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*** „ Rationalization is a tendency of human beings to convert their prejudices or emotions into rational arguments and to present them as such 11. N3 "7' "#"6&)' $"0&1" 1*+*1$'+&#$&-)' 3* -"7'1* ,+"&#$&-' 7'B&)* I2(#1&A 4+'5*1* & )'#,"+*32.*. :+24*-&%' 1*3*)", $" 3)*-& (* #' 1"( -"7'1* .'5* ")" 5$" 6& ") 9'0'" & ")" 5$" %'. :*10', #26%'1$&7)" & "6%'1$&7)". J "#)"7& "7(' #' +*(& " )'#7'#)"%, >+"%( 6& +'1*" ,"(#7'#)"%, ,"$+'6& I2(& (* & +'*0)"#$ 7&(' 2 ")". #7'$02 1"%' D&.* )*%7&5' "(4"7*+*. P.'+&1*)?& 1"+&#$' 1"0"17&%*0)& &3+*3 wishful thinking 12. 8'1& ,#&A"0"3& "7*% <')".') )*3&7*%2 "6%'1$&7&3*?&%"., .*(* %' 3* ."% 212# 6"I& $'+.&) – +*?&")*0&#*D'. To put it bluntly, my boy, -"7'1 %' quite fucked up13.“ *** „@(*6+*" #*. (7* <')".')*0)* !",'+"7* ?&$*$* &3 A-0"2/."! :2(;-0*, ,+' )'4" 5$" )*='5 7+'.')* (* ,+"-&$*5 "6* $".*. ;7" $&, ,"40'(*% &A. O&('B'5, "( $"4* 6"I' )' ,"#$"%&.“ J3'" #*. ('6'02 1D&42 2 .'1&. 1"+&?*.* & ,"-'" (* -&$*. "0"71". "6'0'9') ,*+*4+*<:
„ I see now more clearly than ever before that even our greatest troubles spring from something that is as admirable and sound as it is dangerous – from our impatience to better the lot of our fellows. For these troubles are the by-products of what is perhaps the greatest of all moral and spiritual revolutions of history, a movement which began three centuries ago. It is the longing of uncounted unknown 11
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men to free themselves and their minds from the tutelage of authority and prejudice. It is their attempt to build up an open society which rejects the absolute authority to preserve, to develop, and to establish traditions, old or new, that measure up to their standards of freedom, of humaneness, and of rational criticism. It is their unwillingness to sit back and leave the entire responsibility for ruling the world to human or superhuman authority, and their readiness to share the burden of responsibility for avoidable suffering, and to work for its avoidance. This revolution has created powers of appalling destructiveness; but they may yet be conquered... “
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19
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instinct . Bear that in mind, my boy . “ „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e 26'=e) (* %' 6&" 2 ,+*72. ,+*72. F")*-*) &#A"( %', %', .'=2$&., .'=2$&., 6&" (* 8*+"()* +*(&1*0)* #$+*)1* )&1*( 7&5' )&%' 6&0* 1*" 2 7+'.' 1*( #2 %' #2 %' ,+'(7"(&0* "7* (7"%&?* )*5&A ,+'(*1*“, ,+'(*1*“, +'1"A +'1"A ,".&+I&7". ,".&+I&7". „C $&. B2 #' "(.*A #0"9&$&. #0"9&$&. P0& $+'6* 3)*$& & "7". "7". !*5&B %' .*0" (+9*" (" &('"0"4&%'. &('"0"4&%'. N*1" "7" 372-& )'"6&-)" # "63&+". (* %' 6&" "#)&7*E*(&1*0)' #$+*)1', #$+*)1', $*-)" %'. %'. @) %' ,"0&$&12 #A7*$*" 1*" ’7'5$&)2 ."42B'4’, ."42B'4’, ,")*7I*. $& %"5 %'(*),2$. %'(*),2$. :+24&. +'-&.* – +'-&.* – 1*" 6"+62 3* 70*#$. 70*#$. O0*#$ %' & ?&I & #+'(#$7". #+'(#$7". 8' #*." #+'(#$7". #+'(#$7". Politics is about power , my boy22. /"% ('(* )&%' ."+*" ,"#$*$& +*(&1*0. +*(&1*0. J (+24*-&%&. ,"0&$&-1&. 2#0"7&.*, 2#0"7&.*, ."42 4* 3*.�&$& & 2 )'1"% (+24"% #$+*)?&. #$+*)?&. :"-&., :"-&., & 2 $". #02-*%2, #02-*%2, 7'+2% .&, .&, D'4"7 ,"0&$&-1& .')$*0&$'$ & )*-&) +*(* 6& 6&0& &#$&. &#$&. L7"% ,+*('(* %', %', ," ")". 5$" 3)*., 3)*., 6&" #*#7&. +*30&-&$ #*#7&. +*30&-&$ -"7'1. -"7'1. L7+( & )',"1"0'6I&7 2 #7"%&. 27'+'D&.*, 27'+'D&.*, 27'1 #,+'.*)
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23
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„ In memory of the countless men and women of all creeds or nations or races who fell victims to the fascist and communist belief in Inexorable Laws of Historical Destiny.“ 45 „ If there could be such a thing as socialism combined with individual liberty, I would be a socialist still. For nothing could be better than living a modest, simple and free life in an egalitarian society. It took some time before I recognized this as no more than a beautiful dream; that freedom is more important than equality; that the attempt to realize equality endangers freedom; and that, if freedom is lost, there will not even be equality among the un-free.“ 46
45
„E ?.*, #/@*B* .* #-"2&+#,/ 4(:<&./.“ F*+0 !",'+, H/:* &#-"2&'&?)*, ,"-'$)* ,"#7'$*. (Karl Popper, The Poverty of Historicism, 1957) 46 „ I," <& )"!*" $"#-"+*-& #"'&+*5&?*) ,")<&."0*. #* &.:&0&:(*5.") #5"<":") , +"; (0/, <&1 <&" #"'&+*5&#-*. J/2 , .&;-* ./ <& )"!5" <&-& <"=/ ./!" 9&0/-& #,2").&) , +/:."#-*0.&) & #5"<":.&) 9&0"-") ( /!*5&-*2.") :2(;-0(. K2/<*5" +/ 02/)/.* :* #10*-&) :* -" .&+/ .&;-* 0&;/ ": 5/$"! #.*; :* +/ #5"<":* 0*9.&+* ": +/:.*,"#-&; :* $",(;*+ "#-0*2/B* +/:.*,"#-& (!2"9*0* #5"<":(; & , :* , (,"5&," #/ &?!(<& #5"<":* , ./@/ <&-& .& +/:.*,"#-& )/%( ./#5"<":.&)*.“ F*+0 !",'+ ,A-0"2/." :2(;-0" & B/!"0& ./$2&+*-/=& , ,+'(4"7"+ (+24". &3(*D2. (Karl Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies, Preface to the Second Edition).
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„We all remember how many religious wars were fought for a religion of love and gentleness; how many bodies were burned alive with the genuinely kind intention of saving souls from the eternal fire of hell.“ 47 *** „The Party seeks power entirely for its own sake. We are not interested in the good of others; we are interested solely in power. Not wealth or luxury or long life or happiness: only power, pure power. What pure power means you will understand presently. We are different from all the oligarchies of the past, in that we know what we are doing. All the others, even those who resembled ourselves, were cowards and hypocrites. The German Nazis and the Russian Communists came very close to us in their methods, but they never had the courage to recognize their own motives. They pretended, perhaps they even believed, that they had seized power unwillingly and for a limited time, and that just round the corner there lay a paradise where human beings would be free and equal. We are not like that. We know that no one ever seizes power with the intention of relinquishing it. Power is not a means; it is an end. One does not establish a dictatorship in order to safeguard a revolution; one makes the revolution in order to establish the dictatorship. The object of persecution is persecution. The object of torture is torture. The object of power is power. “ „We are not content with negative obedience, nor even with the most abject submission. When finally you surrender to us, it must be of your own free will. We do not destroy the heretic because he resists us; so long as he resists us we never destroy him. We convert him, we capture his inner mind, we reshape him. We burn all evil and all illusion out of him; we bring him over to our side, not in appearance, but genuinely, heart and soul. We make him one of ourselves before we kill him. It is intolerable to us that an erroneous thought should exist anywhere in the world, however secret and powerless it may be. Even in the instance of death we cannot permit any deviation . . . We make the brain perfect before we blow it out. “ „The ideal set up by the Party was something huge, terrible, and glittering – a world of steel and concrete, of monstrous machines and terrifying weapons – a nation of warriors and fanatics, marching forward in perfect unity, all thinking the same
47
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thoughts and shouting the same slogans, perpetually working, fighting, triumphing, persecuting – three hundred million people all with the same face.“ „ And if all others accepted the lie which the Party imposed – if all records told the same tale – then the lie passed into history and became truth. Who controls the past , ran the Party slogan, controls the future: who controls the present controls the past . “
48
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48
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was and must remain the heart and soul of the unending human adventure: freedom of enquiry, freedom of controversy, freedom of criticism, and the vote.“ „ For two centuries, the very important people who managed the affairs of this society could not believe in the importance of ideas – until one day they were shocked to discover that their children, having been captured and shaped by certain ideas, were either rebelling against their authority or seceding from their society. The truth is that ideas are all-important. The massive and seemingly solid institutions of any society – the economic institutions, the political institutions, the religious institutions – are always at the mercy of the ideas in the heads of the people who populate these institutions. The leverage of ideas is so immense that a slight change in the intellectual climate can and will – perhaps slowly but nevertheless inexorably – twist a familiar institution into an unrecognizable shape.“ ''The man who no longer expects miraculous changes either from a revolution or from an economic plan is not obliged to resign himself to the unjustifiable. It is because he likes individual human beings, participates in living communities, and respects the truth, that he refuses to surrender his soul to an abstract ideal of humanity, a tyrannical party, and an absurd s cholasticism... If they can abolish fanaticism, let us pray for the advent of the sceptics.'' 49 ***
49
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„ Modern man lives isolated in his artificial environment, not because the artificial is evil as such, but because of his lack of comprehension of the forces which make it work – of the principles which relate his gadgets to the forces of nature, to the universal order. It is not central heating which makes his existence ‘unnatural,’ but his refusal to take an interest in the principles behind it. By being entirely dependent on science, yet closing his mind to it, he leads the life of an urban barbarian. “ „ I think most historians will agree that the part played by impulses of selfish, individual aggression in the holocausts of history was small; first and foremost, the slaughter was meant as an offering to the gods, to king and country, or the future happiness of mankind. The crimes of Caligula shrink to insignificance compared to the havoc wrought by Torquemada. The number of victims of robbers, highwaymen, rapists, gangsters and other criminals at any period of history is negligible compared to the massive numbers of those cheerfully slain in the name of the true religion, just policy, or correct ideology. “ „The inner censor of the mind of the true believer completes the work of the public censor; his self-discipline is as tyrannical as the obedience imposed by the regime; he terrorizes his own conscience into submission; he carries his private Iron Curtain inside his skull, to protect his illusions against the intrusion of reality.“ „The continuous disasters of man’s history are mainly due to his excessive capacity and urge to become identified with a tribe, nation, church or cause, and to espouse its credo uncritically and enthusiastically, even if its tenets are contrary to reason, devoid of self-interest and detrimental to the claims of self preservation. We are thus driven to the unfashionable conclusion that the trouble with our species is not an excess of aggression, but an excess capacity for fanatical devotion. “ 50 50
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6&" %'(*) "( )*%6"I&A )*#$*7)&1*, ".&I') .'=2 #$2(')$&.* & 3*("7"I*) #7"%". ,"3&?&%". &)$'0'1$2*0)"4 *2$#*%('+*. 8'"6(*+') ,+'$'+*)". 7+'()"B"., 4"(&)*.* %' +*370*-&" ,&#*D' ("1$"+#1' $'3' " T+*.5&%251. !+"7"1*$&7*) #*4"7"+)&1, )*-&$*) & +&-*7, 6&" %' &#$&)#1& &)$'0'1$2*0)& &3*3"7. C10") $'"+'$&#*D2 & (7"6"%2, 3* .')' %' ,+'(#$*7I*" $*1.*?* ," .'+&. J W24"#0*7&%2 #*. #' 7+*$&" )*"+29*) & 27'96*), 40*(*) )"7&A "1+5*%*. „OK. I’ll give you the framework. And more than that, I’ll provide some basic points about Marxism and how I see them.“ „Excellent, young man, I am all ears.“ „I would argue that there were three major features of Marxism. The first would be Marx’s analysis of capitalism. The second could be defined as the Marxist methodology and the third refers to his understanding of politics and government. The fact of the matter is that the fundamentals of Marxian thought lay in his political economy. Essentially, Marxism is about the labor theory of value (LTV). Contrary to popular belief, Marx does not base his LTV on what he dismisses as ascribing a supernatural creative power to labor . In the Critique of the Gotha program, he says: Labor is not the source of all wealth. Nature is just as much a source of use values (and it is surely of such that material wealth consists!) as labor which is itself only the manifestation of a force of nature, human labor power. Here Marx is drawing a distinction between exchange value, which is the subject of the LTV, and use value. Marx uses the concept of socially necessary labor-time to introduce a social perspective distinct from his predecessors Smith and Ricardo. Whereas most 51
P)$")&" T+*.5& ( Antonio Gramsci), 1891 – 1937, &$*0&%*)#1& ,"0&$&-*+ & ,&#*?, %'(*) "( "#)&7*-* F! N$*0&%' & D') 0&('+ (1924). JA*,5') "( /2#"0&)&%'7"4 +'9&.* & "#2=') )* 20 4"(&)*, 2.+" %' 2 E&.2, )',"#+'()" ,"#0' ,25$*D* )* 2#0"7)2 #0"6"(2 1937.
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economists start with the individual’s perspective, Marx starts with the perspective of the society as a whole. Social production involves a complicated and interconnected division of labor of a wide variety of people who depend on each other for their survival and prosperity. Socially necessary labor refers to the quantity required to produce a commodity in a given society, under certain conditions of production and average skill of the labor employed. In other words, the value of a product is determined by social standards rather than by individual capacities. This, according to Marx, explains why technological advancements lower the price of commodities and put weaker producers out of business. Finally, it is not labor by itself that creates value, but labor-power sold by wage workers to capitalists. Following the same logic, the wage worker becomes an ever cheaper commodity, the more commodities he creates. Labor produces not only commodities; it produces itself and the worker as a commodity – and does so in the proportion in which it produces commodities generally. Labor is the actual activity of producing value. The profit, or surplus-value in Marxian terms, arises when workers do more labor than is necessary to pay the cost of hiring their labor-power. Marx describes Capitalism as having an institutional framework in which a small minority (the capitalists) owns the means of production. The workers cannot survive except by working for capitalists, and the state preserves this inequality of power. The army of unemployed workers threatens employed workers, pushing them to work hard to produce for the capitalists…“ „Fine, but what is your point?“
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„Now we come to the point of criticism. The first of Marx’s problems is the fact that he sees wage workers and capitalists solely in their positions in the process of production and completely ignores that, at the same time, they appear as factors on the market. Yet the workers do comprise the vast majority of consumers. This means that if the economic power of workers is so low that they barely survive, due to capitalists’ exploitation, the consuming potential of the market will also be very low. Consequently, the capitalists would suffer immensely due to a limited number of customers. Hence, it is in the interest of the capitalists to better the standard of living of the workers, or at least to seek for the balance between wages and exploitation. This problem could be tackled from another side as well. According to LTV, the economic cycle starts with production, continues through distribution and ends in consumption. It seems to me, however, that the economic cycle turns the other way around: production is initiated by consumption; the market represents the ultimate barometer between the two. Generally speaking, the best response to Marxian LTV was provided by the theory of marginal utility, first developed by Carl Menger, the founder of the so called Austrian Psychological School, about the same time as Marx’s Das Kapital …“ „Let’s not get into that right now. Let us stay with Marx and his theories, shall we? That is, of course, if it’s all right with you.“ „Sure thing. I just wanted to point out that Marx was not the only one dealing with that particular problem and that the LTV had a viable alternative. Anyway... In terms of his method, Marx could be labeled as an ardent determinist. Not only did he consider himself to be absolutely right in criticizing vehemently any opinion that differed from his, but he proclaimed his theories laws of social development , comparing them to natural laws, for example Newton’s laws of motion
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or gravity. By doing so, he essentially proscribed any kind of questioning, let alone criticism of his philosophy, and planted the seed of Marxist intellectual intolarance and subsequent authoritarianism... “ „Let me interrupt you for a second. There is an additional error hidden in Marxist system of logic, an error that Marx inherited from Hegel. It is widely accepted that Marx turned downside up Hegelian dialectics, keeping the pattern, but changing the setting. The truth is that Engels and later Lenin devoted more attention to dialectics, or more precisely dialectical materialism, than Marx himself. Nonetheless, the logical error or inconsistency I am referring to is the following: if the perpetual chain of development depends on struggle between the thesis and the antithesis resulting in synthesis that becomes the new thesis challenging the new antithesis, how come that in the final instance, the entire process ends and remains frozen in space and time, thus denying the very foundations of dialectical progression?“ „To quote the words of Friedrich Engels: All nature, from the smallest thing to the biggest, from a grain of sand to the sun, from the protista to man, is in a constant state of coming into being and going out of being, in a constant flux, in a ceaseless state of movement and change. Engels was the one who defined the three laws of dialectical materialism: 1. The law of the unity and conflict of opposites; 2. The law of the passage of quantitative changes into qualitative changes; 3. The law of the negation of the negation.
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In other words, how to fit reality into one’s preconceived theory. This seems to me as pseudo-intellectual oversimplification, to be honest enough. Typical German speculative mumbo jumbo, if you know what I mean.“ 52
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