HISTORIA “¿MVNDO A m ig v o
1
REC LAS CIC1DADES DE JOfSIA Y EL PELOPOMESO EN EL PERIODO ARCAICO
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HISTORIA
■^MVNDO A n t ïg v o ORIENTE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 10. 11. 11. 12. 13. 13.
A. Cab allos-J. M. Serran o, Sumer y Akka d. J. Urruela, Egipto: Epoca Tinita e Imperio Antiguo. C. G. Wagner, Babilonia. J. Urruelaj Egipto durante el Imperio Medio. P. Sáez, Los hititas. F. Presedo, Egipto durante el Imperio Nuevo. J . Alvar, Los Pueblos del Mar y otros movimientos de pueblos a fines d el II milenio milenio.. irí a y su C. G. Wagne r, As iría imperio. C. G. Wagner, Los fenicios. J . M. Blázquez, Blázquez , Los hebreos. F. Presedo, Egipto: Tercer Pe ríodo Intermedio y Epoca Saita. F. Presedo, Presedo, J . M. Serran o, L a religión egipcia. J. Alvar, Los persas.
E sta histori hi stori a, obra de un equi equi po de cuar cuar enta profe prof esor sore es de vari as uni v er si dades dades espa españolas, ñolas, pr et ende ofr of r ecer cer el el últi mo estad estado o de las las i nvesti gaci ones ones y , a la vez, ser ser acce accesi ble a lectore lectoress de di v er sos ni v el es culturale cultur ales. s. U na cui cui dada sele selecc ccii ón de text textos os de au au-tores tores an anti ti guos, mapas, apas, i lustraci lust racione ones, s, cuadros cuadros cronológi cronológi cos cos y ori entaci ones ones bibli bi bli ogr ográfi áfi cas cas hacen hacen que cada cada li bro se pre pr esente con con un doble valor, valor , de modo que pue pu ede f unci un ci ona onarr como como un capí capí tulo del del conjunto conj unto más ampli ampli o en en el que está está i nser nser to o bie bi en como como una monogr afí a. C ada text texto o ha si do r edactado dactado por po r el el espe especi ciali alista sta del del tema, tema, lo que asegur a la cali cali dad cie ci entí fi ca del proy ecto. 25. 26. 27. 27 .
28. 28.
29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35.
GRECIA 14. 14. 15. 15. 16. 16. 17. 18. 18. 19. 19. 20. 21.
J. C. Bermejo, El mundo del Egeo en el II milenio. A. Loza no, La Edad Oscura. J . C. Berme jo, El mito griego y sus interpretaciones. A. Lozano Loz ano , La colonización grieg gri ega. a. ciudades de Jo J. J. Sayas, Las ciudades nia y el Peloponeso Peloponeso en el perío do arcaico. R. López Melero, El estado es pa rtan rt an o ha sta st a la ép oc a clásica. clásica . R. López Melero, L a f o r m a ción de la democracia atenien se, I. El estado aristocrático. aristocrático. R. López Melero, L a f o r m a ción de la democracia atenien
J. Fernández Nieto, La guerra del Peloponeso. Peloponeso. J. Fernández Nieto, Grecia en la primera mitad del s. IV. D. Plácido, La civilización grie gr iega ga en la ép oc a clásica. clásica . J. Fernández Fernández Nieto, V. Alon so, Las condidones de las polis en el s. IV y su reflejo en los pe ns ad or es griegos grie gos.. J. Fernández Nieto, El mun do griego y Filipo de Mace donia. M. A. Raba nal, A le ja nd ro Ma gno gn o y sus sucesores. A. Lozano, Las monarquías helenísticas. I: El Egipto de los Lágidas. A. Lozan o, Las monarquías helenísticas. II: Los Seleúcidas. en or h e A. Lozano , As ia M enor lenística. M. A. Rab ana anal, l, Las monar quías helen heleníst ística icas. s. I II : Grecia y Mac M aced edon on ia. ia . A. Piñero, Piñe ro, La civilizadón he lenística. ROMA
36. 37. 38. 38. 39. 39. 40. 41.
J. Martínez-Pinna, El pueblo etrusco. J. Martínez-Pinna, La Roma prim pr im itiv it iva. a. S. Montero, J. Martíne z-Pin na, El dualismo patricio-ple beyo. S. Montero, J. Martínez-Pinna, La conquista de Italia y la igualdad de los órdenes. G. Fatá s, El períod o de las pri meras guerras púnicas. púnicas. F. Marco, La expansión de Rom a por el Mediterráne Mediterráneo. o. D e fi n es d e la segu se gund ndaa gu erra er ra Pú nica a los Gracos.
44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 53.
54. 55. 56. 56. 57. 58. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64.
C. González Rom án, La Re pú p ú b lica li ca T ar dí a: cesar ces arian ian os y pom po m pe ya no s. Institudoness p o J . M. Roldán, Institudone líticas de la República romana. S. Mon tero, La religi religión ón rom a na antigua. Aug usto.. J . Mangas, Augusto J. Mangas, F. J. Lomas, Lo s Ju li o -C la u di o s y la crisis d el 68. Flavios. F. J . Lomas, Los Flavios. G. Chic, La dinastía de los An tonino ton inos. s. U. Espinosa, Los Severos. J . Fernández Ubiña, El Impe rio Romano bajo la anarquía militar. J . Muñiz Coello, Las finanzas pú blica bl ica s d el estad est ad o ro m an o du rante el Alto Imperio. Ag ricul ultu tura ra y J . M. Blázquez, Agric minería romanas durante el Al to Im pe rio. ri o. A rtes esan an ad o y J . M. Blázquez, Art comercio durante el Alto Im peri pe rio. o. J. Mang as-R. Cid, El paganis mo durante el Alto Impeño. J. M. Santero, F. Gaseó, El cristianismo cristianismo prim itivo. las re G. Bravo, Dioclecian o y las fo r m a s a dm inist in ist rati ra tiva vass d el I m pe rio. ri o. sus su F. Bajo , Constantino y sus cesor cesores. es. La conversión conversión del Im peri pe rio. o. R . Sanz, El paganismo tardío y Juliano el Apóstata Apóstata.. R. Teja, La época de los Va lentinianos lentiniano s y de Teodosio. D. Pérez Sánche z, Evoludón del Imperio Rom ano de Orien te hasta Justiniano. G. Bravo, El colonato bajoim pe rial ri al.. G. Brav Revu eltas internas y
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4& W
1·
HISTORIA ^MVNDO ATfnOVO
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Director de la obra:
Julio Mangas Manjarrés (Catedrático de Historia Antigua de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid)
Diseño y maqueta: maqueta:
Pedro Arjona
«No está permitida la reproducción total o parcial de este libro, ni su tratamiento informático, ni la transmisión de ninguna forma o por cualquier medio, ya sea electrónico, mecánico, por fotocopia, por registro u otros métodos, sin el permiso previo y por escrito de los titulares del Copyright.» © Ed icio nes A kal, S. A., 1988 Los Berrocales del Jarama Ap d o . 4 0 0 - To rre jó n d e Ard o z M a d rid - Esp a ñ a Tels.: 656 56 11 - 656 49 11 Depósito legal: M. 32.883-1988 I S B N : 8 4 - 7 6 0 0 - 2 7 4 - 2 ( O b r a c o m p l e ta ta ) ISBN: 84-7600-293-9 (Tomo I)
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LAS CIUDADES DE JONIA Y DEL PELOPONESO EM EL PERIODO ARCAICO J. J. Sayas
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Indice
I. D esar es arro ro llo de las polis en la époc ép ocaa a r c a i c a .... ......................................................................................................
7
................................................................ ................... 1. Los comienzos de la polis polis g rie g a .............................................
7
2. L os m arco ar co s s o c io in s ti tu c io n a le s ....... .......... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ....... ...... ...... ...... ....... ........ ....... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...
12
3. La po lis a r i s to c r á ti c a ....... .......... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ....... ...... ...... ...... .....
13
4. P er ío d o o r ie n ta li z a n t e ....... .......... ....... ....... ...... ...... ...... ....... ....... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... .....
16
5. E s c r i t u r a ........... ................ .......... ........... ........... .......... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ............ ........... .......... ........... ........... ........... ........... .......... ....... ..
17
6. M arc o histó hi stó ric o de los gr ieg os de A sia M en o r .... ...... ..... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ....
18
7. D e s a rr o llo ll o d e la c iu d a d
.......... ................ ........... ........... ........... .......... ........... ........... ........... ........... .......... ........... ........... .......... .......
21
7.1 . L a cu es tió n de un a n u ev a clase social so cial .... ...... ..... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... ..... .... ..
22
7.2. A ristocracia y actividades artes an ales y com erciales
7.3. 7. 3. A p a ric ri c ió n de la m o n e d a ...... ......... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... 7 .4. .4 . C risis ris is a g r a ria ri a ....... ............. ........... .......... ........... ........... .......... ........... ............ ........... .......... ........... ........... .......... ........... ............ ......... ...
24 26 31
T i r a n ía s .................................................................................... ................................................................................................................... ...............................
34
1. U so d e la p a l a b r a .......... ................ ........... .......... ........... ........... .......... ........... ............ ........... .......... ........... ............ ........... .......... ........... ...... 2. E xp lica cio ne s de la ap ar ició n de la t i r a n í a .... ...... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .. 2.1 . T ira n ía y d e sa rro rr o llo e c o n ó m i c o .... .......................................................................................................... 2.2. 2. 2. T ira ir a n ía y h o p l i t a s ...... ......... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... 2.3 . Tira Ti ra n ía y fa c to r r a c i a l ...... ......... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... 2.4. 2.4 . T ira nía ní a y d es eo de p r e s t i g i o .... ........................................................................................................................ 3. A ctu ct u ac ió n y fu n d a m e n to s de la t i r a n í a .... .................................................................................................. 4. Fin Fi n de la t i r a n í a ........... ................. ........... .......... ........... ............ ........... .......... ........... ........... .......... ........... ............ ........... .......... ........... ........
34 36 36 38 39 39 40 42
III. T ira n ía s de Jo n ia e islas a d y a c e n te s .... ........................................................................................................................
43
II. II .
...............
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IV. Las tiranías tiranía s en la reg ión del Itsm o y en el P elo el o p o n es o ...... ......... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... .....
1. 2. 3. 4.
T ira ir a n ía T ira ir a n ía T ira ir a n ía T ira ir a n ía
en en en en
51
M é g a r a ...... ......... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... A r g o s ............ ................. .......... ........... ........... .......... ........... ............ ........... .......... ........... ........... .......... ........... ............ .......... C o r in to ....... ............ .......... ........... ........... .......... ........... ............ ........... .......... ........... ........... .......... ........... ............ ......... ... S i c i ó n ........... ................. ........... .......... ........... ........... .......... ........... ............ ........... .......... ........... ........... .......... ........... ......... ...
51 52 53 58
B ib lio g r a fía.......... fí a............... ........... ........... .......... ........... ........... .......... ........... ............ ........... .......... ........... ........... .......... ........... ............ ........... .......... ........... .......... ....
60
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Las ciudades de Jonia y del Peloponeso en el período arcaico
I. Desarrollo de las polis en la época arcaica
En la Historia de Grecia, la Epoca Clásica fascina sobremanera. Ella aportó los frutos más sazonados, pero también los mejor conocidos. Mas fue durante la Epoca Arcaica cuando se pr p r o d u je r o n las la s in n o v a c io n e s m ás d e cisivas, aunque su conocimiento resulte menos completo. Son escasas las fuentes literarias contemporáneas y sólo se retrotraen a la segunda mitad del siglo V i l a. J. C. La Arqueología presta una ayuda indispensable para la época en cuestión, pe ro no se le le pue de fo rzar a decir más de lo que su propio método arqueológico establece. Entre las novedades que se producen durante la Epoca Arcaica de la Historia de Grecia destacan tres: el desarrollo de la p o l is , la colonización
1. Los com co m ienzos ienz os de la polis griega «Es evidente que la p o li s es una realidad natural y que está antes que el individuo, porque, si el individuo no pu p u e d e s u b s isti is tirr a is la d o , es c o m o c u a lquier parte frente a su todo. El que no es capaz de vivir en comunidad o es tan autosuficiente que no la necesita, no forma parte de la p o li s y tiene que ser o un monstruo o un dios» (Aristóteles, Política, 1253 a). Aristóteles, desde la perspectiva contemplativa en la que la po sus p o li s ha dad o sus frutos más sazonados, puede valorar la tendencia natural del hombre a vivir en comunidad y a relacionarse con sus semejantes en un marco institucional. Pero este marco institucional y
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8
Ak al Histo ria de l M und o Anti guo
I WÊUÊÈ
tástrofe se abría un nuevo horizonte con nuevas posibilidades respecto de las cuales no todas las tierras habitadas por las estirpes griegas se encontraban en el mismo punto de partida. La franja costera de Asia Menor e islas adyacentes era una zona periférica y peculiar. Ya con anterioridad en diversos lugares de la misma se encon traron objetos de fabricación micé micé nica. La valoración de este hecho varía entre considerarlo como un mero exponente de relaciones y expansión comerciales o, por el contrario, pensar que testimonian la instalación y pr p r e s e n c ia c o n tin ti n u a d a d e g e n te s m icé ic é nicas, como pretende Cassola. Y so br b r e e s ta c u e s tió ti ó n c o n tr o v e r t i d a inc in c iden también las alusiones de los documentos históricos egipcios e hititas con relación a unos E k w e s h interpretados hipotéticamente como aqueos, y las referentes a unos príncipes de A h h iy a w a , cuyo nombre quizá podría encubrir —es también una opinión hi po p o t é tic ti c a — a u n o s a q u e o s c u y a p o sib si b le localización geográfica concreta es un tema discutido. Si se procede con un criterio restrictivo, de unas alusiones históricas tan imprecisas y de la simple presencia de cerámica micénica no tiene por qué deducirse necesariamente la exigencia de una implantación poblacio nal griega permanente durante la época micénica. De lo que no hay duda es de que todo esto manifiesta,
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9
Las ciudades de Jonia y del Peloponeso en el período arcaico
pr p r e g u n ta s r e s p e c to a los lo s m o m e n to s en los que comenzó la emigración griega a las costas de Asia Menor y respecto a cuántos asentam ientos se establecieestablecieron. Para una respuesta en este sentido, los hallazgos arqueológicos realizados hasta la fecha constituyen el hilo conductor. Ciertamente que nuevas excavaciones en nuevos lugares pu p u e d e n p r o d u c ir n u e v o s h a lla ll a z g o s , y esto hace que las respuestas tengan un carácter de provisionalidad. Lo cierto es que cerámica pintada proto geométrica se ha encontrado, en cantidad, en las excavaciones de Mileto y de Esmirna. Se registra también en Clazomenas, en Focea y en otros lugares de la costa. Si la aparición de cerámica de carácter protogeométrico se acepta ya, al menos para esos momentos, como un indicio arqueológico de asentamiento de emigrados, la dispersión geográfica de los hallazgos.hace suponer una ocupación territorial extensa de los nuevos emigrados; ocupación que en varios casos parece tener lugar, al menos a partir del 1000 a.J.C. Esta cerámica protogeométrica ha salido a la luz en algunos lugares ocupados por las doce ciudades que constituirán posteriormente la denominada Jonia, es decir, aquellas ciudades que posiblemente ya en la Epoca Arcaica gozaban de status panjóni co. Pero, además, resulta que cerámica protogeométrica se ha encontrado también en otros lugares de asenta-
mente diferentes. Por lo tanto, su posición de arranque era distinta y difería de la que estaban atravesando los territorios griegos de donde procedían. Los centros griegos de Asia Menor vieron interrumpidas mínimamente las relaciones comerciales y culturales con el mundo minorasiáti co. Su misma implantación en un contorno geográfico y humano distinto del griego les proporcionaba las condiciones propicias para madurar, en fechas tempranas, un desarrollo comunitario que conducía hacia la p o li s griega. La po p o lis, li s, denominada no con total precisión ciudadestado, era una pe p e q u e ñ a c o m u n id a d i n d e p e n d i e n t e y autónoma constituida en lo material, generalmente, por un centro urbano y la campiña adyacente. En este marco se desarrollará el conjunto de instituciones dentro del cual el ciudadano alcanzará el control de la mayor parte de los asuntos de la ciudad. Los grupos de invasores griegos y los nuevos asentados formaron comunidades pequeñas en los lugares y zonas en las que se habían establecido. La inseguridad inicial, junto con las necesidades de defensa, les hace elegir sitios elevados y estrechar los lazos de cooperación. El sentimiento de comunidad de origen, reforzado por costumbres religiosas comunes, hace que ese núme ro lim lim itado itado de hab itantes de un lugar vaya tomando conciencia de grupo concreto y participe progresivamente en la administración de los
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10
al mismo ritmo y de la misma manera; b) la la información información que ofrece la A rqueología tiene una validez limitada, que se concreta en el aspecto urbanístico y no en el políticoinstitucional; c) los testimonios literarios contem po p o r á n e o s del de l d e s a r r o llo ll o d e la po p o li s son exiguos y poco explícitos. La urbanización en Grecia tiene un lento desarrollo, salvo en Asia Menor. A mediados del siglo ix la ciudad de Esmirna fue amurallada, pa p a r a s e r r e m o d e la d a u n sigl si gloo m á s t a r de. En el espacio que cerraban las murallas había unas cuatrocientas viviendas de adobes con cimientos de pie p ie d r a . E r a el s o p o r te m a te r ia l d e la comunidad. La ciudad, en sus características materiales generales, no ha debido de diferir mucho del centro urbano descrito por Nausicaa en la Odisea (VI, 262 ss.): «Y, cuando íbamos a entrar en la ciudad, que rodea una elevada muralla —hay un buen puerto por cada lado de la ciudad, cuya entrada es estrecha y las cóncavas naves dan guarnición al camino, porque cada hom bre tiene tiene allí allí un am arrade ro— . Y tenían allí también un ágora cerca del hermoso templo de Poseidón, provista de grandes piedras profundamente hincadas en el suelo». En este sentido los datos arqueológicos son una muestra indicativa del grado de planificación urbana conseguido por algunos asentamientos griegos, pero nada más. El desarrollo ur-
Aka I H istor ia de l M und o An tigu o
lizados, que «no tienen asambleas deliberativas, ni leyes (thémistes), sino que moran en las cimas de los montes elevados, en cavernas hondas, y cada uno aplica sus criterios a sus hijos y mujeres y no hace caso de los demás». Pero el testimonio de Homero es po p o c o e x p líc lí c ito it o y a c la r a p o c o el p a p e l de la po p o lis. li s. Y, por lo que hace a la Beocia del 700 a. C., que es sobre la que informa Hesíodo, lo que puede detectarse dentro de esta región es que, como opinan M. Austin y P. Vi dalNaquet, «la unificación entre la ciudad y el campo, que es una de las características de la ciudad arcaica y clásica, no se ha producido todavía». N o d is p o n ie n d o d e i n f o r m a c ió n fehaciente contemporánea del conocimiento de los orígenes de la p o li s , lo destilamos primordialmente a partir del proceso del desarrollo de la po p o li s ya acabado, con los no pocos riesgos que se corren cuando se traslada a los orígenes, aunque sea en estado em b r i o n a r io , a lgo lg o c u y o c o n o c im ie n to más claro corresponde a momentos posteriores. Lo cual no quiere decir que en la época inicial arcaica no se detecten sólidos atisbos que apuntan a la nueva realidad de la po p o lis li s , ya que ésta es resultado de un proceso evolutivo. En definitiva, buscar respuestas claras y concretas a las preguntas de cuándo y cómo surgieron las po p o lis li s no conduce a nada sustancial. Baste con saber que en la Epoca Arcaica la p o li s estaba constituida en sus aspec-
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Fragmento de una crátera orientalizante (Siglo VII) Museo Nacional de Palermo
influencia para otras zonas griegas. Con todo, son variadas las opiniones modernas, replanteadas de nuevo por A. J. Toynbee, que insisten en conceder a los griegos de Asia Menor la
ción de las influencias urbanísticas y alcanzar de esa manera la prioridad. En este sentido, y como aporte a la suposición del origen de la p o l is en Asia Menor, se ofrecía la hipótesis de
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Aka I H isto ria de l M un do An tigu o
12
2. Los marcos socioinstitucionales Los griegos que se fueron asentando en lugares concretos crearon formas de convivencia a las que no fueron ajenas las organizaciones de carácter «étnico», «tribal» y «gentilicio». Quiere esto decir que la fragmentación de grupos más reducidos que se fueron asentando independientemente sobre porciones geográficas más restringidas y concretas conllevaba unidades sociales como el oikos, el genos, las ph ra tria tr iaii y las ph p h y la i. Y tales formas organizativas eran unidades pre p re e x iste is tenn tes te s q u e las la s po p o le is arcaicas integrarán en su marco organizativo. Tras la sedentarización de los pu p u eb los lo s grie gr iego goss la fo r m a b á sic si c a de o r ganización la constituía la unidad familiar (oikos), que en los poemas homéricos tiene dos maneras de contemplarse, bien sea en términos de componente componentess humanos, que com prendía a la familia del jefe, a las personas libres y no libres que integran esa unidad nuclear, bien sea en términos de
quien no pertenecía a una fratría era u n aphretor, un «sin fratría», como también lo es el que se ha visto excluido de ella. Esto tiene sus repercusiones jurídicoeconómicas. El aphre to r se ve «privado de la justicia y del hogar» (Iliada, IX, 63). Era, en definitiva, un marginado, como en opinión de A. Andrewes (1961) lo eran todos aquellos que no han logrado formar parte de esa asociación. El mantenimiento de la misma institución entre los atenienses y los jonios es, entre otros, un indicio de un origen común. De acuerdo con el testimonio de H o m e r o (Iliada, II, 362), las fratrías se agrupaban generalmente en p h y la i (tribus). Estas, bien sean organismos anteriores al estado, como parece más razonable, bien hayan nacido en función de éste como grupo gentilicio o como nuevo marco asociativo de confluencia de unidades inferiores, asumió en la p o li s un significado político que rebasaba el marco de las fratrías. Las cuatro tribus jonias de los Geléontes, Hópletes, Egicoreis y de los A r g a d e is guardan relación con las
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Las ciudades de Jonia y del Peloponeso en el período arcaico
se adaptaron a las nuevas exigencias. Así, la fratría, que había agrupado varios gene locales, pasará a ser dentro de la p o li s la institución a través de la cual se canalizaba el acceso a la ciudadanía. Ante ella, en la fiesta anual de las Apaturias, inscribían los p a d r e s los lo s h ijo ij o s h a b id o s e n e se a ñ o . ,
V ! ·· , : ·... :· i ' ,
< ,*
\
13
3. La polis aristocrática Inicialmente, las ciudades parece que estuvieron gobernadas por reyes que asumían las diversas funciones, excepto las relacionadas con la venganza por crímenes de sangre, que eran cometido de los gene. El rey ofrecía los sacrificios públicos a los dioses, conducía el ejército, entendía en las \ disputas y gobernaba la ciudad. La base de su poder tenía un componente material, consistente en un rico patrimonio, y otro moral y mítico, alimentado por la creencia de un origen que lo vinculaba a algún pe p e r s o n a je m ític ít icoo . Pero, además de médicos, aedos, adivinos, artesanos, trabajadores agrícolas y pequeños propietarios, la ciudad administrada por el rey (basiléus) cuenta con un grupo de nobles terratenientes, cuyo peso específico en la conducción de la ciudad se manifiesta en el Consejo real, constituido por los jefes de las familias nobiliarias. La existencia de este Consejo su po p o n e u n a lim li m ita it a c ió n d e l p o d e r r e a l. En la Odisea se aprecia ya, sin tanta
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14
pri p rim m o r d ia l e r a la agrí ag ríco cola la,, e sta st a s fa m ilias aristocráticas tenían en propiedad no sólo la mayor parte de la tierra, sino también la más fértil. La tendencia de algunas personas del demos fue relacionarse y vincularse con esas familias aristocráticas cuyas actividades e iniciativas económicas afectaban inevitablemente al resto de la población. Los aristócratas estaban en disposición de regular los pre p re c io s a su a n to jo , p r o p o r c io n a r t r a ba b a jo a u n a p o b lac la c ión ió n e n p ro g re siv si v o aumento demográfico y prestar ayuda en situaciones económicas difíciles. Su superioridad económica tenía su expresión en el terreno político. Su pre p re e m in e n c ia d e sa n g re , su im p o r ta n cia económica y social, les permitía controlar el poder y gobernar la comunidad utilizando las instituciones ciudadanas. En una situación de este tipo el pa p a p e l d e la A s a m b le a del de l p u e b lo , q ue no comprendía a toda la población de la ciudad, era irrelevante. Al comienzo, los intereses de los sectores sociales del demos no debieron de diferir mucho de aquellos de los aristócratas. Hasta que la ciudad no vea crecer las
Ak al Histo ria de l Mu ndo An tigu o
un período de un ano. Los miembros de este órgano de gobierno son los que entienden en la aplicación de las normas por las que se rige la po p o lis li s y los que fallan los litigios surgidos entre los ciudadanos, de acuerdo con un derecho consuetudinario interpretado a su discreción. Hasta el siglo VII a. J. C. no comienzan las codificaciones de las leyes consuetudinarias, que supondrán de suyo en este terreno un límite, todavía no decisivo, al arbitrio incontrolado de los aristócratas. Las ciudades griegas de Asia Menor se encontraban diseminadas en un marco geográfico en el que las potencias extranjeras próximas les impedían una expansión territorial hacia el interior. Pero esta misma circunstancia geográfica propiciaba que los influjos culturales y económicos que recibían de esas potencias fuesen tam bié b iénn m uy inte in tenn sos. so s. Las ciudades griegas de Asia Menor contemplaron quizá más tempranamente el paso de la realeza al régimen aristocrático. En Mileto el prestigio de ésta se hallaba unido al santuario cercano. Sobre él la familia
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Las ciudades de Jonia y del Peloponeso en el período arcaico
no borraron los elementos sustanciales de lengua, religión y organización social que le proporcionaba el cañamazo general de su pertenencia al mundo étnico griego. Pero su fragmentación en suelo extranjero en es pa p a c io s g e o g rá fic fi c o s m á s lim li m ita it a d o s e in dependientes contribuyó a reforzar los lazos de unidad política dentro de ese estrecho marco de la ciudad. El amor a su patria chica y el deber del ciudadano respecto de su ciudad se-
rán las consecuencias naturales de una convivencia en un espacio reducido. La Liga Panjonia no limitará el espíritu de independencia y de autonomía de cada ciudad. En la Epoca Arcaica los casos de conflictos armados entre ciudades griegas, de partici pa p a c ió n d e c iu d a d e s g rie ri e g a s d e A s ia Menor en los dos bandos enfrentados en la Guerra Lelantina, de falta de apoyo griego ante el acoso lidio contra alguna ciudad griega, no son inusuales.
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16
Ak al Histo ria de l M und o A ntig uo
4. Período orientalizante El período arqueológico que sigue al Geométrico se designa con el término «orientalizante». Durante él la cultura griega se abrió a los estímulos procedentes del Próximo Oriente. Los límites cronológicos son difíciles de establecer, pero en ese período se produce la convergencia de dos tradiciones artísticas distintas que generará el cambio. Viejos convencionalismos artísticos desaparecen y emergen otros nuevos que permiten al artista contemplar la realidad con más libertad. En dos aspectos se aprecian los cambios artísticos: en el repertorio iconográfico y en la técnica del dibujo. Las culturas orientales habían desarrollado la práctica de insistir en
gares del mundo griego, abogan en el mismo sentido, bien se traten de ob je j e t o s d e im p o r ta c i ó n , b ie n se a n d e b idos a trabajos de artesanos orientales trasladados a Grecia. Los artesanos griegos, a su vez, se instalarían en aquellos centros donde les resultaba más fácil el aprendizaje de esas técnicas de elaboración. N o só lo e n los lo s o b je to s m a te r ia le s se dejan sentir las huellas de lo oriental. En el campo científico los aportes orientales no son de escasa entidad. La especulación filosófica de la ciencia jonia con relación al mundo debe mucho a la corriente orientalizante, que dejará también sus huellas en el terreno del mito. Heródoto (II, 53) dirá: «De dónde procede cada uno de los dioses, si siempre existieron todos ellos y cuáles son sus formas, eso lo ignoraban hasta antes de ayer, por así
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17
Las ciudades de Jonia y del Peloponeso en el periodo arcaico
dor y la originalidad ambiental afloran de un contexto griego. Las relaciones establecidas entre el mundo de los dioses y de los hombres, las apelaciones al sentido ético de justicia como querida s p or los los dioses, sugieren y recuerdan el mundo de la p o l is , ya p e r t u r b a d o y c o n v u ls io n a d o so c ia lmente.
5. Escritura La adopción por los griegos del alfa be b e to fen fe n icio ic io s e r á u n o d e los lo s r e s u lt a dos de esos contactos grecoorientales. Las formas de las letras griegas, sus nombres y el orden seguido por ellas son semejantes a las fenicias. La mayor diferenciación de uno y otro alfabetos residía en el hecho de
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18
Ak al Histo ria de l M und o An tigu o
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La proximidad geográfica impedía que los griegos de Asia Menor estuviesen a resguardo de las presiones de las potencias limítrofes, pero estas mismas potencias les preservaban de verse implicados directamente en los conflictos que se desarrollaban más hacia el interior. Así las luchas enta blad bl adas as p o r los lo s asir as irio ioss y el r e in o de Urartu, hasta el sometimiento de este último último en el el sigl sigloo v il a. J. J. C ., no a fec taron militarmente a los griegos, porque los frigios se interponían como estado tapón. Este pueblo, de habla indoeuropea, ocupaba el Valle Medio y Alto del río Sangario. A lo largo del siglo vili a. J. C. consiguieron un alto nivel
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Las ciudades de Jonia y del Peloponeso en el período arcaico
que los contactos fueron fructíferos. La tradición griega recuerda estos contactos. De acuerdo con ella, el rey Midas se casaría con la hermana de Agamenón, rey de la ciudad de Cime en la. la. E ólide . Y ese m ismo rey frigio frigio es el primero de los nogriegos del que se tiene memoria de haber realizado ofrendas en Delfos en honor de Apolo. A la sombra de los frigios, y en una situación quizá de vasallaje, se encontraban los lidios. Ocupaban el territorio de Asia Menor a la espalda de las costas jonias y eolias, teniendo a Sardes como capital. A pesar de esta proximidad lidia al mar, la existencia en la costa de las ciudades griegas impedía a los lidios una proyección marítima. La caída frigia posibilitó el des pe p e g u e lid li d io. io . E s te va u n id o a la s u s titi tución en el 680 a. J. C. de la dinastía
19
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20
pa p a n h e lé n ic o d e D e lfo lf o s , m a n te n ía r e laciones amigables con Efeso, mientras que, por el contrario, se apodera ba b a d e C o lo fó n y a ta c a b a a M ile il e to y Esmirna. Su política era dispar en el comportamiento, pero unitaria en la intención: apoderarse de algunas ciudades griegas de Asia Menor, fomentando un trato desigual que impidiese que los griegos de esas ciudades formaran un bloque unitario ante un enemigo común. Los sucesores de Giges continuaron en esa política de acoso. Su hijo A rdis (651 (651613 613 a. J. C .) m antuv o unas relaciones amistosas con Efeso, p e r o se a p o d e r ó d e P r ie n e y p u s o a s e dio a Mileto. La lucha contra esta ciudad continuó durante varios años, hasta que su hijo Aliates decidió sus pe p e n d e r la . E n e sta st a d e c isió is iónn p e s a r o n , según Heródoto (I, 1922), una res-
Aka I Histo ria de l M und o Anti guo
griegas y los duros ataques de los li dios y cimerios encuentran el eco amargo y su acento patético en la po p o e s ía e leg le g ia c a . L a e x h o r t a c ió n d e Calino a sus compatriotas de Efeso a luchar por la patria pone el acento en el amor a su ciudad y en el deber moral para con el estado, pero este amor y deber no rebasa los límites de la ciudad ni lo generaliza a todo el pue blo b lo g r ie g o , del de l q u e es c o n s c ie n te p e r tenecer: «¿Hasta cuándo permanecéis sin obrar? ¿Cuándo, ¡oh jóvenes!, llegaréis a tener un corazón valeroso? ¿No tenéis vergüenza de vuestros vecinos por esa falta de ánimo? ¡Creéis estar en el reposo de la paz cuando la guerra se ha adueñado de toda la Tierra!... Y cada uno arroje al morir su último dardo. Porque es honroso y be b e llo ll o p a r a u n h o m b r e lu c h a r co n el enemigo por su tierra y sus hijos y su
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21
Las ciudades de Jonia y del Peloponeso en el período arcaico
cubriendo el valiente corazón con el escudo, tan pronto como se trabe la ba b a ta lla ll a ; p u es no p e rm ite it e el d e s tin ti n o que un hombre pueda escapar a la muerte, aunque sea el descendiente de antepasados inmortales» (frag. I). De manera semejante Mimnermo, po p o s ib le m e n te de E s m ir n a , ev o c a la grandeza de su ciudad para animar a sus conciudadanos a luchar y a resistir los ataques de Aliates (J'ragm. 13): «No hablaron así de su valor y de su noble ardor los más viejos que yo, que lo vieron sembrando el desorden en los apretados escuadrones de la ca ba b a lle ll e ría rí a lidi li diaa en la lla ll a n u r a d el H e r m o ,
7. Desarrollo de la la ciuda ciu dadd p ó le is, is , Durante la Epoca Arcaica las pó comunidades autónomas e independientes, crecieron crecieron en nú m ero, algunas algunas con un espacio territorial exiguo. La vida de muchas de ellas fue oscura, y apenas se tiene conocimiento de ellas, p e r o , con co n to d o , allí al lí el h o m b re g rieg ri eg o alcanzó su dimensión de ciudadano. Creta, a la que ya en la Ilia Il iada da (II, 641) se llama «la de las cien ciudades», con una superficie de 8.500 km2 dio cob ijo a cien cien peq ue ño s estados. La comarca geográfica de la Fócide, con una superficie de
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22
Aka i His toria de l M und o Anti guo
7.1. 7.1. La cuestión cue stión de una un a nueva clase social
w
La historiografía de finales del siglo pa p a s a d o y co m ienz ie nz os de e s te s is te m a titi zaba todos estos fenómenos en una teoría explicativa, que modernamente se pone en entredicho. Se pensaba que las tensiones detectadas en la Epoca Arcaica eran consecuencia del desarrollo económico y social producidos desde el siglo V I H a. J. C. En este sentido, la colonización no sólo ali-
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Las ciudades de Jonia y del Peloponeso en el período arcaico
de los otros miembros del demos, que, en el caso de Atenas, apoyaron Pisistrato, como opina S. C. Hum ph p h r e y s . E s t a c o n c e n t r a c ió n d e la ti e r r a en manos de los aristócratas no produjo en el Atica la desaparición de la p e q u e ñ a y m e d ia n a p r o p ie d a d , q u iz á po p o r q u e la in c o n te n ib le v o r a c id a d d e los aristócratas se dirigió hacia las tierras comunitarias. Pero estaba claro que la orientación económica, preferentemente agraria, de los aristócratas acabaría por avasallar a aquellos pe p e q u e ñ o s p r o p ie ta r io s e n d ific if ic u lta lt a d e s .
23
La adopción del armamento ho pli p lita ta d e b ió de se r g r a d u a l. L a e s p a d a y la lanza de hierro están testimoniadas desde el siglo X I a. J. C., mientras que el ejemplar más antiguo de coraza se encontró en una tumba de Argos, fechada en el 725 a. J. C. Los diversos tipos de casco y escudo permiten suponer influencias orientales, quizá de los asidos, que por esas fechas alcanzaron el Mediterráneo, y a los griegos pudieron llegarles, como opina Heródoto (I, 171), por mediación de los carios.
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24
y, por último, como estimaban que en cualquier parte conseguirían la comida diaria indispensable, emigraban sin dificultad, y debido a ello, no eran po p o d e r o s o s ni p o r el ta m a ñ o d e sus su s ciudades ni por sus recursos en general». Es cierto que Tucídides no sólo coloca el desarrollo y el aumento de recursos en función del comercio, sino también en la implantación de cultivos agrícolas especializados como la vid y el olivo.
7.2. Aristocracia y actividades
Ak al His tori a de l M und o A ntig uo
sejaba a su hermano, que tenía una pe p e q u e ñ a p r o p ie d a d : « Só lo e n to n c e s sacarás tu nave ligera a la mar, y en ella colocarás cargamento apropiado pa p a r a q u e p u e d a s lle ll e v a r te el b e n e fic fi c io a casa, como hacía mi padre, el tuyo ¡atontado Perses!, que surcaba el mar en naves, porque estaba necesitado de medios de subsistencia. El llegó aquí un día, después de cruzar el vasto camino del mar, viniendo de la eó lica Cime en una negra nave; no esca p a b a d e la a b u n d a n c ia , d e la r iq u e z a y del bienestar sino de la amarga po-
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Las ciudades de Jonia y del Peloponeso en el período arcaico
esto supone la utilización y, por tanto, la existencia de un sector artesanal en progreso. Además, la proliferación de hallazgos de objetos de lujo, muchos de ellos de producción griega, como ofrendas en templos, y en manos de una aristocracia cada vez más refinada a partir de los contactos con Oriente, apuntan de la misma manera en este sentido. Pero, como en el caso de los dedicados al comercio, tampoco en el de los dedicados a la actividad artesanal queda claro que
25
el derecho ni las leyes, sino que en torno a sus cuerpos vestían pieles de cabra hasta romperlas, y se apacenta b a n , al igu ig u a l q u e los lo s c ie r v o s , f u e r a d e la ciudad. Estas son hoy día las gentes de bien, ¡oh, Polípcdes!, y los buenos de antes ahora son los villanos» (Teognis, 5358). Teognis ve con resentimiento cómo los «nuevos ricos» se introducen en los engranajes del p o d e r , a v e c e s c o n la a q u ie s c e n c ia de los aristócratas: «Buscamos, ¡oh, Cirno!, carneros, asnos y caballos de
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26
7.3. Aparición de la Moneda En su reflexión de la Política (1257 a), Aristóteles, junto al valor fiduciario que tiene la moneda, vincula su aparición a las necesidades de facilitar los
Ak al Histo ria de l M und o An tigu o
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Las ciudades de Jonia y del Peloponeso en el período arcaico
27
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28
hallazgos del Artemisión de Efeso, señalan que su núcleo originario está circunscrito a la zona de la Jonia y de la Lidia, sin que pueda determinarse con exactitud si la concepción primaria de la moneda corresponde a los
Ak al His tori a de l M und o Anti guo
que se puede decir al respecto es que los pedazos de electrum encontrados en el Artemisión de Efeso, y también en otros lugares de Asia Menor, que no tienen figuras grabadas, responden, al menos, a uno de los elemen-
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Las ciudades de Jonia y del Peioponeso en el período arcaico
momento de introducción. La tradición literaria posterior vincula su arranque al momento en el que Solón reformó los pesos. A pesar de ello, los estudios numismáticos sugieren que su introducción no sería anterior
29
nión actual más recurrente es considerar que el nuevo instrumento monetario no se acuñó inicialmente para atender a las actividades mercantiles. Hasta donde llega por ahora el conocimiento de las secuencias de las pri-
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30
Aka I Histo ria de l M und o A ntig uo
se en ello una motivación cuyo objeto fuese atender a las necesidades públicas de la po p o lis li s . Entre ellas estaba la contratación por las ciudades griegas y por el reino de Lidia de tropas mercenarias a las que era preciso pagar su soldada. La moneda resultaba una so-
duciaria de la comunidad cívica que las emitía con el emblema de la pro pia p ia c iu d a d . A d e m á s d e l v a lo r p e r se correspondiente al trozo de metal pr p r e c io s o c on el q u e la m o n e d a e s ta b a hecha, y que era susceptible de mani pu p u la c io n e s d e p u r e z a y p e s o e s ta b a el
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