan membolehkan pergerakan 4. tempat menyimpan sum-sum yang bertugas menghasilkan darah
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Sistem Otot Komponen utama – OTOT RANGKA FUNGSI utama:1. Menghasilkan lokomotor 2. Mempamerkan ekspresi muka. 3. Mengekalkan postur badan. 4. Menghasilkan haba melalui aktiviti sel (tindak balas metabolisme) didalam otot.
Sistem Saraf Komponen utama – OTAK,SARAF TUNJANG,SARAF PERIFERI,RESEPTOR . FUNGSI utama :1. Sistem kawalan tindak balas pantas badan. 2. Bertindak balas terhadap perubahan (rangsangan) dalaman dan luaran badan dengan mengaktifkan yang berkaitan. 3. Menyimpan maklumat yang diterima.
Sistem Endokrina Komponen utama – kelenjar (TIROID, PITUITARI, ADRENAL, PINEAL, PANKRESS, TIMUS, OVARI, TESTIS) FUNGSI utama :1. Kelenjar merembeskan hormone untuk
Sistem Kardiovaskular komponen utama – JANTUNG,DARAH,SALUR DARAH FUNGSI utama :1. Jantung mengepam darah 2. Darah adalah pengangkutan utama badan dengan membawa hormone, nutrient dan oksigen keseluruh badan serta bahan kumuh seperti karbon dioksida ke sistem respiratori. 3. Salur darah menyerap oksigen dari paru – paru ke jantung secara resapan. 4. Salur darah adalah medium aliran darah ke seluruh badan.
Sistem Limfatik Komponen utama - NODUS LIMFA, PEMBULUH LIMFATIK, DUKTUS TORASIK FUNGSI utama:1. Rumah kepada sel darah putih yang menjadi sistem pertahanan badan (imunisasi) dari jangkitan dan penyakit. 2. Memungut cecair yang bocor dari pembuluh darah (sama ada melalui resapan atau
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Sistem Respiratori Komponen utama – RONGGA HIDUNG, FARINKS, LARINKS, BRONKIOL, PARU – PARU FUNGSI utama :1. Membekalkan oksigen ke dalam darah dan mengkumuhkan karbon dioksida. 2. Paru –paru sebagai lokasi pertukaran gas (resapan melalui dinding pundi –pundi udara) antara oksigen dengan karbon dioksida. 3. Mengekalkan keadaan dan persekitaran dalaman tubuh yang stabil
Sistem Urinari Komponen utama – GINJAL, PUNDI KENCING FUNGSI utama :1. Menyingkirkan bahan – bahan kumuh nitrogen dari badan. 2. Mengawal air dan eletroit. 3. Mengawal keseimbangan asid-bes dalam darah
Sistem Reproduktif Komponen utama a. Perempuan- OVARI, SALUR UTERIN (FALLOPIO), UTERUS,VAGINA b. Lelaki - TESTIS, PENIS, PUNDI PROSTAT, SKROTUM. FUNGSI utama - perempuan 1)Ovari menghasilkan telur dan hormon wanita. 2)Uterus adalah lokasi persenyawaan. FUNGSI utama – lelaki 1. Menghasilkan generasi akan datang. 2. Testis menghasilkan sperma dan hormone seks lelaki 3. Duktus dan kelenjar membantu menyalurkan sperma ke trek reproduktif wanita.
Sistem Pencernaan Komponen utama - RONGGA MULUT, ESOFAGUS, PERUT, USUS BESAR, USUS KECIL, REKTRUM, ANUS FUNGSI utama :1. Memecahkan makanan kepada unit-unit yang boleh diserap oleh darah (dalam bentuk nutrient) untuk diagihkan ke seluruh sel badan. 2. Makanan yang tidak dicernakan dikumuhkan dalam bentuk najis.
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REGULASI HOMEOSTATIK OLEH SISTEM ORGAN Definisi homeostatik - Homeostasis dirujuk sebagai pengekalan atau mekanisma kawal atur persekitaran dinamik dalaman (badan organisma) yang malar. - Homeostasis merupakan salah satu konsep yang paling penting dalam biologi. 2 jenis pemalar dlm homeostatik: - SISTEM TERTUTUP a. Keseimbangan statik. b. Dimana keadaan dalam yang tidak berubah seperti botol tertutup.
- SISTEM TERBUKA a. Keseimbangan dinamik dimana keadaan dalam yang malar walaupun sistem ini terus berubah contohnya seperti sebuah kolam di dasar air terjun
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KEPENTINGAN homeostatik Memboleh organisma mengadaptasi kepada persekitaran luar yang mempunyai julat dan habitat yang lebih luas. Menyediakan keadaan dalaman (persekitaran dinamik dalam badan organisma) yang stabil supaya sel-sel dapat menjalankan hidup dengan cekap. Membolehkan kadar metabolisma dikawal dengan cekap pada bila-bila masa. Boleh enzim-enzim menjalan fungsinya dengan optimum. PROSES yang terlibat - Suap balik positif a. Contoh deman, badan akan bertambah panas untuk membunuh bakteria dan virus.
Organ yg terlibat dlm kawalatur homeostatik: h omeostatik: a. Hati b. Ginjal c. Kulit PENGENALAN KEPADA BAHAN KIMIA UTAMA
Bergandingan dengan koordinasi saraf, koordinasi kimia dikawal oleh hormon dan kelenjar endokrin. Hormon adalah bahan kimia dalam badan yang mengawal aktiviti badan. Hormon dihasilkan oleh bahagian badan yang disebut sebagai kelenjar endokrin. Kelenjar endokrin juga digelar "kelenjar tanpa duktus " kerana ia membebaskan hormon terus ke dalam aliran darah kita. Manusia mempunyai 6 jenis kelenjar endokrin utama iaitu :-
a. Pituitari - Terletak dalam otak ia mengawal kelenjar lain serta berfungsi dalam PERTUMBUHAN b. Tiroid - Terletak di tepi leher ia mengawal
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d. Pancreas - Terletak di pankreas ia MENGAWAL ARAS GULA DALAM DARAH e. Ovari - Terletak dalam ovari ia mengawal PERKEMBANGAN SEKS f. Testis - Terletak dalam testis ia mengawal PERKEMBANGAN SEKS
Jika kuantiti hormon ini tidak seimbang ia akan mencacatkan aktiviti badan. CONTOHNYA, jika hormon yang dikeluarkan dari pankreas tidak mencukupi, seseorang akan menghidap penyakit kencing manis KOORDINASI SARAF Dikawal oleh sistem saraf Maklumat dihantar dalam bentuk IMPULS
Gerak balasnya boleh dipercepat atau diperlambatkan Pusat kawalan adalah otak dan saraf tunjang
KOORDINASI KIMIA Dikawal oleh sistem endokrin Maklumat dihantar dalam bentuk HORMON Gerak balas adalah lambat
Membrane - Kulit sel bukanlah selaput yang statik - Lapisan sel yang khusus menyelaputi ronggarongga badan - Semua membran ini mengeluarkan cecair rembesan untuk melicinkan atau membasahi rongga yang diselaputnya Fungsi Membran
Membrane sel eukariot terdiri dari 2 LAPISAN FOSFOLIPID Fosfolipid dan kolestrol merupakan asas struktur membran sementara protein mempunyai tugas-tugas khusus bahagian-bahagian dalaman sel sebenarnya mempunyai sistem perhubungan antara satu sama lain MEKANISMA ASAS PENGELUARAN, PENYIMPANAN DAN PENGGUNAAN TENAGA
Pusat kawalan adalah kelenjar-kelenjar
STRUKTUR MEMBRANE DAN FUNGSI
Tiga Membran penting:- Membran mukosa - Membran sinovial - Membran serosa
Respirasi dalaman - Berlaku apabila badan mengeluarkan tenaga daripada makanan - melibatkan pertukaran gas-gas - respiratori antara darah dan sel2 tisu - melibatkan pemindahan oksigen dr darah ke sel-sel tisu - melibatkan pemindahan karbon dioksida daripada sel-sel tisu ke darah Respirasi aerobik glukosa
tenaga
oksigen
Karbon diokside
air
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Kadar metabolik Kadar metabolik rendah
Kadar metabolik tinggi
Tenaga
Tenaga
Lemak
JENIS DAN FUNGSI TISU UTAMA
a. b. c. d.
JENIS-JENIS tisu utama Tisu epithelium Tisu otot Tisu saraf Tisu penghubung
FUNGSI-FUNGSI tisu a. Tisu epithelium - Menutupi tubuh, iaitu kulit dan yang melapisi rongga sebagai perlindungan. - Mencegah kerosakan tisu dibawahnya, mencegah kehilangan cecair dan juga mencegah kemasukan cecair kedalam struktur yang ditutupi kulit. - Mikroorganisma tidak dapat menembusi kulit yang sihat, tetapi hanya dapat melalui kulit yang luka.
b. Tisu otot - Otot rangka : berfungsi menggerakkan tulang dan anggota badan. - Otot licin : berperanan mengerakkan bahan dalam salur pencernaan dan usus.
c. Tisu saraf - Mekoordinasi kesemua kegiatan badan, khususnya yang berkaitan dengan fungsi-fungsi endokrin, motor dan mental. - Memproses maklumat rangsangan supaya gerak balasdapat dilaksanakan. - Mengutus maklumat (impuls saraf) dari satu tempat ke tempat lain. - Bergerak balas terhadap rangsangan kimia dan fizikal. d. Tisu penghubung - Untuk menyokong dan mempertahankan kedudukan organ dalam tubuh. - Membentuk rangka badan dan melindungi organ badan. - Sebagai tempat tempat menyimpan air dan lemak yang apabila diperlukan dapat diserap kembali.
TAJUK 2: SISTEM RANGKA - Rangka manusia terdiri daripada 206 tulang
FUNGSI TULANG 1. SOKONGAN - Tulang membentuk rangka tubuh bagi menyokongtisu-tisu lembut dan organ tubuh
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2. PERLINDUNGAN - Rangka melindungi organ dalaman yang penting - Contoh :- saraf tunjang, jantung dan mata 3. PERGERAKAN - Tulang-tulang akan bertindak sebagai tuas bagi menghasilkan pergerakan apabila otot yang melekat pada tulang tulang berkontraksi. - Contoh :- Sendi lutut melibatkan tibula,fibula dan femur 4. PEMBENTUKAN - Sum-sum dalam tulang menghasilkan sel darah merah,sel darah putih dan platlet. - Contoh :- Sternum, femur, pelvis dan humerus
c. KARTILEJ - Tisu lembut tetapi kuat, elastik dan tiada saluran darah. - Kartilej menyaluti hujung-hujung tulang yang membentuk sendi. - Berfungsi untuk melindungi tulang daripada haus apabila bergeseran antara sendi dan sebagai penyerap apabila berlaku hentakan pada tulang d. TENDON - Tisu berfiber tidak kenyal yang sangat kuat. - Berfungsi untuk melekatkan otot dengan tulang
5. PENSTORAN MINERAL - Tempat penstoran mineral seperti kalsium dan fosforus. - Mineral ini akan dikeluarkan untuk kegunaan bahagian lain pada tubuh apabila diperlukan - Contoh:- Lemak distorkan dalam kaviti tulang. Jika diperlukan, lemak akan diserap ke dalam darah dan digunakan oleh tisu lain sebagai sumber tenaga
STRUKTUR TULANG Komponen Rangka:a. TULANG
e. SENDI - Tempat pertemuan bersebelahan.
dua
tulang
yang
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c. TULANG LEPER/PIPIH - Pipih , nipis dan melengkung - Tempat pelekatan otot-otot & melindungi organ dibawahnya - Contoh:- cranium, rusuk, sternum c. Sendi yang boleh bergerak bebas (diathrosis) - Sendi lutut, sendi bahu
sternum
d. -
Klasifikasi Tulang a. TULANG PANJANG - Ukuran panjang melebihi ukuran lebar - Tuas untuk memudahkan pergerakan - Contoh:- femur, tibia, fibula, ulna,radius
TULANG TIDAK SEKATA Tidak dapat dikategorikan Tempat pelekatan otot Contoh:- servikal,torasik, lumbar, sekrum
e. TULANG BULAT - Bersaiz kecil - Contoh:- patella
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Menghasilkan sel untuk membesar dan melindungi diafisis b. TULANG MAMPAT (DIAFISIS) - Lapisan kedua yang mepunyai batang halus dan keras - Disaluti periosteum - Melingkari kaviti medulari yang megandungi lemak c. TULANG BERONGGA (EPIFISIS) - Lapisan ketiga . - Terletak di hujung tulang panjang - Lapisan nipis tulang mampat d. SUM-SUM TULANG (MARROW BONE) - Lapisan paling dalam pada struktur tulang. - Berperanan menghasilkan sum-sum asal dalam tulang
a. Terdiri daripada sel tulang berfiber kolagen dan bahan bermineral padat b. Terbentuk hasil daripada sel osteoblas yang merembeskan bahan matriks organik fiber-fiber untuk memerangkap mineral c. Osteoklas ialah sel-sel yang melarutkan mineral dalam tulang. d. Osteoblas dan osteoklas akan bertindak untuk mengubah ketumpatan dan bentuk tulang. e. Osteoblasaktif ketika usia muda atau kanak-kanak manakala osteoklas aktif kepada orang dewasa -
Osifikasi tulang a. Ketika embrio, tulang-tulang rangka (tulang lembut) terbina daripada kartilej hialin. b. Tulang lembut ini membentuk tulang keras yang dihasilkan melalui proses osifikasi tulang. c. Proses ini berlaku ketika usia embrio enam minggu dan berterusan sehingga dewasa Osteoblast menyaluti kartilej hialin dengan bahan matriks bermineral
PERKEMBANGAN DAN PERTUMBUHAN TULANG
Osteoblast memendapkan bahan matriks bermineral dalam kartilej ke
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Keperluan mineral, vitamin dan hormon a. GARAM MINERAL - Kalsium dan fosfat diperlukan untuk tumbesaran tulang. - Kedua-dua garam mineral ini diperlukan untuk tumbesaran dari segi pertambahan saiz dan berat tulang. b. VITAMIN - Vitamin A, D dan C diperlukan untuk tumbesaran tulang. - Vitamin D merangsang penyerapan serta mengangkut kalsium dan fosfat ke dalam tulang. - Ini membolehkan struktur menjadi lebih kuat. - Vitamin A dan C pula diperlukan untuk tumbesaran dan membaiki tisu-tisu tulang yang rosak c. HORMON - Hormon-hormon tiroid, estrogen dan testosterone diperlukan untuk merangsang proses tumbesaran tulang.
RANGKA AKSIAL Rangka aksil terdiri dari tengkorak, tulang vertebra, sangkar thorasik. a. TENGKORAK - Terletak dibahagian atas kolum vertebra - Terdiri daripada 28 tulang, iaitu:a) 8 tulang cranium bersambung antara satu sama lain oleh sendi tidak bergerak
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2 nasal bone 2 lacrimal bone 1 mandible 1 vomer
c) Tulang hyoid - Hyoid merupakan tulang yang berbentuk huruf U, terdapat di antara larynx dan mandible
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11
b. TULANG VERTEBRA - Terdiri daripada 33 tulang :a) 24 tulang boleh bergerak : 7 cervical vertebra 12 thoracic vertebra 5 lumbar vertebra b) 9 tulang tidak boleh bergerak : 5 sacrum vertebra 4 coccyx
True ribs
Sternum
False ribs
Floating ribs
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c. SANGKAR THORASIK - Tulang dada dan tulang rusuk berbentuk perisai. - Pelindung bagi organ-organ penting yang terdapat di dada iaitu jantung dan paruparu - Tulang rusuk juga berhubungan dengan tulang belakang - Terdiri daripada :a) 1 sternum bone
RANGKA APENDIKULAR Rangka apendikular terdiri daripada pectoral girdle dan tangan serta pelvic girdle dan kaki Rangka apendikuler mengawal alat gerak, iaitu tangan dan kaki yang dibezakan dengan rangka bahagian atas dan rangka bahagian bawah Tulang rangka apendikular bahagian atas:
a. PECTORAL GIRDLE DAN TANGAN 2 Clavicle bones (tulang selanga) 2 Scrapula bones (tulang belikat) 2 Humerus bones 2 Ulna bones 2 Radius bones 16 Carpal bones 10 Metacarpal bones 28 Phalanges
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b. PELVIC GIRDLE DAN KAKI 2 Hip bones (ilium, ischium & pubis) 2 Femur bones 2 Fibula bones 2 Tibia bones 2 Patella bones 2 Tarsal bones 10 Metatarsal bones 28 Phalanges
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Cartilaginous Diselaputi membran sinovial yang merembeskan cecair sinovial bagi melicinkan pergerakan sendi untuk memelihara kartilej dan mengurangkan kesan geseran antara dua tulang. membenarkan pergerakan berlaku secara bebas antara tulang-tulang Sinovial tulang-tulang disambung dengan kartilej atau diikat oleh ligamen. jenis sendi ini hanya membenarkan pergerakan yang terhad. Contoh, sendi antara vertebra
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ARTIKULASI Klasifikasi sendi Pola artikular dan fungsi
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13
b. Sendi engsel/hinge joint (humerus dan ulna)
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Pergerakan ini melibatkan permukaan clavical dan acromioc scapula saling melongsor
c. Sendi gelungsur/plane/gliding joint (karpal dan tarsal)
d. Sendi paksi/ pivot joint (antara radius dan ulna)
a. Bersudut - Pergerakan yang menyebabkan pertambahan atau pengurangan sudut di antara tulang-tulang sendi - Pergerakan yang utama : fleksi, ekstensi, ekstensi hiper, abduksi, adduksi dan sirkumduksi - Relative kepada kedudukan anatomi FLEKSI: sudut di antara tulang-tulang sendi berkurangan (membawa dagu ke dada) ESKTENSI: sudut di antara tulang-tulang sendi akan meningkat (mengembali kepala ke posisi asal selepas membawa dagu ke dada) EKSTENSI HIPER: pergerakan ekstensi bahagian tubuh melepasi kedudukan
e. Sendi kondil/condylond/ ellipsoidal joint(antara metacarpal dan falang) falang)
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c) Khusus/khas - Pergerakan ini hanya berlaku di sendi tertentu sahaja dan tidak terhad kepada elevasi, depresi, protraksi, retraksi, inversi, eversi, pendorsifleksan dan felksi plantar:a. ELEVASI: pergerakan menaikkan bahagian tertentu tubuh (menutup mulut ‗menaikkan mandibel‘ selepas membukanya b. DEPRESI: pergerakan menurunkan bahagian tertentu tubuh (membuka mulut ‗menurunkan mendibel‘)
b) Putaran - Melibatkan tulang berputar pada paksi membujur tulang itu sendiri - Dilakukan secara relative kepada garisan tengah tubuh - Putaran dilakukan ke arah kanan atau kiri dan secara medial dan lateral
Elevasi
Depresi
c. PROTRAKSI: pergerakan ke arah hadapan bahagian tertentu tubuh (memuncungkan bibir) d. RETRAKSI: pergerakan untuk mengembalikan bahagian tertentu tubuh yang telah diprotraksikan ke kedudukan anatomi (mengerit gigi)
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h. FLEKSI PLANTAR: pergerakan membawa tapak kaki ke arah permukaan plantar (berdiri di atas jari kaki)
Pendorsifleksan
Fleksi Plantar
i. SUPINASI: pergerakan bahagian lengan bawah yang menyebabkan tapak tangan menghala ke atas (menghulur tangan untuk menerima sesuatu benda) j. PRONASI: pergerakan bahagian bawah lengan yang menyebabkan tapak tangan menghala ke bawah (meletakkan tapak tangan di atas meja) Pronasi
Pergerakan dihasilkan oleh pengucupan dan pemanjangan otot PERKAITAN DENGAN SISTEM OTOT - Otot rangka merupakan sejenis otot berstria yang menghubungkan antara tulang ke tulang yang lain - Otot rangka digunakan untuk pergerakan dan postur badan dengan mengenakan daya kepada tulang dan sendi melalui pengecutan - Sel otot rangka mempunyai bentuk silinder panjang dan nukleus berbilang - Nukleus otot ini terdapat di bawah membrane plasma yang mengosongkan bahagian tengah gentian otot untuk myofibril - Otot ini biasanya mempunyai salah satu hujungnya terlekat kepada tulang pegun seperti SCAPULA, dan hujang satu lagi melintasi sendi dan melekat kepada tulang yang lain seperti HUMERUS - Otot rangka mengecut secara terkawal melalui stimulasi saraf
Su inas inasii
k. OPOSISi: pergerakan membawa ibu jari tangan
Komponen sistem rangka
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o
Epimisium/ Epimysium Keseluruhan badan otot yang terdiri daripada fasikel-fasikel ini disaluti tisu penghubung kasar yang dikenali sebagai epimisium
c) TENDON - Tisu fiber kolagen yang melekatkan otot kepada tulang - Tendon tidak begitu kenyal - Ia menghasilkan daya ketegangan yang tinggi
JENIS-JENIS OTOT - Terdapat 3 jenis otot iaitu:a. Otot rangka b. Otot kardiak c. Otot licin - Otot- otot ini dapat dibezakan berdasarkan lokasi struktur dan fungsinya
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Ada pada otot-otot tertentu shj.
Sel-sel badan menghasilkan haba sebagai aktiviti sampingan otot. Haba penting untuk mengekalkan suhu normal badan.
SISTEM OTOT TERMINOLOGI OTOT - CIRI-CIRI otot 1. KEBOLEHUJAAN (IRRITABILITY/EXCITABILITY) Kemampuan otot untuk menerima dan bertindak o balas terhadap rangsangan yang diterima. Keupayaan ini membolehkan otot untuk o mengucup 2. KEBOLEHKUNCUPAN (CONTRACTIBILITY) Keupayaan otot untuk menguncup atau o memendek apabila menerima rangsangan. Daya dihasilkan apabila otot menguncup.
- LEKATAN otot Setiap otot rangka melekat pada tulang atau tisu-tisu penghubung yang lain. 2 tempat lekatan otot ialah: a) LEKATAN PROKSIMAL Lekatan yang dikenali sebagai origin. o Lekatan otot pada tulang atau tisu penghubung o yang lebih hampir dengan batang tubuh. b) LEKATAN DISTAL Lekatan otot pada tulang atau tisu penghubung o yang lebih jauh dari batang tubuh.
Rentak kontraksi
tiada
ada
o
Dikenali sebagai ‗Insertion‘.
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Megawal kelajuan pergerakan dan melicinkan pergerakan yang dilakukan oleh agonis. Contoh: triseps brakii o c. SINERGIS Otot-otot yang membantu otot-otot o penggerak utama. Sinergis menambah daya pada pelekatan o otot. Sinergis juga menstabilkan sendi di mana o otot-otot itu melekat. Contoh: Otot-otot brakioradialis, biseps o brakii dan brakialis bertindak sebagai sinergis untuk membengkok sendi siku. o
- PENGUCUPAN otot rangka Jenis-jenis penguncupan otot
b. Penguncupan Isotonik - Bentuk penguncupan di mana fiber-fiber otot memendek bagi menghasilkan daya mengatasi rintangan yang bergerak. - Penguncupan isotonik boleh berlaku secara konsentrik atau esentrik. - Penguncupan konsentrik melibatkan pemendekan fiber-fiber otot. - CONTOH: Penguncupan bisep semasa mengangkat ‗dumbell‘. - Penguncupan esentrik melibatkan pemanjangan fiber otot
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Peratusan fiber sentak cepat dan lambat ini dalam otot begantung kepada baka, fungsi dan latihan seseorang individu FIBER SENTAK CEPAT Dikenali sebagai fiber jenis II. o Saiz lebih besar dan berwarna putih. o Mempunyai keupayaan anaerobik yang o tinggi dan sesuai untuk aktiviti berintensiti tinggi, pantas dan memakan masa yang pendek. CONTOH: lari pecut. o Fiber ini menyebabkan atlet mudah o menjadi lesu. FIBER SENTAK LAMBAT o Dikenali sebagai fiber jenis I. o Saiz lebih kecil dan berwarna merah. o Mempunyai keupayaan aerobik yang tinggi
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f. Otot kardiak semakin kurang berupaya untuk mengepam darah dalam jumlah yang besar dengan cepat keseluruh badan Meningkatkan kadar pernafasan anarobik o g. Kadar metabolisma menurun Risiko obesiti tinggi o Peningkatan kolestrol jahat o h. Kekuatan cengkaman tangan berkurangan Sukar melakukan aktiviti yang melibatkan o kekuatan ini i. Sukar sembuh dari kecederaan otot -
ATROFI OTOT Atrofi otot ialah kandungan aktin dan miosin dalam fiber otot berkurangan disebabkan oleh pengecutan atau kehilangan fiber otot yang menyebabkan pengecilan
PUNCA berlaku:a. Umur - Remaja mengalami hipertrofi semasa pertumbuhan b. Pemakanan - Makan makanan kaya dengan protein bersama latihan beban menghasilkan hipertrofi c. Latihan dan penggunaan otot - Angkat berat JENIS hipertrofi:a. sarcoplasmic hypertrophy - Peningkatan kuantiti cecair sarcoplasmic b. Tidak membantu menguatkan otot - Ahli bina badan c. myofibrillar hypertrophy - Peningkatan kuantiti aktin dan miosin
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22
o
o
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Neuron aferen (Afferent neuron) Neurone yang menghantar impuls dari reseptor ke otak atau saraf tunjang. Neuron eferen (Efferent neuron) Neuron yang menghantar impuls dari otak atau saraf tunjang ke otot atau kelenjar.
o
-
Sistem saraf somatik (Somatic nervous system) Sebahagian daripada sistem saraf periferi
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23
SISTEM SARAF - Sistem saraf tersusun oleh berjuta-juta sel saraf yang mempunyai bentuk bervariasi dan berhubung antara satu sama lain. - Saraf memindahkan maklumat iaitu impuls yang mana dalam bentuk arus elektrik melalui jaringan sel saraf yang menjadi unit asasnya iaitu NEURON. - Sistem saraf berfungsi mengkoordinasi, mentafsir dan mengawal sistem lain dalam
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24
o
o
o
CEREBRUM (OTAK BESAR) : - Memainkan peranan penting dalam ingatan, pembelajaran, percakapan, emosi serta menghasilkan tindakbalas tingkahlaku kompleks. CEREBELLUM (OTAK KECIL) - Mengkoordinasi pergerakan tubuh, memainkan peranan dalam pembelajaran dan mengingati perlakuan motor. MEDULLA OBLONGATA
o
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VENTRAL ROOT : Laluan di mana neuron motor meninggalkan tulang belakang.
SISTEM SARAF PERIFERI Sistem ini terdiri daripada serabut saraf yang bermula dari saraf pusat hingga reseptor deria. FUNGSInya adalah untuk menghantar impuls dari reseptor ke saraf pusat dan dari saraf pusat ke organ yang berkenaan untuk tindakan
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Sensori neuron seterusnya akan menghantar maklumat kepada CNS (sistem saraf pusat saraf tunjang). Di dalam CNS, maklumat tersebut akan dihantar ke neuron motor dan menyebabkan otot quadriceps mengecut sekali gus menyentak kaki ke hadapan SISTEM SARAF AUTONOMIC Sistem ini mengawal TINDAKAN LUAR
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26
pencernaan menghasilkan hormon noradrenalin
adrenalin
FUNGSI SISTEM SARAF 1. mengintegrasikan rangsangan - reseptor deria akn terima perubahan rangsangan daripada tubuh badan - maklumat sensori akan dikumpulkan dan diterima melalui proses integrasi 2. menterjemahkan rangsangan
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mengandung besi, yang merupakan tempat terikatnya molekul-molekul oksigen. Darah juga mengangkut bahan sisa metabolisme, ubat-ubatan dan bahan kimia asing kepada hati dan kepada buah pinggang untuk dikeluarkan sebagai air kencing Fungsi darah:a. Mengangkut gas, nutrien dan bahan kumuh b. Mengangkut molekul yang diproses
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27
o
Semakin tua semakin rapuh, kehilangan bentuk, dan ukurannya mengecil menjadi seperti ukuran yang sebelumnya
a. 90% air b. 10% larutan protein glukos, faktor koagulasi , ion mineral , hormon dan karbon
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28
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Platelet tidak melekat kepada dinding saluran darah yang rosak kerana ditangkis oleh endothelium yang utuh.
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Terdiri dari 4 ruang, 2 ATRIUM di atas dan 2 VENTRIKEL di bawah Dinding otot yang tebal (SEPTUM)
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Anatomi jantung
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Kitaran sistemik Kitaran ini membawa darah beroksigen dari jantung melalui AORTA ke semua bahagiaan
b. Biasanya dirangsang oleh implus yang datang daripada miokardium atrium c. Berupaya untuk memulakan implus
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KITARAN KARDIAK - Setiap degupan jantung melibatkan turutan yang dikenali sebagai „KITARAN KARDIAK‟
d. Keabnormalan ritma degupan jantung sama ada laju atau perlahan
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