Biologia Citologia Introdu Intr oduçã çãoo ....... .............. ............. ............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ......... 3 I - Bioquímica Bioquímica Celular Celular ....... ............. ............. .............. .............. .............. ............ ..... 3 1 - Composiçã Composiçãoo Química Química da Célula Célula ... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ...... 3 II - Estrutura e Funcionamento Celular ...... ............ ............18 ......18 1 - Surg Surgimen imento to da Citologia Citologia ... ...... ...... ....... ....... ...... ...... ...... ....... .... 18 2 - Orga Organiza nização ção Celular ... ....... ....... ...... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ..... 19 3 - Membrana Citoplasmá Citoplasmática tica ....... .............. ............. ............ ...... 20 4 - Parede Celular ...... ............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .......... ... 26 5 - Citoplasma ...... ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. .............. .......... ... 26 6 - Síntese Protéica Protéica....... .............. ............. ............. .............. .............. ......... 32 7 - Fotossínt Fotossíntese ese ...... ............. .............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ......... 34 8 - Respiração Celular ....... .............. .............. .............. .............. ........... 39 9 - Núcleo Núcleo Celular....... Celular ............. ............. ............. ............. ............. ............ ...... 45 Diversidade dos Seres Vivos (Parte I) I II I II IV V VI
- Clas Classif sifica icaçã çãoo dos dos Ser Seres es Viv Vivos os... ..................................... 58 - Vírus Vírus....... .............. .............. .............. ............. ............. .............. .............. ............ ..... 62 - Reino Reino Mone Monera ra ... ....... ....... ...... ...... ....... ....... ...... ....... ....... ...... ...... ....... ....... ... 65 - Reino Protista Protista ... ....... ....... ...... ....... ....... ...... ....... ....... ...... ....... ....... ...... ...... ... 72 - Rein Reinoo Fung Fungii .... ....... ...... ....... ....... ...... ....... ....... ...... ....... ....... ...... ....... ....... ....... 87 - Liqu Liquens ens ... ....... ....... ...... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ...... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ...... 91
RICARDO LUIZ PRATA PONTES
, , o m t a t o m s o d n e i n s v c , e e e r 2 v m o t p e . , s a i e t s e t r l ó 1 o m n a u p i o a p c e r o d c f r 4 m , é a g 0 e o i s á a m u ã a r 1 o i ç e r a o p 0 a s o t r i u , e i a d e u ã ç t q n s 4 8 o n i a o 1 ã e t , , t o l u i s e i r o u g e e n i l i t u d m g a s r c r u m o A e r e l , d e l u a u r q , o o a d l n a a a t e n u d a n e P e q n c t r e o e o p r d g e o v t p o i , d d t a o à o ó l ã ç o i m o C u u ã t ã m d i ç s ç a o n o z r s é i r p o r p o e p t r x m u A e e a
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
CITOLOGIA INTRODUÇÃO A Citologia (gr: KYTOS = célula; LOGOS = estudo) é a parte da Biologia que estuda a célula em todos os seus aspectos: bioquímico, morfológico e funcional. A célula é considerada a unidade fundamen- tal dos seres vivos, com exceção dos vírus, que são organismos acelulares, ou seja, não são constituídos por células, mas dependem delas para sua
sobrevivência. Nos organismos unicelulares, a única célula presente realiza todas as funções necessárias à manutenção da vida, enquanto as várias células dos organismos pluricelulares apresentam diferentes formas adaptadas ao desempenho das mais variadas funções.
I - BIOQUÍMICA CELULAR É o estudo da composição química da célula. Os elementos químicos predominantes na matéria viva são carbono, hidrogênio, oxigênio e nitrogênio, que representam cerca de 95% dos elementos encontrados no interior da célula. Os outros 5% se distribuem entre elementos como sódio, potássio, cloro, cálcio, ferro, magnésio, enxofre, fósforo e outros. Os elementos
citados formam as mais diversas substâncias, que reagem entre si através de um conjunto de processos químicos. Ao conjunto de reações químicas que ocorrem em um organismo vivo denominamos metabolismo. As substâncias químicas presentes nas células podem ser divididas em dois grandes grupos: substâncias inorgânicas e substâncias orgânicas .
1 - COMPOSIÇÃO QUÍMICA DA CÉLULA SUBS SU BSTÂ TÂNC NCIA IAS S IN INOR ORGÂ GÂNI NICA CAS S
Água Sais Minerais
SUBS SU BSTÂ TÂNC NCIIAS OR ORGÂ GÂNI NICA CAS S
Carboidratos Proteínas Lípides Ácidos Nucléicos Vitaminas
1.1 - Substâncias Inorgânicas ÁGUA É a substância mais abundante encontrada enco ntrada no interior das células. A taxa de água nos organismos vivos varia em função de três fatores: atividade metabólica, idade e espécie. a) Atividade Metabólica : Quanto maior a atividade metabólica de um tecido, maior o teor de água. Nos neurônios do córtex cerebral, a porcentagem de água é de cerca de 85%, enquanto nos adipócitos (células que armazenam gordura), cerca de 20% do conteúdo celular é formado por água. b) Idade: Normalmente, o teor de água decresce com o aumento da idade. Um feto humano com três meses de idade apresenta cerca de 94% de água, enquanto que em um indivíduo adulto o teor médio é de 65%. c) Espécie : O teor de água nos organismos vivos varia de espécie para espécie. Na espécie humana, a água representa cerca de 65% do peso, enquanto que nas águas-vivas o teor médio é de 98%.
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
- Atua como regulador térmico nos animais homeotermos, animais que mantêm a temperatura do corpo constante, independente independente da temperatura ambiental. A evaporação da água na superfíci superfíciee da pele retira o excesso de calor do corpo, favorecendo a manutenção da temperatura. - Atua como regulador ácido-básico, mantendo o pH mais ou menos constante. A concentração hidrogeniônica [H+] varia muito pouco nas reações que ocorrem o correm em meio aquoso, favorecendo, assim, a manutenção manuten ção do pH. - Atua como veículo de substâncias (oxigênio, gás carbônico, nutrientes, excretas, etc.) que atravessam as membranas celulares, mantendo um intercâmbio entre os o s meios intracelular e extracelular. O estado de equilíbrio estabelecido através da água é denominado equilíbrio osmótico. - Atua com lubrificante, exercendo importantíssimo papel na diminuição do atrito nas articulações e entre os órgãos.
SAIS MINERAIS Desempenham as mais variadas funções no interior das células, sendo muito importantes para o perfeito funcionamento celular. celular. Os sais minerais são encontrados nos organismos vivos sob duas formas de ocorrência: insolúvel e solúvel. a) Forma Insolúvel: Nessa forma, os sais minerais se apresentam como componentes da estrutura esquelética. Os sais insolúveis são também denominados cristalinos e apresentam como importante representante representan te o fosfato de cálcio, presente nos ossos e dentes. b) Forma Solúvel: Nessa forma, os sais minerais se apresentam dissolvidos em água e, assim, dissociados em íons. Os sais solúveis são também denominados íons minerais, exercendo importantes papéis no metabolismo. O quadro representado a seguir indica os principais principa is íons minerais presentes nos organismos vivos e o seu papel biológico. ÍONS MINERAIS (SAIS MINERAIS SOLÚVEIS)
Sódio (Na+) e Potássio (K+) Cálcio (Ca++) Cloro (Cl –) Iodo (I –)
PAPEL BIOLÓGICO
Aumentam a permeabilidade das membranas celulares, desempenhando importante papel na manutenção do equilíbrio equ ilíbrio osmótico celular. Relacionamse também à condução dos impulsos nervosos. A concentração de Na+ é maior no meio extracelular, enquanto a concentração de K+ é maior no meio intracelular. Participa dos processos de contração muscular e coagulação do sangue. Atua sobre a permeabilidade das membranas celulares. É essencial à formação do ácido clorídrico, no estômago. Faz parte dos hormônios da tireóide, glândula relacionada ao controle metabólico geral. A carência de iodo na alimentação pode provocar o bócio, comum em certas regiões interioranas (bócio endêmico).
Ferro (Fe++)
Faz parte da molécula de hemoglobina, pigmento vermelho presente no interior das hemácias do sangue com função de realizar o transporte de gases respiratórios. Faz parte das moléculas de citocromos, que são transportadores de elétrons e que participam dos processos de fotossíntese e respiração celular.
Magnésio (Mg++)
Faz parte da molécula de clorofila, pigmento verde capaz de absorver a energia luminosa para a realização da fotossíntese.
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
Sais Minerais e Equilíbrio Ácido-Básico Alguns sais iônicos, como fosfatos e carbonatos, são importantes na manutenção do pH nas células, formando a solução tampão. Esses íons, denominados tampões, evitam variações do pH intracelular e favorecem a ocorrência das reações químicas.
1.2 - Substâncias Orgânicas CARBOIDRATOS Também conhecidos por açúcares, hidratos de carbono, glúcides, glícides e sacárides, representam as principais fontes de energia para o organismo. Observamos também que os carboidratos podem apresentar função estrutural quando fazem parte de estruturas celulares. São constituídos principalmente princi palmente por carbono ( C ) hidrogênio (H) e oxigênio (O), podendo também aparecer aparece r o nitrogênio (N) ou o enxofre (S). Os carboidratos são divididos em três grandes grupos: Monossacarídeos, Dissacarídeos e Polissacarídeos. a) Monossacarídeos : São os açúcares mais simples que não podem ser hidrolisados. Possuem fórmula geral CnH2nOn, sendo que n varia de 3 a 7. Sua classificação clas sificação é feita de acordo ac ordo com o número de átomos de carbono que apresentam. Assim, temos: FÓRMULA MOLECULAR
DENOMINAÇÃO
Se n = 3
C3H6O3
Triose
Se n = 4
C4H8O4
Tetrose
Se n = 5
C5H10O5
Pentose
Se n = 6
C6H12O6
Hexose
Se n = 7
C7H14O7
Heptose
As pentoses e as hexoses são os monossacarídeos mais importantes para os organismos vivos. As principais desoxirribose, e, que apresentam função estrutural por entrarem na constituição dos pentoses são ribose e desoxirribos ácidos nucléicos, enquanto entre as hexoses destacamos glicose, frutose e galactose, que apresentam função energética, já que constituem importantes fontes de energia para as células. PENTOSE Ribose
FÓRMULA MOLECULAR C5H10O5
OCORRÊNCIA RNA
FUNÇÃO Estrutural
Desoxirribose
C5H10O4
DNA
Estrutural
HEXOSE Glicose
FÓRMULA MOLECULAR C6H12O6
OCORRÊNCIA Sangue-Mel
FUNÇÃO Energética
Frutose
C6H12O6
Frutas
Energética
Galactose
C6H12O6
Leite
Energética
b) Dissacarídeos : São açúcares hidrolisáveis formados pela união de duas moléculas de monossacarídeos monossacarídeos através de uma ligação denominada glicosídica, com liberação de molécula de água. Os principais dissacarídeos são: Maltose - Formada pela união de duas moléculas de glicose. Apresenta função energética, estando presente no pão e na batata.
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
c) Polissacarídeos: São açúcares hidrolisáveis formados pela união de várias moléculas de monossacarídeos. Os principais polissacarídeos são: Amido - Formado pela união de várias moléculas de glicose, constitui a reserva energética dos vegetais . Encontra-se armazenado em grandes proporções propo rções em raízes tuberosas como a mandioca e caules tubérculos como a batata inglesa. A hidrólise total do amido forma moléculas de glicose, enquanto a hidrólise parcial produz moléculas de maltose. Glicogênio - Formado pela união de várias moléculas de glicose, constitui a reserva energética dos animais . Encontra-se armazenado sobretudo no fígado e nos músculos. A hidrólise total do glicogênio forma moléculas de glicose, enquanto a hidrólise parcial produz moléculas de maltose. Celulose - Formada pela união de várias moléculas de glicose, constitui um importante polissacarídeo com função estrutural. É o principal componente da parede celular dos vegetais. A hidrólise total da celulose forma moléculas de glicose, enquanto a hidrólise parcial produz moléculas de celobiose.
Além dos três exemplos de polissacarídeos mencionados podemos citar: - Heparina - Substância de ação anti-coagulante produzida por células do tecido conjuntivo propriamente dito denominadas mastócitos.
- Quitina - Substância nitrogenada com função estrutural, presente na parede celular dos fungos e no exoesqueleto dos artrópodos. - Ácido Hialurônico - Substância presente no material intercelular dos tecidos conjuntivos com função estrutural. Em laboratório, os carboidratos podem ser identificados por diversas reações químicas. Nas reações com o iodo (teste do lugol), identificamos a presença do amido pela coloração azul ou roxa. Nas reações com o reagente de Benedict (reações de redução), identificamos monossacarídeos e alguns dissacarídeos. PRINCIPAIS CARBOIDRATO CARBOIDRATOS S CARBOIDRATO PENTOSES Ribose Desoxirribose
MONOSSACARÍDEOS
DISSACARÍDEOS
CONSTITUÍDO POR
OCORRÊNCIA
FUNÇÃO
-
RNA DNA
Estrutural Estrutural
HEXOSE Glicose Frutose Galactose
-
Sangue, Mel Frutas Leite
Energética Energética Energética
Maltose Sacarose Lactose
Glicose + Glicose Glicose + Frutose Glicose + Galactose
Batata, Pão Cana-de-açúcar Leite
Energética Energética Energética
Celobiose
Glicose + Glicose
Células Vegetais
Estrutural
Amido
Várias Glicoses
Vegetais
Reserva Energética Vegetal
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
PROTEÍNAS São as mais abundantes substâncias orgânicas dos seres vivos, sendo definidas como polímeros de aminoácidos. Assim, os aminoácidos são as unidades formadoras das proteínas.
Estrutura de um aminoácido
O radical é a porção variável de um aminoácido. Existem aproximadamente 20 aminoácidos diferentes, que podem ser identificados pelo seu radical. Observe alguns tipos de aminoácidos:
Aminoácidoss naturais são aqueles que podem Os aminoácidos são classificados em naturais e essenciais. Aminoácido ser sintetizados pelos animais e vegetais, enquanto Aminoácidos essenciais só podem ser sintetizados pelos vegetais, sendo obtidos pelos pelo s animais através da alimentação. Assim, percebemos percebemo s que os vegetais são capazes, ao contrário dos animais, de produzir todos os aminoácidos de que necessitam para a síntese de suas proteínas.
Ligação Peptídica É o tipo de ligação que une os aminoácidos. Ocorre entre o grupo ácido de um aminoácido e o grupo amina de outro aminoácido com liberação de uma molécula de água.
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O número de ligações peptídicas é sempre igual ao número de aminoácidos menos um, enquanto o número de moléculas de água liberadas durante a síntese é sempre igual ao número de ligações peptídicas. Quando uma proteína é submetida a altas temperaturas e a variações de pH, ocorre a sua desnaturação . A desnaturação é a perda total ou parcial das propriedades de uma proteína devido a modificações em sua estrutura.
Classificação das Proteínas a) Proteínas Simples Constituídas apenas por aminoácidos. Como exemplos temos insulina, queratina, albumina, colágeno, fibrinogênio, etc. b) Proteínas Conjugadas Constituídas por aminoácidos associados a uma outra substância de natureza não protéica denominada grupo prostético. Veja alguns exemplos. PROTEÍNA CO CONJUGADA Glicoproteína
GRUPO PR PROSTÉTICO Glicose
Hemoglobina
Grupo heme (contém ferro)
Nucleoproteína
Ácido nucléico
Clorofila
Magnésio
Papel biológico das proteínas As principais funções atribuídas às proteínas são: a) Função Estrutural Participam da estrutura dos tecidos. Como exemplos, podemos citar: - QUERATINA: QUERATINA: Presente na pele, cabelos ca belos e unhas. - COLÁGENO: Presente nos tecidos conjuntivos. - OSSEÍNA: Presente nos ossos. b) Função Nutritiva São utilizadas como fonte de aminoácidos. c) Função Imunológica Os anticorpos são proteínas (gamaglobulinas) produzidas produzid as pelo organismo para combater a ação do antígeno. A reação antígeno-anticorpo é altamente específica, sendo que um certo anticorpo neutraliza somente o antígeno responsável pela sua formação.
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Tecnologia
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ENZIMAS São biocatalisadores biocatalisadore s orgânicos de natureza protéica. protéica . O papel básico de uma enzima é diminuir a energia de ativação, aumentando, assim, a velocidade das reações químicas. Entende-se por energia de ativação a energia necessária para produzir a colisão intermolecuEnzima Substrato lar necessária para desencadear uma reação química. Denomina-se substrato a substância que sofre ação da enzima, enquanto centro ativo ou sítio ativo é a parte da enzima que se liga ao substrato. Observe o mecanismo de ação enzimática representado ao lado. A partir dele podemos entender claramente algumas propriedades das enzimas.
+
Enzima
+
Complexo Enzima-Substrato (Complexo ativado)
Produto
Propriedades das Enzimas a) As enzimas são específicas. Para cada tipo de substrato existe uma enzima específica. Assim, a sacarase é uma enzima que catalisa a quebra da sacarose em uma molécula de glicose e outra de frutose, enquanto a amilase é uma enzima que catalisa a quebra de amido em moléculas de maltose. b) As enzimas não são consumidas durante as reações químicas. c) As enzimas atuam em ambos os sentidos na reação química, até certo ponto (atuação reversível). d) As enzimas não modificam o produto das reações químicas. e) As enzimas exigem um valor ideal de temperatura para que a velocidade da reação seja máxima. ObservaObserv aO se que a cada 10 C de aumento de temperatura do meio em que a enzima atua, a atividade enzimática pode até triplicar. No entanto, existe um limite máximo para o aumento de temperatura, a partir do qual inicia-se o processo de desnaturação da enzima, que se torna irreversível , diminuindo sensivelmente a velocidade da reação. Esse limite, de maneira geral, situa-se em torno de 40oC. As enzimas são termolábeis, isto é, sensíveis a valores muito elevados de temperatura. tempera tura. f) As enzimas exigem exige m um valor ideal de pH para que a velocidade velocida de da reação seja máxima. máxima . Variações Variações de pH levam à desnaturação da enzima, porém, ao contrário da desnaturação causada por altas temperaturas, apresenta caráter reversível, o que leva alguns autores a usarem o termo inativação enzimática. enzimátic a.
Nomenclatura das Enzimas Deve ser feita acrescentando-se o sufixo ASE ao nome do substrato. Veja alguns exemplos: SUBSTRATO
ENZIMA
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Observa-se que a partir do ponto X, mesmo que a concentração do substrato seja aumentada, a velocidade da reação permanece constante. O ponto Y representa a concentração ótima de substrato, já que a velocidade da reação é máxima nesse ponto. No ponto Y, todas as moléculas de enzimas estão “ocupadas” pelo substrato, de nada adiantando aumentar ainda mais a concentração do mesmo.
x
Velocidade da Reação
y Concentração de Substrato
b) Concentração da Enzima Desde que haja substrato disponível, o aumento da concentração da enzima leva a um aumento da velocidade da reação. Observa-se que a partir do ponto X, mesmo que a concentração da enzima seja aumentada, a velocidade da reação permanece p ermanece constante. O ponto Y represen representa ta a concentraçã con centraçãoo ótima de enzima, já que que a velocidade velocidade da reação é máxima nesse ponto. A partir do ponto X, X , é possível que não exista substrato suficiente para a grande concentração de enzima.
x
Velocidade da Reação
y Concentração de Enzima
c) Temperatura As enzimas exigem uma temperatura ótima, na qual a velocidade da reação seja máxima. Quando submetidas a valores de temperatura muito elevados, as enzimas sofrem desnaturação.
X
Velocidade da Reação
Observa-se que no ponto X a velocidade da reação é máxima. Um aumento de temperatura leva a um aumento da velocidade da reação até determinado ponto (ponto Y), a partir do qual ocorre desnaturação da enzima, reduzindo a velocidade da reação. O ponto Y representa a temperatura ótima para a atuação da enzima.
Y Temperatura em (OC)
d) pH As enzimas exigem um pH ótimo, no qual a velocidade da reação seja máxima. Acima ou abaixo do seu pH ótimo, as enzimas diminuem gradativamente a sua atividade e tendem a desnaturar-se. Observa-se que no ponto X a velocidade da reação é máxima. O ponto Y representa o pH ótimo para a atuação da enzima. A amilase salivar, salivar, enzima que inicia a digestão do amido na boca, boc a, atinge o máximo de atividade em pH 7, enquanto a pepsina, enzima que inicia a digestão das proteínas no estômago, atinge o máximo de atividade
Velocidade da Reação
X
Y pH
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b) Lípides Conjugados Constituídos por ácido graxo, álcool e uma outra substância. Os exemplos mais importantes são os fosfolípides, que apresentam radicais fosfato, e os esfingolípides, que apresentam nitrogênio. Os fosfolípides são importantes por entrarem na constituição das membranas celulares, enquanto os esfingolípides são abundantes no tecido nervoso, estando relacionados ao aumento da velocidade de condução do impulso nervoso. c) Lípides Esteróides Apresentam estrutura química muito diferente difere nte dos demais lípides, fato que exige uma classificação classificaçã o à parte para o seu caso. Os principais esteróides são o colesterol e os hormônios sexuais (testosterona no homem, e progesterona na mulher). O colesterol é o precursor dos demais esteróides e o seu excesso pode ser nocivo à saúde, em função do seu acúmulo nas paredes internas dos vasos sangüíneos, dificultando a circulação do sangue. As principais funções dos lípides são: a) Reserva Energética Quando degradados, os lípides fornecem mais energia que os carboidratos. No entanto, os carboidratos representam as principais fontes de energia para o organismo, pelo fato de serem degradados antes dos lípides. b) Isolante Térmico Nas aves e nos mamíferos, as gorduras acumulam-se no tecido adiposo, sob a pele, formando uma camada que dificulta a perda excessiva de calor para o ambiente. Em animais que vivem em clima frio, essa camada é muito mais desenvolvida. c) Amortecedores A proteção mecânica contra choques é desempenhada pelos lípides. d) Estrutural Os lípides participam da formação das membranas celulares e dão forma ao corpo. e) Impermeabilizantes As ceras exercem papel impermeabilizante em superfícies sujeitas à desidratação. A camada de cera é muito desenvolvida em certas folhas e frutos e pode ser produzida por certos insetos, como as abelhas.
ÁCIDOS NUCLÉICOS São definidos como polinucleotídeos ligados em cadeia. cad eia. Por controlarem a atividade celular, são considerados as “moléculas mestras” dos seres vivos. Normalmente, encontram-se associados às proteínas, das quais constituem grupos prostéticos. Tais proteínas são denominadas nucleoproteínas.
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Existem dois tipos de pentoses que entram na constituição dos nucleotídeos: ribose, encontrada nos nucleotídeos do RNA e desoxirribose, encontrada nos nucleotídeos do DNA. H
O H
OH
C
OH
H
H C
C OH
OH
OH
H
H
H
C
C C
C
H
H
H
OH
C
C
H
O
H C HO OH
H Desoxirribose (C5H10O4)
Ribose C5H10O5
As bases nitrogenadas que entram na constituição dos nucleotídeos podem ser de dois tipos: púricas formadas por dois anéis de átomos de carbono e nitrogênio nitrogên io e pirimídicas , formadas por um anel de átomos de carbono e nitrogênio.
BASES NITROGENADAS PÚRICAS
ADENINA (A) GUANINA (G)
A Adenina
As bases nitrogenadas púricas são comuns ao DNA e ao RNA
BASES NITROGENADAS PIRIMÍDICAS
CITOSINA (C) TIMINA (T)
G
C
T
Guanina
U
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Adenosina é um nucleosídeo de grande importância, formada por uma ribose unida à base nitrogenada adenina. Muitas vezes, a adenosina se apresenta unida a três radicais fosfato, formando um nucleotídeo de grande interesse biológico: o ATP (trifosfato de adenosina). Adenina Ribose
Fosfato
P
~
Fosfato
P
~
P
Fosfato
Adenosina
A ligação
~
significa LIGAÇÃO AL ALT TAMENTE ENERGÉTICA
A Molécula de ATP
As ligações entre os radicais fosfato são altamente energéticas, energéticas, liberando, assim, grande quantidade de energia para a célula, quando quebrada. Quando uma dessas ligações é rompida, uma grande quantidade de energia é liberada, juntamente com um grupo fosfato e o ADP (difostato de adenosina). A energia desprendida nessa transformação pode ser utilizada utilizad a pela célula para as mais variadas atividades. Para garantir um perfeito mecanismo de obtenção e armazenamento de energia, moléculas de ADP podem se converter em moléculas de ATP por um mecanismo conhecido como fosforilação.
Formação de um Polinucleotídeo A união de vários nucleotídeos forma um polinucleotídeo . O ácido fosfórico de um nucleotídeo se liga à pentose de outro, e assim por diante na formação do ácido nucléico.
Estudo dos tipos de ácidos nucléicos a) Ácido Desoxirribonucléico (DNA)
Polinucleotídeo
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
“degraus” organizados por pares de bases nitrogenadas.
“corrimão” formado por grupos fosfóricos e pentoses
Modelo em dupla-hélice proposto por Watson e Crick .
T
A
A
T
C
G
A
T
T
A
G
C
T
A
A
T
Modelo de Watson e Crick em detalhe, com as hélices abertas.
Localização do DNA O DNA está presente principalmente no núcleo das células, fazendo parte, juntamente com as proteínas, da
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
de DNA, idênticas entre si e à molécula-mãe, como podemos observar nas figuras: pontes de hidrogênio: G ≡ C T A =
molécula-mãe cujas hélices vão se separar
cadeia “a” cadeia “b” separação das hélices da molécula-mãe e formação das hélices complementares.
cadeia “a” cadeia nova. cadeia nova
cadeia “b”
duas moléculas filhas de DNA
Observe que, em cada nova molécula de DNA formada, há um filamento antigo que pertencia à moléculamãe e um filamento novo formado através do processo de complementação de bases. bases . Diz-se que a molécula autoduplicação ção semiconservati semiconservativa, va, já que cada molécula-filha conserva metade de DNA apresenta uma autoduplica da molécula-mãe. b) Ácido Ribonucléico (RNA) A molécula de RNA é constituída por uma única cadeia de nucleotídeos nucleotíde os (fita simples). Os nucleotídeos de RNA apresentam:
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
Função do RNA Transportando informação informação genética do DNA que o formou, o RNA participa diretamente do processo de síntese protéica .
Formação do RNA Transcrição - Transcrição é o processo process o de formação do d o RNA a partir do DNA. A transcrição pode p ode ser dividida dividid a em duas etapas: • Primeira Etapa - Rompimento das pontes de hidrogênio que unem as bases nitrogenadas da moléculamãe de DNA. Dessa forma, ocorre a separação das duas hélices. • Segunda Etapa - Apenas uma das hélices da molécula-mãe de DNA funciona como molde para p ara a síntese do RNA. Assim, a molécula de RNA a ser formada terá uma fita simples, diferentemente da molécula de DNA, que possui fita dupla. A hélice do DNA que serve de molde para a síntese do RNA denomina-se hélice ativa. Nessa etapa, o pareamento de bases nitrogenadas ocorre da seguinte maneira: HÉLICE ATIVA DO DNA
RNA FORMADO
Adenina (A) Guanina (G) Citosina (C) Timina (T)
Uracila (U) Citosina (C) Guanina (G) Adenina (A)
Para a formação da molécula de RNA é fundamental que ocorra a atuação da enzima RNA polimerase ou RNA sintetase - que catalisa a polimerização dos do s nucleotídeos de RNA que já se encontram encontra m livres no interior da célula. Após ser formada, a molécula de RNA se destaca do seu molde de DNA e as duas hélices de DNA voltam a se parear, reconstituind reconstituindoo a molécula-mãe original.
Tipos de RNA Existem três tipos de RNA que
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
De acordo com a solubilidade em água ou em lípides, as vitaminas podem ser classificadas em dois grupos: Vitaminas Vitam inas Hidros Hidrossolúvei solúveiss - B e C
Vitaminas Lipossolúveis - A, D, E e K
Denominamos complexo B um conjunto de vitaminas hidrossolúveis obtidas quase que das mesmas fontes, desempenhando desempenha ndo papéis biológicos muito semelhantes. São elas: B1, B2, B6, B12, PP, PP, biotina, ácido ác ido pantotênico pantotênic o e ácido fólico. PRINCIPAIS PRINCIP AIS VITAMINAS VITAMINA
NOME
PRINCIPAIS FONTES
CARÊNCIA Cegueira noturna ou hemeralopiaa : deficiência visual em pi ambiente de luz fraca. Xeroftalmia:: ressecamento da Xeroftalmia camada córnea do globo ocular com conseqüente destruição. Pele escamosa: escamosa: pele áspera, com descamações freqüentes. Beribéri:: polineurite generalizada Beribéri com distúrbios neuromusculares
A
Retinol
Cenoura - tomate mamão - alface - leite manteiga - ovo
B1
Tiamina
Feijão - soja - leite - carne - lêvedo de cerveja
OUTRA NOMENCLATURA Antixeroftálmica
Antineurítica (Antiberibérica)
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
01 - (UFMG) Nos seres vivos, o radical essencialmente essencialmen te envolvido na transferência de energia é: a) carbonato b) cloreto
c) fosfato d) nitrato
e) sulfato
02 - (PUC/RS) - O polissacarídeo formado por unidades de glicose e que representa a principal forma de armazenamento intracelular intracelula r de glicídeos nos animais é denominado: a) amido
c) ergosterol
b) colesterol
d) volutina
e) glicogênio
03 - (PUC-MG) - Com relação às enzimas, é CORRETO afirmar que: a) Como catalisadores, são necessárias em pequena quantidade. b) Aumentam a energia de ativação. c) Agem em qualquer pH.
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Tecnologia
que diz que todos os seres vivos são constituídos por uma ou mais células. Sabemos que os vírus não são constituídos constituí dos por células, mas esses organismos vivos só foram descritos no século XX. Em 1858, Virchow demonstrou que toda célula provém de outra pré-existente, o que explica melhor a
ITAPECURSOS
continuidade da vida. Em 1927, Brush inventou o microscópio eletrônico que, ao invés de luz, utiliza feixes de elétrons, elétrons , permitindo ampliações superiores a 1.500 vezes. Com isso, a Citologia apresentou grandes avanços como ciência.
2 - ORGANIZAÇÃO CELULAR Uma célula típica apresenta três partes porções fundamentais. fundamentais: membrana citoplasmática, citoplasma Quanto à organização, existem dois tipos e núcleo. Em tipos diferentes de células, podemos celulares básicos: Célula Procariota e Célula encontrar algumas variações relacionadas a essas Eucariota.
2.1 - Célula Procariota ou Protocélula É o tipo mais simples quanto à organização. O que caracteriza uma célula procariota é a ausência de um núcleo verdadeiro . Essas células possuem uma estrutura dispersa no citoplasma denominada nucleóide ou núcleo difuso, que não é envolvido por uma membrana. As únicas organelas presentes no citoplasma desse tipo celular são os ribossomos, responsáveis pela síntese protéica.
Ribossomos Núcleo Difuso (Nucleóide)
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
parede celular
vacúolo tonoplasto
ribossomos suco nuclear
retículo endoplasmático cloroplasto membrana citoplasmática complexo de Golgi
carioteca nucléolo plasmodesmo
mitocôndrias
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Tecnologia
Esse arranjo trilaminar se estende a todas as outras estruturas membranosas celulares como núcleo, retículo endoplasmático, complexo de Golgi, mitocôndrias, cloroplastos, etc, sendo por isso denominado UNIDADE DE MEMBRANA.
ITAPECURSOS
Proteínas
Lípides Na década de 70, surgiu um novo modelo proposto por Singer e Nicolson que difere em alguns aspectos do modelo de Davson e Danielli. Segundo Singer e Nicolson, a membrana citoplasmática seria constituída de uma Proteínas dupla camada lipídica entre as quais estariam encaixadas as moléculas de proteínas. As proteínas ESTRUTURA DA MEMBRANA CITOPLASMÁTICA SEGUNDO não teriam posição fixa, e sim se deslocariam nessa DAVSON E DANIELLI. dupla camada lipídica. Com a mobilidade das proteínas, muitas substâncias podem entrar e sair da célula com mais facilidade, pois essas proteínas podem funcionar como poros funcionais. Esses poros surgem como resultado da movimentação das proteínas na dupla camada lipídica. O modelo de Singer e Nicolson é o mais aceito atualmente e é denominado modelo do mosaico fluido , já que a dupla camada lipídica seria fluida com um mosaico de proteínas encaixadas.
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
3.5 - Transportes através da Membrana A célula necessita adquirir substâncias do meio e eliminar os resíduos do seu metabolismo. Assim, a membrana citoplasmática não isola completamente a célula do meio extracelular. Diversas substâncias entram e saem da célula atravessando a membrana. O transporte de substâncias através da membrana celular pode ser de dois tipos: passivo e ativo.
Transporte Passivo Ocorre a favor de um gradiente de concentração e não exige gasto de energia pela célula. São conhecidas duas modalidadess de transporte passivo: difusão e osmose. modalidade
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Tecnologia
Por definição, membrana semipermeável é aquela que permite a passagem de solvente, mas impede a passagem de soluto. Podemos perceber que a membrana citoplasmática não é uma membrana semipermeávell perfeita, já que permite a passagem de semipermeáve água (solvente universal) e de soluto. No entanto, é importante perceber que a velocidade do fluxo de água por osmose é muito maior que a velocidade do fluxo de d e qualquer soluto. Células animais e vegetais colocadas em meio hipotônico ganham água por um processo denominado endosmose. Ao ganhar água do meio, a célula se torna túrgida, daí o termo turgescência aplicado a esse tipo
ITAPECURSOS
sobre a membrana citoplasmática, enquanto células vegetais não sofrem lise devido à resistência oferecida pela parede celular. Nesse último caso, a entrada de água força a parede celular para fora, de modo que a turgescência exerce uma força contrária cada vez maior à entrada de água. Células animais e vegetais colocadas em meio hipertônico perdem água por um processo denominado exosmose . Ao perder água para o meio, a célula se torna plasmolisada, plasmolisada , daí o termo plasmólise aplicado a esse tipo de exosmose. Colocando-se uma célula plasmolisada em um meio hipotônico, ela ganha água
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
- CLASMOCITOSE
Consiste na eliminação de restos formados no interior da célula, daí esse processo ser também denominado defecação celular. Forma-se uma estrutura denominada corpo residual, que se funde à membrana citoplasmática, eliminando os restos res tos para o meio extracelular. Enquanto fagocitose e pinocitose são tipos de endocitose, isto é, processos que promovem entrada de substâncias na célula, a clasmocitose clasmocitos e é um tipo de exocitose , já que ocorre eliminação de substâncias do interior da célula. Clasmocitose
BOMBA DE SÓDIO E POTÁSSIO (BOMBA DE ÍONS)
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
Assim, temos: Entrada de Na+ na célula Saída de K+ da célula Saída de Na+ da célula Entrada de K+ na célula
}
Transporte Passivo (Difusão)
}
Transporte ativo (Bomba de íons)
3.6 - Especializações da Membrana Em certos tipos de células, a membrana citoplasmática pode apresentar diferenciações diferenciações relacionadas à fisiologia do tecido. São mais numerosas nos epitélios, mas podem estar presentes em outros tecidos. As principais especializações da membrana são:
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
4 - PAREDE CELULAR A parede celular representa um envoltório rígido que se localiza externamente à membrana citoplasmática, conferindo proteção e sustentação à célula. É uma estrutura típica de células procariotas e eucariotas vegetais. A substância mais abundante da parede celular é a celulose, que se deposita na parede, exercendo importante função estrutural. Em certos pontos desse revestimento não há depósito de celulose, determinando o aparecimento de pequenas interrupções (poros) denominadas plasmodesmos. Eles representam elos de ligações entre células vizinhas e possibilitam um maior intercâmbio de substâncias entre as células que se unem.
Parede celular
Plasmodesmo
Lúmen Celular
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
- RETÍCULO ENDOPLASMÁTICO É um conjunto de cavidades intercomunicantes envolvidas por membrana lipoprotéica. Está presente em
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
a) Funções do Complexo de Golgi - Armazenamento e empacotamento de substâncias. Substâncias absorvidas ou produzidas pelo Complexo de Golgi são armazenadas a rmazenadas no
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Tecnologia
A função dos lisossomos é realizar rea lizar a digestão intracelular. intracelula r. Esta função se manifesta de duas maneiras: heterofagia e autofagia.
Corpo residual
ITAPECURSOS
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
A nomenclatura utilizada para os tipos de leucoplastos é dada em função das substâncias armazenadas em seu interior, interior, enquanto que para os cromoplastos, a nomenclatura é dada de acordo com o pigmento predominante. Assim, temos:
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Tecnologia
Os centríolos orientam a divisão celular, além de formar cílios e flagelos, estruturas contráteis que possibilitam o movimento. A estrutura interna dos cílios e flagelos revela a existência de nove pares de microtúbulos
membrana plasmática
ITAPECURSOS
microtúbulos
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
lI – VÍRUS INTRODUÇÃO São microorganismos muito simples, visíveis apenas ao microscópio eletrônico. São seres vivos acelulares pelo fato de não apresentarem organização celular, possuindo apenas uma cápsula protéica denominada CAPSÍDEO em cujo interior existe um filamento de ácido nucléico (DNA ou RNA). Os dois tipos de ácidos nucléicos nunca são Vírus da Varíola Vírus da Gripe Vírus Bacteriófago encontrados em um mesmo vírus. Assim, Alguns tipos de vírus observamos que o vírus da herpes contém DNA, enquanto o vírus da AIDS contém RNA. Alguns autores consideram cons ideram os vírus seres de transição transiçã o entre a matéria bruta e a matéria viva em função de algumas de suas características. O poder de cristalização, a estrutura celular e a capacidade de difração de raio X são características da matéria bruta que estão presentes nos vírus. Por outro lado, a presença de ácido nucléico, a capacidade de reprodução e o poder de mutação ilustram características da matéria viva presentes nesses organismos. Os vírus não possuem metabolismo próprio, sendo dependentes de uma célula hospedeira, fato que justifica o termo parasitas intracelulares obrigatórios , atribuído a tais entidades. Quando as condições do meio não são favoráveis aos vírus, pode ocorrer a cristalização dos mesmos.
1 – ORIGEM DOS VÍRUS Acredita–se que os vírus tenham se originado de células que perderam sua atividade metabólica e degeneraram, passando a depender obrigatoriamente de uma célula viva.
2 – REPRODUÇÃO DOS VÍRUS A reprodução viral é melhor estudada no ciclo dos bacteriófagos ou fagos que são vírus que parasitam certas espécies de bactérias. Capa protéica Cabeça Ácido nucléico (DNA)
Pescoço Cauda
Fibras de Cauda
Esquema de um bacteriófago eliminando um DNA contido em seu interior.
Os vírus bacteriófagos bacteriófagos se fixam à célula hospedeira através através das fibras da cauda e injetam o seu DNA no interior da bactéria. A partir dessa situação, dois tipos de ciclos de reprodução podem ocorrer. São eles:
2.1 – Ciclo Lítico
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
4 - O envoltório protéico permanece fora.
5 - Novas moléculas de DNA do vírus são sintetizadas.
3 - O DNA do vírus é injetado na célula.
6 - A cápsula protéica do vírus é sintetizada.
2 - Um vírus se prende à célula.
7 - Formam-se vírus completos.
1 - Bacteriófagos ficam em torno das bactérias.
8 - A bactéria se rompe libertando novos vírus.
Ciclo lítico de um bacteriófago
2.2 – Ciclo Lisogênico O DNA viral adere ao DNA bacteriano e não interfere no metabolismo da célula hospedeira. Quando a bactéria se reproduz, o DNA do vírus é transmitido às bactérias filhas sem que haja lise celular. Os vírus que desencadeiam o ciclo lisogênico são denominados temperados. Alguns fatores externos como radiação ultravioleta, radiação X e certas substâncias químicas podem induzir a separação do DNA do vírus em relação ao DNA bacteriano, iniciando o ciclo lítico com destruição da célula hospedeira. Bacteriófago
Bactéria
DNA viral incorpora-se ao cromossomo bacteriano
DNA viral Cromossomo bacteriano
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
3 – PRINCIPAIS DOENÇAS VIRÓTICAS VIRÓT ICAS Como os vírus são insensíveis a medicamentos usuais, o combate às viroses depende sobretudo do sistema imunológico do indivíduo parasitado. As principais viroses que ocorrem na espécie humana são: poliomielite, sarampo, varíola, rubéola, hidrofobia hidrofobia (raiva), caxumba (parotidite), AIDS, febre amarela, dengue, gripe, herpes, hepatite infecciosa, infeccio sa, catapora (varicela), mononucleose e outras. O quadro a seguir resume as principais características de algumas doenças viróticas:
DOENÇA VIRÓTICA Polilioomie ielilite te
TRANSMISSÃO
SINTOMAS
Água ou alilim mento toss conta tami minnad adoos com o vírus que é eliminado em secreções respiratórias e nas fezes de indivíduos doentes. Penetração do vírus pelas mucosas das vias respiratórias. O vírus está presente nas secre– ções respiratórias e na saliva de indivíduos doentes. Penetração do vírus pelas muco– sas das vias respiratórias. O vírus está presente nas secre– ções respiratórias e na saliva de indivíduos doentes. Penetração do vírus pelas muco– sas das vias respiratórias. O vírus está presente nas secre– ções respiratórias e na saliva de indivíduos doentes. Ocorre contaminação do feto através da placenta. Pela mordida de mamíferos contaminados com o vírus. O vírus está presente na saliva do animal doente.
Paralisia dos membros devido a destruição de neurônios.
AIDS (Síndrome da deficiência imunológica adquirida)
Relações sexuais, transfusão de sangue, agulhas e seringas contaminadas, e contaminação do feto através da placenta e do sangue durante o parto.
Febre intermitente, emagrecimento rápido, diarréia, sarcoma de Kaposi (tumor de pele), doenças do aparelho respiratório e inflamação dos gânglios linfáticos.
Febre amarela e dengue
Picada da fêmea do mosquito m osquito Aedes aegypti contaminado. O
Febre, calafrios, náuseas, vômitos e
Sarampo
Varíola
Rubéola
Hidrofobia (Raiva)
Febre, tosse e verme– lhidão em todo o corpo.
PROFILAXIA
Vacinação com o vírus inativado (vacina Salk) ou com o vírus vivo atenuado (vacina Sabin) Vacinação com o vírus atenuado.
Febre e erupções cutâneas que normal– mente deixam cicatrizes na pele.
Vacinação com o vírus atenuado.
Febre e erupções cutâneas. Em caso de transmissão via placentária pode provocar mal formação congênita e morte.
Vacinação com o vírus atenuado. Em mulheres grávidas até o terceiro mês a vacinação é contra–indicada.
Febre, convulsões e paralisia dos músculos respiratórios.
Vacinação dos animais domésticos e aplicação de soro e vacina em indivíduos feridos por animais raivosos. Uso de camisinha–de– vênus (preservativos) nas relações sexuais; seleção rigorosa dos doadores de sangue e uso de agulhas descartáveis ou esterilizadas. Não existe vacina. Vacinação com o vírus atenuado. Combate ao
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
4 – IMUNIDADE A imunologia é a ciência que estuda os mecanismos de reação do organismo contra um agente agressor. A imunidade é o estado de resistênci resistênciaa de um organismo contra a ação de agentes patogênicos. Os antígenos são substâncias ou organismos estranhos que induzem uma resposta imunológica específica através da produção de anticorpos que são proteínas de ação específica contra cada tipo de antígeno. As duas formas de imunidade são: 1– Imunidade natural – Ocorre devido à própria natureza do organismo e não é induzida pelo homem. Pode ser ativa ou passiva . – Imunidade natural ativa – o próprio organismo produz anticorpos an ticorpos após o contato com o agente ag ente agressor. – Imunidade natural passiva – ocorre através de uma transferência natural de um organismo para outro. Podemos observar esse caso na passagem de anticorpos maternos maternos para o feto através da placenta e na transferência de anticorpos maternos através do aleitamento. 2 – Imunidade artificial – É a imunidade produzida pelo homem. Pode ser ativa ou passiva. – Imunidade I munidade artificial ativa – o próprio organismo produz anticorpos anticorpo s a partir da aplicação de uma vacina. – Imunidade artificial passiva – ocorre através de uma transferência de anticorpos através de soro específico.
5 – VACINA E SORO VACINA Contém antígenos Ação preventiva, já que estimula a produção de anticorpos específicos. Ação duradoura.
SORO Contém anticorpos. Ação curativa, já que é uma solução de anticorpos. Ação temporária
III – REINO MONERA INTRODUÇÃO O Reino Monera compreende organismos unicelulares e procariontes ou seja, a única célula presente apresenta um padrão muito simples de organização sendo do tipo procariota. A célula procariota não apresenta carioteca ou membrana nuclear, sendo o seu núcleo difuso (nucleóide). As únicas organelas presentes no citoplasma desse tipo celular são os ribossomos, responsáveis pela síntese protéica. Bactérias e Cianobactérias ou Cianofíceas são classificadas no reino Monera, podendo viver isoladamente ou se organizar formando colônias.
1 – BACTÉRIAS 1.1 – Características Gerais A célula bacteriana apresenta, externamente à membrana citoplasmática, um envoltório rígido denominado parede celular. Ao contrário das paredes celulares presentes em outros organismos, a parede bacteriana não contém celulose, sendo formada por mucopolissac mucopolissacarídeos. arídeos.
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
Hialoplasma
Ribossomos
Parede Celular
Mesossomo
Cápsula
Nucleóide (DNA)
Membrana citoplasmática
Estrutura de uma Bactéria
As bactérias são classificadas quanto à forma em quatro tipos morfológicos básicos: COCOS, BACILOS, ESPIRILOS E VIBRIÕES. Os cocos são bactérias arredondadas que podem ter vida isolada ou formar colônias. Dois cocos agrupados formam um diplococo, vários cocos enfileirados formam um estreptococo, enquanto vários cocos dispostos em cacho formam um estafilococo. Os cocos também podem ser agrupados, formando uma sarcina que é uma colônia cúbica de oito ou mais cocos.
Coco
Diplococo Estreptococo
Sarcina
Estafilococo Cocos
Os bacilos são bactérias alongadas em forma de bastonete. Os espirilos ou espiroquetas são bactérias de forma espiralada. Bacilos
Espirilos
Vibriões
Os vibriões são bactérias cuja forma lembra uma vírgula.
1.2 – Respiração das Bactérias A respiração celular consiste em um processo de degradação de compostos orgânicos para produção de
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Tecnologia
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Algumas bactérias obtêm energia através da respiração celular aeróbia e são denominadas bactérias aeróbias. As equações gerais dos processos anaeróbios e aeróbios são: Processos anaeróbios Fermentação lática C6H12O6 → 2C3H6O3 + 2ATP glicose Fermentação alcoólica C6H12O6
ácido lático →
glicose
2C2H5OH + CO2 + 2ATP álcool etílico
Processo aeróbio Respiração aeróbia C6H12O6 + 6O2
→
6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP
1.3 – Nutrição das Bactérias A maior parte das bactérias são heterótrofas heterótrofas,, isto é, absorvem o alimento do ambiente onde vivem. As bactérias heterótrofas mais numerosas obtêm seu alimento a partir da decomposição da matéria orgânica, sendo imprescindíveis na reciclagem da matéria, já que formam matéria inorgânica que é devolvida ao ambiente. Bactérias com essa capacidade são denominadas denominadassaprófltas, saprófltas, sapróvoras ou saprófagas. saprófagas. Algumas bactérias são autótrofas, isto é, produzem o próprio alimento. A maioria das bactérias autófrofas são quimiossintetizantes quimiossintetizantes,, isto é, produzem o próprio alimento através da quimiossíntese, que utiliza a energia liberada em reações de oxidação de substâncias inorgânicas. Entre as bactérias autótrofas quimiossintetizantes destacam–se as sulfobactérias, sulfobacté rias, ferrobactérias e nitrobactérias que oxidam compostos que contêm enxofre, ferro e nitrogênio, respectivamente. As nitrobactérias oxidam nitrito em nitrato liberando energia que será utilizada por elas próprias na produção do próprio alimento a partir de CO 2 e H2O. 6CO2 + 6H2O
C6H12O6 glicose energia
2NO –2 + O2 nitrito
2NO 2N O –3 nitrato
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Tecnologia
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1.4 – Importância das Bactérias A maior parte das bactérias são de vida livre, exercendo papéis muito importantes como: NA INDÚSTRIA Bactérias do gênero Acetobacter oxidam o álcool etílico em ácido acético, o que constitui a base da fabricação do vinagre. Bactérias do gênero Lactobacillus promovem a conversão da lactose (açúcar do leite) em ácido lático, tornando o leite azedo e formando o coalho. A fabricação de coalhada, iogurte e queijo relaciona–se a esse processo. Bactérias do gênero Bacillus produzem certos antibióticos utilizados no combate a infecções. NA AGRICULTURA Bactérias do gênero Rhizobium associam–se a raízes de plantas da família das Ieguminosas, estabelecendo estab elecendo com esses vegetais uma relação de benefício mútuo denominada mutualismo mutualismo.. Essas bactérias formam sais nitrogenados a partir do nitrogênio atmosférico e os cedem à planta, recebendo em troca nutrientes orgânicos. Esse processo no qual as bactérias ba ctérias cedem sais nitrogenados à leguminosa é denominadofixação denominado fixação do nitrogênio. nitrogênio. NA DECOMPOSIÇÃO DA MATÉRIA ORGÂNICA Algumas bactérias decompõem a matéria orgânica em matéria inorgânica inorgân ica que será devolvida ao ambiente, garantindo a ocorrência do ciclo da matéria, imprescindível imprescindíve l ao desenvolvimento e manutenção de todos os organismos vivos do planeta. Esses organismos são denominados sapróvoros ou saprófagos. NA DIGESTÃO DA CELULOSE Algumas bactérias vivem no estômago dos animais ruminantes, estabelecendo com eles uma relação de benefício mútuo denominada mutualismo mutualismo.. Essas bactérias promovem a digestão da celulose através da enzima celulase produzida por elas, recebendo em troca habitat e alimento. NA SÍNTESE DE VIT VITAMINAS AMINAS Algumas bactérias que formam a flora intestinal são capazes de produzir as vitaminas B12 e K. NA MEDICINA Algumas bactérias apresentam uma grande importância para a medicina, não só pelo fato de poderem produzir antibióticos, como pelas doenças que podem causar. NA ENGENHARIA GENÉTICA Algumas bactérias são utilizadas em laboratório nas diversas técnicas técnica s do DNA recombinante (Engenharia (Engen haria Genética), em função de sua simplicidade metabólica que tem facilitado as pesquisas.
1.5 . Reprodução das Bactérias A reprodução das bactérias pode ser assexuada, quando não ocorre mistura de material genético, ou sexuada, quando ocorre mistura de material genético. REPRODUÇÃO ASSEXUADA célula-mãe
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
a) Conjugação É a transferência unidirecional de material genético (DNA) de uma bactéria doadora a outra receptora através atra vés de uma ponte citoplasmática.. As bactérias doadoras possuem um material citoplasmática genético denominado fator fertilidade (bactérias F+) que não está presente nas bactérias receptoras (bactérias F –). Em qualquer mecanismo de recombinação gênica em bactérias, somente uma fração do cromossomo da bactéria doadora é doado para a bactéria receptora. Essa fração doada corresponde à porção duplicada do seu cromossomo. A bactéria receptora ficará com uma constituição genética diferente das duas células iniciais e realiza divisão binária originando duas células iguais a ela.
b) Transformação É a transferência de DNA livre de uma bactéria para outra sem contato celular. Ocorre quando o material genético (DNA) de uma bactéria encontra–se disperso no meio e é incorporado por outra bactéria ao seu DNA, transmitindo–o juntamente com seu cromossomo às células filhas por cissiparidade.
Conjugação - observe a tranferência do segmento 1 do cromossomo (DNA) da bactéria A para a bactéria B.
Transformação Pneumococos capsulados vivos
Pneumococos não capsulados vivos
Injetados em camundongos
Injetados em camundongos
causam a morte dos indivíduos
Pneumococos capsulados mortos pelo calor
Pneumococos capsulados mortos + pneumococos vivos não capsulados
Injetados em camundongos
não causam a morte dos indivíduos
Injetados em camundongos
não causam a morte dos indivíduos
causam a morte dos indivíduos. No sangue dos camundongos mortos são encontrados pneumococos capsulados vivos
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
1.7 – Principais Doenças Bacterianas As principais doenças bacterianas que ocorrem na espécie humana são: tétano, coqueluche, tuberculose, hanseníase, gastroenterite, sífilis, blenorragia, cólera, meningite, pneumonia, botulismo, leptospirose, peste bubônica, febre tifóide, brucelose, escarlatina e outras. O quadro a seguir resume as características de algumas doenças bacterianas bacterianas.. DOENÇA
Tétano
AGENTE ETIOLÓGICO (causador da doença) Clostridium tetani (Bacilo de Nicolaier)
Difteria (crupe)
Corynebacterium diphteriae Corynebacterium diphteriae (Bacilo de Klebs Löeffler)
Coqueluche
Bordetella pertussis
Tuberculose
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Bacilo de Koch)
Hanseníase (lepra)
Mycobacterium leprae (Bacilo de Hansen)
Gastroenterite
Salmonella sp
Treponemaa pallidum Treponem Sífilis
Blenorragia (gonorréia)
Neisseria gonorrhoe gonorrhoeae ae (Gonococo)
Cólera
Vibrio cholerae
Meningite
Neisseria meningitidis (Meningococo) Diplococcus pneumoniae
Pneumonia
TRANSMISSÃO
PROFILAXIA
Penetração dos esporos bacterianos (formas de resistência) em ferimentos. Penetração da bactéria pelas vias respiratórias Penetração da bactéria pelas vias respiratórias e digestivas. Penetração da bactéria pelas vias respiratórias e digestivas. Penetração da bactéria pelas vias respiratórias, digestivas e através da pele. Penetração da bactéria pelas vias digestivas.
. Vacina tríplice. . Higienização dos ferimentos. . Tratamento dos doentes. . Vacina tríplice. . Tratamento dos doentes. . Vacina tríplice. . Tratamento dos doentes.
Penetração da bactéria através de relação sexual, transfusão de sangue, vias digestivas e da mãe para o feto através da placenta. Penetração da bactéria através de relação sexual e no canal do parto. Penetração da bactéria pelas vias digestivas. Penetração da bactéria pelas vias respiratórias . Penetração da bactéria
. Vacina BCG. . Tratamento dos doentes. . Higiene corporal. . Tratamento dos doentes.
. Educação sanitária. . Saneamento básico. . Tratamento dos doentes. . Educação sexual. . Seleção rigorosa dos doadores de sangue. . Tratamento dos doentes. . Educação sexual. . Tratamento dos doentes. . Educação sanitária. . Saneamento básico. . Tratamento dos doentes. . Vacinação. . Tratamento dos doentes. . Tratamento dos doentes.
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
1.8 – Antibióticos São substâncias químicas produzidas por algumas espécies de bactérias e fungos. Essas substâncias podem ter ação de inibir a reprodução (bacteriostáticos) ou matar (bactericidas) microorganismos. Os antibióticos são utilizados em larga escala no combate a doenças bacterianas, porém seu uso indiscriminado pode trazer sérias conseqüências para o organismo humano como: seleção de bactérias naturalmente resistentes ao seu efeito, reações alérgicas, lesões hepáticas e renais, destruição da flora bacteriana intestinal, entre outras. Um importante método de estudo para determinar a ação dos antibióticos sobre certas bactérias é o antibiograma.. Através dele, verifica–se a resistência ou a sensibilidade de uma bactéria a numerosos antibióticos. antibiograma
2 – CIANOBACTÉRIAS 2.1 – Características Gerais Também denominadas cianofíceas ou cianófitas ou algas azuis, apresentam externamente à membrana citoplasmática a parede celular que contém celulose. celulo se. A denominação algas azuis atribuída a esses organismos organis mos é inadequada uma vez que sua coloração coloraç ão é muito variada (azul, marrom, vermelha, etc.). As cianobactérias podem ser diferenciadas das demais algas por apresentarem uma organização celular procariota e ausência de organelas citoplasmáticas limitadas por membrana lipoprotéica. São organismos autótrofos fotossintetizantes, apresentando pigmentos como ficocianina (azul), clorofila (verde), xantofila (amarelo), caroteno (amarelo) e ficoeritrina ficoeritrina (vermelho). A coloração da cianobactéria depende do pigmento predominante. Esses pigmentos estão presentes no citoplasma e aderidos a pregas da membrana citoplasmática, já que esses organismos não apresentam plastos. A fotossíntese da cianobactéria, cianobac téria, ao contrário das bactérias, utiliza água e libera oxigênio oxigên io para o ambiente. A principal substância de reserva energética energé tica é o amido das cianofíceas. Observe a equação geral ge ral da fotossíntese das cianobactérias, demais algas e vegetais superiores: Luz 6CO2 + 12H2O
Clorofila
C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
A maioria das cianobactérias formam colônias que habitam os mais variados ambientes como água doce, água salgada, solo úmido, rochas úmidas, troncos de árvores e fontes hidrotermais. O nucleóide de uma cianobactéria contém DNA e proteínas, estando o RNA presente no citoplasma, associado às proteínas, formando os ribossomos.
2.2 . Importância das Cianobactérias As cianobactérias são importantes, já que algumas espécies são capazes de fixar o nitrogênio atmosférico formando sais nitrogenados. Juntamente com outras algas, formam o fitoplâncton marinho, liberando grande quantidade de oxigênio para o ambiente. São também consideradas organismos pioneiros em uma sucessão ecológica.
Envoltório viscoso
Parede Celular Membrana plasmática
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
lV – REINO PROTISTA INTRODUÇÃO O Reino Protista compreende organismos unicelulares e pluricelulares que já apresentam organização celular eucariota. A célula eucariota apresenta carioteca ou membrana nuclear delimitando um núcleo verdadeiro, além de organelas citoplasmáticas limitadas por membrana lipoprotéica. Apesar de alguns representantes serem pluricelulares, os protistas nunca formam tecidos diferenciados. Algas e protozoários são classificados no reino Protista.
1 . ALGAS 1.1. Características Gerais São organismos autótrofos fotossintetizantes que apresentam clorofila e outros pigmentos no interior de cloroplastos. Todas as algas apresentam apres entam clorofila, caroteno e xantofila, muitas vezes ve zes associados a outros o utros pigmentos. A coloração de uma alga depende do pigmento predominante que apresenta. Assim, nas algas verdes ou clorófitas, predomina a clorofila (pigmento verde) enquanto nas algas douradas ou crisófitas, predomina a fucoxantina (pigmento marrom). Algumas espécies de algas são unicelulares (isoladas ou coloniais) e outras pluricelulares, essas últimas denominadas talófitas já que o seu corpo é denominado talo. Como nos demais protistas, não ocorre a formação de tecidos diferenciados. As algas vivem em água salgada, água doce e em ambiente terrestre úmido. A maioria das espécies aquáticas flutuam na superfície da água formando o fitoplâncton que apresenta grande importância ecológica em função da liberação de grande quantidade de oxigênio para o ambiente. Sabe–se que mais de 90% de toda a fotossíntese realizada no planeta Terra Terra se deve às algas planctônicas, que são importantes no processo de purificação da atmosfera. Dessa forma, as algas constituem a base das cadeias alimentares formando o nível dos produtores. As substâncias de reserva das algas variam entre as diversas divisões. Podemos encontrar amido, óleos, laminarina, manitol, paramilo e outros. A parede celular é encontrada na grande maioria das algas sendo normalmente constituída de celulose associada a outras substâncias como sílica, pectina, algina e outras.
1.2. Classificação das algas As algas são classificadas em várias divisões com base em vários critérios sendo que os principais são: pigmentos, constituição constitu ição da parede celular e substâncias de reserva rese rva alimentar.
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
FEÓFITAS – AS ALGAS PARDAS São algas pluricelulares que apresentam fucoxantina e feoficeína como pigmentos predominantes. A parede celular é constituída de celulose e algina e as principais substâncias de reserva alimentar são laminarina e manitol. São encontradas, em sua maioria, no ambiente marinho, com poucas espécies de água doce. RODÓFITAS – AS ALGAS VERMELHAS A maioria das espécies é pluricelular e a ficoeritrina é o pigmento predominante. São conhecidas como flores do mar em função da beleza do talo. A parede celular é constituída de celulose e pectina e a principal principa l substância de reserva alimentar é o amido das florídeas. São encontradas, em sua maioria, no ambiente marinho, com poucas espécies de água doce. PIRRÓFITAS – AS ALGAS DE FOGO Também conhecidas como dinoflagelados, são algas unicelulares que apresentam alguns tipos dexantofila como pigmentos predominantes. A parede celular, quando presente, é formada por placas espessas de celulose formando formand o uma espécie de armadura denominada lórica. As principais substâncias de reserva alimentar são amidos e óleos. São encontradas, em sua maioria, no ambiente marinho, com poucas espécies de água doce. A denominação pirrófitas (grego: pyrro = fogo) ou algas de fogo deve-se ao fato dessas algas emitirem luz própria, fenômeno esse denominado bioluminescência . Algumas espécies de pirrófitas podem proliferar exageradamente nos mares formando um fitoplâncton (organismos produtores flutuantes) de cor avermelhada. Esse fenômeno denominado maré vermelha, é responsável pelo acúmulo de toxinas que matam grande quantidade de outros organismos marinhos.
1.3 - Importância das Algas As algas exercem papéis muito importantes como: NA PURIFICAÇÃO DA ATMOSFERA ATMOSFERA
A fotossíntese promove a liberação de grande quantidade de oxigênio oxigên io para o ambiente. NA INDÚSTRIA
De algumas espécies de algas é extraído o ÁGAR–ÁGA
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
REPRODUÇÃO SEXUADA Ocorre através de fecundação que pode ser de três tipos, de acordo com os tipos de gametas. ga metas. Assim, temos: a) Fecundação Isogâmica (lsogamia) Os gametas masculino e feminino são iguais. Ambos são células móveis flageladas. b) Fecundação Anisogâmica (Anisogamia) Os gametas masculino e feminino são semelhantes. Ambos são células móveis flageladas, porém o gameta masculino é menor e mais ágil que o feminino. Anterozóide Oosfera Isogametas c) Fecundação Oogâmica (Oogamia) Os gametas masculino e feminino são bem Fecundação Fecundação Fecundação diferentes. O gameta masculino é pequeno, móvel e flagelado, enquanto o gameta feminino é volumoso e imóvel. Os gametas Zigoto Zigoto Zigoto envolvidos na oogamia são os que A B C apresentam maior nível de especialização. Fecundação em Algas Em A – Fecundação lsogâmica Em B – Fecundação Anisogâmica Em C – Fecundação Oogâmica
1.5 . Tipos de Ciclos Reprodutivos São conhecidos três tipos de ciclos reprodutivos entre os vegetais. Nas algas, existem espécies que formam cada um. São eles: CICLO HAPLOBIONTE OU HAPLONTE Os indivíduos são haplóides e algumas células formam gametas por mitose. Esses promovem a fecundação formando o zigoto ou célula ovo (2n) que sofre meiose originando quatro qu atro células haplóides haplóide s (n). As células haplóides formadas multiplicam-se por mitose, formando um novo indivíduo haplóide que reinicia o ciclo.
Ciclo Haplobionte
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Tecnologia
Os indivíduos diplóides são denominados esporófitos já que produzem esporos, enquanto os indivíduos haplóides são denominados gametófitos por produzirem gametas. Observe que nesse tipo de ciclo a meiose forma esporos, razão pela qual esse tipo de divisão é denominado meiose espórica .
ITAPECURSOS
Zoósporos haplóides (n cromossomos)
Célula onde ocorreu meiose
Desenvolvimento dos esporos Meiose
Esporófito diplóide (2n cromossomos)
Gametófitos haplóides (n) Células onde ocorreram diferenciações de gametas
Fecundação Gametas haplóides (n)
Ciclo Haplodiplobionte de Ulva (alga verde)
2 . PROTOZOÁRIOS 2.1. Características Gerais São organismos aclorofilados, heterótrofos e unicelulares, podendo apresentar vida isolada ou colonial. Os protozoários, protozoário s, ao contrário dos demais protistas, não apresentam parede celular. Estão presentes nos mais variados ambientes, com espécies em água salgada, água doce e no ambiente terrestre úmido. A maioria das espécies são de vida livre. Alguns protozoários são parasitas, existindo ainda espécies comensais e espécies que estabelecem uma relação de mutualismo com outros organismos. O glicogênio é a principal substância de reserva alimentar, sendo formado através da polimerização de várias moléculas de glicose.
2.2 . Classificação dos Protozoários
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
Nas espécies de água doce, o citoplasma contém vacúolos contráteis ou pulsáteis que eliminam o excesso de água que penetrou na célula por osmose. Citopígeo Citofaringe Vacúolo contrátil cheio
Vacúolo digestivo
Citóstoma
Vacúolo contrátil vazio
Tricocistos Cílios
Endoplasma
Micronúcleo Penículo Macronúcleo
Ectoplasma
Paramécio - protozoário ciliado
CLASSE SARCODINA (RIZÓPODOS) Os protozoários dessa classe são capazes de emitir pseudópodos, que são expansões da membrana citoplasmática, relacionados à locomoção e à captura de alimento através de fagocitose.
Fagocitose em uma ameba Amoeba proteus proteus - protozoário rizópodo de vida livre
As amebas são os representantes típicos dos Sarcodinos. Algumas amebas são de vida livre, como Amoeba proteus. proteus. Outras são parasitas, como Entamoeba histolytica, histolytica, existindo ainda espécies comensais como Entamoeba coli e Entamoeba gingivalis que vivem, respectivamente, no intestino grosso e na boca do
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Tecnologia
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REPRODUÇÃO SEXUADA Pode ocorrer por conjugação ou por fecundação. A conjugação consiste na transferência unidirecional de material genético de uma célula a outra através de uma ponte citoplasmática. Ocorre em ciliados como o paramécio. A fecundação consiste na união dos gametas masculino e feminino formando o zigoto ou célula ovo. Ocorre em esporozoários como Plasmodium sp.
2.4 . Principais Doenças Causadas por Protozoários Protozooses são doenças causadas por protozoári protozoários. os. As principais protozooses protozooses são: doença de Chagas, leishmaniose tegumentar americana, leishmaniose visceral, giardíase, tricomoníase, balantidiose, disenteria amebiana, malária e toxoplasmose. DOENÇA DE CHAGAS ou TRIP TRIPANOSOMÍASE ANOSOMÍASE AMERICANA ou CARDIOPA CARDIOP ATIA CHAGÁSICA ou MAL DO BARBEIRO a) Agente Etiológico: Trypanosoma cruzi. O agente etiológico é um protozoário flagelado pertencente à classe Mastigophora Mastigophora.. b) Morfologia do parasita: É variável, conforme a fase evolutiva e o hospedeiro. O Tryp Trypanosoma anosoma cruzi c ruzi apresenta um polimorfismo característico, podendo ser encontrado em três formas: Amastigota, Epimastigota e Tripomastigota. – Forma Amastigota: forma oval com núcleo grande e excêntrico. Não possui flagelo livre. É típica do hospedeiro vertebrado onde se multiplica assexuadamente por divisão binária.
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Tecnologia
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No estômago, as formas Tripomastigota ingeridas se transformam em Amastigotas Amastigotas.. No intestino médio, as formas Amastigota formam Epimastigotas que se multiplicam intensamente por divisão binária. No intestino posterior, as formas Epimastigota continuam a se multiplicar, formando os Tripomastigotas Metacíclicas,, capazes de infectar um mamífero. Metacíclicas 1 - Pene Penetr traç ação ão do Tripomastigota Metacíclico em uma célula. 2 - Tran ransfo sform rmaçã açãoo do Tripomastigota e m Amastigota 3 - Divis Divisões ões binárias binárias sucessi sucessivas vas de Amastig Amastigota ota dentro da célula. 4 - Romp Rompime imento nto da célula célula parasita parasitada, da, liberan liberando do Tripomastigota.. Tripomastigota 5 - Formas Tripomastigota no sangue circulant circulante; e; podem penetrar em outra célula (1) ou serem ingeridas pelo triatomíneo (6). 6 - F o rma s Tripomastigota no estômago do Triatomíneo. 7 - For orm maçã çãoo de Epimastigota no intestino médio do inseto. 8 - Formas Epimastigota em multiplicação por Divisão Binária.
3 2
Hospedeiro vertebrado
4
5
Hospedeiro invertebrado
10
6
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Tecnologia
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Estado s Unidos ao sul da América do Sul. Não existe doença doen ça i) Distribuição Geográfica: Desde o sul dos Estados de Chagas fora do continente americano. j) Profilaxia: Combate ao barbeiro (inseticidas) que vive em frestas de casas de pau–a–pique ou cafuas de barro. Substituição Substitui ção de casas de pau–a–pique ou de barro por casas de alvenaria. Seleção dos doadores de sangue. Evitar desmatamentos. l) Vetores: Nem todos os barbeiros podem funcionar como vetores da doença de Chagas. Sabemos que apenas os Barbeiros Hematófagos podem transmitir o Tryp Trypanosoma anosoma cruzi cruz i para mamíferos. Os barbeiros fitófagos e predadores não transmitem a doença de Chagas. Chaga s. Em nosso meio, apenas 3 gêneros são capazes de transmitir transmi tir o Tryp Trypanosoma anosoma cruzi cruz i: Triatoma, Panstrogylus e Rhodnius LEISHMANIOSE TEGUMENTAR AMERICANA ou LEISHMANIOSE CUTÂNEO-MUCOSA ou ÚLCERA DE BAURU a) Agente Etiológico: Leishmania braziliensis. O agente etiológico é um protozoário flagelado pertencente à classe Mastigophora Mastigophora.. evolutiv a e o hospedeiro. O parasita b) Morfologia do Parasita: É variável conforme a fase evolutiva se apresenta sob duas formas: Amastigota e Promastigota • Forma Amastigota: Forma oval com núcleo grande e excêntrico. Não possui flagelo livre. É típica do hospedeiro vertebrado onde se multiplica assexuadamente por divisão binária.
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
h) Distribuição Geográfica: América Central e América do Sul. i) Profilaxia: Combate ao inseto (inseticida) nas regiões em que a transmissão for domiciliar. Não dormir dentro de matas ou grutas, pois o hematofagismo do Flebótomo é principalmente crepuscular e noturno. Usar repelentes, telar as janelas ou dormir com mosquiteiros finos. Construir casas ou acampamentos de trabalhadores em derrubadas de mata a uma distância de pelo menos 500 metros da orla da mesma, pois a Lutzomyia é um inseto fraco e que voa pouco. LEISHMANIOSE VISCERAL OU CALAZAR a) Agente Etiológico: Leishmania donovani. O agente etiológico é um protozoário flagelado pertencente à classe Mastigophora Mastigophora.. b) Morfologia do Parasita: No Hospedeiro Vertebrado – Formas Amastigota nas células do Sistema Mononuclear Fagocitário, principal principalmente mente do baço, fígado e medula óssea. No Hospedeiro Invertebrado – Formas Promastigota no intestino e glândulas salivares do inseto. c) Vetor: Fêmea do mosquito do gênero Lutzomyia (Flebótomo ou Mosquito Palha). – Cão – Raposa No Brasil, a doença possui um Ciclo Silvestre, em que o protozoário circula entre RAPOSA – INSETO – RAPOSA; e um Ciclo Doméstico, em que o protozoário circula entre CÃO – INSETO – CÃO – INSETO – HOMEM. Dificilmente os Flebótomos se infectam no Homem. d) Reservatórios Naturais
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Tecnologia
. Trofozoíto: É a forma ativa do protozoário. Apresenta simetria bilateral e um formato piriforme. Apresenta 4 pares de flagelos na seguinte disposição: par anterior, par mediano, par ventral e par caudal. Na superfície ventral da célula, encontra–se encontra–se um grande disco suctorial ou ventosa e por baixo desse disco, um núcleo de cada lado. No eixo longitudinal do corpo, existem 2 axonemas e podemos encontrar também duas faixas curtas que atravessam os axonemas, abaixo da ventosa, chamadas corpos basais. O disco suctorial fixa o protozoário à mucosa intestinal do hospedeiro, enquanto axonemas são importantes na sustentação da célula. Os trofozoítos multiplicam–se assexuadamente por divisão binária e constituem a forma de vida vegetativa já que nessa forma o protozoário realiza suas funções vitais. popul ação . Cisto: É a forma de resistência do protozoário. Quando a população de trofozoítos aumenta muito, inicia–se o processo de encistamento que consiste na formação dos cistos. Os cistos apresentam dupla parede que protege o protozoário contra a desidratação. Apresentam ainda 2 a 4 núcleos e 4 axonemas.
ITAPECURSOS
Disco suctorial
Núcleo Corpos basais Axonema
Flagelo
Trofozoíto
Os cistos constituem a forma de vida latente e são expelidos nas fezes do doente, constituindo constituindo a forma infectante do protozoário. c) Habitat: – Trofozoítos no duodeno, principalmente. – Cistos são eliminados nas fezes.
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
c) Habitat: Trato geniturinário masculino e feminino. d) Transmissão: – Contato sexual – Roupas de cama – Contato com – Roupas íntimas através de Fômites secreções – Água (“Banhos de bacia”, com a água guardada e usada através de seguidamente. O Trofozoíto permanece vivo nessa água Fômites por algumas horas). – Aparelhos ginecológic ginecológicos. os. A tricomoníase é considerada uma doença sexualmente transmissível (DST). O ciclo evolutivo é do tipo monoxeno. e) Patogenia: – No Homem
– Uretrite – Corrimento purulento
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
g) Profilaxia: – Higiene individual dos vários profissionais que têm de trabalhar com suínos. – Criação de suínos em boas condições sanitárias, sanitária s, impedindo que suas fezes sejam disseminadas. – Proteção dos alimentos. – Tratamento da água. DISENTERIA AMEBIANA OU AMEBÍASE a) Agente Etiológico: Entamoeba histolytica. O agente etiológico é um protozoário que se locomove através de pseudópodos pertencente pertenc ente à classe Sarcodina Sarcodina.. b) Morfologia do Parasita: O parasita exibe duas formas de apresentação: trofozoíto e cisto. Trofozoíto: é a forma ativa do protozoário. Apresenta movimentos
Vacúolo digestivo
Pseudópodo
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Tecnologia
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b) Morfologia do Parasita: É bastante diferente nas diversas fases evolutivas como também entre cada espécie. As formas encontradas são as seguintes: – Esporozoíto – Trofozoíto jovem – Trofozoíto maduro – Esquizonte – Merozoíto – Macrogametócito – Microgametócito – Ovo ou Zigoto – Oocisto – Oocineto c) Habitat: Variado, conforme a fase do ciclo evolutivo (ver ciclo evolutivo). prego ). A principal espécie espéc ie é o Anopheles d) Vetor: Fêmea do mosquito do gênero Anopheles (mosquito prego). darlingi.. darlingi e) Ciclo Evolutivo: É do tipo Heteroxeno Heteroxeno.. No homem, ocorre a fase assexuada ou esquizogônica do ciclo, e no mosquito Anopheles Anopheles,, ocorre a fase sexuada ou esporogônica. Assim, o homem é o hospedeiro
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Tecnologia
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j) Principais espécies de mosquitos transmissores Os mosquitos transmissores da malária pertencem ao gênero Anopheles Anopheles,, mas não são todas as espécies de Anopheles que são boas transmiss transmissoras, oras, e sim essas quatro: – Anopheles darlingi (interior do país) – Anopheles aquasalis (região costeira do país, de São Paulo para o Norte) – Anopheles cruzi (região sul do país) – Anopheles bellator (região sul do país) TOXOPLASMOSE a) Agente etiológico: Toxoplasma gondii. O agente etiológico é um protozoário que não apresenta organela de locomoção pertencente à classe Sporozoa Sporozoa.. b) Morfologia do parasita: O parasita exibe três formas de apresentação: trofozoíto, cisto e oocisto.
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Tecnologia
ITAPECURSOS
V – REINO FUNGI 1 - Características Gerais São organismos organismos aclorofilados e heterótrofos, com alguns representantes unicelulares como as leveduras,
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ASCOMICETOS Caracterizam-se pela presença de uma estrutura reprodutora denominada asco no interior da qual formam– se quatro ou oito esporos denominados ascósporos . Os ascósporos são esporos sexuados já que são formados através de processo sexuado (fusão de núcleos seguida de meiose). Os ascos podem ser agrupados formando corpos de frutificaç frutificação ão denominados ascocarpos
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4 – IMPORTÂNCIA DOS FUNGOS Os fungos exercem papéis muito importantes como:
NA INDÚSTRIA Várias espécies são utilizadas na produção de queijos, bebidas alcoólicas e massas de pães e bolos.
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REPRODUÇÃO SEXUADA Ocorre através da fecundação. Nos fungos esse processo é resultado da fusão de duas hifas designadas uma como positiva (+) e outra como negativa (–). Muitas vezes, os núcleos da duas hifas haplóides não se fundem, originando hifas com dois núcleos (hifas dicarióticas) em cada célula.
ALTERNÂNCIA AL TERNÂNCIA DE GERAÇÕES (MET ( METAGÊNESE) AGÊNESE)
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VI – LIQUENS 1 - Características Gerais Os liquens são protistas resultantes da associação permanente de uma alga com um fungo. As algas são
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