Jurnal Pendidikan Ipgktar 2015

JURNAL PENDIDIKAN IPGKTAR 2015

Comparative Instructional Quality of DPLI and PISMP Graduate Teachers of IPG Kampus Tun Abdul Razak

John Anak Brodi Moris Anak Henry Manjat Stanley Anak Abang PhD [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] IPG Kampus Tun Abdul Razak Kota Samarahan

Abstract Quality teachers are important to generate quality human resource needed for the development and advancement of the nation. Teacher s’ training s’ training institutions are tasked to produce such quality teachers. This study examines the quality of graduate teachers trained in Institut Pendidikan Guru Kampus Tun Abdul Razak (IPGKTAR) in the aspects of teaching, inclusive of content

knowledge

and

pedagogical

implementation.

Comparison is done on the two groups of students under the Diploma Pendidikan Lepasan Ijazah (DPLI) and Program Ijazah Sarjana Muda Perguruan (PISMP) programmes. A total of 40 novice teachers trained by the institute were the samples of the study. Data were taken from respondents consisting of school administrators using the five point Likert scale of the MS ISO 9001:2008 Client’s Satisfaction Feedback Questionnaires (CSFQ). The data was analysed using SPSS. Findings from the study revealed that novice teachers had achieved a high standard 7


of quality in teaching. Those qualities include content knowledge, the planning of lessons, students’ student s’ engagement, pedagogical pedagogical approaches and assessments. assessments.

pedagogical Keywords: instructional quality, pedagogical

approaches,

students’ students’ engagement, continuous assessment

In the knowledge oriented world, education is vital for mankind to move forward. The younger generation ought to be equipped with comprehensive comprehensive curricular to t o prepare them to be productive individuals cognitively, physically, socially, emotionally and spiritually. The role of teachers is second to none in shaping the mind and development of children. The concept of quality teaching has been a core issue debated in educational circles (Sakarneh, 2015). Coenders and Terlouw (2015) stated that when curricular change, teachers have to bring their knowledge and beliefs up to date. Thus teachers must consistently update themselves with the latest development in knowledge and education. Teacher quality is a major concern to realize the intented outcomes. Institute of Teacher Education plays a direct role in producing quality teachers. In the case of IPGKTAR two groups of students were graduated and posted to schools in the year 2014. One was the DPLI group comprising of student teachers who had done their first degree courses in various fields in the universities prior to being trained to be teachers in the teacher ’ teacher ’s institute. Another group was the PISMP whom underwent a program through a predegree program for one and half years before being admitted to a full degree program for four years. This study is to determine the overall 8


of quality in teaching. Those qualities include content knowledge, the planning of lessons, students’ student s’ engagement, pedagogical pedagogical approaches and assessments. assessments.

pedagogical Keywords: instructional quality, pedagogical

approaches,

students’ students’ engagement, continuous assessment

In the knowledge oriented world, education is vital for mankind to move forward. The younger generation ought to be equipped with comprehensive comprehensive curricular to t o prepare them to be productive individuals cognitively, physically, socially, emotionally and spiritually. The role of teachers is second to none in shaping the mind and development of children. The concept of quality teaching has been a core issue debated in educational circles (Sakarneh, 2015). Coenders and Terlouw (2015) stated that when curricular change, teachers have to bring their knowledge and beliefs up to date. Thus teachers must consistently update themselves with the latest development in knowledge and education. Teacher quality is a major concern to realize the intented outcomes. Institute of Teacher Education plays a direct role in producing quality teachers. In the case of IPGKTAR two groups of students were graduated and posted to schools in the year 2014. One was the DPLI group comprising of student teachers who had done their first degree courses in various fields in the universities prior to being trained to be teachers in the teacher ’ teacher ’s institute. Another group was the PISMP whom underwent a program through a predegree program for one and half years before being admitted to a full degree program for four years. This study is to determine the overall 8


quality of novice teachers produced by the institute and at the same time making a comparative evaluation of the quality based on the groups.

Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are: 1. To examine the instructional quality of graduates trained by IPGKTAR based on school administrators satisfaction index. 2. To determine whether there is any significant difference in the the quality of graduates trained by IPGKTAR between the DPLI and PISMP programmes.

Literature Review

Quality teaching should lead to the intended outcome which is the acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values by students. Thus, a learner’s experience is important as stated by Kisiel (2012) in which he emphasized the thrill of new experience when a student can see the things he/she had read in a book. This implies that personal and real experience is important in enhancing and boosting learning activities. The conceptualization of ‘hands‘hands -on’ would seem to be related to a connection to the authentic experiences (Kisiel, 2012). This experience is somewhat thrilling, interesting, challenging and beneficial to students. Quality teachers should be able to incorporate such experiences into their classroom activities. Different learning needs of students can be met by using a variety of teaching methods (Sakarneh, 2015). In addition, education institutions should 9


come up with new learning initiatives to offer learners a more fulfilling learning experience (Woo, 2011). Coenders and Terlouw (2015) talked about the instrumental nature of the models for teachers, suggesting the combination of a development phase with a class enactment phase. Meanwhile, Sakarneh (2015) underlined the characteristics of quality teaching as follows: i.

Planning based on outcomes.

ii. Quality teaching and learning leads to deep understanding. iii. Different learning needs of students can be met by using a variety of teaching methods. iv. Student-centered activities enable students to achieve and apply their learning to life. v. Significance of teaching and learning. vi. Teaching and learning strategies that meet quality teaching practices. vii. Learning strategy using critical thinking. viii. Conducive teaching and learning environment. ix. Equity and safety. x. Accommodating student’s needs. xi. Use of information and communication technology. xii. Assessment and evaluation of learner outcomes.

10


Smimou and Dahl (2012) concluded that quality teaching is related to many attributes as follows: “Perceived teaching quality had many attributes or descriptors in the minds of students (considering students as consumers, clients, or partners in the learning process). Such highly regarded descriptors are centred on learning, enthusiasm, interaction and engagements

with

students,

professor –student

rapport, communication skill, and practical relevance.”

According to Byrd and Rasberry (2011), effective teachers entail

student

motivation,

intellectual

readiness,

persistence,

creativity, the ability to apply knowledge and work productively with others and nurture them to be globally competent. Considering the extensive use of online sources for teaching a number of scholars suggested the incorporation of the internet as a tool for teaching and learning instruction. Online or html modules are a viable alternative to print modules. The decision to come up with html modules for certain programmes is an attempt to look into new ways to engage learners and provide them with a more interactive learning experience (Woo, 2011). A group of researchers even explore the possibility of using the quick response (QR) code as a way to help learners. QR codes are 2-dimensional barcodes which function as vast information storage with easy and quick access. The use of QR codes in education is still in its early stage (Abby, Norlia & Latifah, 2014). Nevertheless, this form of information processing is an innovative way which teachers can explore and execute to enhance learning. Hence, providing an added value to teaching. This technology might one day 11


project learning to a new dimension where vast information can be transferred in a short time frame.

Methodology

This study was based on the response from school administrators about the quality of novice teachers who graduated from IPGKTAR. The subjects of the study were PISMP and DPLI students trained by IPGKTAR who were posted in Sarawak in 2014.

Sampling The sampling of the study was purposive. The respondents for this study consist of 40 school administrators whom graduated teachers from IPGKTAR were posted to, based on the list of novice teachers posting given by the State Education Department of Sarawak

Instrument The instrument used was the MS ISO 9001:2008 CSFQ July 2012 version. The questionnaires were designed to collect data on teacher quality in four components, namely personal, instructional, co-curricular and management. It is based on the opinions of school administrators related to the quality in each component. It has a five point Likert scale ranging from 1 (very unsatisfied) through 5 (very satisfied). The CSFQ has a total of 45 items to identify teacher quality related to self-quality, teaching and learning, co-curriculum and management of school routines.

12


The CSFQ was posted to 94 schools according to the lists of postings provided by Sarawak’s State Department of Education after novice teachers had been posted to schools for a period of one year. The

CSFQ

was

administered

and

answered

by

the

school

administrators and returned to the researchers through the attached self-addressed envelope. A total of 40 administrators responded to the CSFQ.

Data analysis The data concerning the teaching and learning component of the questionnaire was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software. Descriptive statistics of CSFQ items regarding views of school administrators on teacher quality was the basis for examining the tendency of the result. In this particular study, the focus was only on the quality of teaching and learning of the novice

teachers

related

to

content

knowledge,

pedagogical

knowledge, delivery skills and student engagement. Comparative study was done on the two programs namely; PISMP and DPLI to determine the quality of novice teachers. The analysis for this was done by using the T-test to compare the means and evaluate the significance.

Findings

The number of samples involved is 40 which represents 42.6 percent of the total population of 94. As shown in Table 1, the mean scores indicated the school administrators’ satisfaction with the various aspects of teaching qualities of novice teachers involved. 13


Results from the analysis showed that all the aspects of teaching quality scored means exceeding the value of 4 out of the maximum score of 5. The mean scores in all the teaching and learning aspects recorded based on the ranking from the highest are: i.

Planning of lesson plan (mean=4.65; SD=0.483)

ii.

Engages students actively (mean=4.58; SD=0.501)

iii.

Continuous evaluation (mean=4.48; SD= 0.554)

iv.

Content knowledge (mean=4.45; SD= 0.504)

v.

Delivery of lesson (mean=4.43; SD=: 0.501)

vi.

Deployment of various techniques (mean=4.33; SD=0.526)

vii.

Usage of various sources (mean=4.30; SD=0.464)

Table 1: Satisfaction level of school administrators in various aspects of teaching by novice teachers N

Minimum

Maximum Mean

Std. Deviation

Subjects content knowledge

40

4

5

4.45

.504

Planning of lesson plan

40

4

5

4.65

.483

Delivery of lesson

40

4

5

4.43

.501

Usage of various sources

40

4

5

4.30

.464

Continuous evaluation

40

3

5

4.48

.554

Deployment of various techniques

40

3

5

4.33

.526

Engages students actively

40

4

5

4.58

.501

Valid N (listwise)

40

Comparison between the two groups showed that the DPLI group scored higher means in all components of the teaching and learning as shown in Table 2. The DPLI group scored higher means in the components of: content knowledge, planning of lesson plan, delivery of lesson; usage of various sources; continuous evaluation to 14


improve students learning; deployment of various techniques; and active engagement of students.

Table 2: Mean score of satisfaction level for PISMP and DPLI . Program

Subjects content knowledge Planning of lesson plan Delivery of lesson Usage of various sources

Continuous evaluation Deployment of various techniques Engages students actively

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

DPLI

19

4.53

.513

PISMP

21

4.38

.498

DPLI

19

4.74

.452

PISMP

21

4.57

.507

DPLI

19

4.58

.507

PISMP

21

4.29

.463

DPLI

19

4.32

.478

PISMP

21

4.29

.463

DPLI

19

4.58

.507

PISMP

21

4.38

.590

DPLI

19

4.42

.507

PISMP

21

4.24

.539

DPLI

19

4.63

.496

PISMP

21

4.52

.512

Results from the T-test (Table 3) showed that the significant level in all the components of teacher quality are higher than 0.05. Depending on the Levene's Test for Equality of Variances, the significant values (highlighted in Table 3) for the components of content knowledge, planning of lesson, delivery of lesson, usage of various sources, continuous evaluation, deployment of various techniques and engaging students actively are 0.369, 0.282, 0.063, 0.841, 0.264, 0.277 and 0.504 respectively. All these values are more than the critical significant value of 0.05. The significant value should

15


be less than the critical value of 0.05 for it to be considered statistically significant. Thus the difference in the means between the two groups are not statistically significant.

Table 3: Test of difference in teaching quality, PISMP and DPLI Independent Samples T-Test

Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F

Subjects content knowledge Planning of lesson

Delivery of lesson Usage of various sources Continuous evaluation Deployment of various techniques Engages students actively

Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed

.937

4.232

2.646

.162

.609

.530

1.337

Sig.

.339

.047

.112

.690

.440

.471

.255

t-test for Equality of Means

t

df

Sig. (2tailed)

Mean Diff.

Std. Error Diff.

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower

Upper

.909

38

.369

.145

.160

-.178

.469

.908

37.338

.370

.145

.160

-.179

.470

1.084

38

.285

.165

.153

-.144

.474

1.090

37.995

.282

.165

.152

-.142

.473

1.912

38

.063

.293

.153

-.017

.604

1.903

36.629

.065

.293

.154

-.019

.606

.202

38

.841

.030

.149

-.271

.331

.202

37.331

.841

.030

.149

-.272

.332

1.133

38

.264

.198

.175

-.156

.552

1.141

37.915

.261

.198

.173

-.153

.549

1.102

38

.277

.183

.166

-.153

.519

1.106

37.933

.276

.183

.165

-.152

.518

.675

38

.504

.108

.160

-.215

.431

.676

37.811

.503

.108

.159

-.215

.430

16


Discussion Instructional teaching quality The quality of teachers is directly related to the most important and traditional role of the profession, which is teaching. Teachers must master the content and pedagogical knowledge for a particular subject in order to be effective in delivering the lesson (Ho & John, 2014). Quality teaching is paramount to quality learning. Nevertheless this does not mean teaching is done in every single minute by teachers. Various strategies and techniques can be used by teachers, whether it is student centred, outcome based, materials or media based learning. Student teachers or trainees need to have the pedagogical knowledge and skills appropriate for teaching the subject areas to address students’ individual learning styles and readiness to learn (Ho, John & Stanley, 2014). Findings from this study showed that both the PISMP and DPLI graduate teachers from IPGKTAR had performed highly in their teaching

endeavours

based

on

the

perception

by

schools

administrators where they were posted. The mean scores observed were ranging from 4.30 to 4.65 out of the maximum 5 for the components of knowledge of subjects, planning for lessons, delivery, use of multiple sources for teaching, invoking various teaching techniques, evaluation of learning and the active engagement of students in learning activities. Comparison between two groups of graduates showed that the DPLI group scored higher means in all components of the teaching and learning as compared to the PISMP group. However the independent sample T-test showed that there is no significant

17


difference in teaching quality between the two groups. The results for the T-test for all the components registered the significant values that are higher than 0.05 which means the difference in the means is not statistically significant. Thus we may conclude that there is no significant difference in the quality of teaching between the DPLI group and PISMP group.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The findings from this study lead to the conclusion that the overall quality of novice teachers trained by IPGKTAR is high in the context of teaching and learning in schools. They are able to actively perform their role as instructional leaders in education as required by the Malaysian school system. Comparatively the DPLI group seems to be better in quality based on the evaluation by school administrators but the difference is not statistically significant. The difference observed in the analysis might probably be due to chance factors in the samples. Although the difference is not significant some conclusions could still be extracted from the difference in the quality. The implication from this findings might be related to many factors, one of which the DPLI group is comprising of student teachers who are more matured in terms of age and experience as they had done their degree courses in various field in the universities prior to being trained to be teachers in the teachers institute. Another factor could be the nature of the programs undergone by the two groups. There is a significant difference between the two programs. The PISMP is a program which take in the students fresh from schools. They go 18


through a pre-degree program for one and half years before being admitted to a full degree program for four years. In comparison, the DPLI program consisted of post-graduates from universities to undergo education training program to become qualified teachers. Thus they are more experienced and matured in their thinking. Whatever it may be, further research into this might provide more comprehensive and specific answer to the differences. Ho, John and Stanley (2014) emphasized the collaborative school culture where all teachers share responsibility for student learning and well-being, shared decision-making and expertise in advancing the effectiveness of schools and the mission of public education.

Limitations and Future Study

The study was limited to only graduate teachers of PISMP and DPLI trained by IPGKTAR who were posted in Sarawak in 2014. Purposive surveyed samples involved only teachers posted in Sarawak due to geographical factors. This study also used only quantitative method of data collection and analysis. Therefore, for further in-depth study, qualitative methods of data collection should also be considered to ensure a wider and more comprehensive findings.

19


References

Abby, A. S., Norlia, G. & Latifah, A. L. (2014). Embedding QR codes in the teaching and learning process. Seminar Kebangsaan Pembelajaran Sepanjang Hayat 2014.

Open University

Malaysia. Byrd, A. & Rasberry, M. (2011), Teacher and teaching effectiveness: A bold view from National Board Certiﬁed Teachers in North Carolina,

North

Calorina:

Center

for

Teaching

Quality.

http://www.teachingquality.org. Coenders, F. & Terlouw, C. (2015). A model for in-service teacher learning in the context of an innovation. Journal of Sci Teacher Educ 26:451 –470. Springerlink.com. Ho, H. T. & John, B. (2014). Quality of teaching and what next? Jurnal Penyelidikan Pendidikan 2014. IPG Kampus Tun Abdul Razak. Kota Samarahan. Ho, H. T., John, B. & Stanley, A. (2014). Quality teacher – isues and challenges.

Prosiding

Seminar

Penyelidikan

IPGM

Zon

Sarawak 2014. IPG Kampus Rajang. Kisiel, J (2013). Introducing future teachers to science beyond the classroom. Journal of Sci Teacher Educ 24:67 –91. The Association for Science Teacher Education, USA. Sakarneh, M. (2015). Articulation of quality teaching: a comparative study. Journal of Education and Training Studies. Vol. 3(1). Redfame Publishing.

20


Smimou, K. & Dahl D. W. (2012). On the relationship between students’

perceptions

of

teaching

assessment, and satisfaction.

quality,

methods

of

Journal of Education For

Business, 87: 22 –35. Routledge. Woo, T. K. (2011). Developing quality learning materials for effective teaching and learning in an old environment: making the jump from print modules to online modules. AAOU Journal, Vol. 6(1), 51-58.

21


Teacher’s Practices That Promote Effective Classroom Management

Ho Ho Tong Ahap Bin Awal Zaliha Binti Musa [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] IPG Kampus Tun Abdul Razak Kota Samarahan

Abstract

This case study examines the extent of trainee teachers (TT) applying in their teaching the knowledge and skills of effective teaching practices. A total of four TT were surveyed using the Teacher Classroom Management Strategies Questionnaire (TCMSQ). The findings indicated effective teaching practices by TT include keeping pupils on tasks, maintaining classroom control by using firm, consistent management statements, maintaining classroom routines and expectations, creating a positive group feeling and a sense of belonging within the class, identifying behavioural problems and carrying out effective corrective measures in classroom management, demonstrating maturity and calmness in reacting to unexpected pupils’ behaviour and prioritizing planning and support in managing the social-emotional behavior of pupils to promote a conducive 22


learning environment. Consequently, based on the findings, it is absolutely imperative that high quality implementation of effective teaching practices should be used by teachers effectively to increase pupil engagement and learning and enhancement of continuous professional learning with high levels of integrity and competence.

Keywords:

social-emotional teaching

behaviour

practices,

deficit,

effective

effective classroom

management

Gone are the days when primary school pupils were passive, quiet, obedient and sat still in the classroom during lessons. Based on observations and experiences by the researchers when supervising trainee teachers, pupils are noisy, boisterous and inattentive, with most of them showing a social-emotional behaviour deficit (SEBD) which are characterized by inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity. Such pupils are generally difficult to control in the classroom. Pupils who are inattentive have difficulty focusing on any one thing and become bored easily with a task after only a few minutes. Further, based on observations by the researchers of this study, pupils who are hyperactive demonstrate high mobility as they are always on the move with frequent physical activities. In addition, pupils who are impulsive have difficulty curbing their actions and are prone to indiscipline in the classroom. Also, the trainee teachers assigned to primary schools for their practicum training bear the brunt of handling these SEBD children. Though they have been trained 23


theoretically in the classroom management course to deal with SEBD pupils in classrooms, the real situation is quite overwhelming for these young trainees. The trainee teachers from Teacher Education Institutes come to the primary schools with high hopes and expectations of teaching the young pupils with teaching techniques and learning theories they learnt at the institute. However, their hopes are dashed when they are rudely awakened to naughty, hyperactive and ill-disciplined pupils who are unable to sit still in the classroom. In

addition,

as

evidenced

during

observations

by

the

researchers and inputs from mentor teachers of this study, SEBD pupils display high mobility in the classroom, moving freely according to their whims and fancies and disrupt lessons in the classroom, which contributing to the trainee teachers unable to conduct their lessons effectively. The problem is aggravated if the class is packed with a large number of pupils. When the class consists of big number of pupils, they can traumatise a trainee teacher with their mischievous antics. As the pupils sit in groups, it makes it easier for them to get up to their usual antics, like pinching or disturbing one another, not paying attention and not being engaged in the learning process. Hence, experienced teachers usually go to the class wielding a cane or a long ruler to signify their authority and the pupils are quite scared to play or create problems during their class. Trainee teachers, on the other hand, carry teaching aids and teaching kits to the classroom. They are not allowed to hit or cane the pupils and so they have a difficult time controlling them. Moreover, they are required to show compassion and care to the young learners. Therefore, they then spend a lot of time and energy managing the pupils rather than teaching them. Consequently, it is 24


really a big challenge to trainee teachers if they are assigned to weak, problematic and crowded classes where the pupils are boisterous, naughty and mischievous.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to examine the extent of trainee teachers applying in their teaching the knowledge and skills of effective teaching practices in relation to classroom management to promote a conducive learning environment. Literature Review

MacSuga-Gage, Simonsen and Briere (2012) presented two key areas of effective teaching practices. First, during instruction, the delivery of instruction should be explicit and engaging. Effective delivery focuses on increasing pupils’ active engagement, wh ich helps to reduce behavioural deficits. Therefore, teachers need to provide high rates of opportunities to respond and apply pragmatic strategies to manage instruction. Second, effective teachers employ classroom management practices to create a positive classroom environment which consists of three approaches: (i) organize their physical

classroom

environment

to

minimize

crowding

and

distractions, (ii) comprehensive social skills instruction to establish, teach, monitor, and reinforce positively stated classroom expectations (e.g., respect others, responsible and respectful). These expectations provide pupils and teachers appropriate behaviour during teacher directed instruction, partner work, independent work and other 25


classroom routines, and (iii) effective teachers apply consequence strategies

to

reinforce

appropriate

behaviour

and

correct

inappropriate behaviour. Pupils with emotional or behavioural disorder (E/BD) exhibit behavioural

excesses

or

deficits

as

demonstrated

through

problematic behaviours such as non-compliance, disruption of the learning process, disrespect, lack of motivation, and aggression all of which impact learning outcomes. Consequently, effective teacher behaviours for classroom management begins with the teacher establishing structure and predictability before, during and after the teaching - learning process. So once the foundation is set, effective instructional and behavioural management strategies are integrated to effectively manage these behaviours. For instance, before instruction,

effective

teacher

behaviour

such

as

structured

instructional planning is adopted to accommodate pupil ability. Structured lesson planning is incorporated with class-wide learning outcomes for all pupils and differentiated learning outcomes for some pupils to differentiate instruction and accommodate developmentally appropriate individualized learning. Subsequently, the teacher is required to provide opportunities for active pupil engagement during instruction. In addition, the teacher needs to establish rules, routines and expectations for appropriate pup il’s behaviour to support instruction and minimize distractions. Hence, it is important t hat pupils are aware of what is expected of them during the learning process. Likewise, the teacher needs to establish a conducive classroom environment encompassing a schedule of activities during the lesson and

reiterate

all

classroom

rules,

routines

and

procedures

immediately prior to the lesson. Moreover, effective prompts like one 26


or a combination of auditory (e.g., clapping), gesture (e.g., hand raise), or visual (e.g., silence sign) signals are important teacher practices to get the attention of the pupils and actively engaged in the learning process (Hirn & Park, 2012) Classroom management is central to teacher practice. Successful pupil learning depends on a teacher’s ability to manage the group effectively as a whole such as keeping their attention, redirecting

negative

or

distracting

behaviour,

and

continually

assessing the pulse of the room to optimize pupil motivation and engagement. On the other hand, classroom management is not about controlling pupils or demanding perfect behaviour. Instead, effective management is about supporting pupils to manage themselves throughout daily learning and activities. Therefore, it is a teacher’s role to give pupils the tools they need to interact with and meet the demands of the social and instructional environment of school. Different activities and different children will require different types of support, so teachers need a diverse set of strategies (Jones, Bailey & Jacob, 2014). Further, classroom management is essential to effective teaching practices. Pupil’s learning outcome depends on a teacher’s ability to sustaining the attention of pupils and continually promoting a positive learning environment in order to optimize learning. Likewise, according to Jones, Bailey and Jacob (2014), effective

classroom

management

is

based

on

planning and

preparation. Teachers map the day’s learning activities as well as transitions between activities and think deliberately about what is likely to happen and be difficult for specific individuals, groups, or the class as a whole. When disruptions occur, they have a strategy 27


prepared in advance, enabling them to steer pupils back on track. In addition, effective classroom management is embedded in the environment. A well-managed classroom incorporates a set of routines and structures throughout the day with the support of direct materials. They remind pupils of classroom expectations and help them to achieve them. Posters, charts, or a calm-down corner are examples of material support; routines might include a strategy to help pupils transition between activities, such as a song or signal and structures might include a morning meeting or weekly celebration for positive behaviour. As a result, these features organize and define appropriate behaviour at different times of the day. And most importantly, supports that are embedded in the environment help pupils manage themselves by reinforcing expectations and promoting positive behaviour.

Methodology The study was conducted on trainee teachers during their second phase of teaching practicum from 27 th July until 18th September 2015. The population of the study were trainee teachers of the 2013 January intake cohort of the Program Ijazah Sarjana Muda Perguruan (PISMP) or Bachelor of Teachership from Teacher Education Institute Tun Abdul Razak Campus.

Sampling The sampling of the study was a case study which involved only trainee teachers majoring in preschool education. Further, a total of 4 trainee teachers were examined in the study.

28


Data collection An adopted Teacher Classroom Management Strategies Questionnaire (TCMSQ - The Incredible Years ® 2012) was administered to trainee teachers after the completion of their teaching practicum. The TCMSQ consisted of 30 statements (items) about the knowledge and skills of effective teaching practices for effective classroom management comprising three components: (i) Confidence of Managing Classroom Behavior (items 1 – 3), (ii) Effective Teaching Practices (items 4 – 27) and (iii) Planning and Support (items 28 – 30). The respondents indicated on their questionnaires the extent of applying effective teaching practices based on a 5 point Likert scaIe in their actual teaching during their 8 weeks practicum.

Findings Frequency was employed to analyze the extent to which trainee teachers applied in their teaching the knowledge and skills of effective teaching practices in relation to classroom management. As illustrated in Table 1, one of trainee teachers were neutral about their confidence in managing current behaviour problems in the classroom, two were somewhat confident and only one were confident (item 1). Secondly, the results were the same about their ability to manage future behaviour problems in the classroom (item 2). On the other hand, two of trainee teachers were neutral about their ability to promote pupil’s emotional, social and problem solving skills, one were somewhat confident and one confident (item 3).

29


Table 1: Confidence level of trainee teachers in managing classroom behaviour The number of trainee teacher’s according to confidence level Neutral Somewhat Confident confident

Item

1 2

3

Managing current behavior problems in your classroom Ability to manage future behavior problems in your classroom Ability to promote students emotional, social and problem solving skills.

1

2

1

1

2

1

2

1

1

Likewise, Table 2 depicted the extent of effective teaching practices of trainee teachers during instruction. As evidenced in item 4, all trainee teachers frequently coaching positive social behavior of pupils. For item 5, three trainee teachers frequently commenting on pupils’ bad behavior and one trainee teacher sometimes commenting on pupils’ bad behavior. Further, all trainee teachers frequently rewarded targeted pupils’ positive behaviour with incentives (item 6) and praised positive behaviour (item 7). It was also illustrated in item 8 that three trainee teachers sometimes employed time out for aggressive behavior and one trainee teacher rarely used this practice. In addition, it was interesting to note one trainee teacher never practiced singling out a child or group of children for misbehavior and only three trainee teachers (item 9).

As revealed, all four trainee

teachers frequently applied effective teaching practices such as reprimanding in a loud voice (item 11), setting up individual incentive program to reinforce behavior (item 18) and gave clear positive 30


directions (item 19). Likewise, only one trainee teacher frequently used physical restraint in classroom management (item 10). Furthermore, other effective teaching practices include ignoring misbehavior that is non-disruptive to the class (item 13), using nonverbal signals to redirect a child who was disengaged (item 15) and calling a child after a bad day to promote acceptable behavior (item 24). The findings indicated two trainee teachers frequently and another two trainee teachers sometimes applied the above teaching practices. As evidenced in item 14, three trainee teachers frequently employed verbal redirection for a child who was disengaged and two trainee teachers frequently warned or threatened to send a child out of classroom if she/he does not behave (item12). However, two trainee teachers never apply them for item 12 and one trainee teacher never apply them for item 14. In addition, findings indicated three trainee teachers frequently used emotion coaching (item 22) and persistence coaching (item 23) to strengthen positive behavior. Likewise, trainee teachers also employed problem-solving strategy (item 16) and application of special privileges (item 17) for effective teaching. Both items revealed one trainee teacher never apply both the teaching practices. On the contrary, one trainee teacher (item 16) and two trainee teachers (item 17) frequently apply the related strategies. Next, the analysis of the findings showed two trainee teachers frequently warned of consequences for misbehaviour (item 20) and used clear classroom discipline plan and hierarchy (item 21) for effective classroom management.

31


Table 2: Frequency of effective teaching practices during instruction Item

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Coach positive social behaviour Describe or comment on bad behaviour Reward targeted positive behaviors with incentives Praise positive behavior Use time out for aggressive behavior Single out a child or a group of children for misbehavior Use physical restraint Reprimand in a loud voice Warn or threaten to send a child out of classroom if she/he doesn’t behave Ignore misbehaviour that is nondisruptive to the class Use verbal redirection for a child who is disengaged Use nonverbal signals to redirect a child who is disengaged Use problem-solving strategy Use special privileges Set up individual incentive program Give clear positive directions Warn of consequences for misbehavior Use clear classroom discipline plan and hierarchy Use emotion coaching Use persistence coaching Calling a child after a bad day Teach specific social skills in circle time Teach children to ignore disruptive behavior Use anger management strategy for self Collaborate with other teachers for solutions and support Review progress in reaching goals for individual student behavior plans Encourage a positive school community

The number of trainee teacher’s using effective teaching practices during instruction Never Rarely SomeFrequently times 4 0 0 0 0

0

1

3

0

0

0

4

0

0

0

0

1

3

4 0

1

0

3

0 0

2 0

1 0

0 1 4

2

0

0

2

0

0

2

2

1

0

0

3

0

0

2

2

1 1 0 0

0 0 0 0

2 1 0 0

1 2 4 4

0

1

1

2

0

1

1

2

0 0 0

0 0 0

1 1 2

3 3 2

0

1

0

3

0

1

2

1

0

1

1

2

0

0

0

4

0

0

0

4

0

0

0

4

32


In contrast, only one trainee teacher rarely and sometimes applied both strategies respectively. Moreover, three trainee teachers frequently taught pupils specific social skills (item 25) and one trainee teacher frequently taught pupils to ignore disruptive behaviour (item 26) for effective social engagement. On the other hand, one trainee teacher rarely taught the skills for both items and two trainee teachers sometimes taught the skills for item 26. Finally, the findings indicated trainee teachers also employed anger management strategy for self (item 27) for effective teaching practices. Analysis showed two trainee teachers frequently applied anger management strategy and one trainee teacher rarely and sometimes practiced it for effective teaching practices. And most importantly, as evidenced in item 28, item 29 and item 30, all trainee teachers frequently collaborated with colleagues for solutions and support, reviewing progress in reaching goals for individual student behavior and encourage a positive school community.

Discussion

The general findings indicated it was perplexing that trainee teachers had a rather low level of confidence in managing behavioural

problems

and

the

awareness

to

promote

pupils’

emotional, social and problems solving skills in the classroom as indicated in Table 1. Since this was their second phase of practicum, they ought to have high confidence in managing pupils’ behaviour. This fact suggests that for the trainee teachers in this study, knowledge and skills of managing pupils’ social -emotion behavioural 33


problems should be reinforced and emphasized in classroom management in order to ensure effectiveness of teaching. As summarised in Table 2, seven general findings emerged about effective teaching practices from the study. The first effective teaching practice was keeping pupils on tasks as derived from items 14, 15, 19 and 26. However, it was interesting to note that one trainee teacher never used verbal redirection for a child who is disengaged. This fact implied she/he was ignorant of the effectiveness of this technique in classroom control and discipline. It is imperative for trainee teachers to use verbal and nonverbal teaching practices to continuously engage pupils in the teaching and learning process. A second general finding observable were trainee teachers maintaining classroom control by using firm, consistent management statements as indicated in items 10, 11 and 13. Reprimanding pupils in a loud voice to manage social-emotion behavioural problems and ignored misbehavior that was non-disruptive to the class seemed to be the norm practice. The data suggest the trainee teachers had mastered the techniques and practiced them during practicum. An implication for trainee teachers are the needs to continue to strive for conducive learning environment. Another general finding of effective teaching practice was closely associated with maintenance of classroom routines and expectations as revealed in items 5, 8, 9, 12, 20 and 21. In addition, data suggested trainee teachers undervalue and under apply effective teaching practices for skills related to items 8, 9, 12 and 20. Therefore, it also implied the trainee teachers were less confident in these skill and they should be guided or facilitated by their supervising lecturers or teacher’s mentor in developing the skills. 34


Fourth, the results of the analysis of items 4, 6, 7 and 25 showed that trainee teachers creating a positive group feeling and a sense of belonging within the class . It implied that trainee teachers promoted positive interactions leading to positive relationships and establishing a positive classroom atmosphere. This is very important as pupils in the classroom with a positive classroom climate are more likely to demonstrate desirable behavior, be on tasks, and an overall improvement of social-emotional behaviour. A fifth general finding extracted from items 11, 17, 18, 22, 23 and 24 indicated trainee teachers identifying behavioural problems of pupils and carrying out effective corrective measures in classroom management. Furthermore, the facts they were practicing them frequently suggested they were aware of the importance to providing a supportive, collaborating and accepting learning environment in order to sustain pupil engagement and learning while preventing, ameliorating and decreasing social-emotional behaviour problems. The

next

general

finding

revealed

trainee

teachers

demonstrated maturity and calmness in reacting to unexpected student behavior as evidenced in item 27. The finding suggested selfmanagement occurs when trainee teachers support their own practices by assessing their teaching practices or skills and providing their own feedbacks. And most importantly, as depicted in items 28, 29 and 30, the finding suggested trainee teachers also prioritize the importance of planning and support in ensuring the successful implementation of effective teaching practices and classroom management. In other words, in order to strengthen teachers’ behaviour that reinforce effective teaching practices, they advocate best practices and professional learning among colleagues for 35


continuous improvement. Equally important, the study indicated they should reach out to and collaborate with parents, the learning community and other stakeholders to enhance effective teaching practices to promote positive classroom environment. Thus these findings were consistent with previous study (Jones, Bailey & Jacob, 2014; MacSuga-Gage, Simonsen & Briere, 2012; Hirn & Park, 2012). From this we can see

learning to apply effective teaching practices

are crucial for trainee teachers with teacher mentors and supervising lecturers having a critical task of facilitating their professional development

skills

of

instructional

practices

and

classroom

management.

Limitations This study was primarily limited by its small sample size. In addition, it focused only on respondents who major in preschool education. The sample size could have been expanded to include other major courses. A larger sample with more diversity would have a higher validity of the results. Further, qualitative data should be included in the questionnaire to enhance the reliability of the study.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The findings put the onus of effective teaching practices firmly on the teachers. They should strive to practice and engage in a continuum of effective teaching practices by enhancing a set of knowledge, skills, and habits of mind that are essential to develop effective teaching practices. Further, teachers should be competent in

36


the quality use of effective instructional practices which leads to positive outcomes for students. On the other hand, an in-depth study in future should be conducted and further information regarding how trainee teachers’ knowledge, skills and attitudes on effecting teaching practices with qualitative data would provide greater insight into their beliefs and practices.

References Hirn, R.G., & Park, A.K. (2012). Teacher-mediated instructional strategies for students with emotional or behavioral disorders. Beyond Behaviorl, Vol. 22(1). Retrieved http://www.ccbd.net/ Jones, S.M., Bailey, R., & Jacob, R. (2014). Social-emotional learning is

essential

to

classroom

management .

Retrieved

http://pdk.sagepub.com/content/96/2/19 Magsuga-Gage, A.S., Simonsen, B., & Briere, D.E. (2012). E ffective teaching

practices

environment.

that

Beyond

promote

a

Behavior. Vol.

positive

classroom

22(1).

Retrieved

http://www.ccbd.net/ The Incredible Years. (2012). Teacher Classroom Management Strategies

Questionnaire.

Retrieved

http://www.incredibleyears.com

37


Keberkesanan Amalan Pentadbiran Peperiksaan Di IPG Kampus Tun Abdul Razak Stanley Abang PhD Ahmad Ashry Ismail Mohd. Nur Furqan Abdullah Andrew Modol [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] IPG Kampus Tun Abdul Razak Kota Samarahan

Abstrak

Pemantauan perlaksanaan pentadbiran peperiksaan merupakan aspek penting di Institut Pendidikan Guru (IPG) untuk menjamin mutu serta kualiti pelaksanaan peperiksaan yang dijalankan

mematuhi

garis

panduan

yang

ditetapkan.

Pemantauan pelaksanaan proses peperiksaan bertujuan supaya ketua pengawas dan pengawas peperiksaan melaksanakan peranan serta tanggungjawab terhadap proses sebelum, semasa dan selepas peperiksaan dijalankan. Kajian deskriptif ini dijalankan untuk melihat keberkesanan amalan pentadbiran peperiksaan di IPG Kampus Tun Abdul Razak (IPGKTAR), Kota Samarahan. Borang soal selidik digunakan untuk mengutip data

ialah

Instrumen

Pemantauan

Peperiksaan

Institut

Pendidikan Guru Malaysia (IPGM) dan seramai 31 borang pemantauan peperiksaan telah

dianalisis.

Dapatan kajian

menunjukkan min amalan pentadbiran peperiksaan sebelum, 38


semasa dan selepas peperiksaan dijalankan di IPGKTAR pada tahap min tinggi bermaksud sangat berkesan. Dengan kata lain, ketua pengawas dan pengawas peperiksaan melaksanakan pentadbiran peperiksaan dengan mematuhi setiap proses dan prosedur peperiksaan yang telah digariskan dan ditetapkan IPGM. Kesimpulannya amalan pentadbiran peperiksaan yang berkesan sangat penting untuk memastikan setiap peperiksaan dilaksanakan dengan sistematik, teratur, keselamatan terjamin dan berkualiti selaras dengan Arahan Peperiksaan dan Buku Panduan Peperiksaan dan Pengawasan Peperiksaan IPGM.

Kata Kunci:

Institut Pendidikan Guru, Unit Peperiksaan dan Penilaian, pentadbiran peperiksaan, pemantauan peperiksaan

Pentadbiran peperiksaan melibatkan prosedur, kawalan dan amalan pemantauan yang berkesan penting untuk IPG bagi memastikan dan menjamin mutu serta kualiti bentuk perlaksanaan peperiksaan

yang

dijalankan

mematuhi

garis

panduan

yang

ditetapkan. Lantaran itu, IPG harus menekankan pentadbiran peperiksaan sebagai keutamaan dengan melaksanakan pemantauan bagi setiap peperiksaan dan amali dijalankan supaya lebih berkesan. Dengan melaksanakan pemantauan tersebut semua pihak iaitu pelajar,

pentadbir

atasan,

pengawas

dan

ketua

pengawas

peperiksaan mengetahui wujudnya sistem pentadbiran peperiksaan yang sistematik dan mantap bagi setiap IPG. Di IPGKTAR pelaksanaan pentadbiran peperiksaan adalah tanggungjawab Unit 39


Peperiksaan dan Penilaian (UPP) yang mengurus dan melaksanakan setiap

peperiksaan

dan

amali

sepanjang

tahun

berdasarkan

peraturan dan prosedur yang telah ditetapkan. Antaranya ialah peperiksaan akhir semester I dan semester II, peperiksaan ulangan bagi pelajar yang gagal, peperiksaan akhir program Diploma Pendidikan secara Kursus Dalam Cuti, amali Muzik dan amali Pendidikan Jasmani. Dengan kata lain, UPP di IPGKTAR secara langsung berperanan dalam proses pelantikan calon pengawas, ketua

pengawas

dan

pemantau

dalam

kalangan

pensyarah-

pensyarah berdasarkan kriteria-kriteria tertentu apabila sesuatu peperiksaan dijalankan.

Penyataan Masalah

Aspek dan amalan pentadbiran peperiksaan penting untuk memastikan tiada berlakunya penyelewengan, ditadbir mengikut proses

dan

prosedur

yang

ditetapkan,

kelancaran

perjalanan

peperiksaan dan menjamin kualiti peperiksaan yang dilaksanakan. Malah semasa proses peperiksaan dijalankan aspek penyelewengan dalam kalangan pelajar merupakan kesalahan yang serius dan melanggar Arahan-Arahan Peperiksaan boleh dikenakan tindakan tatatertib mengikut AKTA 174-Bahagian V (Tatacara Tatatertib) seperti amaran dan digagalkan dalam kursus tersebut (KPM, 2013). Antara arahan-arahan dan kelakuan semasa peperiksaan yang perlu dipatuhi pelajar ialah: i.

Dikehendaki hadir untuk menduduki peperiksaan pada tarikh, masa dan tempat yang telah ditetapkan.

40


ii.

Dilarang masuk ke dalam dewan/bilik peperiksaan sehingga diarahkan berbuat demikian.

iii.

Calon tidak boleh lewat daripada tiga puluh (30) minit selepas peperiksaan bermula dan dilarang masuk ke dalam dewan/bilik peperiksaan

dan

seterusnya

tidak

boleh

menduduki

peperiksaan tersebut. iv.

Dilarang meninggalkan dewan/bilik peperiksaan tanpa arahan ketua pengawas. Sekiranya calon ingin keluar dan masuk semula

perlu

mendapatkan

kebenaran

dari

pengawas

peperiksaan dan calon hendaklah berada dalam pengawasan. v.

Pelajar tidak boleh mengambil apa-apa buku, kertas, kertas kerja, dokumen, gambar dan benda lain selepas dan semasa peperiksaan

kecuali

menerima

daripada

pengawas

peperiksaan. vi.

Menulis atau telah menulis melalui orang lain, apa-apa maklumat atau gambar rajah yang mungkin berkaitan dengan peperiksaan yang diduduki, di atas tangan, bahagian lain tubuh badan atau pakaian.

vii.

Berhubung dengan mana-mana pelajar lain semasa sesuatu peperiksaan melalui apa-apa jua cara.

viii.

Menipu atau cuba menipu dan berkelakuan mengikut cara yang boleh ditafsirkan sebagai menipu dan cuba menipu dalam sesuatu peperiksaan dan semasa peperiksaan itu sedang dijalankan.

Peraturan

di

atas

menunjukkan

aspek

pentadbiran

peperiksaan menjadi keutamaan IPGM bagi memastikan tiada berlakunya kes penyelewengan dan penipuan semasa peperiksaan 41


dijalankan di setiap IPG Kampus (IPGK). Namun demikian, walaupun arahan dan peraturan telah ditetapkan tetapi sekiranya pengawas atau ketua pengawas tidak mematuhi dan melaksanakan tugas seperti ditetapkan boleh menyebabkan perkara-perkara yang tidak diingini berlaku. Antaranya meniru, membuat bising dalam dewan

peperiksaan,

tidak

mematuhi

arahan

dan

peraturan

peperiksaan, perjalanan peperiksaan tidak sistematik. Oleh yang demikian,

aspek

pemantauan

sepanjang

peperiksaan

peperiksaan

dilaksanakan

bukan

yang

dijalankan

hanya

bertujuan

memastikan tiada kes penyelewengan dan penipuan berlaku tetapi memastikan setiap pengawas dan ketua pengawas menjalankan tugas

dengan

penuh

dedikasi,

amanah,

bertanggungjawab,

bekerjasama dan berintegriti tinggi. Dengan kata lain, pelaksanaan sistem

pemantauan

peperiksaan

dapat

memastikan

setiap

pengawas dan ketua pengawas sentiasa mengambil berat serta mematuhi sistem yang sedia ada.

Objektif Kajian

Kajian ini bertujuan untuk menentukan keberkesanan amalan pentadbiran peperiksaan di IPGKTAR.

Manakala objektif

khusus

kajian ini ialah: i.

Menentukan tahap keberkesanan amalan pentadbiran peperiksaan secara keseluruhan.

ii.

Menentukan tahap keberkesanan amalan pentadbiran peperiksaan sebelum, semasa dan selepas peperiksaan.

42


Kepentingan Kajian

Kajian ini penting kerana dapat menentukan serta memberi gambaran terhadap keberkesanan amalan pentadbiran peperiksaan yang sedia ada di IPGKTAR. Daripada dapatan kajian yang diperolehi dapat dijadikan sebagai panduan dan maklumat kepada UPP dan pengurusan tertinggi IPGKTAR untuk memastikan bahawa amalan pentadbiran peperiksaan mengikut prosedur dan proses yang telah ditetapkan. Selain itu, kajian ini dijalankan sebagai panduan dan kesedaran kepada pihak terbabit supaya mengambil tindakan, membaiki dan memantapkan lagi sistem pentadbiran peperiksaan yang sedia ada. Dengan kata lain, melalui dapatan kajian ini pelbagai langkah penambahbaikan secara berterusan dapat dilaksanakan untuk memastikan bahawa amalan pentadbiran peperiksaan di IPGKTAR dapat dipertingkatkan ke tahap yang berkualiti dan sistematik. Seterusnya, diharapkan melalui dapatan kajian ini ianya dapat

memastikan

setiap

pengawas

dan

ketua

pengawas

menjalankan tugas dengan bertanggungjawab, berintegriti tinggi, amanah, berdedikasi serta mematuhi semua proses yang telah digariskan sebelum, semasa dan selepas peperiksaan dijalankan di seluruh IPG khasnya.

Tinjauan Literatur

Setiap pelajar yang layak menduduki peperiksaan tertakluk kepada peraturan yang ditetapkan oleh IPGM berdasarkan kepada Peraturan Maktab Pendidikan Guru (Peperiksaan, Penilaian dan Pensijilan) tahun 1999 dan dikemaskinikan pada 30 Julai 2013 iaitu 43


Panduan Dan Syarat Penganugerahan Sijil, Diploma dan Ijazah, IPGM (KPM, 2013). Semakan semula dan penambahbaikan ini bertujuan memantapkan peraturan penganugerahan yang diguna pakai selaras dengan keperluan agensi jaminan kualiti, dasar dan prosedur

yang

ditetapkan

oleh

dasar

dan

peraturan

IPGM.

Berdasarkan kepada buku panduan tersebut, setiap pensyarah dan pelajar perlu bertanggungjawab terhadap mengambil akauntabiliti sepenuhnya terhadap sebarang kesan ketidakpatuhan dalam perkara yang telah ditetapkan. Ini bermaksud pihak IPGM dan IPGK mengambil berat terhadap aspek seperti kehadiran kuliah, kehadiran peperiksaan serta kelakuan pelajar semasa menduduki peperiksaan. Dengan kata lain, pelaksanaan pentadbiran peperiksaan oleh setiap IPG penting kerana akan menentukan bahawa setiap prosedur dan peraturan peperiksaan yang ditetapkan dipatuhi oleh pelajar-pelajar, pengawas dan ketua pengawas yang mengawas peperiksaan tersebut. Aspek pengurusan peperiksaan perlu diselaraskan supaya aturan, penyusunan dan pelaksanaan berlaku dengan berkesan serta sistematik. Pelbagai aspek perlu diberi perhatian bagi memastikan ianya mencapai tahap cemerlang, antaranya memerlukan satu pendekatan yang menyeluruh bagi mentadbir atau mengurus perkara ini. Ini bermaksud, organisasi pendidikan seperti sekolah, IPG dan universiti

perlu

mengetahui

bahawa

aspek

pentadbiran

dan

pengurusan peperiksaan tidak boleh dipandang ringan kerana ianya sebahagian komponen yang sangat penting dan perlu dititikberatkan dalam organisasi pendidikan. Selain itu, memberi tumpuan dan menitikberatkan amalan pengurusan yang berkualiti dan berkesan

44


supaya tidak berlaku sebarang masalah atau penyelewengan sepanjang peperiksaan dilaksanakan.

Metodologi

Rekabentuk

kajian

ini

merupakan

kaedah

penyelidikan

deskriptif. Menurut Mohd. Majid (1990) kaedah penyelidikan deskriptif merupakan penyelidikan yang bermatlamat untuk menerangkan sesuatu fenomena atau mendapatkan maklumat yang sedang berlaku. Selain itu kaedah deskriptif ini tidak memerlukan usaha untuk mengawal sesuatu olahan atau tidak menentukan terlebih dahulu faktor-faktor yang mendatangkan kesan terhadap peristiwa atau fenomena yang ingin dikaji. Bagi sesuatu kajian yang menggunakan kaedah ini perlu mengenal pasti maklumat yang digunakan untuk menyelesaikan, memenuhi matlamat dan objektif penyelidikan yang dijalankan. Menurut Stanley dan Muhamad Suhaimi (2014) kajian deskriptif menerangkan peristiwa dangan membuat analisis data deskriptif yang diperolehi daripada borang soal selidik yang diperolehi daripada responden kajian. Seterusnya dalam penyelidikan deskriptif ini penyelidik telah memilih kajian kes kerana penyelidikan ini melibatkan satu kumpulan kecil iaitu pelaksanaan pentadbiran peperiksaan di IPGKTAR sahaja. Selain itu, kajian kes dapat menerangkan pemahaman terhadap perkara yang berlaku seperti keadaan sekarang dan apakah kesan sekiranya berlaku perubahan dalam aspek-aspek pembolehubah yang dikaji (Mohd. Majid, 1990). Dalam kajian ini, penyelidik ingin melihat

keberkesanan

amalan

pentadbiran

peperiksaan

oleh

pengawas dan ketua pengawas sedia ada dan bagaimanakah kesan 45


kepada proses peperiksaan sekiranya aspek ini tidak ditekankan oleh ketua pengawas dan pengawas peperiksaan dari aspek pemantauan oleh pemantau yang dilantik di IPGKTAR. Oleh demikian, kajian ini tidak menggambarkan keseluruhan pentadbiran peperiksaan di seluruh IPG di Malaysia. Alat kajian yang digunakan dalam mengumpul maklumat kajian ini ialah borang soal selidik Instrumen Pemantauan Peperiksaan, Jabatan Pengurusan Peperiksaan dan Senat yang merupakan alat piawai yang digunakan untuk pemantauan peperiksaan di 27 buah IPGK di Malaysia. Alat kajian ini mengandungi 17 item berskala likert iaitu 1(Tiada) hingga 4 (Sangat Baik). Manakala terdapat tiga aspek atau dimensi yang diukur iaitu Sebelum Peperiksaan (5 item), Semasa Peperiksaan (7 item) dan Selepas Peperiksaan (5 item). Menurut Mohd. Majid Konting (1993), hubungan antara nilai peratusan dan frekuensi lebih kukuh sekiranya disokong dengan nilai min. Oleh itu, satu garis panduan atau cut off point bagi skor min telah ditetapkan. Jadual 1 menunjukkan skala min dan tahap kekuatan min berdasarkan Sanger et al. (2007).

Jadual 1: Garis panduan dan cut off point bagi skor min Skor min

Tafsiran skor min

3.00 hingga 4.00

Tinggi

2.00 hingga 2.99

Sederhana

1.00 hingga 1.99

Rendah

(Sumber: Sanger et al ., 2007)

Daripada Jadual 1 bermaksud skor min antara 1.00 hingga 1.99 menunjukkan skor bagi variabel tersebut pada tahap rendah, manakala skor min 2.00 hingga 2.99 menunjukkan skor min variabel 46


atau dimensi variabel yang dikaji pada tahap sederhana. Seterusnya skor min 3.00 hingga 4.00 menunjukkan skor min variabel yang dikaji pada tahap tinggi. Dalam konteks kajian ini ianya bertujuan untuk melihat tahap amalan keberkesanan pentadbiran peperiksaan di IPGKTAR berdasarkan skor min. Selepas mendapat skor min, item dirujuk pada Jadual 1 bagi menentukan tahap kekuatan min setiap variabel item kajian. Seterusnya tahap skor min setiap variabel kajian dikenal pasti dan diuji seperti dinyatakan dalam objektif kajian.

Data kajian Maklumat

atau

data

yang

dianalisis

dalam

kajian

ini

berdasarkan borang soal selidik pemantauan peperiksaan yang dijalankan pada Peperiksaan Akhir November 2014, Peperiksaan Ulangan Mac 2015, Peperiksaan Akhir Peringkat 2 Program Diploma Perguruan Malaysia (PDPM KDC) 2015 dan Peperiksaan Mei 2015 di IPGKTAR. Kesemua maklumat ini diperolehi dan disimpan di UPP. Manakala analisis data yang digunakan ialah statistik deskriptif iaitu nilai peratusan (frekuensi) dan min untuk menjelaskan dapatan kajian. Menurut Chua (2006), statistik deskriptif merupakan statistik yang digunakan untuk menghuraikan ciri-ciri variabel dengan menggunakan petunjuk-petunjuk seperti min, median, mod, taburan normal dan skor Z. Malah statistik deskriptif dapat digunakan untuk membuat kesimpulan mengenai data numerikal tetapi dapatan kajian daripada sampel kajian tidak dapat digeneralisasikan kepada populasi. Ini bermaksud dapatan kajian ini hanya menunjukkan keberkesanan pentadbiran peperiksaan di IPGKTAR sahaja dan bukan keseluruhan 27 buah IPG di Malaysia.

47


Dapatan Kajian

Analisis deskriptif dilakukan bagi meringkaskan data-data berkenaan dengan konstruk-konstruk pemantauan peperiksaan. Konstruk pemantauan peperiksaan tersebut terbahagi kepada tiga iaitu

sebelum

peperiksaan,

semasa

peperiksaan

dan

selepas

peperiksaan. Kekerapan dan min bagi setiap konstruk tersebut diterangkan dalam Jadual 2. Jadual 2: Min dan sisihan piawai pemantauan peperiksaan Bil. 1 2 3

Konstruk amalan pentadbiran peperiksaan Sebelum Peperiksaan Semasa Peperiksaan Selepas Peperiksaan Keseluruhan

Min

SP

3.9096 3.9815 3.9871 3.9594

.2606 .1026 .0499 .1377

Daripada Jadual 2, skor min keseluruhan bagi konstruk pemantauan peperiksaan ialah 3.95 manakala skor min konstruk pemantauan peperiksaan sebelum peperiksaan dijalankan ialah 3.90. Seterusnya skor min konstruk pemantauan peperiksaan semasa peperiksaan dijalankan ialah 3.98 dan min konstruk pemantauan peperiksaan selepas peperiksaan dijalankan ialah 3.98. Daripada dapatan

kajian

menunjukkan

kesemua

konstruk

skor

min

pemantauan peperiksaan pada tahap tinggi. Manakala

Jadual

3

menunjukkan

skor

min

konstruk

pemantauan peperiksaan sebelum peperiksaan mengikut item-item kajian. Item 5 menunjukkan semua bahan/nota yang boleh membantu calon menjawab soalan peperiksaan telah ditanggalkan dari dinding dewan/ bilik peperiksaan menunjukkan skor min tertinggi iaitu 4.00 48


diikuti item 2, 3 dan 4 menunjukkan skor min 3.93 iaitu ketua pengawas memberi taklimat ringkas kepada pengawas di dewan/bilik peperiksaan, calon dipanggil masuk ke dewan/bilik peperiksaan selewat-lewatnya 15 minit sebelum peperiksaan bermula dan semua calon masuk dengan teratur tanpa membuat bising mengikut pintu dibenarkan sahaja pada tahap tinggi. Di samping itu item 1 menunjukkan semua pengawas hadir selewat-lewatnya 30 minit lebih awal daripada masa peperiksaan bermula menunjukkan skor min 3.74.

Jadual 3: Min dan sisihan piawai bagi item pemantauan sebelum peperiksaan Bil. 1

2 3

4

5

Item pemantauan sebelum peperiksaan Semua pengawas hadir selewat-lewatnya 30 minit lebih awal daripada masa peperiksaan bermula Ketua pengawas memberi taklimat ringkas kepada pengawas di dewan/bilik peperiksaan Calon dipanggil masuk ke dewan/bilik peperiksaan selewat-lewatnya 15 minit sebelum peperiksaan bermula Semua calon masuk dengan teratur tanpa membuat bising mengikut pintu dibenarkan sahaja Semua bahan/nota yang boleh membantu calon menjawab soalan peperiksaan telah ditanggalkan dari dinding dewan/ bilik peperiksaan Purata

Min 3.7419

SP .4448

3.9355

.2497

3.9355

.3592

3.9355

.2497

4.000

.0000

3.9096

.2606

49


Jadual 4: Min dan sisihan piawai bagi item pemantauan semasa peperiksaan Bil. 1

2 3 4

5

6 7

Item Pemantauan Semasa Peperiksaan Ketua pengawas mentadbir peperiksaan berpandukan prosedur yang digariskan dalam Buku Panduan Peperiksaan dan Pengawasan Semua calon mematuhi ‘peringatan penting kepada calon’ Pengawas membuka pembalut kertas peperiksaan di hadapan calon Kertas soalan yang diedarkan adalah betul dan mencukupi mengikut jadual waktu peperiksaan Semua pengawas berada di dalam dewan/bilik peperiksaan sepanjang masa kecuali dengan kebenaran Ketua Pengawas Semua pengawas memastikan semua calon mematuhi peraturan peperiksaan Ketua pengawas mengambil tindakan dan menyediakan laporan jika berlaku penyelewengan Purata

Min 4.0000

SP .0000

4.0000

.0000

3.9355

.3592

3.9677

.1796

3.9677

.1796

4.0000

.0000

4.0000

.0000

3.9815

.1026

Seterusnya Jadual 4 menunjukkan analisis deskriptif bagi skor min

konstruk

pemantauan

peperiksaan

semasa

peperiksaan

mengikut item-item kajian. Berdasarkan Jadual 4, item 1, 2, 6 dan 7 menunjukkan skor min ialah 4.00 iaitu ketua pengawas mentadbir peperiksaan berpandukan prosedur yang digariskan dalam Buku Panduan

Peperiksaan

dan

Pengawasan

diikuti

semua

calon

mematuhi ‘peringatan penting kepada calon’, semua pengawas memastikan semua calon mematuhi peraturan peperiksaan dan ketua pengawas mengambil tindakan dan menyediakan laporan jika berlaku penyelewengan. Seterusnya analisis menunjukkan item 4 dan 5 menunjukkan skor min 3.96 iaitu kertas soalan yang diedarkan adalah 50


betul dan mencukupi mengikut jadual waktu peperiksaan dan semua pengawas berada di dalam dewan/bilik peperiksaan sepanjang masa kecuali dengan kebenaran ketua pengawas. Item 3, iaitu pengawas membuka

pembalut

kertas

peperiksaan

di

hadapan

menunjukkan

skor

calon

menunjukkan skor min 3.93. Seterusnya

Jadual

5

min

konstruk

pemantauan peperiksaan selepas peperiksaan. Berdasarkan Jadual 5, didapati skor min bagi item 1, 2, 3 dan 5, iaitu semua bahan ujian terutamanya kertas jawapan tepat jumlahnya, semua skrip jawapan, kertas soalan, JMK telah disemak dan disusun selepas peperiksaan berakhir, semua bungkusan kertas jawapan, lebihan kertas soalan dan

peralatan

Peperiksaan

peperiksaan

dan

Penilaian

diserahkan (KUPP)

kepada

dan

semua

Ketua

Unit

pengawas

memastikan dewan/bilik peperiksaan berada dalam keadaan bersih selepas peperiksaan berakhir ialah 4.00 pada tahap tinggi. Hanya item 4, iaitu semua calon keluar dalam keadaan teratur tanpa membuat bising mengikut pintu yang dibenarkan sahaja menunjukkan skor min 3.93.

51


Jadual 5: Min dan sisihan piawai bagi item pemantauan selepas peperiksaan Bil. 1 2 3

4

5

Item pemantauan selepas peperiksaan Semua bahan ujian terutamanya kertas jawapan tepat jumlahnya Semua skrip jawapan, kertas soalan, JMK telah disemak dan disusun selepas peperiksaan berakhir Semua bungkusan kertas jawapan, lebihan kertas soalan dan peralatan peperiksaan diserahkan kepada Ketua Unit Peperiksaan dan Penilaian (KUPP) Semua calon keluar dalam keadaan teratur tanpa membuat bising mengikut pintu yang dibenarkan sahaja Semua pengawas memastikan dewan/bilik peperiksaan berada dalam keadaan bersih selepas peperiksaan berakhir Purata

Min 4.000

SP .0000

4.000

.0000

4.000

.0000

3.9355 .2497

4.000

.0000

3.9871

.0499

Perbincangan Kajian

Dapatan

kajian

menunjukkan

keseluruhan

pemantauan

peperiksaan di IPGKTAR berada pada tahap min yang tinggi. Ini bermaksud pelaksanaan dan proses peperiksaan yang dijalankan sebelum, semasa dan selepas peperiksaan di IPKTAR sangat memuaskan dan mengikut prosedur yang telah ditetapkan. Proses serta pelaksanaan peperiksaan sangat penting dan harus diberikan perhatian dalam setiap peperiksaan kerana melibatkan isu-isu keselamatan, kerahsiaan maklumat dan kebocoran soalan semasa peperiksaan dijalankan. Selain itu, setiap ketua pengawas dan pengawas peperiksaan yang mengawas peperiksaan dikehendaki mengisi borang Akta 88 iaitu Akta Rahsia Rasmi 1972 menunjukkan IPG memandang berat dan serius dalam proses peperiksaan yang 52


dijalankan supaya dilaksanakan dengan berkesan. Bagi calon peperiksaan, arahan dan peraturan peperiksaan yang ditaklimatkan sebelum calon menjawab soalan bertujuan supaya calon bukan hanya mematuhi peraturan peperiksaan tetapi lebih penting supaya proses peperiksaan berjalan dengan lancar dan berkesan. Dapatan seterusnya menunjukkan min pemantauan sebelum peperiksaan dijalankan berada pada tahap tinggi menunjukkan proses sebelum peperiksaan bermula dilakukan dengan berkesan. Daripada aspek item menunjukkan kesemua min pada tahap tinggi dengan item semua bahan/nota yang boleh membantu calon menjawab soalan peperiksaan telah ditanggalkan dari dinding dewan/ bilik peperiksaan adalah min tertinggi. Ini bermaksud sebelum peperiksaan dijalankan semua bahan-bahan serta nota-nota yang ditampal di dinding dewan atau bilik peperiksaan telah ditanggalkan kerana dapat membantu calon menjawab soalan peperiksaan. Selain itu, ketua pengawas telah melakukan tugas dengan berkesan kerana memberi taklimat ringkas kepada pengawas berkenaan dengan tugas dan peranan semasa mengawas peperiksaan, memanggil dan memastikan calon masuk ke dewan atau bilik peperiksaan secara beratur dan tidak membuat bising. Peranan dan tanggungjawab ketua pengawas sangat penting kerana menentukan kelancaran sepanjang proses peperiksaan dijalankan. Walaupun item semua pengawas hadir

selewat-lewatnya

30

minit

lebih

awal

daripada

masa

peperiksaan bermula pada tahap tinggi tetapi merupakan item min terendah

dalam

konstruk

sebelum

peperiksaan.

Dapatan

ini

bermaksud terdapat segelintir pengawas peperiksaan lewat hadir ke dewan atau bilik peperiksaan pada masa ditetapkan iaitu 30 minit lebih awal daripada masa peperiksaan bermula. Sudah pasti 53


kelewatan segelintir pengawas peperiksaan ini menyebabkan proses persediaan

sebelum

peperiksaan

seperti

mengedarkan

buku

jawapan, menjaga pelajar masuk ke dalam dewan atau bilik peperiksaan dengan teratur, tidak bising dan tidak membawa nota atau bahan dilarang, mengedar slip kehadiran peperiksaan, taklimat ringkas oleh ketua pengawas tidak dapat dilaksanakan dengan berkesan. Seterusnya dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan min pemantauan bagi semasa peperiksaan sedang dijalankan pada tahap tinggi. Dapatan ini bermaksud ketua pengawas atau pengawas peperiksaan menjalankan tugas dan peranan dengan berkesan. Selain itu, daripada tujuh item yang digunakan untuk mengukur keberkesanan proses semasa peperiksaan menunjukkan min pada tahap tinggi. Didapati empat item menunjukkan min 4.00 bermaksud ketua pengawas dan pengawas peperiksaan melaksanakan tugas dengan berkesan dan berpandukan kepada peraturan serta prosedur yang telah ditetapkan. Selain itu, ketua pengawas dan pengawas sentiasa memberi arahan dan peringatan penting kepada calon untuk memastikan calon mematuhi peraturan peperiksaan menunjukkan supaya tidak berlakunya penyelewengan dan isu-isu peniruan semasa peperiksaan dijalankan. Tiga item iaitu pengawas membuka pembalut kertas peperiksaan di hadapan calon, kertas soalan yang diedarkan adalah betul dan mencukupi mengikut jadual waktu peperiksaan dan semua pengawas berada di dalam dewan/bilik peperiksaan sepanjang masa kecuali dengan kebenaran ketua pengawas

perlu

diberi

perhatian

supaya

mencapai

tahap

keberkesanan yang maksimum. Walaupun min menunjukkan tiga item ini pada tahap tinggi tetapi terdapat segelintir pengawas 54


peperiksaan tidak memaklumkan terlebih dahulu kepada ketua pengawas sekiranya ingin keluar dari bilik peperiksaan atas urusan rasmi atau peribadi. Hal ini penting supaya ketua pengawas mengetahui

pergerakan

pengawas

dan

memastikan

bilangan

pengawas yang mencukupi di dalam dewan atau bilik peperiksaan pada satu-satu masa tersebut. Selain itu, bilangan pengawas yang mencukupi selari dengan nisbah pelajar dapat mengurangkan peluang berlakunya calon melakukan peniruan atau penyelewengan semasa peperiksaan dijalankan. Didapati masih terdapat segelintir pengawas tidak membuka pembalut kertas peperiksaan di hadapan calon-calon. Hal ini penting kerana sebagai bukti kepada calon bahawa kertas peperiksaan yang diedarkan tidak berlaku kebocoran atau tercemar sebelum masa dan tarikh ianya dilaksanakan. Oleh yang demikian, setiap ketua pengawas peperiksaan pada masa akan datang perlu menekankan aspek ini dengan memberi taklimat ringkas kepada pengawas peperiksaan. Selain itu, item iaitu kertas soalan adalah betul dan mencukupi mengikut jadual peperiksaan menunjukkan masih terdapat berlakunya kertas soalan tidak betul serta mencukupi. Namun demikian, perkara sebegini di luar kawalan IPGK kerana proses penyediaan

kertas

soalan

peperiksaan

terletak

pada

IPGM.

Walaupun begitu, peranan UPP IPG kampus sangat penting untuk memastikan setiap kertas soalan peperiksaan yang diterima adalah betul dan bilangan mencukupi supaya proses peperiksaan berjalan dengan lancar. Konstruk selepas peperiksaan dijalankan menunjukkan min pada tahap tinggi bermaksud proses tersebut dilaksanakan dengan berkesan.

Proses

selepas

peperiksaan

juga

penting

untuk 55


memastikan setiap urusan keselamatan bahan-bahan peperiksaan, skrip jawapan calon dan kebersihan bilik dewan peperiksaan dilakukan mengikut prosedur ditetapkan. Daripada lima item yang digunakan untuk mengukur konstruk ini didapati empat item berada pada min 4.00 iaitu sangat tinggi. Ini bermaksud item iaitu semua bahan ujian terutamanya kertas jawapan tepat jumlahnya, semua skrip jawapan, kertas soalan, JMK telah disemak dan disusun selepas peperiksaan berakhir, semua bungkusan kertas jawapan, lebihan kertas soalan dan peralatan peperiksaan diserahkan kepada Ketua Unit Peperiksaan dan Penilaian (KUPP) dan semua pengawas memastikan dewan/bilik peperiksaan berada dalam keadaan bersih selepas peperiksaan berakhir dilaksanakan oleh ketua pengawas dan pengawas dengan berkesan. Namun demikian, didapati segelintir calon keluar selepas peperiksaan membuat bising, tidak teratur dan mengikut pintu yang dibenarkan sahaja. Justeru itu, peranan ketua pengawas serta pengawas peperiksaan penting supaya memastikan pelajar tidak membuat bising dan keluar secara teratur selepas peperiksaan tamat antaranya memantau pergerakan dan memberi arahan ringkas kepada calon.

Implikasi Kajian

Daripada

dapatan

dan

perbincangan

kajian

menunjukkan

keseluruhan proses perlaksanaan sebelum, semasa dan selepas peperiksaan di IPGKTAR pada min yang tinggi (3.74 - 4.00) bermaksud proses peperiksaan dilaksanakan dengan berkesan dan mematuhi setiap prosedur yang ditetapkan. Keberkesanan proses peperiksaan ini sangat penting, harus dikekalkan dan dipertingkatkan 56


ke tahap yang maksimum supaya sepanjang peperiksaan yang dijalankan dilaksanakan dengan sistematik, berkualiti dan lancar serta selaras dengan Arahan-Arahan Peperiksaan dan Buku Panduan Peperiksaan dan Pengawasan Peperiksaan (APBPPPP) IPGM (KPM, 2013). Selain itu, masih terdapat aspek-aspek yang perlu diperbaiki supaya proses peperiksaan di IPGKTAR dapat dijalankan dengan berkesan dan mematuhi setiap proses dan prosedur yang ditetapkan berdasarkan APBPPPP dan instrumen pemantauan peperiksaan IPGM. Antaranya ialah kehadiran pengawas peperiksaan sepatutnya 30 minit sebelum peperiksaan bermula. Walapun perkara ini telah ditekankan oleh UPP semasa taklimat pengawasan peperiksaan kepada pensyarah didapati terdapat segelintir pensyarah datang lewat ke dewan atau bilik peperiksaan untuk mengawas. Justeru itu, pihak pentadbiran IPG kampus serta UPP perlu memainkan peranan dan mengambil tindakan seperti mengedarkan surat peranan dan tanggungjawab pengawas peperiksaan, memberitahu secara bertulis atau memo kepada pengawas peperiksaan. Aspek jumlah kertas soalan yang betul dan mencukupi mengikut bilangan calon dan masa peperiksaan perlu diberi perhatian oleh UPP khasnya supaya tidak berlaku lagi bilangan kertas peperiksaan tidak mencukupi atau salah. Walapun perkara ini di bawah bidang kuasa IPGM namun pihak UPP kampus perlu mengambil inisiatif seperti melakukan proses semakan semasa proses penerimaan kertas soalan, berurusan terus dengan IPGM berkenaan soalan peperiksaan dan memastikan inden bilangan pelajar dan kod kertas peperiksaan dimasukkan ke dalam sistem peperiksaan dengan betul dan tepat. 57


Kesimpulan

Perlaksanaan pentadbiran peperiksaan yang dijalankan di IPGK sangat penting untuk menentukan ianya mematuhi setiap proses dan prosedur yang telah ditetapkan. Selain itu, amalan pemantauan peperiksaan yang dilaksanakan IPGK pada setiap peperiksaan yang dijalankan dapat membantu dan meningkatkan keberkesanan amalan perjalanan sebelum, semasa dan selepas peperiksaan dijalankan. Ianya bukan sahaja memastikan setiap peperiksaan

dilaksanakan

dengan

sistematik,

teratur

dan

keselamatan terjamin tetapi dapat melonjakkan lagi keberkesanan amalan pentadbiran peperiksaan di setiap IPGK. Secara tidak langsung amalan pentadbiran yang berkesan dapat melonjakkan nama dan penarafan bintang IPG tersebut supaya setanding dengan institut pendidikan yang lain.

Rujukan

Chua, Y. P. (2006). Statistik Penyelidikan. Kuala Lumpur: McGrawHill. Ho Ho Tong, Rahmah Murshidi, Gan We Ling, Zaliha Musa, Ahap Awal, Lee Hou Yew, John Brodi, Sapiee Saidi & Stanley Abang. (2014). Penyelidikan Tindakan: Teori dan Amalan (Ed. Ke-2). Kota Samarahan: Institut Pendidikan Guru Kampus Tun Abdul Razak.

58


Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. (2013). Panduan dan Syarat Penganugerahan Sijil/Diploma/Ijiazah Institut Pendidikan Guru Malaysia. Mohd. Majid Konting. (1990). Kaedah Penyelidikan Pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Sanger, D., Spliker, A., Williams, N., & Belau, D. (2007). Opinion of female juvenile delinquents on communications, learning and violence. Journal of Correctional Education. Vol. 58(1): 69-92. Stanley Abang & Muhamad Suhaimi Taat. (2014). Pola keselarasan Personaliti dan Persekitaran Kerja Guru Pelatih di IPG Kampus Tun Abdul Razak. Jurnal Penyelidikan Pendidikan 2014. Institut Pendidikan Guru Kampus Tun Abdul Razak.

59


Revisiting Writing Assessment in Second Language Writing Clarence Jerry PhD [email protected] IPG Kampus Tun Abdul Razak

Abstract

Assessing writing has been a daunting task for any SL practitioner’s in the process of helping students acquire the skill of writing. Any form of assessment, direct or indirect, will reveal the overall quality of students’ writing, which is crucial indeed to teachers’ planning in meeting students’ writing needs. Revisiting writing assessment in second language writing, this paper discusses the five types of product measures that provide a broader assessment of writing: holistic scoring, primary trait scoring, analytic scoring, revision analyses, error analysis, and error corrections. The discussion also covers the advantages and disadvantages of these text-linguistic measures, which would be definitely relevant to any assessors of second language writing who are in search of the appropriate tools to assess their students’ written work.

Keywords: holistic scoring, primary trait scoring, analytic

scoring, revision analyses, error analysis, error corrections

60


Sommer (1989) defines assessment as the process of finding out who the students are, what their abilities are, what they need to know, and how they perceive the learning will affect them. Sommer further distinguishes assessment from evaluation when he says that assessment takes place at the outset of the writing course, whereas evaluation describes evaluation describes ongoing activities that eventually provide closure in the writing course. Assessment is summative as it is used to discover the overall quality of writing, and is used for large scale evaluation to determine how much the students know. As such, assessment places the need of the students at the centre of the teachers’ planning. Assessment in writing can be direct or o r indirect. Direct assessment assessment reflects the the classroom classroom teaching teaching of writing. writing.

This

type of assessment gives the opportunity to students to show how they can organize, compose, argue, and use a variety of words and sentences. Indirect assessment assessment is objective objective and involves involves editing. The four types of product measures that provide a broader assessment of writing are holistic scoring, primary trait scoring, analytic scoring, revision analyses, error analysis and error corrections. In this section, the discussion will cover the advantages and disadvantages of these text-linguistic measures, which are relevant to any assessor of written work.

Holistic Scoring

In the 1960s, writing assessment was dominated by indirect tests of writing ability such as multiple-choice examinations of grammar), whereas the 1970s saw an increasing acceptanc acceptance e not only of direct testing (writing tests) but also with a view of writing as a 61


communicative act and as a recursive, nonlinear process which could not be taught or learned as a sequence of discrete stages. Accordingly, holistic scoring – – assigning a single score to an essay based on the reader’s quick overall impression of the e ssay and how well it communicated the writer’s ideas – – became the most widespread assessment assessment method and remained so until the mid-1980s (Cho, 2003; Hamp-Lyons, 2002; Yancey, 1999) Scoring holistically means that: “...an essay is not evaluated in terms of of its specific features, for instance, its development, creativity, sentence structure, or mechanics; neither are the ratings derived by mentally adding together scores for the individual features. Instead, a paper is scored in terms of the overall impression – the – the synergistic effect – that is created by the elements working together within the piece” (Wolcott & Legg, 1998, p. 71).

Holistic scoring may involve rank-ordering, that is, assigning the papers to the different scores – – the best paper to the highest score and the worst the lowest (Cooper, 1977); however, scores are commonly anchored to a set of external criteria, such as a scoring rubric, which guide trained raters in making their decisions (Arter & McTighe, 2001; 2001; Bailey, Bailey, 1998). For example, example, in the holistic holistic rubric for the continuous writing section provided by the Malaysian Board of Examination (2006) for the Malaysian Certificate of Education or Sijil Peperiksaan Malaysia (SPM), there is a six-point scale or mark range addressing various aspects of the quality of the essay, including language or grammar, sentence structure, vocabulary, punctuation, 62


spelling,

paragraphing

or

organisation,

and

content.

Rubrics,

however, may range anywhere from zero to fifty points; an even number of points is commonly recommended so that readers must be forced to decide whether the essay belongs in the top- or the bottomhalf of the group. Holistic scoring gives an overall evaluation of writing. Teachers usually read student’s writing for general or whole impression, and based on this impression they sort out essays into three, four, five, or six categories categories from very very good to poor. Then the essays in each category can be awarded a numerical score or letter grade. Every aspect of the composition, composition, both content and and mechanical considerations, affects the teacher’s response, but none of them are specifically identified or directly addressed addressed using a checklist. Instead, the focus is on overall writing performance. In this method, the students will not know their strengths and weaknesses as grading grading are are given given as a whole.

Holistic scoring scoring is

mostly used in large large scale assessment. assessment. Although this approach is fast and efficient to judge overall writing performance without emphasis on any particular writing skill, it is not an appropriate measure to use when teachers want to assess how well students have used a particular writing form or applied specific writing skills in a composition. The main disadvantage of this approach is that teachers may unknowingly place too much emphasis on mechanical correctness, especially, spelling, grammar usage, and handwriting and therefore show bias in their assessment (Searle & Dillon, 1980) Holistic scoring has been praised for rewarding students on what they do well (Wolcott (Wolcott & Legg, 1998). Holistic scoring is also the least time-consuming of all the assessment methods, as it involves 63


assigning only a single score. For this reason, holistic scores have been commonly employed in L1 (and to the lesser extent, L2) writing studies as a means of measuring the impact of a particular form of pedagogic intervention, such as the use of various types of feedback. However, holistic scoring has also been extensively criticized. For example, holistic scores have been found to correlate significantly with certain features of the text, including handwriting and text length (Steward & Grobe, 1979; Nold & Freedman, 1977), the number of grammatical errors (Sweedler-Brown, 1993; Homburg, 1984), Lexical features (Engber, 1995; Grobe, 1981), content and organisation (Freedman, 1979) and rhetorical features (Tedick & Mathison, 1995), raising the question of whether holistic scorers actually assess the essay as a whole, or whether their decisions are guided by a relatively small set of criteria. Other researchers have criticized holistic scoring on the grounds that even when a scoring rubric is provided to focus the raters’ attention on multiple aspects of the text, this in itself “disconnect [s] the holistic rater from the whole or gestalt of the text,’ creating an unnatural relationship between the text and the reader which distorts the final judgments provided to the text (Elbow, 1996; Huot, 1993, 1990). Holistic scoring has also been criticized for obscuring the source of the score (Hyland, 2002; Weigle, 2002; Cumming, 1997), preventing students, teachers and researchers from gaining a deeper understanding of the particular strengths and weaknesses of the essay. This is a particular concern when dealing with L2 learners, as these writers tend to exhibit more variation across the different subcomponents that make up the totality of writing skill (Hamp-Lyons, 1995). For example, an L2 writer may have solid control of grammar 64


and mechanics, but at the same time, be aware of the rhetorical conventions that guide essay organisation. Thus, when his/her essay receives a ‘3’ on a scale of 1 to 5, we are left wondering whether ‘3’ is an average of the high and low elements of the essay, whether ‘3’ is indeed a true representation of the writer’s abilities, and what exactly caused the writer to receive that score. As Hamp-Lyon (1995) notes “a holistic scoring system is a closed system, offering no windows through which teachers can look in and no access points through which researchers can enter” (p. 760 – 761). Furthermore, even though some have claimed that holistic scoring facilitates high inter-rater reliability rates (provided that raters have received training) (Bailey, 1998; Wolcott & Legg, 1998), other researchers have claimed that ‘the field has experienced widesprea d methodological confusion” with respect to inter -rater reliability rates (Polio, 2001). At the same time, though, other researchers have claimed that too much attention has been paid to inter-rater reliability and not enough to validity-that is, whether the holistic scale truly assesses the writing ability of the student (Huot, 1990). As Charney (1984) notes, “... the validity of holistic scoring remains an open question despite such widespread use[;] the question of whether holistic ratings produce accurate assessments of true writing ability has very often been begged; their validity is asserted, but has never been convincingly demonstrated.” (p. 68)

Possibly due in part to these criticisms, it appears that no study investigating feedback and L2 writing has relied on holistic scoring as 65


the sole measurement of writing quality or change across drafts. Those which have used holistic measures have done so in conjunction with other assessment measures (Chandler, 2003; Blain, 2001; McGroarty & Zhu, 1997). For example, Berg (1999) used holistic scoring in conjunction with revision analysis to measure the impact of training in peer revision on the drafts produced by forty-six university-level ESL students. She found that the group who had been trained in peer response received a significantly higher difference score (the holistic score of the second draft minus that of the first draft) than did the untrained group. Although the use of the holistic score did not allow her to determine which aspect(s) of the students’ writing improved, the general improvements seen helped Berg to conclude that peer training did significantly benefit the L2 writers. In another study to use a combination of measures, Prater and Bermúdez (1993) used fluency measures and holistic scoring to assess whether elementary school ESL students, when given the opportunity to work in small group and to receive feedback from their peers on their drafts, evidenced greater pre test-post test gains in the quality of their compositions than did students who worked individually and only received feedback from the teacher. They found that even though the peer feedback group received significantly higher ratings on two out of the three fluency measures (number of words and number of idea units), there were no significant differences between groups in terms of the final holistic score received. The researchers attributed this to the short-term nature of the study, saying that ‘it is likely that one month is not a sufficient length of time to produce significant differences in overall quality of writing” (p. 108) 66


– a possibility that has been raised by other researchers as well (e.g. Chandler, 2003; Hillocks, 1986). In addition to its reported lack of ability to measure short-term changes in writing quality, holistic scoring has also been criticized for its inability to detect differences between groups at close proficiency levels. Polio et al. (1998), for example, noted in their decision to rely on objective measures of linguistic accuracy rather than on holistic scales, that the latter “were not fine-grained enough for use on a homogeneous population, that is, on students who have placed into the same class” (p.52). Due to the fact that these scales do not provide detailed diagnostic information on particular aspects of the students’ writing (such as grammar, organisation, and so on), holistic scales are generally used for measuring differences between groups in a wider range of proficiencies. Holistic

scoring

can

help

researchers

delineate

large

differences between groups, and thus may be a useful time - and costeffective method for determining whether two groups are roughly at the same proficiency level or not. However, as this method cannot illuminate how the groups differ (for example, was one superior in grammar and another in the organisation?). It may be less utilitised when investigating finer-grained differences between groups at approximately the same level of proficiency.

Primary Trait Scoring

The focus in primary trait scoring is on whether or not students have incorporated specific traits or qualities in their writing. Developed partly in response to the limitations of holistic scoring, primary trait 67


scoring is a form of criterion-based assessment in which one trait of the writing (e.g., descriptive, persuasive arguments or organisation) is chosen and then evaluated holistically (Wolcott & Legg, 1998). The underlying assumption of this method is that different types of writing require different types of skills and strategies. Success in writing a descriptive essay, for example, will depend much more on the writer’s ability to provide a detailed, example-rich description than on his or her use of persuasive arguments. Thus, in the primary trait scoring, the evaluator begins by reflecting on the purpose of the writing, as well as on the types of rhetorical strategies, kinds of information and methods of presentation that would be important in carrying out the task successfully (Odell & Copper, 1980). The next step is to identify the most important feature – the primary trait – that would characterize a successful essay, given its purpose, audience and genre. The essays are then evaluated and given a single number, which represents the quality of the paper according to that single trait (White, 1986) Primary trait scoring has been praised for giving a sharper view of the complex of particular skills required to do a given task, and therefore increasing the likelihood that we will be able to identify strengths and weaknesses precisely (Lloyd-Jones, 1977, p. 47). Furthermore, given the fact that skill in writing one type of essay (e.g. description) does not necessarily transfer to skill in writing another (e.g., persuasion), primary trait scoring can help identify a student’s strengths or weaknesses on a particular writing task and thus has the potential to provide more detailed diagnostic feedback (Wolcott & Legg, 1989).

68


However,

this

type

of

scoring

has

been

labelled

as

“reductionist,” as it collapses the multifaceted nature of the wri ting into a single trait, thus hindering researchers and teachers from assessing the totality of skills that are involved in writing (Wolcott & Legg, 1998). Furthermore, this restricted focus may also pose problems for the evaluators themselves, as they may have difficulties in focusing on one trait of the paper to the exclusion of others (Wolcott & Legg, 1998). Researchers have in fact suggested that such a focus is impossible: as Hamp-Lyons (1991) notes, “facets are not independent but are interwoven throughout the text, so that readers’ judgements of one facet are influenced by the quality of others” (p. 247). In a study done by Ashwell (2000), the researcher employed multiple measures to investigate the timing of form-focused and content-focused feedback, including a primary trait on the content of the essay. The researcher developed a primary trait rubric which provided descriptors for different levels of quality concerning the content of the essay. For example, the highest ranking category described the content of the students’ essay as displaying an ability to communicate with few or no

difficulties for the reader, while the

lowest described the writing as “display [ing] little or no ability to communicate….[and] represent [ing] a totally inadequate answer” (p.254). With this scale, he found that three out of the four groups of students received significantly worse content scores on their second drafts than on their first. Between the second and third drafts, however, all groups received slightly better, though not statistically, content scores. Although Ashwell suggested that the amount and type of feedback given may have caused the students to prioritize form over content, due to the fact that inter-rater reliability rates were quite 69


low (less than 70 percent), it may be the case that the rubric was not an adequately valid measure of the quality of the content in the students’ essays. If carefully designed and piloted, primary trait rubrics may be a useful method for assessing discrete aspects of th e learners’ writing, such the quality of the content in their essays. However, as writing is multidimensional skill, involving a number of sub skills working in tandem

(e.g.,

grammar,

organisation,

argumentation

skills,

discourse), such rubrics may also act as blinders, obscuring other aspects of change in the students’ writing skills.

Analytic Scoring

A

more

common

assessment

procedure

in

studies

investigating feedback and writing quality is the analytic scale, also commonly known as multiple trait scoring. In this procedure, a set of traits is chosen (e.g., grammar, organisation, content) and then evaluated individually (Brown & Bailey, 1984; Hamp-Lyons, 2001, 2003). These scores are then summed to arrive at the final score; alternatively, a weighted sum may be used to represent the relative importance of the various features in the final score (White, 1986). In analytic scoring, teachers score writings against a range of writing skills. This form of assessment is most appropriate when teachers want to compare student’s writing to a standard of excellence. Diederich (1974) developed an analytic scoring system for high school and college students that divides writing performance into two main categories, general merit and mechanics, and he identifies several specific traits related to each category. The specific 70


traits for general merit are ideas, organisation, wording, and style. The specific traits related to mechanics are usage and sentence structure, punctuation and capitalization, spelling, and handwriting and neatness. Percentage values could also be assigned to each category to determine a grade. Perhaps the most significant drawback of this system is that equivalent weight is given to the two categories even though writing educators recommend that greater emphasis be given to content. Analytic scoring such as that used by the ESL Composition Profile has been the recommended scoring procedure for use with L2 writers, as it gives more-in-depth information about the writers’ particular strengths and weaknesses (Bacha, 2001; Hamp-Lyons, 1995; Connor, 1991; Hamp-Lyons & Henning, 1991) and has been fruitfully employed in a number of studies investigating the relationship between feedback and L2 writing (e.g., Blain, 2001; Saito & Fuita, 2004; Paulus, 1999). instance,

(which

development,

included

Paulus’ (1999) analytic rubric, for categories

cohesion/coherence,

on

structure,

organisation/unity, vocabulary,

and

mechanics) allowed her to detect significant differences in the quality of writing produced by two groups of students, one receiving peer feedback and the other teacher feedback. Analytic scoring, however (as with all other forms of writing assessment), has not escaped criticism. First of all, it is problematic to identify which sub skills should be included in the scoring rubric. Arguably, writing is composed of a wide variety of skills: spelling, punctuation, grammar, local grammar, local organisation, global organisation, persuasiveness, style, humour and so forth. Which ones are the most important to assess for a particular group of learners 71


engaged in a particular task? Will different tasks and/or writers call for different sub skills? Or will the sub skills that are identified for one type of writing be irrelevant for another? The lack of agreement in the profession on what these sub skills have suggested to some ‘that writing remains more than a sum of its parts and that the analytic theory that seeks to define and add up the sub skills is fundamentally flawed” (White, 1986, p. 123). Nevertheless, as L2 writers often exhibit considerable variation across writing sub skills, the use of an analytical

rubric

may

provide

the

researcher

with

a

better

understanding of the students’ particular writing strengths and weaknesses and thus be of greater analytic utility than either holistic or primary trait scoring (Wolcott & Legg, 1998).

Revision analyses The most common method for analysing change across drafts has been to conduct revision analyses – that is, to count the number (and/or type) of changes the writer makes from one draft to the next (e.g., Tuzi, 2004; Hyland, 2000; Tsui & Ng, 2000: Berg, 1999; Conrad & Goldstein, 1999; Paulus, 1999; Ferris, 1997). Both L1 and L2 researchers have relied on this type of analysis in their studies as textual changes are relatively easy to observe and quantify. In addition, it has been argued that as revision entails noticing a discrepancy between the “intended text” and the “instantiated text” (Allal & Chanquoy, 2004), revisions may be seen as evidence of change or destabilization in the learner’s interlanguage – or at least greater engagement in the writing process. Drawing upon the latter argument, Stanley (1992) used a simple frequency count of revisions to compare the effectiveness of 72


the groups trained and untrained in methods of peer feedback. In her study, thirty-one freshman ESL students were split into two groups: Group 1 received extensive coaching (seven hours over four weeks) on how to provide peer feedback; Group 2 received only an hour of training. Stanley then compared the final drafts written after the peer review session, not to “establish the relative quality of the writings, but to determine the extent to which students responded to their peers’ efforts by making changes in their work” (p.223). Although no statistics were provided, the researcher claimed that essays produced by students in the trained group contained more revisions (and thus reflected a greater level of engagement) than it did essays from the untrained group. Other studies have taken the additional step of categorizing the revisions, typically into “surface changes” and “text -based changes” (Faigley & Witte, 1981). The former one is concerned with spelling, grammar and meaning-preserving changes (such as word order), while the latter is defined as those which affect the content of the essay.

From

their

study,

Faigley

and

Witte’s

claimed

that

inexperienced writers tend to make only surface-level changes to their writing, while more advanced writers make a greater number of textbased changes. If a researcher is interested in gaining a rough estimate of the relative effectiveness of various types of feedback, revision analyses may in fact be appropriate. However, it needs to be kept in mind that a greater number of changes does not necessarily meant a writer has produced a higher quality draft: A student can make small changes (to either meaning or form) without significantly impacting the quality of the text. Likewise, he or she can make a few more substantial changes which lead to a significantly higher quality 73


piece

of

writing.

Thus,

even

when

frequency

counts

are

supplemented with categorization schemes which take into account the type and relative success of the revision, researchers need to be extremely cautious when using this procedure to make claims about the relationship between feedback and L2 writing.

Error analysis Before any further discussion on error analysis (EA) as a form of assessment, it is indeed important to differentiate between errors and mistakes. In noticing something wrong with a piece of written work, there is a need to decide if it is an error or a mistake. According to Klassen, 1991, “error” refers to form of structure that a native speaker deems unacceptable because of the inappropriate use. It also refers to the use of a linguistic item in a way which a fluent or a native speaker of the language regards as showing faulty or incomplete learning (Richards, Platt & Weber, 1989), and also the result of not having the appropriate knowledge or having any false knowledge (Corder, 1981). So, if students are familiar with a language item, but cannot correct themselves, this is an “error”. On the same note, Byrne (1993) states that learners make errors when they try to do something with the language which they are not yet able to do, like for instance, they often make false generalisations or they transfer from the mother tongue. On the other hand, “mistakes… are slips of some kind” committed through carelessness or something that is already learned by students, but temporarily forgotten (Byrne, 1993:123), and also the lack of processing ability which is the ability to perform up to one’s competence level (Corder, 1981). Edge (1989) points out mistakes are caused by: (1) the influence of the first 74


language; (2) misunderstanding a rule; (3) a decision to communicate as best one can; (4) lack of concentration, and (5) by a mixture of these and other factors. If learners make a mistake which can be selfcorrected, this is called a “slip”. According

to

Teh

(1993),

error

analysis

(EA)

is

the

identification, description and explanation of errors either in i ts spoken or written form. There are five stages that are involved in EA. The first stage is error identification and this is followed by error classification (initial analysis and description of the errors), where errors are classified according to categories or sub-categories like the following: semantic errors (wrong words, wrong form, poor choice of words, slang of colloquialism), and syntactic errors (tense, preposition, article, spelling, word order, subject-verb agreement). Errors can also be classified as global errors or local errors. Then, an explanation for errors is provided as to why the errors have been made like mother tongue interferences, loan words, overgeneralization of rules, the inherent difficulties of the target language and medium transfer, to name a few. Finally, the “errors are evaluated to determine how much they deviate from the target language norm, to what extend they affect communication and which method of correction can be most effectively meted out” (Teh, 1993: p. 54). Research done on error analysis has provided empirical evidence pointing to emphasis on learners’ errors as an effective means of improving grammatical accuracy (White et al, 1991; Caroll and Swain, 1993). Analysing the types of errors that students make, through observing, categorizing, and analysing writing errors, will reveal which item has been incorrectly learnt by the students. Error analysis sheds light on the manner in which students internalize the 75


rules of the target language and develop as writers. This insight into language learning problems is useful to the teacher because it provides information on common trouble-spots in language learning that can be corrected through the appropriate remedial measures in the form of teacher’s feedback or preparation of effective teaching materials. According to Selinker (1992: 150), errors are indispensable to learners since the making of errors can be r egarded as ‘a device the learner uses in order to learn’. Corder (1973) writes that a teacher is the one who benefits the most from error analysis. Teachers who can analyse and treat errors effectively are better equipped to help their students become more aware of their errors, thus students will be able to minimize or overcome their learning problems. Error analysis with frequency counts of types of errors provides feedback and tells the teacher the effectiveness of his teaching materials and techniques, and help to discover which part of the language is not adequately learnt. In error analysis, only those errors that alter the meaning of the text are considered important (Klassen, 1991). The decision of whether or not to correct a student’s error depends on how seriously the error alters the meaning of what is being written and the possibility that the student may self-correct the error. Teachers can categorise writing errors and examine the list to discover the patterns of errors. This information is then used to make instructional decisions.

Error corrections (EC) According to Teh (1993), there is no single method of dealing with errors made by students. Some of the common practices of teachers are to mark every error, provide the correct answer for er rors 76


made, mark the first and only draft or work written by students, make general comments, make students rewrite the corrected version several times over and view errors as signs of failure. Josephson (1989) in his study has advocated some of the methods for error corrections: the use of peer marking/editing, selective marking, code correction, effective and specific comments, checklist of limited common errors, different coloured inks, discussion of errors on tape and direct versus discovery-type of marking. In supporting peer marking/editing method for EC, Byrne (1993) proposes that students be allowed to work on these mistakes/errors themselves with the help of their peers. Peer-marking/editing is especially useful in the first draft of their written work. Here students are given the responsibility to edit each other’s work individually or in a group before handing in the final draft to the teacher. Besides being fun for students to be allowed to correct and learn from errors other than their own, it also reduces the need for too many red markings from the teacher. Klassen (1991), however, opines that not every error should be corrected and believes that gravity of errors should determine which correction is necessary. She suggests that teachers should focus on marking global errors in the first draft of their student’s written work and then local errors in the second draft. The teacher could provide clues and codes in the form of abbreviations, symbols, arrows, circles, lines and explicit marginal comments (see Figure 1), instead of providing the correct answers every time a student makes an error. The practical reason for this is students will continue to make that error unless they recognize the type of error they are making.

77


Serious error

Minor error

Written in margin – multiple errors

Omission Repetition (Circle the repeated words/structure)

Error in paragraphing

Merit structure/vocabulary (written above the word/structure)

[

Paragraph

Figure 1: Samples of the Symbols Used in the Marking of Students’ Writing

Haycraft (1993) suggests that the most comprehensive method of correcting compositions is to have an analytical approach where mistakes are divided into categories and abbreviations. Haycraft (1993) also notes that teachers should underline errors in the text and put appropriate symbols in the margin to indicate the type of error. Thus, at the same time, students would be able to see what they originally wrote. At the end of the composition, the errors are added up under each category and listed. Through this approach, the students will become more conscious of their common errors and may be careful in writing subsequent compositions.

78


Byrne (1993) also finds correcting all errors in students’ work time-consuming for teachers and discouraging for the students. Byrne (1993) believes that teachers should: “…not attempt to correct all mistakes in a piece of writing, but only those in certain areas, such as tense or articles,

either

because

this

is

where

students,

particularly need help or because you (teachers) have decided to focus attention on these for a while.” (p. 124 – 125)

By focussing on a few errors each time, students are less likely to become demotivated in learning English (Ellis & Sinclair, 1989). As opposed to the advantages of EC, numerous studies have revealed that grammar correction to second language writing students is actually discouraging to many students, and may even be harmful to their writing ability (Semke, 1984; Sheppard, 1992; Truscott, 1996). Truscott (1996) reasons that writing class grammar feedback does not work because it treats only the surface appearance of grammar and not with the way language develops. Indeed, those who support this opinion believe that the learning of linguistic items does not occur in a linear fashion, considering that learning grammar in a second language is a complex and gradual process. Thus, for the grammatical correction to work, the correction must be precisely tied into the correct levels of this process. Research has also shown that corrections made by second language writing teachers are frequently arbitrary, not consistent, and greatly dependent upon the amount of time the teacher has with L2 students (Zamel, 1995). Apart from that,

79


students

often

find

teachers’

remarks

vague,

confusing,

and

contradictory, and they also feel that teachers do not provide sufficient grammatical explanations about their writing mistakes (Cohen, 1987). According to Cohen (1987), generally students only make a mental note of the corrections they have understood, and usually would not incorporate these corrections into their work if they have to rewrite their papers.

Conclusion

As can be seen from the discussion above, many measures exist for assessing the quality of a text, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. Writing is enormously complex, involving not only grammatical accuracy and skills in organizing information, but also a knowledge of what a particular audience expects of a writer engaged in writing a particular genre. Feedback may impact these skills in subtle ways that are not immediately measurable by any of the assessment procedures discussed above. Even when no one-to-one relationship

can

be

found

between

a

particular

pedagogical

intervention (such as feedback) and change – however defined – on the students’ drafts, this does not mean that learning has not occurred. The reverse is also true: change on a draft, for example, in the form of a higher holistic score or fewer grammatical errors, does not mean that the writer has ‘learned’ more about the writing process. Changes can be made without understanding the reasons for making them or the ability to make them in the future on new pieces of writing. Given the evidence to date, it seems that no theory has been developed that helps explain which measures are the most 80


appropriate for a particular set of learners, tasks and research goals. Published studies in English investigating L2 writing, known to the researcher,

may

have

indeed

employed

multiple

measures.

However, the majority has relied on indirect measures (such as revision analyses and interviews), which, while valuable, do not speak directly to the quality of the essay. To assess more directly the quality of a student’s piece of writing, both analytic scales (which give more in-depth diagnostic feedback on multiple aspects of the students’ writing) and multiple objective measures (which can provide more detailed information on problematic aspects of th e students’ grammar and lexis) are clearly needed. The acquisition of the writing skill in a second language is not easy. It is not even easy for the assessors or raters as they have to capitalize on their own writing knowledge and experience in marking and assessing to be able to evaluate students’ writing effectively.

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The Effectiveness of Using Power-Point Animation to Teach Vocabulary in Primary School Ling Song Kai PhD [email protected] Pejabat Pendidikan Daerah Sibu

Abstract

Mastering English vocabulary among second language learners has been a problem among our pupils since English Language was first taught taught in our country. country. As a result, this this study attempts attempts to investigate the effects of using animation in teaching vocabulary to 34 pupils in Year One of a primary school in Sibu, Sarawak. The instrument employed in this research was the vocabulary tests of pre and post-test. The researcher analysed the data through SPSS V22. The analysis shows no statistically significant difference between the mean values of the pre-test and post-test results of the pupils in the control group. This indicates that pupils did not gain much vocabulary when traditional methods such as flash cards and verbal explanation were used in teaching vocabulary vocabulary in the classroom. Hence, this study provides the foundation for hypothesis generation related to future design, development and the instructional use of animations in teaching primary school pupils.

Keywords:

vocabulary,

animation,

pre-test,

post-test,

intervention

89


The basic of learning English is learning the words and getting the meaning right before we can form a correct simple sentence and learn the other parts of language. In other words, if the pupils are having difficulties in expanding their vocabulary, it will hinders the pupils to learn the other aspects of English language. Consequently, the inability of learners to expand their vocabularies has become a major issue for the language teachers, researchers and practitioners (Liu Jing-hua, 2006 as cited in Tabar & Khodareza, Khodareza, 2012). Pupils learn in many different styles or ways. For example, some pupils learn with their eyes (visual learners) or with their ears (auditory learners) and others through experience. Others learn better when they work alone or in groups. It is obvious that learning styles play a crucial role in the learning process as they affect the learners’ learning outcomes. Based on the recent UPSR results, we should be able to notice that our pupils did not achieve good grades in English language. The overall performance in English dropped 0.06 points on the National Grade Grade Point Average Average (GPMP). This could result result from the the nature of curriculum evaluation instruments, strategies and methods used in teaching and learning process. Banez & Ramos (2009) believed in the power of using animation in the educational process, where a form of entertainment could be designed and used as an educational tool. Audiovisual materials may function as a powerful educational tool in many ways. Therefore, learning environments can be more colourful, motivating and at the same time more supportive for pupils in the learning process. In addition, the use of computer animation as a teaching technique can accommodate the needs of different teaching styles, 90


and it provides the basic activities of the Cognitive Theory which explains the brain is the most incredible network of information processing. Mayer (n.d.) stated that learners would be able to create a deep understanding of words or pictures alone. According to Ur (1991), one of the ways to help learners remember words is by linking the words with each other through meaning-sound associations. Computer animation can be used as a visual aid to illustrate meanings, and give organization to the material being taught. Animation consolidates better understanding and greater retention. Having reviewed the literatures, it was noticed that there are not many studies aimed at finding the effect of animation integration to the pupils in Malaysia. For example, it was evidenced as in the case study of 3D and 4D software animation in community college Malaysia. However, lately the government realizes that mastering English is important if we want to compete globally where English is prominently used by countries all over the world for communication purposes. On the teaching of English, the Ministry of Education and curriculum planners have introduced various programmes for teachers to lift the standard of English in all schools. Among them is the teaching of grammar in the English class and the Memperkukuh Bahasa

Inggeris (MBI)

programmes,

a

new

primary

school

curriculum, Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR), with a 90minute increase in weekly English lessons for all pupils, and emphasis on the professional development of English teachers. Learning English as a second language in Malaysia however, is not an easy task. With the advancement of technologies, software with multimedia elements and interactive contents have emerged to assist English language teaching. In view of this, it is high time that 91


teachers examine different ways to increase students’ understanding of the language by motivating them and using new approaches to teach English. One factor to be looked into is the teaching of vocabulary using technology like animations. As a tool, an animation makes students more focused on the words because it is interactive and addresses the need of their senses as well. While they try to understand the meaning of words associate with the scenes that they watch on the screen, they are also exposed to the pronunciation of words and the written form of words simultaneously. It is felt that learning words in context but with animation will cause vocabulary to become more interesting.

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to examine the problem of teaching vocabulary effectively in school. The initial investigation discovered some reasons for the low level of pupils’ achievement in English. One of the reason was the pupils had limited vocabulary. Thus, the pupils found it difficult to understand words and eventually they fared badly in school tests. Based on the latest English Literacy test results in my school, only 61.5% out of 144 pupils had mastered construct 3 until 12 and 55 out of 144 still did not master construct 3 till 12 (vocabulary). It could be the method of teaching of the teacher. As pointed out by Knight (1994), vocabulary acquisition is considered by teachers to be the main problem in second language learning. Animation could be effective for gaining attention in presenting information in school and make vocabulary teaching enjoyable for both teachers and pupils. 92


In 2011, KSSR was introduced to increase the teaching duration for English to 90 minutes per week . Further, in order to improve the pupils’ performance in English, it also emphasizes on the professional development of English teachers. However, as of today, teachers and parents still complain of pupil’s low proficiency level in English. This may be due to the traditional learning styles and methods that are used to teach English. Thus, there is a need for an effective way to develop pupils’ p roficiency in English and to come up with a new and creative technique to overcome this issue is crucial. Teachers should do something to improve their teaching methods in order to increase pupil’s proficiency. Animation could be effective for attracting pupils when presenting information in the classroom and make language teaching enjoyable for both teachers and pupils.

Purpose of the Research

The main purpose of the research is to examine the effectiveness of using animation to teach English vocabulary to Year One pupils. The research objectives are: i.

To examine whether integration of animation can be an effective approach to the teaching of vocabulary in English.

ii. To examine whether teaching using animation is preferable in

the learning of vocabulary among pupils.

Literature Review

Vocabulary, the core of the language, is not acquired at one shot, but rather requires a long process. Due to the wide scale and 93


ever increasing availability of computers as an instructional delivery system, many computer-based instructional (CBI) products are used extensively to present content. Among CBI products, animation is widely used in instruction in various subjects, such as physics, mathematics, mechanics, biology, and computer science. Despite the overall support for animations, there are few studies which reveal effects of using animations on enhancing learning or attitudes (Arikan & Taraf, 2010). For Malaysian pupils for whom English is a second language, integrating animation into vocabulary teaching can improve the development process for effective learning of English vocabulary, rather than depending on reading or listening comprehension activities.

Young learners According to Philips (1993) young learners are children from the first year of schooling (five or six years old) to eleven or twelve years old. The teacher who is familiar with these characteristics will take into consideration children’s short attention spans while teaching and will naturally use repetition and apply effective reinforcement. Teachers also should keep in mind that children of this age tired easily. So, they ought to vary their techniques to break the boredom like storytelling, songs, dialogues, games and animation.

Definition of animation According to Mayer and Moreno (2002) and Rieber (1991), animation should, in principle, be effective in illustrating spatialtemporal changes.

Animation as an instructional application is 94


generally assumed to be more effective than static graphics for communicating information that involves directional characteristics or change over time. Therefore, animation would offer a more concrete way of learning content, reducing the processing demands on shortterm memory, and increasing the potential for successful encoding of long-term memory (Rieber & Kini, 1991). In this study, animation as animated cartoons or pictures, including text and sound displayed on a computer monitor for the content of unit 13 from English Year One Textbook.

Conceptual framework

Animation

Vocabulary Intervention Strategy

Figure 1: Conceptual framework of the study

The present research is an attempt to investigate the potential of animation in assisting the learning and understanding of vocabulary in English. According to Krashen 1985 (as cited in Diaz-Rico, 2008), language acquisition occurs when the student is exposed to sources of comprehensible input. Pupils who have favourable attitudes and self-confidence may have a low filter with consequent efficient second 95


language learning. Those pupils with unfavourable attitudes have high filters. Mayer (2001) recommends that learners are able to create a deeper understanding of words when they establish connections between words and pictures than from words or pictures alone. Animation explores how the brain processes information given in picture and text. The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia was formulated by Mayer (2001) that focused on human cognition rather than technology capacity and features. Mayer stated that certain combinations of multimedia optimize learning, in terms of retention and transfer. Mayer (2001) explains how cognitive theory contributes to and gives three theory-based assumptions about how people learn from words and pictures.

Past studies According to Mayer ’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (2001), the computer is a system for delivering information to learners. The instructor’s role is to present information, as words or pictures or both, and the learner’s role is to receive the information. He said that adding pictures, such as animation should deepen the meaning of the presented information and give it a physical translation. Thus, young learners who prefer visual presentations would benefit from this process. According to Al-Jarf (2005), research into the use of computer-assisted instruction in English-language teaching indicates that the computer based grammar instruction can be as effective as or more effective than traditional techniques of instruction such as workbooks and lectures.

96


Kim and Gilman (2008) examined the use of multimedia components such as visual text, spoken text, and graphics in a Webbased

self-instruction

program

to

increase

learners’

English

vocabulary learning in Seoul. 172 middle school students participated in the study. The results indicated that an effective way to improve learning of English vocabulary is to offer graphics that illustrate what the vocabulary means. Banez and Ramos (2009) examined the possibility of using a Flash 8 tool to create animation in facilitating pre-school student’s basic spelling lessons. The sample was Three Little Stars School in Nueva Ecija. The researchers used two interview guides, one before the production of the animated tool, and another after use of the same. It also used the finished animation tool to deal with alphabet and spelling. The result was that animated tool was a significant help in the teaching of the alphabet and spelling to the pre-school students of the Three Little Stars School in Nueva Ecija. This study benefited the theoretical framework of dual coding theory and animation. The findings of a study by Faizah and Mohamad (2009) regarding the effectiveness of customized courseware in teaching grammar come to the conclusion that technology integration in teaching is very effective indeed. Their quasi –experimental study involved 40 young learners in Year 5 at one of the primary schools in the state of Terengganu, Malaysia. The findings showed that generally the customized courseware was effective in teaching grammar. Kilickaya and Krajka (2010) compared the usefulness of online vocabulary teaching and the traditional methods used in an upper-intermediate Academic English class. The control group students practiced vocabulary items in ten reading passages through 97


vocabulary notebooks and cards. The finding showed that the learners in the experimental group outperformed the learners in the control group and that the experimental group students had better recall of the words studied online, evidenced by a follow-up post-test given 3 months later. Arikan and Taraf (2010) examined the effectiveness of authentic animated cartoons in teaching English to young Turkish learners. Their experimental design study involved thirty 4 th grade pupils. They made a comparison between instruction based essentially on traditional grammar and vocabulary teaching and one that made use of authentic animated cartoons. The results indicated that the experimental group outperformed the control group in learning target grammar points and vocabulary items. Meltem, Aysegul & Soner (2010) did a research on language practice with multimedia supported web-based grammar revision material. The findings indicate that learners enjoyed using the material and developed a positive attitude towards the system. The population in the study were university students who lived in foreign countries; not primary school pupils who studied in Malaysia. Thus, there was a need to conduct a research on the local population, u sing the technology that carries content, which is suitable to the standard of Malaysian pupils’ ability. Softa (2011), through her research related to learning environment and effect and use of technology in the study of the English language, found that students were highly appreciative of the use of technology at school and felt excited and motivated about it at a score of 63% and the use of computers in the English class was very motivating at a score of 65.1. Thus, the findings support the 98


research questions. Cheng (2011), studying the influence of integrating technology in language learning courses, found out that there was a positive relationship between technology use and student motivation.

Methodology

The study attempts to investigate the effectiveness of using animation to teach English vocabulary for Year One pupils of a primary school in Sibu, Sarawak. The school was a national school of Bahasa Malaysia and English mediums of instruction.

Sample The sample for this study consists of 34 Year 1 pupils in a primary school in Sibu. The ability of the learners and the type of stream chosen are simply to fulfil the requirements of the research, that is, to investigate the effectiveness of using animation to teach English vocabulary to Year 1 pupils. Two classes of Year 1 pupils were selected; the first class of 17 pupils represents the experimental group and the second of 17 pupils represents the control group.

Research design The quasi experimental research design was employed in this study. The experimental group was used to identify the effect of using animation to teach vocabulary to the year one pupils. Meanwhile , for the control group, the participants were learning English vocabulary using the old approach. Both groups have the same ability and were randomly selected to carry out the activities. Upon completion, a post99


test was given to the treatment group and control group to determine their progress.

Research instruments The instrument used in this research was the vocabulary test: the pre-test and post-test. The main aim of the pre-test was to determine pupils’ performance and understanding of the vocabulary lesson designed for this research. After the normal vocabulary lessons was carried out with the control group and the intervention was conducted on the experimental group, both groups were given the post-test to determine the pupils’ performance in learning vocabulary.

Vocabulary test (pre-test & post-test)

Table 1: Table of specification for the vocabulary test Question No. Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7

Knowledge

Item & Marks

Percentage

5 items (10%) 5 items (10%) 5 items (10%) 5 items (10%) 5 items (10%) 5 items (10%) 5 items (10%)

5 items (10m) 5 items (10m) 5 items (10m) 5 items (10m) 5 items (10m) 5 items (10m) 5 items (10m)

10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10%

The vocabulary test to measure the pupils’ achievement in vocabulary was prepared using the KSSR Year One English textbook and the opinions of experienced teachers were sought. The test consisted of seven sections. All the questions tested were of the 100


knowledge level according to Bloom’s Taxonomy. The distribution of the questions was shown in Table 1. The test consisted of 7 questions and each question contained five items and carry two marks for each correct answer. Table 2: Table of specification for the questions Question No. Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7

Area Fill in the missing letters Label Match the pictures with the correct vocabulary Choose the correct word to fill in the blanks Fill in the blanks Name the animal Underline

Intervention strategy A lesson plan that integrated the element of animation was designed based on researcher’s experience , relevant literature and comments.

Description of the lesson pan Below is a description of the components of the lesson plan: i.

The objectives The objectives of each lesson were respectively derived from the vocabulary lessons.

ii.

Key words The key words were chosen from the new words in the pupils’ English Year One Textbook such as Jam, Jar, classroom, tomato and so on.

101


iii.

Materials English Year One Textbook, (animation in power-point), (practicing and exercises in power-point), LCD projectors and a laptop were used as planned for each lesson.

iv.

Procedures and techniques

1.

Teacher provides game and song (in warming-up stage), the teacher helps pupils activate their prior knowledge and that helps in preparing them for the new lesson.

2.

Teacher revises previous vocabulary and structures.

3.

Teacher plays the animation power point to present new vocabulary (picture and sound).

4.

Pupils repeat (pronounce) the vocabulary correctly.

5.

Pupils repeat the vocabulary and structure.

6.

Teacher encourages pupils to induce the intended vocabulary from the context.

7.

Teacher gives a short summative evaluation to assure the pupils’ understanding of the vocabulary.

8.

Teacher gives pupils homework to do as evaluation of what they have studied.

The Implementation of the lesson plan The lessons chosen for the experiment were taught to the experimental group as follows: 1.

The techniques of teaching the experimental group were based on

teaching

vocabulary

using

animation

which

was

hypothesized to enhance using vocabulary correctly while the control group was taught using the ordinary method.

The

control group is given the same quality of materials and the 102


same content with the experimental group. The only difference is the experimental group gets the animations in their materials and the control group does not. Other variables should remain the same. 2.

The lesson was presented according to the lesson plan.

3.

The pre-test was administered to the experimental and the control groups. The results were recorded and statistically analysed.

4.

The process of teaching the two groups followed the time planned for the experiment.

5.

After the experiment, the post-test vocabulary test was administered to the two groups. The results were recorded and statistically analysed.

Procedure of data collection The pre-test was conducted to 1B class on 15 th July 2014 and to 1K class on 16 July 2014. The first lesson was carried out on 4 th August 2014 for both the classes. The animation power point to present new vocabulary (picture and sound) with each slide containing one word and a number of animated pictures to represent it. The pupils looked at the picture and subsequently, the new word appeared to in front of them. The same pictures used in the power point were printed out and used for teaching the control group. The second lesson for both groups was carried out on 5 th August 2014. The topic on Vegetables was taught. The third lesson for both groups was carried out on 11 th August 2014. With the same topic, the fourth lesson for both groups was carried out on 12 th August 2014.The researcher was teaching the topic on animals. 103


These four lessons were given on the same day for the two groups. The duration of each lesson was 30 minutes. The control group learned their lesson in their ordinary classroom, while the experimental group had their lesson in the school’s computer laboratory. The post-test was given to both groups on 15 th August 2014.

Results

This section discusses the research findings, focusing on the effectiveness of pre-test and post-test using animation in the teaching of vocabulary in English to Year One pupils. Table 3: Cronbach alpha test

Cases Valid Excluded Total

N 34 0 34

% 100.0 .0 100.0

Table 4: Reliability test Cronbach’s Alpha .856

N of items 4

The findings were presented by comparing the results of the pupils’ pre-test and post-test results and also by analyzing their responses to the questionnaires given. The data were analyzed through the use of t-tests. Those findings are listed below.

104


Descriptive

statistics

results

for

the

control

group

and

experimental group As shown in Table 5, 6, 7 and 8 below, the mean score for vocabulary learning during pre-test for the experimental group was 52.65. The mean score increased to 62.06 in the vocabulary posttest. On the other hand, the mean score of the vocabulary learning for the control group was 53.06 and increased to 55.00 in the post test. These results show clearly that the use of animation improved the vocabulary acquisition of the experimental group pupils.

Table 5: Descriptive statistics (pre-test of the control group) N Pre-test control

17

Valid N (listwise)

17

Minimum Maximum 40

64

Mean

Std. Deviation

53.06

7.102

Table 6: Descriptive statistics (post-test of the control group) N Post-test control

17

Valid N (listwise)

17

Minimum Maximum 40

66

Mean

Std. Deviation

55.00

7.649

Table 7: Descriptive statistics (pre-test of the experimental group)

N Pre-test experimental

17

Valid N (listwise)

17

Minimum Maximum 40

66

Mean

Std. Deviation

52.65

6.284

105


Table 8: Descriptive statistics (post-test of the experimental group) N Post-test experimental

17

Valid N (listwise)

17

Minimum Maximum 46

77

Mean

Std. Deviation

62.06

7.949

Pre-Test results for both control and experimental groups Table 9 displays the results of the t-test analysis of the pre-test data for both the control and experimental groups. Table 9: Pre-test of the two groups (Paired Samples Statistics) - onesample test Test Value = 0 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference t

df

Sig. (2tailed)

Mean Difference

Lower

Upper

Pre-test control

30.805

16

.000

53.059

49.41

56.71

Pre-test experimental

34.541

16

.000

52.647

49.42

55.88

In order to determine the initial equivalence between the two groups before the application of the experiment, a t-test was applied on the mean scores of the two groups on the vocabulary pre-test. The results indicated that the mean score of the experimental group was 52.647, the mean score of the control group was 53.059, and that t=30.805 (p>0.05) which was not statistically significant at 0.5 level of confidence. In other words, there was no statistically significant

106


difference between the two groups before the commencement of the experiment.

Pre-test and post-test results for the experimental group Table 10 displays the results of the t-test for paired samples analysis of the pre-test and post-test data for the experimental group.

Table 10: Analysis of pre-test and post-test data for the experimental group - paired samples statistics

Pair 1 Pre-test Post-test

Mean

N

Std. Deviation

52.65

17

6.284

1.524

62.06

17

7.949

1.928

Std. Error Mean

Paired samples test Paired Differences 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference


Std. Std. Error Mean Deviation Mean Lower

Upper

-9.412

-7.957

2.830

.686 -10.867

t

Sig. (2df tailed)

-13.714 16

.000

The t-test yielded a t-value of -13.714 and p<.001 which was statistically significant. The results indicated that the mean value obtained from the post-test for the experimental group was 107


statistically significantly higher than the mean value obtained from the pre-test. It provides a positive answer to the question of this study. There was statistically significant difference between the mean scores of pupils who learn by animation (the experimental group) and who learn by traditional method (the control group). Pupils’ individual results are shown in Appendix A. Pre-test and post-test results for the control group Table 11 shows the results of the t-test for the paired samples analysis of the pre-test and post-test data for the control group.

Table 11: Analysis of the pre-test and post-test data for the control group paired samples statistics


Mean

N

Std. Deviation

53.06

17

7.102

1.722

55.00

17

7.649

1.855

Std. Error Mean

Paired samples test Paired Differences 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference

Std. Std. Error Mean Deviation Mean Lower Upper

Pair 1 Pre-test – -1.941 Post-test

2.772

.672 -3.366

-.516

t

df

-2.887 16

Sig. (2tailed) .011

108


The t-test yielded a t value of -2.887 and p<.011. The analysis shows no statistically significant difference between the mean values of the pre-test and post-test results of the pupils in the control group. Summary and Recommendations

The current study differs from the other animation studies because it discusses a different component of the language namely vocabulary. There is no study to deal with teaching vocabulary using animations for low-achieveing grade one pupils. The teaching of vocabulary with animation holds great promise in our educational setting. It is hoped that with the use of animation to teach vocabulary, the pupils will be provided with an innovative and fun way to learn English vocabulary. This study also indicates that pupils do not improve much on their vocabulary when traditional methods were used in teaching vocabulary in the classroom, mainly through the use of flash cards and verbal explanation. Pupils’ individual results are shown in Appendix A. This study provides the foundation for future study, design and development of animations in teaching of English vocabulary to primary school pupils.

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http://psych.unl.edu/psycrs/9 http://psych.unl.edu/psycrs/971/scale/cronbac 71/scale/cronbach_on_alpha. h_on_alpha.pdf pdf Cheng, Y. (2011). The influence of integrating technology in language learning courses. courses. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation): University of Kansas. Retrieved from ProQuest database. (UMI 3458352) Daniel, S. (n.d.). Information Processing Theory. Retrieved from http://info.psu.edu.sa/psu/maths/00 http://info.psu.edu.sa/psu/maths/008%20Informatio 8%20Information%20Processi n%20Processi ng%20Theory%20of%20L ng%20Theory%20of%20Learning%2002 earning%2002.pdf .pdf Diaz-Rico, L.T. (2008). Strategies for Teaching English Learners (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education Inc. Faizah, M. & Nazeri, M.A. (2009). The effectiveness of customized courseware in teaching grammar.

Proceedings of the 2 nd

International Conference of Teaching and Learning (ICTL) INTI University

College,

Malaysia . Malaysia.

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from

http://ictl.intimal.edu.my/ictl2009/proceedings/

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Kilickaya, F. & Krajka, J. (2010). Comparative Usefulness of Online and Traditional Vocabulary Learning. The Turkish Online Journal of

Educational

Technology,

9 (2), 9(2),

55-63.

Retrieved

from

http://www.tojet.net/articles/v9i2/927.pdf Kim, D., & Gilman, D.A. (2008). Effects of Text, Audio, and Graphic Aids

in

Multimedia

Instruction

for

Vocabulary

Learning.

Educational Technology & Society, 11 (3), 114-126. Retrieved from ww.alazhar.edu.ps/library/aattached ww.alazhar.edu.ps/library/aattachedFile.asp?id_no=0 File.asp?id_no=0046448 046448 Koroghlanian, C., & Klein, J.D. (2004). The effect of audio and animation in multimedia instruction.

Journal of Educational

Multimedia and Hypermed and Hypermedia, ia, 13(1), 13 (1), 23-46. Mayer,

R.

E.(n.d.).

Multimedia

Learning. Learning.

Retrieved

from

http://ateneu.xtec.cat/wikiform/wikiexport/_m http://ateneu.xtec.cat/wikiform/wikiexport/_media/cursos/tic/d20 edia/cursos/tic/d206/ 6/ modul_1/multimedialearningmayer.pdf Mayer, R.E. (n.d.). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning . Retrieved

from

http://www.postgradolinguistica.ucv.c http://www.postgradolinguistica.ucv.cl/dev/documentos l/dev/documentos/40,1002,c /40,1002,c ap.%203%20.%20Cognitive%20theory%20of%20multimedia%20l earning.pdf Mayer, R.E. & Sims, V.K. (1994). For whom is a picture worth a thousand words? Extensions of a dual-coding theory of multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86 (3), 86 (3), 389-401. Mayer, R.E., & Moreno, R. (2002). Aids to computer-based multimedia learning. Learning and Instruction, 12, 107-119. Mayer, R.E. (2001 ).Multimedia ).Multimedia Learning Department of Psychology. University

of

California,

Santa

Barbara.

USA.

Cambridge

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Mayer, R.E. & Moreno, R. (2002). Aids to computer-based multimedia learning. Learning and Instruction, Instruction , 12 , 107-119. Retrived from http://digitalstrategist.typepad.com/Read http://digitalstrategist.typ epad.com/Readings/EDBT5501/M ings/EDBT5501/Mayer% ayer% 20and%20Moreno.pdf Meltem, H.B, Aysegul, D. & Soner. Y. (2010). Language practice with multimedia supported web-based grammar revision material. ReCALL

22(3):

313 –331. –331.

doi:10.1017/S0958344010000182.

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http://web.ebscohost.com.ez http://web.ebscohost.com.ezpustaka.upsi.ed pustaka.upsi.edu.my/ehost/pd u.my/ehost/pdfviewer fviewer /pdfviewer?vid=8&sid=052cd599-b7 /pdfviewer?vid=8&sid=052cd599-b7c3-47cf-a365c3-47cf-a3653928379849be%40sessionmgr111&hid=125 Tabar, H., & Khodareza, M. (2012). The Effect of Using Multimedia on Vocabulary Learning of Pre-Intermediate and Intermediate Iranian EFL Learners. Journal of Basic and Applied Scientific Research, 2 (12), (12),

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112


Appendix A : Pre Test and Post Test Results for Experimental Group

Subjects

Pre Test

Post Test

Subject 1

54

63

Subject 2

51

63

Subject 3

49

60

Subject 4

62

71

Subject 5

57

69

Subject 6

60

69

Subject 7

51

60

Subject 8

51

57

Subject 9

46

54

Subject 10

46

51

Subject 11

54

63

Subject 12

54

66

Subject 13

49

54

Subject 14

54

69

Subject 15

40

46

Subject 16

66

77

Subject 17

51

63

113


Penggunaan Pendekatan Heuristik Bagi Peningkatan Penyelesaian Masalah Matematik Beraras Tinggi

Wong E-Mann [email protected] SMK Seri Patiambun Limbang

Abstrak

Kajian ini bertujuan mengkaji hubungan antara penggunaan pendekatan

Heuristik

dengan

peningkatan

murid

dalam

penyelesaian masalah Matematik yang beraras tinggi di sebuah sekolah di Limbang, Sarawak. Pendekatan Heuristik dalam kajian ini merujuk kepada model drawing iaitu menyelesaikan masalah dengan pewakilan blok. Masalah pemikiran beraras tinggi ialah merujuk kepada empat tahap teratas dalam Taksonomi Bloom iaitu mengaplikasi, menganalisis, menilai dan mensistesis. Dalam kajian ini seramai 60 orang murid yang terlibat dan dibahagikan kepada kumpulan rawatan dan kumpulan kawalan. Instrumen yang diggunakan ialah ujian pra dan pasca. Item instrumen dipetik dari soalan Trends and International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). Ujian t ke atas data dengan SPSS versi 21.0 menunjukkan penggunaan pendekatan

Heuristik

dapat

meningkatkan

murid

dalam

penyelesaian masalah Matematik beraras tinggi dengan tahap kesignifikan =0.05

114


Kata kunci:

heuristik, penyelesaian masalah aras tinggi, model drawing, TIMSS, PISA

Trends and International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) dan Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) merupakan ujian yang bertaraf antarabangsa (KPM,2013). TIMMS pertama kali ditadbir pada tahun 1995 dan pada masa ini, lebih 59 negara menyertai pentaksiran ini yang dikendalikan setiap empat tahun sekali. Malaysia menyertai TIMSS sejak 1999 dan melibatkan murid Tingkatan 2 sahaja. Ketika Malaysia mula menyertai TIMSS pada 1999, skor Matematik mengatasi purata antarabangsa dengan 519 mata dan terletak di tangga ke-16 daripada 38 negara. Penyertaan ujian PISA pada 2009 meliputi 74 buah negara termasuk negara bukan anggota Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Kali pertama Malaysia menyertai PISA ialah pada tahun 2010 sebagai kitaran pentaksiran untuk 2009. Soalan

penilaian

kedua-kedua

TIMSS

dan

PISA

lebih

menjurus kepada soalan aras tinggi iaitu memerlukan kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi untuk menyelesaikan masalah tersebut. Bagi TIMSS, domain kognitif bagi pengetahuan meliputi 35%, aplikasi 40%, dan penaakulan 25%. Ini jelas menunjukkan bahawa sebanyak 65% soalan TIMSS terletak di tangga empat yang ke atas dalam Taksonomi Bloom. Dalam kata lain, kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi diperlukan untuk menyelesaikan masalah dalam pentaksiran TIMSS dan PISA.

115


Heuristik adalah hukum bagi proses penyelesaian masalah (Polya, 1973). Ia juga merupakan kaedah yang dirancang untuk membantu dalam penyelsaian masalah (Schoenfeld, 1985). Menurut Bruner (1960), heuristik merupakan cara dan strategi yang dapat membantu dalam penyelsaian masalah. Heuristik telah dikenali sebagai komponen yang wajib dalam penyelesaian masalah (Polya 1973; Schoenfeld, 1985; Rubinstein, 1986; Mayer, 2003). Negara Singapura telah memperkenalkan pendekatan Heuristik dalam kurikulum Matematik semenjak sekolah rendah dengan 11 cara Heuristik iaitu guna rajah atau model, cari pola, teka-semak-ulang, guna objek, buat senarai semak, guna jadual, guna ayat Matematik, penyelesaian ke belakang, guna kaedah logik, buat andaian dan permudahkan (MOE, 2001a). Keputusan PISA 2009 dalam bidang matematik telah menunjukkan bahawa kedudukan negara Singapura terletak pada tangga yang ke-2 iaitu mencapai min skor sebanyak 562. Manakala negara kita, Malaysia terletak pada tangga ke-57, iaitu min skor sebanyak 404 sahaja. Keadaan ini telah jelas menunjukkan bahawa terdapat satu jurang yang sangat besar bagi kebolehan penyelesaian masalah antara anak murid Singapura dan anak murid Malaysia. Dalam pendidikan di Malaysia, mata pelajaran Matematik merupakan satu mata pelajaran teras dari Tingkatan 1 hingga Tingkatan 5 mahupun dari aliran sains atau aliran sastera bagi sekolah menengah. Matematik merupakan satu ilmu yang harus dikuasai dengan kefahaman dan bukan sekadar penghafalan. Justeru, adalah sangat penting bagi murid memahami konsep Matematik secara menyeluruh serta berkemahiran menyelesaikan masalah supaya anak murid kita berdaya saing di mata dunia. 116


Penyataan Masalah Prestasi murid Malaysia telah menunjukkan peningkat sejak beberapa dekad yang lalu dalam PMR mahupun SPM, namun pencapaian yang membanggakan itu menghadapi risiko secara relatif dan mutlak. Hal ini disebabkan sistem pendidikan negara lain dapat meningkatkan prestasi murid dengan lebih cepat dan mampu mengekalkan momentum tersebut secara berterusan. Oleh itu, jurang pencapaian antara sistem pendidikan Malaysia dan negara lain semakin lebar (KPM, 2013). Pentaksiran

antarabangsa

menunjukkan

prestasi

murid

Malaysia semakin merosot. Sepanjang dua dekad yang lalu, pentaksiran antarabangsa seperti PISA dan TIMSS telah muncul sebagai kaedah perbandingan langsung tentang kualiti keberhasilan pendidikan merentas pelbagai sistem. Kaedah ini mentaksir pelbagai kemahiran kognitif seperti aplikasi dan penaakulan. Ketika Malaysia mengambil bahagian dalam TIMSS buat julung kalinya pada 1999, skor purata murid mengatasi purata antarabangsa dalam Matematik dan Sains. Penyertaan dalam pusingan yang terkini pada 2011 menunjukkan prestasi murid Malaysia menurun ke tahap di bawah purata antarabangsa bagi Matematik dan Sains, disusuli penurunan dari segi kedudukan negara. Lebih kritikal lagi, 35% dan 38% murid Malaysia

gagal

mencapai

tahap

kemahiran

minimum

dalam

Matematik dan Sains pada 2011, penurunan dua hingga empat kali ganda iaitu daripada 7% dan 13% masing-masing pada 1999. Keputusan PISA yang disertai kali pertama oleh Malaysia pada 2009 juga tidak memberangsangkan kerana kedudukan Malaysia terletak dalam kelompok sepertiga terbawah dalam kalangan 74 117


negara peserta. Pencapaian ini juga meletakkan Malaysia di bawah pencapaian purata antarabangsa dan OECD. Hampir 60% murid berumur 15 tahun yang menyertai PISA 2009 gagal mencapai tahap kemahiran minimum dalam Matematik, manakala 44% dalam Bacaan dan 43% dalam Sains tidak mencapai tahap kemahiran minimum. Perbezaan skor sebanyak 38 mata dalam skala PISA adalah bersamaan dengan satu tahun persekolahan. Perbandingan skor ini menunjukkan murid berumur 15 tahun di Singapura, Korea Selatan, Hong Kong dan Shanghai mempunyai prestasi tiga atau lebih tahun persekolahan berbanding murid berumur 15 tahun di Malaysia (KPM, 2013). Antara satu sebab pelajar kita tidak berfikir secara kritis adalah guru tidak banyak memberikan ruang untuk berfikir (Sousa, 2011). Kebanyakan sekolah hanya melatih pelajar dengan pemikiran konvergen dan hanya berfokus kepada isi kandungan melalui hafalan berbanding proses pemikiran untuk manganalisis dan menilai. Mengulang jawapan kadang kala menjadi lebih penting daripada proses untuk mendapat jawapan. Oleh sebab yang demikian, pelajar dan guru sentiasa belajar dalam kemahiran berfikir aras rendah. (Sousa, 2011). Jadi, pengkaji menjalankan satu kajian untuk mengkaji keberkesanan penggunaan heuristik dalam penyelesaian masalah matematik beraras tinggi.

Tujuan Kajian

Dua kumpulan pelajar akan dipilih menjadi sampel iaitu kumpulan kawalan dan kumpulan rawatan. Kumpulan rawatan akan 118


didedahkan dengan cara penyelesaian masalah secara Heuristik iaitu model drawing manakala kumpulan kawalan tidak didedahkan dengan penyelesaian Heuristik. Berdasarkan penyataan masalah, objektif dalam kajian ini adalah: i)

Menentukan sama ada terdapat min skor yang signifikan dalam pencapaian ujian pra antara kumpulan kawalan dan rawatan

ii)

Menentukan sama ada terdapat perbezaan min skor yang signifikan dalam pencapaian ujian pasca antara kumpulan kawalan dan rawatan

iii)

Menentukan sama ada terdapat perbezaan min skor yang signifikan antara ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi kumpulan kawalan

iv)

Menentukan sama ada terdapat perbezaan min skor yang signifikan antara ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi kumpulan rawatan

Persoalan Kajian

Kajian ini berfokus kepada penggunaan pendekatan Heuristik terhadap penyelesaian masalah Matematik aras tinggi. Dengan itu, persoalan yang timbul dalam kajian ini adalah seperti berikut: i)

Adakah terdapat perbezaan min skor yang signifikan dalam pencapaian ujian pra antara kumpulan kawalan dan rawatan?

ii)

Adakah terdapat perbezaan min skor yang signifikan dalam pencapaian ujian pasca antara kumpulan kawalan dan rawatan?

119


iii)

Adakah terdapat perbezaan min skor yang signifikan antara ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi kumpulan kawalan?

iv)

Adakah terdapat perbezaan min skor yang signifikan antara ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi kumpulan rawatan?

Hipotesis Berdasarkan persoalan kajian yang dinyatakan di atas, hipotesis dalam kajian ini ialah: H01: Tiada perbezaan min skor yang signifikan dalam pencapaian ujian pra antara kumpulan kawalan dan rawatan. H02: Tiada perbezaan min skor yang signifikan dalam pencapaian ujian pasca antara kumpulan kawalan dan rawatan. H03: Tiada perbezaan min skor yang signifikan antara ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi kumpulan kawalan. H04: Tiada perbezaan min skor yang signifikan antara ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi kumpulan rawatan.

Tinjauan Literatur

Dalam Taksonomi Bloom (kognitif, afektif dan psikomotor), kemahiran berfikir aras rendah menyediakan unsur yang perlu bagi mencapai kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi (Bloom, 1956). Kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi merangkumi aplikasi, analisis, sintesis dan penilaian yang memerlukan asas kemahiran berfikir aras rendah (McDavitt, 1993). Kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi memecahkan masalah yang kompleks kepada bahagian, mengenalpasti hubungan, mengumpul dan menyusun informasi, dan mengabungkan semua tahap dalam Taksonomi Bloom. 120


Heuristik membekalkan kita satu arah dan logik apabila pelajar menghadapi masalah. Negara Singapura telah memperkenalkan pendekatan Heuristik dalam kurikulum Matematik semenjak sekolah rendah pada tahun 1922 dengan 10 cara Heuristik iaitu lukis gambar atau gambarajah, cari pola, teka-semak-ulang, guna objek, buat senarai semak, guna jadual, guna ayat Matematik, penyelesaian ke belakang, guna kaedah logik dan rujukan (MOE, 2001a) Penambahan bahan visualisasi dalam pembelajaran akan menambahkan tempoh pengingatan. Ini disebabkan sistem visual otak manusia mempunyai ruang yang besar untuk menyimpan maklumat dan mengimbas kembali (Konkle, Brady, Alvarez & Olivia, 2010). Visual dan verbal akan melibatkan pelajar dengan lebih aktif dalam pembelajaran. Ini disebabkan daya ingatan mempunyai keduadua komponen visual dan verbal (Sousa, 2011). Dalam kajian ini, Heuristik yang diggunakan adalah lukisan gambar (model drawing). Lukisan gambar ini diwakili dengan blokblok yang bersegi empat. Informasi dalam masalah akan diwakili oleh blok-blok dan penyelesaian masalah dijalankan.

Methodologi

Dalam kajian ini, penyelidik telah menggunakan reka bentuk kuasi-eksperimental dan bersifat kuantitatif, iaitu berdasarkan ujian pra, ujian pasca. Reka bentuk kajian kuasi-eksperimental lazimnya digunakan untuk menilai keberkesanan suatu program apabila respondan kajian tidak dapat diagihkan secara rawak (Chua, 2011). Dalam kajian kuasi-eksperimental untuk mengkaji penggunaan pendekatan Heuristik dalam penyelesaian masalah aras tinggi, 121


penyelidik telah melibatkan dua kumpulan pelajar Tingkatan 2 sebagai responden (sampel) iaitu satu sebagai kumpulan kawalan dan satu lagi kumpulan rawatan. Kumpulan rawatan yang ditentukan oleh penyelidik diberi pendedahan kepada pendekatan Heuristik manakala kumpulan kawalan

menggunakan

kaedah

pengajaran

dan

pembelajaran

konvensional. Kaedah pembelajaran konvensional dalam kajian ini bermaksud

pembelajaran

yang

tidak

mendedahkan

pendekatan

Heuristik kepada murid. Penyelidik memberi ujian pra kepada kedua-dua kumpulan rawatan dan kumpulan kawalan untuk menguji pengetahuan sedia ada di kalangan mereka. Seterusnya keputusan telah dikumpulkan untuk menentukan sama ada terdapat perbezaan min skor pada ujian pra antara

kumpulan

pembelajaran

rawatan

dan

dan

pengajaran

kumpulan penyelesaian

kawalan.

Setelah

masalah

dengan

pendekatan Heuristik, penyelidik memberi ujian pasca kepada keduadua kumpulan kawalan dan rawatan untuk melihat sama ada terdapat perbezaan min skor pada ujian pasca antara dua kumpulan. Kemudian, min skor pada ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi kedua-dua kumpulan dikumpul dan diuji dengan menggunakan analisis ujian t. Perbezaan antara min skor responden yang diperolehi dapat memastikan penggunaan pendekatan Heuristik terhadap penyelesaian masalah Matematik aras tinggi. Dalam kajian ini, bilangan keseluruhan sampel yang terlibat adalah 60 orang iaitu 30 orang pelajar dari kumpulan rawatan yang menggunakan kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran konvensional dan 30 orang pelajar dari kumpulan kawalan yang diberi pembelajaran dan pengajaran dengan pendedahkan pendekatan Heuristik.

122


Dalam kajian ini, ujian pra dan ujian pasca digunakan untuk menilai tahap kemahiran berfikir pelajar. Soalan ujian pra dan ujian pasca adalah dibawah bidang nombor. Semua soalan adalah dalam bentuk struktur. Menurut Pang dan Lajium (2008), soalan struktur dapat menilai kemampuan menyusun, menanalisis dan menyepadukan idea seseorang pelajar. Soalan struktur juga dapat membantu guru mengesan kelemahan pelajar, kesalahan konseptual, kesalahan dalam pemprosesan maklumat. Justeru, soalan struktur adalah sesuai bagi menilai pemahaman pelajar.

Analisis data Dalam kajian ini, ujian –t sampel berpasangan ( paired sample ttest ) dan ujian –t sampel bebas (independent sample t-test ) digunakan untuk

menguji

kesan

penggunaan

pendekatan

Heuristik

dalam

penyelesaian masalah Matematik beraras tinggi. Data analisis dijalankan dengan menjawab persoalan kajian dengan menggunakan min dan dikukuhkan dengan pengujian hipotesis.

Persoalan Kajian 1: Adakah terdapat perbezaan min skor yang signifikan dalam pencapaian ujian pra antara kumpulan kawalan dan rawatan?

H01: Tiada perbezaan yang signifikan dalam pencapaian min skor dalam ujian pra antara kumpulan kawalan dan rawatan.

123


Jadual 1: Perbandingan min skor ujian pra dan pasca bagi kumpulan rawatan dan kawalan Kumpulan

Ujian Pra

N 30

Min 1.5

Pasca Pra

30 30

4.03 1.43

Pasca

30

1.83

Rawatan

Kawalan

Dengan merujuk kepada Jadual 1, jelas bahawa min skor ujian pra bagi kumpulan rawatan ialah 1.5 dan kumpulan kawalan ialah 1.43. Ini menunjukkan bahawa tidak ada perbezaan min skor yang signifikan dalam pencapaian ujian pra antara kumpulan kawalan dan rawatan. Dalam kajian ini, penyelidik telah membuat andaian awal bahawa tidak terdapat perbezaan dalam keputusan pra antara kumpulan rawatan dengan kumpulan kawalan. Bagi menguji hipotesis ini, ujian-t untuk dua kumpulan sampel tak bersandar ( Independent Sample T-Test ) telah digunakan untuk menganalisis markah ujian pra bagi kumpulan rawatan dan kumpulan kawalan. Sebelum itu, Ujian Levene dijalankan untuk mengetahui sama ada varians bagi kedua-dua kumpulan adalah diandaikan sama atau tidak. Di samping itu, analisis varians (rujuk Jadual 2) telah digunakan untuk memastikan kesamarataan sampel.

124


Jadual 2: Analisis varians (Levene’s test for equality of variances)

Markah

Varians kedua-dua kumpulan diandaikan sama

F

Sig.

0.683

0.412

Varians kedua-dua kumpulan diandaikan tidak sama

Berdasarkan

Jadual

2,

nilai

F

ialah

0.683

dan

nilai

kebarangkalian ialah 0.412. Oleh sebab nilai kebarangkalian daripada Ujian Levene didapati melebihi tahap kesignifikan, iaitu 0.412 > 0.05, maka varians bagi kedua-dua kumpulan diandaikan sama dan juga membawa maksud bahawa sampel yang terlibat terdiri daripada ciriciri yang hampir sama.

Jadual 3: Analisis ujian pra bagi kumpulan rawatan dan kawalan

Kumpulan

N

Min

Sisihan Piawai

Rawatan

30

1.50

1.042

Kawalan

30

1.43

Beza Min

t

0.07

0.265

Sig. (2 hala)

0.792

0.898

Daripada Jadual 3, didapati nilai kebarangkalian iaitu 0.792 telah melebihi aras signifikan yang ditetapkan, iaitu 0.05, maka hipotesis nul yang mengatakan bahawa tidak terdapat perbezaan dalam keputusan pra antara kumpulan rawatan dengan kumpulan kawalan diterima. Secara statistiknya, terdapat bukti yang kukuh menunjukkan bahawa tidak terdapat perbezaan signifikan bagi min skor ujian pra bagi kedua-dua kumpulan rawatan dan kawalan. Maka 125


H01 gagal ditolak. Oleh itu, terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan dalam pencapaian min skor dalam ujian pra antara kumpulan kawalan dan rawatan. Persoalan Kajian 2: Adakah terdapat perbezaan min skor yang signifikan dalam pencapaian ujian pasca antara kumpulan kawalan dan rawatan? H02: Tiada perbezaan yang signifikan dalam pencapaian

min

skor dalam ujian pasca antara kumpulan kawalan dan rawatan Jadual 4: Analisis ujian pasca bagi kumpulan rawatan dan kawalan Kumpulan Rawatan

N 30

Min 40.3

Sisihan Piawai 1.542

Beza Min 2.20

Kawalan

30

1.83

t

6.742

Sig. (2 hala) 0.000

0.913

Daripada Jadual 4, didapati nilai kebarangkalian iaitu 0.000 tidak melebihi aras signifikan 0.05 iaitu (p < 0.05), maka hipotesis nul yang mengatakan bahawa tidak terdapat perbezaan dalam keputusan pasca antara kumpulan rawatan dengan kumpulan kawalan ditolak. Secara statistiknya, terdapat bukti yang kukuh menunjukkan bahawa terdapat perbezaan signifikan bagi min skor ujian pasca bagi keduadua kumpulan rawatan dan kawalan. Maka H 02 ditolak. Oleh itu, terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan dalam pencapaian

min skor

dalam ujian pasca antara kumpulan kawalan dan rawatan.

126


Persoalan 3: Adakah terdapat perbezaan min skor yang signifikan antara ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi kumpulan kawalan? H03: Tiada perbezaan yang signifikan antara min skor dalam ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi kumpulan kawalan. Jadual 5: Analisis ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi kumpulan Min Kumpulan kawalan

Prapasca

0.3

Sisihan piawai 0.621

t 3.525

Sig. (2 hala) .07

Hipotesis ini melibatkan satu kumpulan sampel sahaja. Oleh itu hipotesis ini diuji dengan menggunakan ujian-t untuk dua kumpulan sampel bersandaran (Paired Sample T-Test ). Daripada Jadual 5, nilai kebarangkalian yang diperoleh ialah 0.79 iaitu lebih besar daripada aras signifikan yang ditentukan iaitu 0.05, maka hipotesis nul gagal ditolak. Keputusan ini membuktikan bahawa tiada perbezaan yang signifikan antara min skor dalam ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi kumpulan kawalan.

Persoalan 4: Adakah terdapat perbezaan min skor yang signifikan antara ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi kumpulan rawatan?

H04: Tiada perbezaan yang signifikan antara min skor dalam ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi kumpulan rawatan

127


Jadual 6: Analisis ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi kumpulan rawatan Min Kumpulan kawalan

Prapasca

2.533

Sisihan piawai 1.008

t 13.765

Sig. (2 hala) .07

Daripada Jadual 6, nilai kebarangkalian yang diperoleh ialah 0.000 iaitu lebih kecil daripada aras signifikan yang ditentukan iaitu 0.05 (p < 0.05), maka hipotesis nul ditolak. Keputusan ini membuktikan bahawa terdapat perbezaan dalam markah yang diperolehi bagi pelajar kumpulan rawatan dalam ujian pra dan ujian pasca. Oleh itu, terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan antara min skor dalam ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi kumpulan rawatan. Kesimpulan bagi analisis data yang didapati adalah seperti Jadual 7 di bawah.

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Jadual 7: Kesimpulan bagi data analisis Bil

Hipotesis Kajian

Alat Statistik

Keputusan

H 01

Tiada perbezaan yang signifikan dalam pencapaian min skor dalam ujian pra antara kumpulan kawalan dan rawatan.

Independent sample ttest

Hipotesis gagal ditolak

H 02

Tiada perbezaan yang signifikan dalam pencapaian min skor dalam ujian pasca antara kumpulan kawalan dan rawatan.

Independent sample ttest

Hipotesis ditolak

H 03

Tiada perbezaan yang signifikan antara min skor dalam ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi kumpulan kawalan.

Paired sample ttest

Hipotesis gagal ditolak

H 04

Tiada perbezaan yang signifikan antara min skor dalam ujian pra dan ujian pasca bagi kumpulan rawatan

Paired sample ttest

Hipotesis ditolak

Perbincangan

Situasi ujian pra mengambarkan cara pembelajaran dan cara pemikiran murid di sekolah tersebut masih bersifat konvergen. Dengan kata lain pemikiran bersifat kritis dan kreatif masih pada tahap yang sangat rendah. Menurut Sousa (2011), antara salah satu sebab murid kita tidak berfikir secrara kritis adalah berpunca daripada

129


guru tidak banyak memberikan ruang untuk berfikir. Kebanyakan sekolah hanya melatih pelajar dengan pemikiran konvergen dan hanya berfokus kepada isi kandungan melalui hafalan berbanding proses pemikiran untuk manganalisis dan menilai. Mengulang jawapan kadang kala menjadi lebih penting daripada proses untuk mendapat jawapan. Pada

era

yang

menitik

berat

kepada

keputusan

dan

kedudukan sekolah juga menjadi punca menyebabkan murid hanya fokus kepada soalan peperiksaan. Murid hanya hafal cara kerja tanpa mengetahui cara aplikasi. Tambahan lagi format soalan peperiksaan adalah sama dan berulang bertahun-tahun. Ini menyebabkan murid hanya fokus

kepada beberapa soalan yang akan diuji dalam

peperiksaan dengan hafalan. Akan tetapi, apabila kita melihat data pada ujian pasca bagi kumpulan rawatan, ia menunjukkan satu harapan bagi kita. Dari purata murid hanya dapat menjawab 1.5 soalan melonjak ke 4.03 soalan pada akhir pembelajaran dalam tempoh 1 bulan menunjukkan bahawa kemahiran berfikir anak murid kita ini dapat diasah dan dilatih. Jadi para pendidik seharusnya dilengkapi dengan kemahiran berfikir agar baru dapat melatih anak murid kita dengan kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi.

Kesimpulan

Secara keseluruhannya, kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan dari segi min skor pencapaian ujian pasca di antara pelajar yang belajar matematik menggunakan pendekatan Heuristik dengan pelajar yang belajar dengan kaedah 130


pembelajaran tanpa pendekatan Heuristik. Pelajar yang belajar menggunakan

pendekatan

Heuristik

menunjukkan

peningkatan

prestasi yang lebih baik.

Rujukan

Bloom, B. S. (Ed). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: McKay. Bruner, J. S. (1960). The process of education. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Chua, Y.P. (2011). Kaedah dan statistik penyelidikan buku 1 (2nd ed.). Kuala Lumpur: Mc Graw Hill Konkle, T., Brady, T. F., Alvarez, G.A., & Oliva, A. (2010). Conceptual distinctiveness

supports

detailed

visual

long-term

memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 139 (3), 558-78 Krulik, S., & Rudnick, J.A. (1993 ). Reasoning and problems solving: A handbook for elementary school teacher. Massachusett: Allyn and Bacon Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. (2013). Pelan Pembangunan Pendidikan Malaysia 2013-2025 . Putrajaya Mayer, R. E. (2003). Learning and instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Ministry of Education Singapore (MOE). (2001a). Primary mathematics syllabus.

Retrieved

January

7th,

2005,

from

http://www1.moe.edu.sg/syllabuses/doc/Maths_Pri.pdf.

131


McDavitt, D. S. (1993). Teaching for understanding: Attaining higher order learning and increased achievement through experiential instruction. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 374 093) Pang, V., & Lajium, D. (2008). Penilaian Dalam Pendidikan. Kota Kinabalu: Universiti Malaysia Sabah. Polya, G. (1973). How to solve it: A new aspect of mathematical model . (2nd ed). Princeton,New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Rubinstein, M.F. (1986). Tools for thinking and problem solving . Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Schoenfeld A.H. (1985). Mathematical problem solving . Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Sousa, D.A. (2011). How the brain learns. (4th ed). United States of America: Corwin

132


Identifying Elements of Higher-Order Thinking Skills in Student Teachers’ Lesson Plans: A Preliminary Study

Chandra Mohan V. Panicker [email protected] IPG Kampus Tun Abdul Razak Kota Samarahan

Abstract

Teaching higher order thinking skills (HOTS) is currently at the centre of educational attention. In Malaysia, both the revised new primary school curriculum (KSSR) and the Malaysia Education Blueprint (MEB 2013-2025) have given significant emphasis to the fostering of HOTS in the teaching and learning process. This is in line with the nation’s aspiration to gauge students’ cognitive performance against international standards as stated in the executive summary in MEB. In the same document, it is also stated that; “The emphasis in no longer just on the importance of knowledge, but also on developing higherorder thinking skills. This basic study is to identify the incorporation of the elements of HOTS in both the lesson objectives and in the activities planned in the lesson. Twenty three semester eight teacher trainees’ lesson plans were analysed and an interview was carried out to answer the two research questions. The findings revealed that less than 50% of the teacher trainees incorporated HOTS in their lesson plans. The

133


reasons for not incorporating range from lack of time to lack of knowledge and skills.

Keywords:

higher order thinking skills, incorporation, applying, analyzing, creating and evaluation

According to King, Goodson and Rohani (2013), “Higher order thinking

skills

(HOTS)

include

critical,

logical,

reflective,

metacognitive, and creative thinking which are activated when individuals encounter unfamiliar problems, uncertainties, questions, or dilemmas. Successful applications of the skills result in explanations, decisions, performances, and products that are valid within the context of available knowledge and experience and that promote continued growth in these and other intellectual skills. Higher-order thinking is based on the concepts in the cognitive domain of Bloom’s Taxonomy. Bloom’s Taxonomy suggests that skills involving applying, analysis, evaluation and creating are of a higher order, requiring different instructional practices. It also suggests that higher-order thinking involves “the learning of complex judgmental skills such as critical thinking and problem solving.” Higher -order thinking is thought to be more useful because such skills (analysis, creating) are considered more likely to be used in situations other than those in which the skill was initially learned. Brookhart (2010) as cited in Collins (2014) argues that if teachers think of higher-order thinking as problem solving they can set lesson goals to teach students how to identify and solve problems at school and in life. This, she says, involves not just solving problems 134


set by the teacher, but solving new problems that ‘they define themselves, creating something new as the solution’. One way to inculcate HOTS is by incorporating these skills in the teachers’ lesson plans. Writing lesson plans according to Gower, Phillips and Walters (2005) has a number of important functions; (i) acts as an aid to planning, (ii) it is a working document; something to refer to and helps the teacher to stay focused, (iii) a record; what the class has done and might form a basis for future lesson with similar class, besides it can also be referred to during feedback on the lesson. All these functions have to be taken into consideration when planning and writing a lesson plan. A student teacher need to be aware of the language skills, think and plan suitable activities, think of effective strategies to be carried out in the lesson, think of class control and time management. Therefore, from the awareness of writing an effective lesson plan, to the planning, referencing and the actual writing and evaluating of the lesson plan is truly a complex process. Unlike experience teachers, student teachers on teaching practice are usually required to make explicit lesson plans; experience teachers more often rely on their extensive experience to form a mental framework of how they want the lesson to proceed. This does not necessarily mean that the lesson plans of established teachers are any less detailed than those of beginning teachers, simply that the lesson plans have become internalized through repetition (Kyriacou, 1991, p. 17) as cited in Nicholas (2004)

135


Problem Statement

Learning activities in ESL classroom should involve explicit thinking skills (Tee et al, 2012). It is hard to imagine a teacher or school leader who is not aware of the importance of teaching higherorder thinking skills to prepare young men and women to live in the 21st Century (Collins, 2014). An analysis of the teacher trainees lesson plans by the researcher has revealed that most of objectives and activities in their lesson plans were focused on lower-order thinking skills (LOTS). This means the trainees were teaching their pupils to remember and recall facts. “Among primary reasons for the focus on LOTS may be the simple facts that LOTS are easier to understand, easier to teach, easier to test and easier to learn” (Byrnes, 2001). However, recently there have been a greater awareness and emphasis given for HOTS to be inculcated into the Malaysian School Curriculum. Besides, a literature survey conducted in relation to HOTS from the year 1993 to 2014 revealed that most studies were focused on thinking skills in general and very little emphasis were on HOTS. As such, there is an urgent need to improve lesson plans by incorporating HOTS in lesson plans from a very early stage.

Literature Review

Higher order thinking (HOT) is thinking on a level that is higher than memorizing facts or telling something back to someone exactly the way it was told to the listener. HOT takes thinking to higher levels than restating the facts and requires students to do something with 136


the facts — understand them, infer from them, connect them to other facts and concepts, categorize them, manipulate them, put them together in new or novel ways, and apply them to seek new solutions to new problems (Thomas & Thorne, 2009). It is essential to move towards higher-order thinking skills in the classroom because they have enormous benefits for cognitive development of the students. The reasoning here is similar to the rationale for pushing knowledge into our long-term memory. First, information learned and processed through higher-order thinking processes is remembered longer and more clearly than information that is processed through lower-order, rote memorization. Consider, for example, the difference between memorizing a word and explaining the meaning of the word. Or, the difference between memorizing the rules of grammar and analyzing and applying the rules in a sentence. Or, the difference between mere memorization of a sentence structure and a deeper understanding that the sentence structure consist of different syntactical elements. Or, the difference between reciting the events included in a history textbook and drawing inferences from a number of historical documents. In each case, a student who has the latter-type of understanding will carry that knowledge longer. Moreover, the student with the deeper conceptual knowledge will be better able to access that information for use in new contexts. This may be the most important benefit of high-order thinking. Knowledge obtained through higher-order thinking processes is more easily transferable, so that students with a deep conceptual understanding of an idea will be much more likely to be able to apply that knowledge to solve new problems. 137


Related studies Burke, William and Skinner (2007), reported in a study which examines primary teachers' understandings of thinking skills within the curriculum. All respondents were from primary schools within a local authority in central Scotland, and in total thirty-six schools were represented. Practitioners' perceptions were explored by analysing their quantitative responses to questions about the frequency of specific thinking skills taught across curricular areas. The methods and procedure adopted for this study were based on the thinking frameworks of Swartz and Parks (1994) and McGuinness (2003). Data were coded using parametric statistics to reveal developmental trends apparent when teaching thinking skills. The findings showed that teachers believed that some thinking skills are more fully integrated into areas of the curriculum than others and also highlighted the lack of a coherent progression of age-specific thinking skills being taught from early to upper primary. In another study by Glevey (2006), on how children are guided in the development of their thinking in the twenty-first century, he said that over the past decades special thinking skills programmes have been developed to enhance thinking but these programmes have so far failed to produce clear evidence to support their effectiveness. He argued that due to the complex nature of thinking some fundamental changes in education must be tackled if all children are to be encouraged to develop and enhance their own particular ways of thinking Another study was conducted by Tee et al . (2012), to identify the level of higher order thinking skills among lower secondary students in Malaysia. Specifically the researchers were trying to see 138


HOTS among these students and the relationship between HOTS and gender, location of school and living skills. A total of 384 samples were selected as the respondents for this study. This was a survey study using the SEA test (X-form) developed by a team of specialists in educational measurement and evaluation (Callahan, Covert, Aylesworth & Vanco 1988). The results showed that higher order thinking skills levels among the students were at very low level. The findings also revealed that there was a low positive significant relationship between the higher order thinking skills and academic result, r = 0.468, p < 0.05. In addition, the results indicated that there was a significant difference in Living Skills subject results on the higher order thinking skills. The researchers proposed a new approach

by

using

a

specialised

instructional

module

for

individualised learning to deliver the thinking skills learning task.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to conduct a preliminary analyse of teacher trainees’ lesson plans to identify the incorporation of HOTS in the lesson objectives and activities. It also aims to find reasons for not incorporating HOTS in lesson plans and reasons for incorporating it.

Research Questions

There are three research questions 1. To what extent has HOTS been incorporated in the teachers trainees’ lesson plans?

139


2. Why is HOTS not incorporated in the teachers trainees’ lesson plans? 3. Why is HOTS incorporated in the teachers trainees’ lesson plans?

Respondents The respondents of this study consist of 23 semester 8 teacher trainees who had completed their teaching practice in an Institute of Teacher Education.

Instruments Two main instruments were employed for this study; the HOTS checklist and the semi-structured interview checklist. A semistructured interview checklist was used when conducting the interview. The checklist consist of (i) preparation for the interview (clear about who to speak and how to collect information), (ii) inform respondents about the reason for the interview, (iii) recording answer (taking notes and audio), (iv) to develop rapport with respondents, (v) ask questions that lead to detailed answers, and (vi) end the interview. Besides, a HOTS checklist was used to identify the elements of HOTS in both the lesson objectives and activities carried out. The checklist was used to identify key words related to the four upper levels of Blooms Taxonomy; applying, analyzing, evaluating and creating.

Procedure The procedure of this study consist of two main steps, first, lesson plans were collected from the respondents and analysed using 140


the HOTS checklist so that the data can be quantified. The analysis involved identifying elements of HOTS in the lesson objectives and activities carried out. Since this is a preliminary study, only key words related to HOTS based on Bloom’s Taxonomy was sorted out in the lesson plans. This analysis was followed by an interview. Four respondents who used HOTS and four respondents who did not use HOTS in their lesson plans were interviewed based on the semistructured interview checklist. The interview data was record and transcribed to answer the second and third research questions.

Findings and Discussion

1. To what extent has HOTS been incorporated in the teachers trainees’ lesson plans? Lesson plans consist of many parts, however for this study the focus is on both the lesson objectives and the activities planned in the lesson. To answer this question, twenty three English language lesson plans were analysed to identify the elements of HOTS in the lesson plans. Figure 1 and Figure 2 show the analysis of the lesson plans. Figure 1 shows the use of the elements of HOTS in the lesson objectives. Less than 50% of the lesson objectives indicate the use of HOTS. 61% of the objectives were using lower order thinking skills, mostly at the understanding level of Bloom’s taxonomy. The elements of HOTS were more concentrated at the applying and analyzing levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy, 18% and 13% respectively. This shows that the elements of HOTS was not fully incorporated in the lesson objectives and activities.

141


Use of HOTS in Lesson Objectives Applying 18% Analysing 13%

LOTS 61%

Evaluating 4% Creating 4%

Figure 1: Use of HOTS in Lesson Plans

The same scenario existed for the use of HOTS in the activities planned in the lessons, refer to figure 2. Only 48% of the activities planned indicate the use of the elements of HOTS. This is 9% more compared to the use of HOTS in the lesson objectives. However the elements of HOTS are more concentrated at applying and creating levels of Bloom’s taxonomy, 22% and 13% respectively. The analysis of both the lesson objectives and activities planned in the lesson showed the use of HOTS, however, the extent to which these elements were used is still limited. Respondents were more comfortable in using lower order thinking skills in the lessons than HOTS. This is partly due to two main reasons; (i) LOTS is easier to use than HOTS in their lesson and/or (ii) limited or lack of knowledge in using HOTS.

142


Use of HOTS in Activities Applying 22%

Analysing 9% LOTS 52% Evaluating 4%

Creating 13%

Figure 2: Use of HOTS in Activities

Planning a lesson which employs both the elements of HOTS in lesson objectives and activities can be difficult and time consuming. To formulate lesson objectives that test higher order thinking skills and planning activities related to that lesson objective can be challenging especially if the planner lacked the knowledge of HOTS. As such many lesson planners would confine their planning to LOTS. 2. Why is HOTS not incorporated in the teachers trainees’ lesson plans? and 3. Why is HOTS incorporated in the teachers trainees’ lesson plans? Eight respondents of this study was interviewed to find why their usage of HOTS in their lesson plans. Four students were asked

143


why they did not incorporate HOTS in their lesson plans and while four other who did incorporate, why they did so?

Why the respondents did not incorporate HOTS in their lesson plans? The summary of this aspect of the interview revealed the following reasons why HOTS was not incorporated in the lessons; i.

HOTS is difficult to implement in the primary classroom (R1, R3).

ii.

HOTS is time consuming to carry out in the classroom (R2).

iii.

HOTS not suitable for primary school pupils (R1, R3).

iv.

Don’t know how to incorporate HOTS in lesson (R4).

v.

Don’t have knowledge of HOTS (R4).

vi.

Afraid to carry out because pupils might not understand (R2).

Further questions and analysis of the interview data, gave more insight into why HOTS was not incorporated into the lesson plans. The respondents feel teaching HOTS at primary level is difficult because pupils cannot understand difficult instructions due to their poor mastery of the English language. They also felt, explaining elements of HOTS to pupils can be time consuming and a waste of time. Some respondents admitted that they have very limited knowledge on how to incorporate HOTS in their lesson.

Why HOTS was incorporated into their lesson plans? The following is the summary, why HOTS was incorporated; i.

To help pupils think better (R1, R2).

ii.

To make pupils think higher (R1,R2). 144


iii.

To teach pupils HOTS (R3).

iv.

To improve pupils thinking skills (R1,R2).

v.

To encourage use of HOTS (R4).

Based on the summaries, it is clear that the reasons for not incorporating HOTS range from the time factor to lack of knowledge and skills. While the reasons for implementing HOTS is to improve and enhance pupils’ thinking skills which are very positive attitude towards incorporating HOTS in the primary classroom.

Other findings This study has also revealed that the incorporation of HOTS in the lesson objectives and activities was only found in the Reading and Writing lessons, none in the Listening and Speaking lessons. Besides, HOTS was more focus at the applying and analyzing levels of Bloom’s taxonomy than the other levels. Also there was a close connection between the incorporation of HOTS in the lesson objectives and in the activities planned in the lesson as shown in Figure 3.

145


Elements Of HOTS In Lesson O bjectives And Activities Elements of HOTS in lesson objectives

Elemts of HOTS in Activities

16

14

14 12

12

10 8 6

5

4 2

3

3 4

1 2

1

0 A p p l yi n g

A n a l ys i n g

Evaluating

Creating

LOTS

Figure 3: The relationship between the elements of HOTS in lesson objectives and in activities

Conclusion

Although HOTS is nothing new in the field of education nevertheless the incorporation of HOTS and teaching of higher order thinking skills in the Malaysian classroom are still at an infancy level. We need to equip our future generation not only with good education and skills but also with the ability to think at a higher cognitive level as stated by Thirusanku and Melor (2014). “HOTS are skills which would equip students with the ability to apply, analyse, evaluate and think creatively in and outside the classroom.” This study is only a preliminary study, looking at only 23 lesson plans and therefore the findings are not sufficient enough to generalize to a larger population. However, it is an indicator of the thinking level in the primary 146


classroom. HOTS are not incorporate in the lesson plans due to various reasons. Looking at these reasons, it is truly not an impossible task to overcome.

References

Burke, L, et al (2007). Teachers' perceptions of thinking skills in the primary curriculum. Retrieved from http://tre.sagepub.com/ Byrnes,

J.

(2001).

Cognitive

Development

and

Learning

in

Instructional Contexts (2 nd ed.). Allyn and Bacon: Boston, p. 91. Retrieved

from

http://teachingasleadership.org/sites/default/files/RelatedReadings/LT_Ch5_2011.pdf Collins, R. (2014). Skills in the 21st Century: Teaching HOTS. Retrieved

from

http://www.curriculum.edu.au/leader/teaching_higher_order_thi nking,37431.html?issueID=12910 Gower, R., Phillips, D. & Walters, S. (2005). Teaching practice- A handbook for teachers in Training . Macmillan Books for Teachers. Glevey, K. (2006). Promoting thinking skills in education . Retrieved from http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713437427~ db=all

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King, F.J., Goodson, L. & Rohani, F. (2009). Higher order thinking skills:

Definition,

teaching

strategies,

and

assessment .

Retrieved

from

http://www.cala.fsu.edu/files/higher_order_thinking_skills.pdf Tee, et. al (2012). Thinking skills for secondary school students in Malaysia. Journal of Research, Policy & Practice of Teacher Education. 2(2), 12-23 Thomas

&

Thorne

(2008).

“What

are

21st Century

Skills?

http://www.sfasu.edu/hip/168.asp [10 February 2014] Thirusanku, J., & Yunus, M. M. (2014). Status of English in Malaysia, Asian Social Science; 10(14).

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Permainan F o r e s t

: Satu Card

Kaedah Untuk Menguasai Topik

Tumbuh-Tumbuhan Semula Jadi Dan Hidupan Liar Di Malaysia Dan Di Luar Negara

Hii Ming Toh [email protected] SMK Ulu Balingian Selangau

Abstrak

Kajian ini dijalankan untuk membantu murid menguasai ciri-ciri tumbuh-tumbuhan semula jadi dan hidupan liar di hutan hujan tropika Malaysia, hutan Gurun Sahara, hutan Mediterranean Turki, hutan tundra Utara Siberia dan hutan monsun tropika Utara Thailand. Tajuk ini merangkumi tentang ciri-ciri iklim, ciri-ciri tumbuhan semula jadi dan jenis hidupan liar di kawasan yang dinyatakan. Seramai 16 orang murid kelas 1A dan 23 orang murid kelas 1B SMK Ulu Balingian tahun 2014 terlibat dalam kajian ini. Kajian ini dilakukan dengan menggunakan kaedah pemerhatian, ujian pra dan pos dan soal selidik. Perbandingan keputusan ujian pra dan ujian pos telah menunjukkan peningkatan prestasi murid setelah didedahkan dengan permainan Forest Card. Dapatan soal selidik juga menunjukkan sambutan yang positif tentang permainan Forest Card.

149


Kata Kunci:

permainan Forest card, hutan hujan tropika, hutan gurun, tumbuh-tumbuban lair, hidupan liar

Topik tumbuh-tumbuhan semula jadi dan hidupan liar di Malaysia dan di luar negara gurun Sahara, Turki, utara Siberia dan utara Thailand merupakan tajuk Geografi Tingkatan 1. Tajuk ini mempelajari tentang ciri-ciri iklim, ciri-ciri tumbuhan semula jadi dan jenis hidupan liar di kawasan yang dinyatakan. Malaysia berada di garisan khatulistiwa dan mengalami iklim khatulistiwa, iaitu panas dan lembap sepanjang tahun. Min suhu tahunan di Malaysia ialah 26°C hingga 27°C dan hujan tahunan ialah 2 600 mm. Iklim di gurun Sahara adalah panas dan kering sepanjang tahun. Min suhu tahunan di gurun Sahara ialah 27°C hingga 41°C dan hujan tahunan kurang daripada 250 mm. Iklim di kawasan Turki adalah sederhana sejuk dan lembap. Min suhu tahunan di kawasan Turki kira-kira 11°C dan hujan tahunan sekitar 500 mm. Kawasan utara Siberia mengalami iklim sejuk dan kering sepanjang tahun. Min suhu tahunan kira-kira -8°C dan hujan tahunan kurang daripada 250 mm. Utara Thailand pula mengalami iklim monsun tropika. Kawasan tersebut mengalami satu musim kering dan musim lembap yang nyata. Min suhu tahunan ialah 26°C dan hujan tahunan ialah 1000 mm hingga 2000 mm. Perbezaan ciri-ciri iklim mengikut kawasan di atas menyebabkan ciri-ciri tumbuhtumbuhan semula jadi dan jenis hidupan liar juga turut berbeza.

150


Pernyataan Masalah

Berdasarkan analisis item peperiksaan Akhir Tahun 2014, peratus murid kelas kelas 1A dan kelas 1B yang menguasai menguasai topik tumbuhtumbuhtumbuhan semula jadi dan hidupan liar di Malaysia dan di luar negara (gurun Sahara, Turki, utara Siberia dan utara Thailand) agak rendah, iaitu 47% dan 28%. Ini menunjukkan bahawa murid mengalami kesukaran dalam membezakan ciri-ciri tumbuh-tumbuhan semula jadi dan hidupan liar di hutan hujan tropika Malaysia, hutan gurun Gurun Sahara, hutan Mediterranean Turki, hutan tundra Utara Siberia dan hutan monsun tropika Utara Thailand. Dengan itu, kaedah permainan Forest Card diperkenalkan untuk membantu murid mengatasi masalah ini. Rasional kaedah ini digunakan kerana ia adalah berpusat kepada murid dan murid boleh belajar secara akses kendiri secara berkumpulan. Tambahan pula, Forest Card ini menggunakan konsep kata kunci dan gambar visual untuk membantu murid meningkatkan kefahaman kefahaman dan penguasaan mereka terhadap tajuk ini.

Objektif Kajian

Objektif umum Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk membantu murid menguasai topik tumbuhan-tumbuhan semula jadi dan hidupan liar di Malaysia dan di luar negara.

Objektif khusus i.

Menguasai ciri-ciri tumbuh-tumbuhan tumbuh-tumbuhan semula jadi di hutan hujan tropika

Malaysia,

hutan

gurun

Gurun

Sahara,

hutan 151


Mediterranean Turki, hutan tundra Utara Siberia dan hutan Monsun Tropika Utara Thailand ii.

Menguasai jenis hidupan liar di hutan hujan tropika Malaysia, hutan gurun Gurun Sahara, hutan Mediterranean Turki, hutan tundra Utara Siberia dan hutan Monsun Tropika Utara Thailand

Kumpulan sasaran Kumpulan sasaran melibatkan 16 orang murid kelas 1A dan 23 orang murid kelas 1B SMK Ulu Balingian tahun 2014

Pelaksanaan Kajian

Tinjauan masalah Dalam pelaksanaan kajian ini, tinjauan masalah dibuat berdasarkan pemerhatian, ujian pra dan pos serta soal selidik.

Pemerhatian Saya telah membuat pemerhatian ke atas tingkah laku murid semasa

proses

pengajaran

dan

pembelajaran

berlangsung.

Pemerhatian dijalankan sebelum dan selepas didedahkan dengan permainan Forest Card .

Ujian pra dan pos Ujian Pra (Lampiran 3) diberikan kepada kumpulan sasaran untuk mengesan sejauh mana penguasaan mereka ciri-ciri tumbuhtumbuhan semula jadi dan hidupan liar di hutan hujan tropika Malaysia, hutan gurun Gurun Sahara, hutan Mediterranean Turki, hutan tundra Utara Siberia dan hutan Monsun Tropika Utara 152


Thailand. Selepas itu, kumpulan sasaran didedahkan dengan permainan

Forest

Card untuk

meningkatkan

kefahaman

dan

penguasaan mereka terhadap tajuk ini. Ujian pos (Lampiran 3) dengan set item soalan yang sama dengan ujian pra diberikan kepada kumpulan sasaran. Ujian pra dan ujian pos dianalisis dengan menggunakan perisian IBM SPSS Statistics 20 .

Murid diberikan ujian pra

Permainan Forest Card

Murid diberikan u ian os

Analisis data dalam SPSS

Rajah 1: Carta aliran ujian pra dan ujian pos

Soal selidik Borang soal selidik disediakan dan diedarkan kepada murid untuk mendapatkan maklum balas murid dengan permainan Forest Card (Lampiran 2). Borang soal selidik terdiri daripada bahagian latar belakang responden dan bahagian pendapat responden terhadap permainan Forest Card . Dapatan soal selidik dianalisis dengan menggunakan perisian IBM SPSS Statistics 20 .

Tindakan Yang Dijalankan

Berdasarkan tinjauan awal yang telah dijalankan, murid didapati lemah dalam topik tumbuhan-tumbuhan semula jadi dan hidupan liar di Malaysia dan di luar negara. Untuk mengatasi ini, kaedah permainan Forest Card diperkenalkan untuk melaksanakan kajian ini. Berikut adalah cara pengendalian permaian Forest Card .

153


Langkah

Aktiviti

1

Seorang murid akan dipilih dijadikan ketua untuk mengagihkan kad dan diberi skema jawapan. Pemain diagihkan kad mengikut jumlah pemain seperti berikut:

2

Bilangan Pemain

Bil. Agihan Kad/ Pemain

Simpanan Kad

2

25

50

3

15

55

4

12

52

5

10

50

6

8

52

3

Pemain akan melepaskan 1 kad sahaja setiap kali giliran.

4

Ketua akan menyemak kad yang dilepaskan tepat pada kawasan. Kegagalan meletakkan kad akan dikenakan penalti 2 kad tambahan. Ketua perlu memberi jawapan yang betul kepada pemain yang gagal meletakkan kad tepat pada kawasan. Kad tersebut akan disimpan oleh ketua. Pemain yang paling cepat habiskan kadnya di tangannya dianggap sebagai pemenang. Ketua perlu membimbing pemain yang lain melepaskan baki kadnya tepat pada kawasan. Ketua dan pemain dikehendaki meneliti semula kad yang dilepaskan pada kawasan sebagai pengukuhan.

5 6

7

8

154


Refleksi Hasil Kajian

Analisis pemerhatian Dapatan

pemerhatian

mendapati

bahawa

murid

berasa

seronok dalam pembelajaran topik tumbuhan-tumbuhan semula jadi dan hidupan liar di Malaysia dan di luar negara. Semua murid terlibat secara aktif dalam permainan Forest Card . Murid pada permulaan kurang mahir dalam permainan Forest Card pada pusingan pertama dan terpaksa merujuk kepada bahan bacaan seperti nota dan buku teks. Ini adalah kerana aras penguasaan mereka terhadap isi kandungan topik tersebut masih rendah. Namun demikian, murid mula menguasai isi kandungan topik tersebut pada pusingan kedua dan seterusnya. Pada pusingan akhir, murid dapat menyelesaikan semua kad mereka tanpa merujuk kepada bahan bacaan. Ini bermakna murid telah berjaya menguasai topik tersebut.

Analisis ujian pra dan pos Perbandingan pencapaian murid dalam ujian pra dan pos adalah seperti berikut:

155


Jadual 1: Prestasi Murid 1A dalam ujian pra dan ujian pos Bil

Nama

Kelas

Ujian pra (25%)

Ujian post (25%)

1

Aida Sena Anak Tupa

1A

14

18

2

Angela Beda Anak Baja

1A

23

23

3

Catherine Anak Sirai

1A

11

23

4

Desniey Fedelisa Anak Freddin

1A

5

17

5

Elizeberth Tera Anak Dennis

1A

11

15

6

Esteve Austin Anak Kasau

1A

7

21

7

Haergenstein Anak Jackson Apong

1A

14

19

8

Jackie Kamar Anak Unggan

1A

8

18

9

Lorien Anak Iskandar

1A

12

22

10

Luncha Anak Minah

1A

19

23

11

Olivia Lantan Anak Telajan

1A

8

16

12

Relen Sudau Anak Rantai

1A

11

22

13

Reselly Suzanne Anak Robert

1A

10

22

14

Rosliana Tasa Anak Antoh

1A

14

22

15

Roslina Anak Igai

1A

22

18

16

Sophia Sonia Anak Mathew

1A

10

22

156


Jadual 2: Prestasi Murid 1B dalam ujian pra dan ujian pos Bil

Nama

Kelas

Ujian pra Ujian pos (25%) (25%)

1

Andy Ting Wan Loong

1B

10

22

2

Anjeli Ak George

1B

12

22

3

Caroline Diana Ak Tinggi

1B

12

24

4

Elizebth Mona Ak Aman

1B

14

22

5

Ellisya Biah Ak Minah

1B

8

24

6

Ellyvia Nut Ak Ejau

1B

10

24

7

Emma Fifiyanti Ak Anja

1B

7

24

8

Ester Yak Ak Daut

1B

1

18

9

Filomina Ak Barin

1B

5

16

10

Georgiana Jimin Ak Anthony Jugu

1B

10

18

11

Kaneh Ak Ranti / Nur Khadijah Bt Abdullah

1B

15

20

12

Lisa Ak Belun

1B

19

20

13

Melisa Ak Umpi

1B

4

18

14

Mohd Zaidy Bin Ahmad

1B

9

9

15

Nagie Ak Alexson Kubong

1B

22

22

16

Ngadan Ak Balau

1B

12

24

17

Nicklous Rugai Ak Bryn

1B

11

15

18

Nursare Binti Abdul Razak

1B

4

10

19

Priscilla Hellen Ak Jobli

1B

11

16

20

Shalren Farrera Anak Janting

1B

10

21

21

Sylvester Sayong Ak Jaga

1B

22

24

22

Timothy Ak Blayong

1B

7

13

23

Tina Arena Anak Henry

1B

8

25

157


Jadual 3: Statistik asas Paired Samples Statistics Mean

Ujian pra Pair 1

Ujian pos

N

Std.

Std. Error

Deviation

Mean

11.33

39

5.258

.842

19.79

39

3.928

.629

Jadual 4: Statistik korelasi Paired Samples Correlations

Pair 1

Ujian pra & ujian pos

N

Correlation

Sig.

39

.356

.026

Jadual 5: Statistik ujian T Paired Samples Test Paired Differences Mean

Ujian pra Pair 1 Ujian pos

8.462

Std. Deviation

5.325

Std. Error Mean

.853

t

df

Sig. (2tailed)

-9.923

38

.000

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower

Upper

-10.188

-6.735

158


Daripada Jadual 3, statistik asas menunjukkan min pencapaian pelajar pada ujian pra ialah 11.33 manakala min pencapaian pelajar pada ujian pos ialah 19.79. Perbezaan min antara ujian pra dan ujian pos ialah 8.462. Korelasi antara ujian pra dan ujian pos ialah 0.356 dan statistik korelasi adalah signifikan (p < 0.05). Berdasarkan Jadual 5 statistik ujian t adalah signifikan (t = -9.923; df = 38; p < 0.05).

Perbandingan Markah Ujian Pra dan Ujian Pos 10 9 9 8 7 d i r u M n a g n a l i B

6

6

6

6 5 5 4

4

4

4 3

3

3 3

3 2 2

2

2 2 2

2 1

1 1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0

0 0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213141516171819202122232425 Markah Pos Test

Pra Test

Rajah 2: Analisis markah murid-mirud dalam ujian pra dan ujian pos

Markah maksimum dalam ujian pra dan ujian pos ialah 25 markah. Hasil analisis mendapati bahawa majoriti murid telah 159


mencapai 15 markah ke bawah pada ujian pra. Hanya terdapat 4 orang murid sahaja mencapai 15 markah ke atas dan markah tertinggi ialah 23 markah. Pada ujian pos pula, seramai 37 murid mencapai 15 markah ke atas. Markah tertinggi ialah 25 markah manakala markah terendah yang ialah 9 markah. Ini menunjukkan terdapat peningkatan yang jelas dalam penguasaan murid terhadap tajuk ini selepas didedahkan dengan permainan Forest Card .

Analisis soal selidik Secara keseluruhan, murid telah memberikan respons positif terhadap permainan Forest Card . Berikut adalah analisis soal selidik yang telah dijawab oleh murid. Jadual 6: Statisitk permainan Forest Card

N

Valid Missing

Mean Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum

Saya suka permainan Forest Card

Saya berasa seronok belajar melalui Forest Card

39 0 4.97 .160 4 5

39 0 4.90 .307 4 5

Saya dapat Permainan Forest Card mengenal pasti hutan merupakan di Malaysia bahan dan di pembelajaran negara lain yang sangat dengan menarik mudah melalui Forest Card 39 39 0 0 4.44 4.85 .788 .432 2 3 5 5

Permainan Forest Card dapat merangsang minat pembelajaran saya

39 0 4.92 .270 4 5

Jadual 7: Saya suka permainan Forest Card

160


Setuju Amat Valid Setuju Total

Frequency

Percent 2.6

Valid Percent 2.6

Cumulative Percent 2.6

1 38

97.4

97.4

100.0

39

100.0

100.0

Jadual 8: Saya berasa seronok belajar melalui Forest Card

Setuju Valid Amat Setuju Total

Frequency

Percent 10.3

Valid Percent 10.3


4 35

89.7

89.7

100.0

39

100.0

100.0

Jadual 9: Saya dapat mengenal pasti hutan di Malaysia dan di negara lain dengan mudah melalui Forest Card

Kurang Setuju Kurang Pasti Valid Setuju Amat Setuju Total

Frequency

Percent

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

1

2.6

2.6

2.6

4

10.3

10.3

12.8

11

28.2

28.2

41.0

23

59.0

59.0

100.0

39

100.0

100.0

161


Jadual 10: Permainan Forest Card merupakan bahan pembelajaran yang sangat menarik

Frequency Percent Kurang Pasti Setuju Valid Amat Setuju Total

Valid Percent

Cumulative Percent

1

2.6

2.6

2.6

4

10.3

10.3

12.8

34

87.2

87.2

100.0

39

100.0

100.0

Jadual 11: Permainan Forest Card dapat merangsang minat pembelajaran saya

Setuju Amat Valid Setuju Total

Frequency

Percent 7.7

Valid Percent 7.7


3 36

92.3

92.3

100.0

39

100.0

100.0

Rumusan dan Implikasi

Perbandingan keputusan ujian pra dan ujian pos telah menunjukkan peningkatan prestasi murid setelah didedahkan dengan permainan Forest Card . Semasa ujian pra, hanya seorang sahaja mencapai markah tertinggi, iaitu 23/25 markah. Selepas diberikan pendedahan

permainan

Forest Card ,

terdapat

seorang

murid

mencapai markah maksimum iaitu 25/25 markah. Permainan Forest Card juga membantu dari segi penguasaan isi kandungan. Seramai 37 murid telah mencapai 15 markah ke atas pada ujian pos

162


berbanding dengan ujian pra hanya 4 orang murid sahaja mencapai 15 markah ke atas. Ini bermakna permainan Forest Card telah mencapai objektifnya, iaitu menguasai ciri-ciri tumbuh-tumbuhan semula jadi dan mengenal pasti jenis hidupan liar di hutan hujan tropika Malaysia, hutan gurun Gurun Sahara, hutan Mediterranean Turki, hutan tundra Utara Siberia dan hutan monsun tropika Utara Thailand. Dapatan soal selidik juga menunjukkan sambutan yang positif tentang permainan Forest Card . Responden suka dan seronok belajar menggunakan permainan Forest Card kerana ia sangat menarik serta dapat merangsang minat pembelajaran mereka.

Cadangan Kajian Lanjutan

Berdasarkan kajian yang dilaksanakan, didapati bahawa sesetengah murid, iaitu golongan cemerlang memerlukan pendekatan yang berbeza dalam mempelajari topik ini. Oleh itu, permainan Forest Card ini perlu ditambah dengan soalan-soalan kemahiran berfikir aras tinggi (KBAT). Contohnya, apabila murid gagal meletakkan Forest Card pada lokasinya yang ditetapkan, maka dia diberikan peluang untuk menjawab soalan KBAT. Secara langsungnya, ini dapat meningkatkan

aras

kesukaran

permainan

Forest

Card dan

meningkatkan kemahiran berfikiran murid.

163


Senarai Rujukan

Azizah Ahamad (2011). Referens Lengkap PMR Geografi . Selangor: Mashall Cavendish Malaysia Sdn. Bhd Chong Mui Sen (2011). Nexus Edisi Khas PMR Geografi. Selangor: Sasbadi Sdn. Bhd Chong Yoon Choi (2009). Longman Esensi Geografi Tingkatan 1 . Selangor: Pearson Malaysia Sdn. Bhd Chong, Y.C, Chong, H.L & Kang, C.Y. (2002). KBSM Geografi Tingkatan 1. Selangor: Media Netword Sdn. Bhd Rape’ah bt Ahamed, Khalijah bt Maimon, Aziah bt Ismail & Foo, H.L. (2002). KBSM Geografi Tingkatan 1. Kuala Lumpur: Aura Intelek Sdn. Bhd. Rohani Hamzah, Mohammad Ismail, Juwairiyah Mohd Sharuddin & Nur Syuhadah Yusof (2014). Big Idea PBS Teks Rujukan Geografi Tingkatan 1. Selangor: Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd

164


Lampiran 1 Set Permainan F o r e s t

Card

Kit Set Permainan

Forest Card

Kandungan dalam Kit Set Permainan

F o r es t C a r d

165


Lampiran 2 Borang Soal Selidik Permainan

FOREST CARD

Bahagian A: Latar belakang respoden Kelas

: ___________________

Jantina : ___________________ Bahagian B: Berikan pendapat anda dan tandakan skala 1-5

Bil

Perkara 1 Amat Kurang setuju

1 2

3

4

5

Skala Likert 2 3 4 Kurang Kurang Setuju Setuju Pasti

5 Amat Setuju

Saya suka permainan Forest Card Saya berasa seronok belajar melalui Forest Card Saya dapat mengenal pasti hutan di Malaysia dan di negara lain dengan mudah melalui permainan Forest Card Permainan Forest card merupakan bahan pembelajaran yang sangat menarik Permainan Forest card dapat merangsang minat pembelajaran saya

166

Jurnal Pendidikan Ipgktar 2015

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