The
Electric Sky Donald E. Scott, Ph.D. (Electrical Engineering) Author of the book - The
Sky
The M1 Pulsar - X-ray Image by Chandra
Electric
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There is a revolution just beginning in astronomy/cosmology that will rival the one set off by Coperni Copernicus cus and Galileo. Galileo. This This revolut revolution ion is based based on the growing realization realization that the cosmos is highly highly electri electrical cal in nature. nature. It is becomi becoming ng clear that that 99% of the universe is made up not of "invisible matter", but rather, rather, of matter matter in the plasma plasma state. Electrodyn Electrodynamic amic forces in electric plasmas are much stronger than the gravitational force. Mainstream astrophysicists are continually “surprised” by new data sent back by space probes and orbiting orbiting telescope telescopes. s. That ought ought to be a clue that that someth something ing is wrong wrong.. New informati information on always always sends theoretical astrophysicists "back to the drawing board". In light of this, it is curious that they have such "cock-sure" attitudes about the infallibility of their present models. Those models seem to require major "patching up" every time a new space probe sends back data. Astrophysicists and astronomers do not study experi experiment mental al plasma plasma dynamic dynamics s in gradu graduate ate school school.. They rarely take any courses in electrodynamic field theory, and thus they try to explain every new discovery via gravity, magnetism, and fluid dynamics whic which h is all they under underst stan and. d. It is no wonder wonder they they cannot understand that 99% of all cosmic phenomena are due to plasma dynamics and not to gravity alone. When confro confronte nted d by observ observatio ations ns that that cast cast doubt on the validity of their theories, astrophysicists have circled their wagons and conjured up pseudoscientific invisible entities such as neutron stars, weakly interacting massive particles, strange energy, and black holes. holes. When confront confronted ed by solid evidence evidence such as Halton Arp's photographs that contradict the Big Big Bang Bang Theo Theory ry,, thei theirr resp respon onse se is to refu refuse se him him access to any major telescope in the U.S.
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Instead of wasting time in a futile battle trying to convince convince entre entrench nched ed mainst mainstrea ream m astron astronome omers rs to seriously investigate the Electric/Plasma Universe ideas, a growing band of plasma scientists and engineers engineers are simply simply bypassing bypassing them. them. A new electric electric plasma-based paradigm that does not find new discoveries to be “enigmatic and puzzling”, but rather to be predictable and consistent with an electrical point of view, is slowly but surely replacing the old paradigm wherein all electrical mechanisms are ignored. This web site is dedicated to explaining the basis basis of this this ongoing ongoing scientifi scientific c shift. It also present presents s link links s to othe otherr site sites s wher where e you you can can inves nvesti tiga gate te the the details of what is happening. These pages are designed to be read through through in order, starting starting with the Introduc Introduction. tion. If you do this, the background information needed for understanding any given page will have been presen presented ted in an earlie earlierr page. However However,, each each of the topics below is discussed in a reasonably selfcontained way for anyone who just wants to pick and choose choose.. Enter Enter the site site by clicking clicking on the link to the Introduction below.
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Introduction to the Electric Cosmos What is wrong with accepted astrophysics
present-day
It is not scientific scientific.. In today's today's world many people people charac character terize ize themse themselv lves es as being being 'scient 'scientist ists'. s'. Only those who always carefully follow the scientific method are deserving deserving of that title. Modern establishment astrophysics fails the test in several ways. wa ys.
The Empirical Scientific Method Scientists are distinguishable from artists, poets, musicians, and others in that they use what is known as the 'scientific 'scientific method'. method'. It is not that that 'inspiration' 'inspiration' or 'the muse' is not valuable in science, it is - but it is not the starti starting ng point point of what what we call call scienc science. e. In the the process called the scientific method a true scientist will: Observe nature - carefully record what is seen. •
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Seek Se ek pa patt tter erns ns in th the e ob obse serv rved ed da data ta - pu putt numb nu mber ers s on th the e dat ata a - fi fitt eq equa uati tio ons to those numbers. Generalize those equations into a word description of the process - this is a hypothesis.. hypothesis Carry out experiments and/or gather inde in depe pend nden entt da data ta to se see e ho how w well well th the e
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hypothesis predicts future observations and an d re resu sult lts. s. Th This is is ca call lle ed "c "clo losi sing ng th the e loop" on your hypothesis. •
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Reject, or modify the hypothesis if the Reject, experiments show it falls short of success in these predictions. Only after the results of several experiments have hav e been suc success cessfull fully y pre predic dicted ted by the hypothesis, can it be called a theory theory..
If two different theories predict a given phenomenon equally well, the simpler theory is probably the the best one. This principle is called Occam's Razor . Theories can never be proven to be correct some other mechanism entirely may be the cause of the observed observed data. data. But theories theories can can be disproved if they fail to predict the outcomes of additional experiments. Such theories are termed to be falsified. falsified. Sometimes the scientific method as described above is called the empirical method. The Deductive Method As an alternative to the empirical method, there is a method of deriving theories from assumed generalizat generalizations ions about the universe. universe. This is called called the deduct deductive ive method. method. In this process process one starts starts with a "law of nature nature"" or "obviou "obviously sly correc correct" t" genera generaliz lizati ation on about the "way things work" and deduces (reasons out - derives) its consequences in detail. A hypothesis hypothesis arrived at via this method is promoted to the status of bei being a Theo Theory ry if a larg large e enou enough gh body body of expe expert rts s 'accept' 'accept' it. Thus, in this this method, method, a vote of the experts experts determines determines if a theory theory is correct. correct. Once such such a theory theory has been accepted it is not easily rejected in light of confli conflicti cting ng eviden evidence; ce; it is, howeve however, r, often often modified modified made more complex - and, unfortunately, new data is
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often selectively chosen to support it. The selection and publication of only the data that support the accepted theory is expedited by the "peer review review system". If the experts who have accepted a given theory control both the funding of future research and also what gets published, there is little chance for conflicting viewpoints to develop. Pseudo Science Some hypotheses, when presented by august, well established scientists, scientists, are given credence credence without without anyone questioning whether the hypothesis has been devel develop oped ed usin using g the the scien scienti tific fic meth method od.. Yet Yet in most most cases it is not difficult to check whether or not the scientific method method has been used used correctly. correctly. For exampl example, e, consid consider er the hypoth hypothesi esis s that that "There "There are gnomes in my garden that always make themselves invisible when anyone tries to observe observe them." Clearly, no conceivable experiment or observation could falsify that statement. This is evidence the hypothesis comes from a pseudo-scien pseudo-scientific tific source. source. Legitimate Legitimate theories theories must be falsifiable. falsifiable. The Problem Faced by Modern Astronomy is that Experiments Are Not Possible Beca Becaus use e the the star stars s are are ligh lightt year years s away away,, we canno nnot hope to be able ble to go the there and perform experiments on them. Until relatively recently even the plan planet ets s were were out out of our our reac reach. h. Thus Thus,, cosm cosmol olog ogis ists ts never never get to complet complete e the the scien scienti tifi fic c meth method od.. We cannot 'close the loop' in cosmology. But, if we cannot test our hypotheses, hypotheses , how can we reject or modify them? The answer, answer, of course, course, is that astrophysi astrophysicists, cists, more than those in any other branch of science, must be exce exceedi eding ngly ly carefu carefull to conti continu nual ally ly exami examine ne thei their r hypotheses in light of any new data. It is is th the contention contention of the author author of these pages that they have not been doing this.
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Einstein was a purely theoretical physicist - he never never went near near a physi physics cs lab. He conduct conducted ed only 'geda 'gedanke nkenex nexper perime imente nten' n' - thoug thought ht expe experi rimen ments ts - in order to arrive at his general theory of relativity (GR). This is a perfect example of the deductive method at work. work. Its use is exceptio exceptionall nally y dangerous dangerous in an area area like like cosm cosmol olog ogy y where herein in it is diff diffic icul ultt to fals falsif ify y any any theo theorry. Now Now that that the the GR Theor heory y is acce ccepte pted by esta establ blis ishm hmen entt astr astrop ophy hysi sics cs,, any new new data data (suc (such h as photographs of the astronomical object known as the "Einstein Cross") are discussed only within the framework of this complicated theory. The imag images es of the the fou four smal smalll obje object cts s in the Einstein Cross when looked at only from this viewpoint, are considered to be supporting evidence for the GR Theory Theory.. Howeve However, r, they could could just as well be interpreted as being evidence supporting a much simpler cosmological theory. Evidence contradictory to the accepted Big Bang Theory, such as images of connections connections between objects that have widely different red shift values, are dismissed as being mirages. False Assumptions in Astrophysics Most of today's accepted astronomy/cosmology is a set of deductively arrived at hypotheses precariously based on two false assumptions : 1. Electrical fields, currents, and plasma discharges are not impor importa tant nt in space space.. Only gravitational and magnetic fields are important. 2. If the light from an object exhibits redshift, the object must be spee speedi ding ng away away from from us. And its its distanc distance e fro from us is dire direct ctly ly
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proportional to that speed. Both of these assumptions are demonstrably wrong. They have been, and continue to be, contradicted by actual observations of the sky. sky. Those observations observations tell us that
The i. The
univ univer erse se is high highly ly electrical in electrical in nature.
ii. Redshift is more a measure of an object's youth than its velocity. The continued refusal of astrophysicists to reexamine their hypotheses in light of these new observations is the focus of these pages. Invisible Entities Invented To Patch Up Failing Theories The theories that have sprung from these faulty, overly complicated mathematical models have given birth to such arcane notions as: curved space, neutron stars, WIMPs (and now WIMP W IMPZILL ZILLAS), AS), MACHOs, seve severa rall diffe differe rent nt types types of black black holes, holes, supe superl rlumi umina nall jets, dark energy, and magnetic field lines that pile-up, merge merge and and reco reconn nnec ect. t. All All of thes these e invent inventio ions ns are are fictions put forth by astrophysicists in desperate efforts to defend their theories when faced with contradicting observations. None have ever been observed observed or photographed. Many of them them are are demonstrably demonstrably impossible. impossible. But their existenc existence e is repeatedly repeatedly invoked to explain new observations and measurements that contradict the enshrined theories of modern astronomy without resorting to the use of electrical principles. We continually hear statements such as, "There must be a black hole at the center of that galaxy." (Otherwise (Otherwise we cannot explain explain its level of energy output output.) .) "There "There must be invisibl invisible e dark dark matter matter in that
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galaxy." (Otherwise we cannot explain how it rotates the way it does.) does.) "Ninety "Ninety nine percent percent of the universe universe is made up of dark energy." (Otherwise the Big Bang Theo Theory ry is fals falsif ifie ied. d.)) "Pul "Pulsar sars s must must be made made up of strange matter." (Otherwise we might have to look for an electrical explanation). explanation). We are also asked to believe that two objects (like galaxy NGC 4319 and its companion Markarian 205) are not connected together even though we have photographs of the connection. So, we are told not to believe in the things that we can see, but that we should believe in the existence of the magic entities that their theories require - even though we cannot see or measure them.
Astr trop ophy hyssicists Denigrate ate Outs Ou tsid ider erss - Th Then en Qu Quie ietl tly y Adop Adoptt their New Ideas There have been several instances in the past when the astronomical mainstream has long rejected an idea idea that that is later later accep accepte ted. d. Ther There e is usuall usually y no public disgrace for the in-group who were on the wrong side of the issue. When, after being viciously viciously denigrated, the validity of a new idea becomes inescapably obvious, a few years go by, and then we quietly hear: "Well, Everyone has known for a Long Time Time that this this (the (the new idea) idea) was was always always true. true."" An example of this is Hannes Alfvén's discovery of plasma waves. This relatively recently discovered property of plasmas is now being wrongly wrongly used by astrophysic astrophysicists ists to explain away all sorts of (what is for them) enigmatic phenomena phenomena - such as the temperature temperature inversion in the Sun's lower corona. The Future In a few few year years, s, perh perhap aps s we will will hear hear:: "Well "Well,, Everyone has known for a Long Time that quasars are
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not extremely distant, and red shift is more a measure of the youth of an object than its recessional velocity and distanc distance. e. No one said said for sure there there ever was was a Big Bang. It was just another another false theory. theory. Everyone Everyone has has know known n for for a Long ong Time ime that hat elec electr tric ic curr urrents ents flowing in plasmas produce many of the mysterious observed observed solar and and cosmic phenomen phenomena." a." And we will will not hear of machos, wimps, neutronium, dark energy, and and brok broken en mag magneti netic c fiel field d line lines s from from any any seri seriou ous s scientist ever again. Time will tell. Will the founders of the Electric / Plasma Universe Theory be acknowledged as having been the pathfinders they are? Or will will less lesser er men men quie quietl tly y adop adoptt thes these e idea ideas s without without giving giving credit credit to their originators originators and then claim them to be 'well known'? This Web Site The following pages discuss some of the peopl people, e, obser observa vatio tions, ns, and and idea ideas, s, that that chal challe leng nge e the the false assumptions that mainstream science refuses to re-examine. When you read them, remember that any single unanswered challenge of this sort is enough to bring down the pseudoscientific magic show that moder modern n astr astron onomy omy/co /cosm smol olog ogy y has has beco become me - like like a house of cards.
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A Conceptual Model of Interstellar Space Modern astronomers claim that the only forces capable of forming and driving the galaxies that make up the universe are gravitational and magnetic fields. In orde orderr to judge udge wheth hether er this this or any any alt alterna ernati tiv ve explanations are reasonable, we have to be able to visualize the relative sizes of stars and the distances between them. In order to do this, we need a scale model that humans can relate to. It is very difficult, if not impossible, for us to relate conceptually to how far something is from us when we are told its distance is, say 14 light years. We know that is a long way - but HOW long?
Burnham's Model In his "Celes "Celestial tial Handbo Handbook", ok", Robert Robert Burnha Burnham, m, Jr. presents a model that offers us a way to get an intuitive feel for some of these tremendous distances. The The dis distanc tance e from from the Sun to Ear Earth is call calle ed an Astronomical Unit (AU); it is approximately 93 million miles. The model is based on the coincidental fact that the number of inches in a statute mile is approximately equal to the number of astronomical units in one light 11
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year. So, in our model, we sketch the orbit of the Earth around the Sun as a circle, two inches in diameter. That sets the scale of of the model. One light year year is one mile in the model. The Sun is approx approxima imately tely 880,000 880,000 miles miles in dia diamete meterr. In the the mode modell that hat scal scales es to 880, 880,00 000 0 / 93,000,000 = 0.009 inches; (Approximately 1/100 of an inc inch in dia diamet meter). er). A very ery fine fine penci encill poin pointt is need needed ed to plac place e it at the cent enter of the (one inc inch radius) circle that represents the Earth's orbit. In this model, Pluto is an invisibly small speck approximately three and a half feet from the Sun. All the other planets follow almost circular circular paths inside of this 3.5 foot orbit. If a person is quite tall, he or she may just be able to spread their hands far enough apart to encompass the orbit of this outer planet. That is the size of our model of our solar system. We can just about hold it in our extended arms. The nearest star to us is over four light-years away. In our model, a light year is scaled down to one mile. So the nearest star to us is four and a half MILES away in our model. So when we model our Sun and the nearest star to us, we have two specks of dust, each 1/100 inch in diameter, four and a half miles apart apart from one anothe another. r. And this this is in a modera moderately tely densely packed arm of our galaxy! To quote Burnham, "All the stars are, on the average, as far from each other as the nearest ones are from us. Imagin Imagine, e, then, several several hundre hundred d billio billion n stars scattered throughout space, each one another Sun, each one separated by a distance of several light 12
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years (several miles in our model) from its nearest neighbor. Comp Compre rehe hend nd,, if you you can can, the almos lmost t terrifyin terrifying g isolation isolation of any one star in space" space" because each star is the size of a speck of dust, about 1/100 inch in diameter - and is miles from its nearest neighbor. When viewing a photographic image of a galaxy or globular star cluster, we must remember that the stars that make up those objects are not as close together as they appear. A bright star will "bloom" on a photographic plate or CCD chip. Remember the two specks of dust, miles apart. Even in our model , the collection of stars that makes up our Milky Way galaxy is about one hundred thous thousand and miles miles in diam diamete eter. r. This This is surro surroun unde ded d by many hundreds of thousand of miles of empty space, before we get to the next galaxy. And on a larger scal scale, e, we find find that hat galax alaxie ies s seem eem to be fou found in groups - galaxy galaxy clusters. clusters. On this gigantic gigantic scale scale even our model fails to give us an intuitive feeling for the vastness of those distances. Because the stars are so small relative to their separation, they have only an extremely small gravit gravitatio ational nal pull on each other. other. Howeve However, r, it is now well known that the entire volume of our galaxy is permeated by plasma - huge diffuse clouds of ionized particles. These electrically charged particles are not relatively far from each other. And they respond to the extrem extremely ely strong strong Maxwel Maxwelll / Lorent Lorentz z electr electroma omagne gnetic tic forces (36 powers of 10 stronger than gravity). It is becoming clear that galaxies are not held together by gravity, but, rather, by dynamic electromagnetic forces.
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Gravitational Lensing As an appl applic icat atio ion n of the the insig nsight ht affo afford rded ed by Burnham's model let us consider the oft proclaimed phenomenon phenomenon known known as gravitational gravitational lensing lensing.. If a far dist distant ant obje object ct lines lines up prec precis isely ely with with Earth Earth and and an intermediate object that has enough mass, Einstein's theor theory y of rela relati tivi vity ty sugge suggest sts s that that the the ligh lightt from from the the farther object will be bent - producing multiple images of that distant object when it is observed from Earth. Gravit Gravitatio ational nal lensing lensing is now a standa standard rd explan explanatio ation n used by mainstream astronomy to discredit any observations of quasar pairs situated very near their parent parent galaxi galaxies. es. We are told told that any images images of this sort are are "mirages" "mirages" due to gravitation gravitational al lensing. lensing. Once this explanation is accepted by a gullible public, the way is cleared for its continued use, no matter how improbable its repeated occurrence is. An image of the The "Einstein Cross" is shown below. NASA claims that the four small quasar objects flanking the central bright core of the galaxy represent only a single quasar located in the far distance directly behind the center of the galaxy - they tell us that we are not seeing four separate quasars - this is only a "mirage". The reason reason for their conclusion that the four small quasar images are in the deep background is that that they they have have a vastl vastly y grea greate terr reds redshif hiftt value value than than does the central galaxy.
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Spec Spectr tral al anal analys ysis is of the the regio egion n betw betwee een n the the quasars indicates they are connected to the galaxy by streams of Hydrogen gas (plasma). This plasma has the same extremely high redshift value as do the quasars. quasars. So, what what we actuall actually y have are four four newly newly formed quasars symmetrically positioned around the active active nucleus of of a barred barred spiral galaxy. galaxy. There There is no mira mirage ge.. No rela relati tivi vist stic ic magic magic is need needed ed to expl explai ain n what we see happening in front of our eyes. Most important is the fact that for a foreground galaxy to gravitationally 'lens' a background QSO, the mass of the galaxy would have to act as if it were concentrated at the galaxy's center. We know from the difficulties associated with galactic rotation profiles that this does not occur. But But what what is igno ignore red d by astr astrop ophy hysi sici cist sts s is the the statistical improbability of this line-up happening in the first place, let alone over and over again.
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For example, astronomers recently announced they were going to look for gravitational lensing effects that might be occurring in the closely packed globular cluster, cluster, M 22. For such such a gravitational gravitational lensing lensing effect effect to be visible on Earth, two stars in the cluster and the Earth must line up - all three objects - on the same precise straight line. Let us calculate the probability of that happening with any two stars in M 22. M 22 contains on the order of 500,000 stars and is approximately approximately 50 light-years in diameter. Therefore, stars in the center of M22 are separated by distances in the order order of 0.5 light light year. year. (1/2 mile mile in Burnham's Burnham's model.) model.) Assume Assume that that stars stars in in the the M 22 cluster cluster are of the same general size as our Sun, a medium sized star star,, 880, 880,00 000 0 mile miles s in diam diamet eter er (1/1 (1/100 00 inch inch in the the model). model). Put such such a star at the the center of one face face of a cube cube that that is 0.5 LY along along each each edge edge.. Assu Assume me that Earth lies an infinite distance away on a line which is per perpend pendic icul ular ar to that that face face of the the cube ube and and whic which h passes through the centered star. First, ask the question, what is the probability, p, that another star lies directly on that line, at the center of the the oppo opposi site te face of the the cube cube? ? Consi Conside deri ring ng the the average diameter of the typical star, there are approx approximat imately ely 10^13 10^13 non-ov non-overl erlapp apping ing possib possible le star star positions positions on that opposite opposite face. face. So the answer answer to our question is: "One out of 10^13". 10 ^13". p = 10^ -13. We have to remember that the center of the cluster is 50 LY (100 such cubes) deep. The probability that we will NOT get a match with a star in any of those deeper cubes is (1-p (1- p)^100. The first two ter terms of the the expa expans nsio ion n of this this expr expres essi sion on are are 1 100p 100p. So, (as an approxima approximatio tion) n) the probabil probability ity that
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we WILL W ILL get a match is approximately approximately the first probability multiplied by 100: 100p 100p = 10^-11. But But ther there e are are 100x 100x10 100 0 = 10^ 10^4 othe otherr line lines s of cubes that that make up up the visible visible face face of M 22. So, we must multiply by 10^4. 10^4. This yields yields an overall approx approximat imate e probabili probability ty of 10^ -11 -11 x 10^4 10^4 = 10^ -7 whic which h is one in ten ten milli illion on.. This his answ answer er is, is, of cour course, se, an appr approx oxim imati ation. on. But But it does does reve reveal al the the futility of looking for gravitational lensing in M 22. This This mean means s that that if astr astron onom omer ers s see anythi anything ng 'mysterious' in M 22, they cannot, with any credibility, point point to "gra "gravi vitat tation ional al lensi lensing ng"" as bein being g the the caus cause. e. And, if this is so in a dense cluster like M22, it is even less likely when discussing galaxies and supposedly far distant quasars - like the Einstein Cross.
Plasma The Fundamental State of Matter Definitions When one or more of the outer (valence) electrons are stripped away from an atom we say the atom atom has has beco become me 'ioniz 'ionized' ed'.. It then exhibi exhibits ts a net net positive electrical charge, and is called a 'positive ion'. On the other hand, if an extra electron is added onto added onto a neutr neutral al atom atom,, the the combi combinat natio ion n then then carr carrie ies s a net net negative charge and is referred to as a 'negative ion'. The electrical forces between dissimilar ions are orders orders of magnit magnitude ude strong stronger er than than any mechani mechanical cal force such such as that produced produced by gravity. gravity. An electrical electrical plasma is a cloud of ions and electrons that, under the
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excitation of applied electrical and magnetic fields, can some someti time mes s ligh lightt up and and beha behave ve in some some unus unusua uall ways. The most most familiar examples examples of electrical plasmas are the neon sign, lightning, and the electric arc welding welding machine machine.. The ionospher ionosphere e of Earth Earth is an example of a plasma that does not emit visible light. Plasma permeates the space that contains our solar syst system. em. The The clou cloud d of parti particl cles es that that cons constit titut utes es the the solar 'wind' 'wind' is a plasma. plasma. Our entire entire Milky Milky Way galaxy galaxy consis consists ts mainly mainly of plasma. plasma. In fact 99% of the entire entire universe is plasma! History During the late 1800's in Norway, Norway, physicist Kristian Birkeland explained that the reason we could see the auroras was that they were plasmas. Birkeland also discovered the twisted corkscrew shape shaped d path paths s take taken n by elect electri ric c curr current ents s when when they they exist exist in plasmas. plasmas. Someti Sometimes mes those those twisted twisted shapes shapes are visible and sometimes not - it depends on the strength of the current density being carried by the plasma. Today these streams of ions and electrons are called Birkeland Currents. The mysterious sprites, elves, and blue jets associated with electrical storms on Earth are examples of Birkeland currents in the plasma of our upper atmosphere. In the early 20th century, Nobel laureat Irving Langmuir studied electric plasmas in his laboratory at General Electric; he further deve develop loped ed the the body body of know knowled ledge ge Birk Birkel elan and d had initia initiated ted.. In fact fact it was he who first first used used the name 'plasma' to describe describe the almost almost lifelike, self-organizing behavior of these ionized gas clouds in the presence of electrical
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currents and magnetic fields. Basic Properties Modes Operation
of
There are three distinctly different steady state modes in which a plasma can operate: Dark Current Mode - The strength of the electrical current (flow of charged particles) within the plasma is very low. The plasma does not glow. It is essentially invisible. We would not know a plasma was there at all unless we measured its electrical activity with sensitive instruments. The present day da y ma mag gne neto tosp sphe here res s of th the e pl plan anet ets s are examples of plasmas operating in the dark current mode. Normal Glow Mode - The strength of the electrical current (flow of charged particles) is significant. The entir entire e plasma plasma glows glows.. The brightness of the glow depends on the intensity of the current in the plasma. Exam Ex ample ples: s: An Any y ne neon on si sign gn.. Em Emis issi sion on nebulae. The Sun's corona. Arc Mode - The strength of the electrical current in the plasma is very high. hig h. The plasma plasma radiate radiates s br brill illiant iantly ly over a wide spectrum. Current tends to form for m tw twis isti ting ng fi fila lame ment nts. s. Ex Exam ample ples s of this mode of operation are: An electric arc ar c we weldi lding ng ma mach chin ine. e. Lig Light htnin ning. g. Th The e •
•
•
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Sun's photosphere. In all three modes of operation, plasmas emit measurable electromagnetic radiation (radio frequency noise). At any given time, the current density (Amps per square meter) existing in the plasma, determines which particular particular mode a plasma plasma is operatin operating g in. The atomic structure of the gas that became ionized to form the plasma in the first place also is a factor in this. Double Layers One One of the the most most impo import rtan antt prop proper erti ties es of any any electrical plasma is its ability to "self-organize" - that is, is, to elec electr tric ical ally ly isol isolat ate e one one sect sectio ion n of itse itsellf from from another. The isolating wall is called a double layer (DL). When a plasma is studied studied in the lab, it is usually contained in a closed cylindrical glass tube. Electrodes are inserted into the ends of the tube - one electrode (called the anode) is maintained at a higher voltage than the electrode at the other end (the cathode). If such a voltage difference is applied, then ionization will will be initia initiated ted and curren currentt will will start start to flow through through the plasma. Positive ions (atoms with one or more elec electr tron ons s stri stripp pped ed off) off) will ill migr migrat ate e away away from from the the anode, and negative ions (atoms carrying one or more extr extra a elec electr trons ons)) will will move move towar toward d the the anod anode. e. The The mathematical sum of these these two opposit oppositely ely direct directed ed flows constitutes the total current in the plasma. If the voltage difference from one electrode to the other becomes large enough, a DL will form in a narrow cross-section somewhere in the middle of the tube. Almost all the voltage drop that is applied across the electrodes will fall across this DL. The plasma on
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one side of the DL (the side toward the anode) will have approximately the same voltage as the anode. The plasma on the cathode side of the DL will have essentially the same voltage as the cathode. cathode. The two halves of the plasma are then electrically isolated from one another by the DL. No electrostatic force is felt by particles on one side of the DL due to charges on the other side side of the DL. DL. The total total electric electric current, current, however, is the same throughout the plasma (on both sides sides of the DL). Plasma Plasmas s are excelle excellent nt conductor conductors s and, therefore, there will not be a significant voltage drop across them while they are carrying ca rrying current - thus the need for the presence of the DL that 'takes' most of any externally externally applied applied voltage. voltage. In other words, words, the DL is where the strongest electric fields in the plasma will be found. If a foreign object is inserted into a plasma, a DL will form around it, shielding it from the main plasma. This effect makes it difficult to insert voltage sensing probes into a plasma in order to measure the electric potent potential ial at a specifi specific c locati location. on. This This is a well known prop proper erty ty of plasm plasmas. as. Vari Various ous meth method ods s have have been been developed in the laboratory to overcome it. In space, it is impossible to send a spacecraft to meas measur ure e the the volt voltag age e of the the sola solarr plas plasma ma at some some point. Voltage Voltage is a relative relative measure (like (like velocity, velocity, for example); example); it must be measured measured with respect to some datum. datum. A spacecra spacecraft ft will start out having having the same voltage voltage as the surface surface of Earth. As it penetrates penetrates the the plas plasma masp sphe here re and and ente enters rs the the sola solarr plas plasma ma it will will slowly accumulate charge and thus alter its voltage. The The streng strength th of an elec electr tric ic field field,, howe howeve ver, r, can be measured in space.
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The Z-Pinch Electric current, passing through a plasma, will take on the corkscrew (spiral) shape discovered by Birkeland. These Birkeland currents most often occur in pairs airs.. Ther There e is a tend tenden ency cy for for thes these e pair pairs s to compress between them any material (ionized or not) in the plasma. plasma. This is called called the "z-pinch" "z-pinch" effect. effect. The ability of Birkeland currents to accrete and compress even non-ionized non-ionized material is called "Marklund convection". Hannes Alfven Magnetic Fields'
and
the
'Frozen-in
For years it was assumed that plasmas were perfect conductors and, as such, a magnetic field in any plasma would have to be 'frozen' inside it. The technical explanation is as follows: One of Maxwell's equations is that the curl of E E is is equal to dB/dt. Consequently, if the electric field, E , in a region is everywhere zero valued, then any magnetic field in that region must be time invariant (have a constant value). So if all plasmas are are ideal conductors conductors (and so so cannot have electric fields - that is to say, voltage differences - inside them), then any magnetic fields inside a plasma must be frozen - i.e., cannot move or change in any way. Now we know that there can be slight voltage differences between different points in plasmas. Plasma engineer Hannes Alfvén pointed out this fact in his acceptance speech while receiving the Nobel Prize Prize for physics in 1970. 1970. The electrical electrical conducti conductivity vity
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of any material, including plasma, is determined by two factors: the density of the population of available char charge ge carr carrie iers rs (the (the ions ions)) in the the mate materi rial al,, and and the the mobility of these carriers. In any plasma, the mobility of the ions is extremely high. Electrons and ions can move around very freely in space. But the concentration (number per unit volume) of ions available to carry charge may not be at all high if the plas plasma ma is a very very low low pres pressu sure re (dif (diffu fuse se)) one. one. So, So, although plasmas are excellent conductors, they are not perfect perfect conductors. conductors. Weak electric electric fields fields can exist inside inside plasmas. plasmas. Theref Therefor ore, e, magnet magnetic ic fields fields are not frozen inside them. Currents in Cosmic Sized Plasmas Beca Becaus use e plas plasma mas s are are good good (but (but not not per perfect fect)) conductors, conductors, they are equivalent equivalent to wires wires in their ability to carry electric electrical al current. current. It is well known known that if any conductor cuts through a magnetic field, a current will be cause caused d to flow flow in that that condu conduct ctor or.. This This is how how electric generators generators and and alternators alternators work. Therefore, if there is any relative motion between a cosmic plasma, say in the arm of a galaxy, and a magnetic field in that same same locat ocatio ion, n, Birk Birkel elan and d curr curren ents ts will will flow flow in the the plasma. plasma. These These currents currents will, will, in turn, produce produce their their own magnetic fields. Plasma phenomena are scalable. That is to say, their their elect electri rical cal and and phys physic ical al prop proper erti ties es rema remain in the the same same,, inde indepe pend nden entt of the the size size of the the plas plasma ma.. Of course dynamic phenomena take much less time to occur in a small laboratory plasma than they do in a plasma the size, say, of a galaxy. But the phenomena are are ident dentic ical al in that that they they obey obey the the sam same law laws of physics. physics. So we can make make accurate accurate models models of cosmic cosmic
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sized plasmas in the lab - and generate effects exactly like like those those seen in space. In fact, electr electric ic currents currents,, flowing in plasmas, have been shown to produce most of the the obse observ rved ed astr astron onomi omical cal phen phenom omen ena a that that are are inexplicable if we assume that the only forces at work in the cosmos are magnetism and gravity.
Why Do Astrophysicists Igno Ig nore re Elec El ectr tric ical al Phenomena? When such a firm foundation has been laid for continued work in the electrical properties of the th e univ un iver erse se,, why wh y do "mai "m ains nstr trea eam" m" astrophysicists continue to ignore this field of study and, instead, patch up their failing "gra "g ravi vity ty on only ly"" mo mode dels ls wit ith h mo more re an and d mo more re arcane, invented theoretical fictions? Why do conventional astronomers and cosmologists systematically exclude electric fields and currents from not only their consideration, but fromtheir curricula fromtheir curricula? ? Why do they intentionally ignore the fact that many here-to-fore "unexplained" phenomena are quite simply explained by recognizing the existence of electric fields and currents in solar and galactic plasma? The answer is this: Magnetism was known to exist in the middle ages. They knew, even back then, that a piece of iron could act on another - at a distance. But, the early astronomers (like their modern breth br ether ern) n) we were re si simpl mply y un unaw awar are e of electrical
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phenomena. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) had already mathematically explained the shape of the orbits of the planets when Isaac Newt Ne wton on pu publ blis ishe hed d hi his s tr trea eati tise se on gr grav avit ity y in 1687. Once that that occurred, occurred, nothing nothing more more was need ne eded ed to ex expl plain ain an and d pr pred edic ictt th the e pl plan anet etar ary y motions that could be observed in those days. Everything was solved. This, of course, was all long before Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) flew his kite in a thunder stor st orm m or Ja James mes Cl Cler erk k Ma Maxw xwel elll (1 (183 8311-18 1879) 79) developed his equations relating magnetic and electric electr ic fields. fields. But, electric electric fields fields were difficult difficult to me meas asur ure. e. An And d as astr tron onom omer ers s di didn' dn'tt kn know ow they th ey neede needed d to know about about them. them. So So,, th they ey never got included in the "accepted" model of how the solar system or the cosmos works. That is why, to this day, most astrophysicists have never taken courses in electromagnetic field fie ld theo th eory ry or exper ex perim iment ental al plas pl asma ma discharges. They attempt to describe the the actions of plasma by means of equations that are applicable only to fluids like water - and magnet mag netic ic effects. effects. Thi This s is what Alfven Alfven called called 'magneto-hyd 'magne to-hydrodyna rodynamics'. mics'. They do not real re aliz ize, e, as he di did, d, th that at th the e pr pref efix ix 'm 'mag agnet neto' o' implie imp lies s 'el 'electr ectro'. o'. And that, that, in tur turn, n, explains explains why ast astrop rophys hysici icists sts blit blithel hely y talk abo about ut stel stellar lar winds, vortex trails, trails, and bow shocks instead of electrical currents in plasmas, electrical fields, z-pinches, z-pinc hes, and double double layers. layers. It also explains explains why they make wrong claims about how magnetic fields must pile-up, merge, and recomb rec ombine ine - the they y are simply simply uneducat uneducated ed in, and therefore understandably mystified by, this
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now well known area of engineering science. Recent Development! The Am The Amer eric ican an In Inst stit itut ute e of Ph Phys ysic ics s ha has s ju just st recently announced that they will now officially recognize the Plasma Universe as an official field of study in physics! Eighty years late! But better late than never.
Dark Matter
(Missing)
What Was Missing Dutch astronomer Jan Oort first discovered the 'missing 'missin g matter' matter' problem problem in the 1930's. 1930's. By observing observing the Doppler red-shift values of stars moving near the plane of our galaxy, Oort assumed he could calculate how fast the stars were moving. Since the galaxy was nott fl no fly yin ing g ap apar art, t, he rea eas son one ed tha hatt th ther ere e mus ustt be enough matter inside the galaxy such that the central gravitational force was strong enough to keep the stars from escaping, much as the Sun's gravitational pull keeps kee ps a pla planet net in its orbit. orbit. But when when the calculat calculation ion was made, it turned out that there was not enough mass ma ss in th the e ga gala laxy xy.. An And d th the e di disc scre repa panc ncy y wa was s no nott
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small; the galaxy had to be at least twice as massive as the sum of the mass of all its visible components combined. Where was all this missing matter? In addit dditiion, on, in the the 1960 1960's 's the radi adial prof profil ile e of the the tangential velocity of stars in their orbits around the galactic center as a function of their distance from that center was measured. It was was found that typically, once we get away from the galactic center all the stars travel with the same velocity independent of their distance out from the galactic center . (See the figure below.) below.) Usually, Usually, as is the case case with our solar solar system, system, the farther out an object is, the slower it travels in its orbit.
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Figure Figure 1. A typica typicall star's star's tangenti tangential al velocity velocity as a functio function n of its distance from the galactic center.
To visualize the seriousness of the problem cosmologists face, we need to consider just a bit of Newtonian dynamics: •
•
To change a body's velocity vector - either in dire di rec cti tion on or ma mag gni nitu tude de or bo both th,, a fo forc rce e must be applied to the mass of the body. The resulting acceleration is equal to the ratio of the applied force divided by the mass of the object; i.e., f = m a, where f is the force applied to the body, m is the mass of the body, and a is the resulting acceler acc elerati ation on (ch (chang ange e in vel veloci ocity) ty).. Bot Both h f and a are vectors; the change in direction of the velocity will be in the direction of the applied force. When an Olympic athlete, starting to do the hammer throw, swings the hammer around himself in a circle, the force he feels stretching his arms (the force he is applying to the hammer) is the 'centripetal force'. That force is equal to the product of the hammer's mass, m1, times the centripetal centri petal acceleration acceleration (whi (which ch in this case is the acceleration that continually changes only the direction, not the magn ma gnit itude ude,, of th the e ve velo loci city ty ve vect ctor or of th the e hammer - inward - so as to keep it in a circul cir cular ar orbit around around the athlete) athlete).. Thi This s acceleration is equal to the square of the hammer's hammer 's tangential velocity, velocity, v, divided by the th e ra radi dius us of th the e ci circ rcle le.. So So,, th the e in inwa ward rd force the athlete needs to exert to keep the hammer in in its circular circular path path is: f = m1 v^2/ v^2/ 28
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R. •
Newton's law of gravitational force says that the force between two masses is equal to G (t (the he gr grav avita itati tion onal al 'c 'cons onsta tant nt') ') tim times es th the e product of the two masses divided by the square squar e of the the distance distance between between them. them. f = G(m1 x m2)/R^2.
Consider the case of a star on the outskirts of a galaxy. galaxy. Its radius radius from the galactic galactic center center is R. Its mass mass is is m1, and m2 is the total mass of everything else (all the other sta stars and and matt matter er)) insi inside de a circ circle le whos whosee radi radius us is R, the the distan distance ce of the star from the galaxy galaxy's 's cente center. r. Newto Newtonia nian n dynamics assumes all that combined mass, m2, acts as if it were located located at a single point at at the galaxy's galaxy's center. For the star to remain in a fixed orbit, the necessary inward (centripetal) force, m1 V^2/R, must be exactly equal to the available available (gravitat (gravitational) ional) force, force, G(m1 x m2)/R^2. m2)/R^2. Setting Setting thes thesee two two expr expres essi sion onss equa equall to each each othe otherr resu results lts in the expression: m2 = (V^2) R /G This This say says tha that for for the the tang tangen enti tial al velo veloccity ity, V, to remain constant as R increases - as it does in figure 1 (as we look at stars farther and farther out from the galaxy's center) the included mass, m2, must increase proportionally to that radius, radius, R. But we realize realize that, that, if we move far out from from the center, to the last few stars in any galaxy, included mass will not increase proportionally to the radius. So there seems to be no way the the velo veloccity ity can remain the sam same for the the outermost outermost stars stars as for the inner stars. stars. Therefore Therefore,, astro astrophy physic sicist istss have have conclu concluded ded that, that, either either some some mass mass is 'missing' in the outer regions of galaxies, or the outer stars rotating around galaxy cores do not obey Newton's law of gravity. There There were problem problems, s, too, at a larger larger scale. scale. In 1933
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astronomer Fritz Zwicky announced that when he measured the individual individual velocities velocities of a large large group of galaxies galaxies known as the Coma cluster, he found that all of the galaxies that he measured were moving so rapidly relative to one another that the cluster should have come apart long ago. The visible mass of the galaxies making up the cluster was far too little to produce enough gravitational force to hold the cluster together. So not only was was our own galaxy galaxy lacking mass, but so was the whole Coma cluster of galaxies.
MACHOs, WIMPs & MOND At first, cosmologists decided to leave Newton's laws inviolate and to postulate the existence of some invisible dark entities to make up the missing mass. Apparently it never ocurred to anyone to go back and examine the basic assumption that only gravity was at work in these cases. It was easier to patch up the theory theory with invisible invisible entities. entities. (Remember (Remember the invisible invisible gnomes in my garden?) garden?) To quote quote Astronomy Astronomy magazine (Aug. 2001 p 26): "What's more, astronomers have gone to great lengths to affectionately name, define, and categorize this zoo of invisible invisible stuff called called dark matter. There are are the MAssive Compact Halo Objects (MACHOs) thi things ngs like like ... blac black k holes oles,, and neutr eutron on star stars s that hat purportedly populate the outer reaches of galaxies like the Milky Way. Then there there are the Weakly Weakly Interactin Interacting g Massive Particles (WIMPs), which possess mass, yet don't interact with ordinary matter - baryons such as protons and neutrons - because they are composed of something something entirely entirely foreign foreign and unknown. unknown. Dark matter matter even comes in two flavors, hot (HDM) and cold (CDM)....." 1. Cold dark matter - supposedly in dead stars,
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planets, brown dwarfs ("failed stars") etc. 2. Hot dar ark k matter - postulate ted d to be fa fast st moving particles floating throughout the universe, neutrinos, tachions etc. "And "And all the while while astron astronomer omers s and physici physicists sts have refined their dark matter theories without ever getting their hands on a single piece of it. But where where is all of this dark matter? The truth is that after more than 30 years of looking for it, there's still no definitive proof that WIMPs exist or that MACHOs will ever make up more than five percent of the total reserve of missing dark stuff." Of course, the second possibility mentioned above (that the outer stars rotating around galaxy cores do not obey Newton's Law of Gravity) was thought to be impossible. But the first alternative - the fanciful notion that 99% of the matter in the universe was invisible - began to be worrisome too. too. It was stated stated that WIMPs WIMPs and MACHOs MACHOs were were in the category of particle known as "Fabricated Ad hoc Inventions Repea Repeated tedly ly Invoked Invoked in Effor Efforts ts to Defend Defend Untena Untenable ble Scientific Theories" (FAIRIE DUST). Even such an august authority as Princeton University cosmologist Jim Peebles has been quoted as saying,
"It' "It'ss an emba embarr rras assm smen entt th that at th thee dominant forms of matter in the universe are hypothetical..." So the second alternative, radical as it is, was chosen chosen by some some astrop astrophys hysici icists sts and called called "MOdify "MOdify Newton's Dynamics" (MOND) This paradigm shaking proposal to alter Newton's Law of Gravity - because it does does not not seem seem to give give corr correc ectt answ answer ers s in the the low low density regions of galaxies - was first put forward in 1983 by astrophysicist Mordehai Milgrom at the
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Weizman Institute of Science in Israel. It has recently been given more publicity by University of Maryland astrono astronomer mer Stacy McGaugh. McGaugh. Milgro Milgrom, m, himsel himself, f, has recently ("Does Dark Matter Really Exist?", Scientific American, American, Aug. 2002, p. 42-52) said, "Although people are right to be skeptical about MOND, until definitive evid evidenc ence e arri arrive ves s for for dark dark matt matter er or for one of its alternatives, alternatives, we should should keep keep our minds minds open. open."" One wonders what alternatives was he referring to? Some other astrophysicists have grasped at the announ announce ceme ment nt that that neutri neutrinos nos,, that that perme permeate ate the cosmos cosmos,, have mass. This, they say, say, must be the previously "missing matter" matter".. But the "missing "missing mass" mass" is not missing homogeneously throughout the universe - just in specific places (like the outer reaches of galaxies). The neutrinos are homoge homogeneo neously usly distri distribute buted. d. So this this last last ditch ditch explan explanati ation on fails as well. The dilemma presented by the fact that Newt Newton on's 's Law Law of Grav Gravit ity y does does not not give give the the corre orrect ct (obser (observed ved)) result results s in most most cases cases involv involving ing galaxy galaxy rotation can only be resolved by realizing that Newton's Law of Gravity is simply not applicable in these these situatio situations. ns. Galaxi Galaxies es are not held together together by gravit gravity. y. They are formed, formed, driven driven,, and stabiliz stabilized ed by dynamic electromagnetic effects.
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The Real Explanation:
Dynamic Electromagnetic Forces in Cosmic Plasmas Ninety nine percent of the universe is made up of tenuous clouds of ions and electrons called electric plasma. plasma. Plasm Plasmas as respon respond d to the electr electrical ical phys physica icall laws laws codi codifi fied ed by Jame James s Cler Clerk k Maxw Maxwel elll and and Ol Oliv iver er Heaviside Heaviside in the late late 1800's. 1800's. An additional additional single single law due to Hendrick Lorentz explains the mysterious stellar velocities described above. d/dt(mv d/dt(m v) = q(E q(E + v x B) Simp Simplly stat state ed, this this law law says ays that that a mov moving ing charged particle's momentum (direction) can be changed by application of either an electric field, E, or a magnetic field, B, or both. both. Consider Consider the mass and charge of a proton for example. The electrostatic force between two protons is 36 orders of magnitude greater than the gravitational force (given by Newton's equati equation) on).. It's It's not that that Newt Newton's on's Law Law is wron wrong. g. It is just that in deep space it is totally overpowered by the Maxwell-Lorentz forces of electromagnetic dynamics. Notice, in the equation in the previous parag paragra raph, ph, that that the the chan change ge in a char charge ged d parti particl cle's e's momentum (left hand side of the equation) is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, B,
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the the part partic icle le is movin moving g thro throug ugh. h. The The stre streng ngth th of the the magnetic field produced by an electric current (e.g., a cosmic sized Birkeland current) falls off inversely as the first power of power of the the distance from the current. current. Both electrostatic and gravitational forces fall off inversely as the square of the distance. This inherent difference in the spatial distribution of electromagnetic forces as compared to gravitational forces may indeed be the root cause of the inexplicable velocity profiles exhibited by galaxies. Electrica Electricall engineer engineer Dr. Anthony Anthony L. Peratt, Peratt, using Maxwell's and Lorentz's equations, has shown that charged particles, such as those that form the intergalactic plasma, will will evolv evolvee into into very very fami famili liar ar gala galact ctic ic shap shapes es unde underr the the influe influenc ncee of electr electrody odynam namic ic force forces. s. The results results of these these simula simulatio tions ns fit perfec perfectly tly with with the obser observed ved values values of the velocity contours in galaxies. No missing matter matter is needed needed and Newton can rest rest easy in his grave. grave. The electromagnetic electromagnetic force is many orders of magnitude stronger than the force due to gravity and it distributes itself more widely throug throughou houtt space space.. But present present day astrono astronomy my refuses refuses to reco recogn gniz izee the the exis existe tenc ncee of any any cosm cosmic ic forc forcee othe otherr than than gravity. That error is the cause cause of their mystification. mystification. An allegory: A farme farmerr and and his his young young daug daught hter er are are driv drivin ing g along a dusty dusty road. road. They are are almost home home when the the car breaks breaks down. down. The farmer farmer walks walks to the barn and gets gets his horse, horse, Dobbin. Dobbin. He harness harnesses es Dobbin Dobbin to the front bumper of the car and begins to drag it along the road toward home. The young daughter takes takes a piece of string and attaches it to the bumper and says, "I'll help drag the car, Daddy." Anyone who cannot see horses will think the daughter must possess "missing muscle". Or, as in Moti Milgrom's MOND proposal, they might suggest that Newton's Laws of motion needed
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"modification" in this case. In 1986, Nobel laureate Hannes Alfven postu postula lated ted both both an elect electri rical cal gala galact ctic ic mode modell and and an electric electric solar model. model. Recently Recently physicist physicist Wal Thornhill Thornhill has pointed out that Alfven's circuits are really scaled up versions of the familiar homopolar homopolar motor that serves as the watt-hour meter on each of our homes. The simple application of the Lorentz force equation ("cros ("crossing sing"" the directi direction, on, v, of the curr curre ent into into the direction, B, of the magnetic field) yields a rotational force. Not only does this effect explain the mysterious tangential velocities of the outer stars in galaxies, but also (in scaled down version) the observed fact that our Sun rotates faster at its equator than at higher (solar) latitudes. Up to now astronomers and cosmologists have not given serious consideration to any sort of electrical explanation explanation for any of the the above observati observations. ons. This is puzzling because all these electrical principles have now been been known for decades decades.. They They have long been been applied in the solution of problems in plasma laboratories here on Earth and have been used successfully successfully in the invention of many practical devices - such as industrial electrical arc machining, particle accelerators accelerators,, etc. etc. The correct, correct, simple, simple, solution solution to to the "mysteries" of galaxy rotation lies in Plasma ElectroDynamics - not in the invention of imaginary, fanciful entities entities such as WIMPs and MACHOs MACHOs or in the tras trashi hing ng of a per perfec fectly tly valid alid law of physi hysics cs as is proposed in MOND.
Conclusion Present day astronomy/cosmology seems seems to be on the
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horns of a very painful painful dilemma. dilemma. This dilemma dilemma is caused caused by the fact that Newton's Law of Gravity does not give the correct (observed) results in most cases involving galaxy rotation. The "missing matter" proposal attempts to balance the equation by increasing one of the variables (one of the mass terms). terms). The second second proposal proposal (MOND) (MOND) is to change change Newt Newton on's 's equa equati tion on itsel itself. f. (If (If you are are losi losing ng the the game game,, change the rules.) But, the ultimate resolution of the dilemma lies in realizing that Newton's Law of Gravity is simply not applicabl applicablee in these situations. situations. Maxwell’s Maxwell’s equations equations are! Why do astrophysicists grope wildly for solutions in every possible direction except the right one?
THE SUN
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(Top) A solar flare showing the twisting motion characteristic of a Birkeland current. (Bottom) An X-ray image of the sun showing the active lower corona.
The Electric Sun Hypothesis The Basics In this day and age there is no longer any doubt that electrical electrical effect effects s in plasmas play an important role in the phenomena we observe on the Sun. The major properties of the
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"Electric Sun (ES) model" are as follows: Most of the space within our galaxy is occupi occupied ed by plasma (rar (rarefied efied ionized gas) containing electrons (negative charges) and ionized atoms (positive charges). Every charged particle in the plasma has an electric potential energy (voltage) just as every pebble on a mountain has a mechanical potential energy with respect to sea level. The Sun is surrounded by a plasma cell that stretche hes s fa farr out - many times the radi ra dius us of Pl Plut uto. o. Th Thes ese e ar are e fa fac cts no nott hypotheses. The Sun is at a more positive electrical potential (voltage) than is the space plasma surrounding it - probably in the order of 10 billion volts. Positive ions leave the Sun and electrons enter the Sun. Both of these flows add add to to form a net positive curren cur rentt leaving leaving the Sun. Sun. This Thi s consti con stitut tutes es a plasma plas ma dischar disc harge ge analogous in every way (except size) to those that have been observed in electrical plasma laboratories for decades. Because of the Sun's positive charge (voltage), it acts as the anode in a plasma discharge. As such, it ex exhi hibi bits ts ma many ny of th the e ph phen enom omen ena a observ obs erved ed in ear earthb thboun ound d plas plasma ma experiments, such as anode tufting . The granules observed on the surface of th the e ph phot otos osph pher ere e ar are e an anod ode e tu tuft fts s (plasma in the arc mode). •
•
•
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The Sun may be powered, not from within itself, but from outside, by the th e el elec ectr tric ic (B (Bir irke kelan land) d) cu curr rren ents ts th that at flow in our arm of our galaxy as they do in all gal galaxi axies. es. Thi This s poss possibi ibilit lity y tha thatt the Sun may be exernally powered by its it s ga gala lact ctic ic en envi viro ronme nment nt is th the e mo most st speculative idea in the ES hypothesis and is always attacked by critics while they th ey ig ignor nore e al alll th the e ot other her ex expl plan anat ator ory y prop pr oper erti ties es of th the e ES mo mode del. l. In the Plasma Universe model, these cosmic sized, low-density currents create the gala ga laxi xies es an and d th the e st star ars s wi with thin in th thos ose e galaxies by the electromagnetic zpinch effect. effect. It is only a small extrapolation to ask whether these currents remain to power those stars. Gallac Ga acti tic c cu curr rren ents ts ar are e of lo low w cu curr rren entt density , but, because the sizes of the stars are large, the total current (Amperage) (Ampe rage) is high. high. The Sun's Sun's radiated power at any instant is due to the th e ener en ergy gy impa im part rted ed by that th at amperage. amper age. As the the Sun moves moves around around the th e ga gala lact ctic ic ce cent nter er it may co come me int into o regions of higher or lower current dens de nsit ity y an and d so it its s ou outp tput ut ma may y var ary y both periodically and randomly. randomly. •
The Corona The Sun's corona is visible only during solar eclipses (or via sophisticated instruments developed for that that specif specific ic purpose purpose). ). It is a vast luminous luminous plasma glow that changes shape with time - always
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remaining fairly smooth and distributed in its inner regions, and showing filamentary spikes and points in its outer fringes. It is a "normal glow" mode plasma discharge. discharge. If the Sun were not electrical electrical in nature nature this this corona corona would not exist. exist. If the Sun is simply a (non-electrical) nuclear furnace, the corona has no business being there at all. So one of the most basic questions that ought to arise in any discussion of the Sun is: Why does our Sun have a corona? Why is it there? It serves no purpose in a fusion-only model nor can such models explain its existence.
The Solar Wind Positive ions stream outward from the Sun's surface and accelerate away, through the corona, for as far as we have ha ve been able to measure. It is thought that these particles eventually make up a portion of the cosmic co smic ray flux that permeates the the cosmos. The 'wind' varies with time and has even been b een observed to stop completely for a period of a day or two. What causes this fluctuation? The ES model proposes a simple explanation and suggests a mechanism that creates fluctuations in this flow. The standard standard model provides no such explanation or mechanism.
Electrical Properties of the Photosphere and Chromosphere The essence of the Electric Sun hypothesis is an analysis of the electrical properties of its photos pho tospher phere e and the chr chromos omosphe phere re and the
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resulting effects on the charged particles that move across them. A radial cross-section taken through a photospheric 'granule' is shown sho wn in the three three plots plots shown, shown, below. below. The horizontal axis of each of the three plots is distance, distanc e, measur measured ed radi radially ally outw outward, ard, start starting ing at a point near the bottom of the photosphere (the true surface of the Sun - which we can only observe in the umbra of sunspots). Almost every observed property of the Sun can be explained through reference to these three plots; for this reason, much of the discussion that follows makes reference to them. The first plot shows the energy per unit (positive) charge of an ion as a function of its radial distance out from the solar surface. The units of Energy per Unit Charge are Volts, V . The second plot, the EE-field, field, shows the outward radial force (toward the right) experienced experi enced by by such a positiv positive e ion. The third third plot shows the locations of the charge densities that will produce the first two plots. The chromosphere is the location of a plasma double layer (DL) (DL) of electrica electricall charge. charge. Recal Recalll that one of the properties of electric plasma is its it s exce ex cell llen entt (alt (a ltho houg ugh h nott no perrfe pe fect ct)) conductivit conduc tivity. y. Such an excelle excellent nt conductor conductor will support only a weak weak electric field. Notice in the second plot that the almost ideal plasmas of the photosphere (region b to c) and the corona (from point e outward) are regions of almost zero electric field strength
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Ener Energy gy,, Elec Electr tric ic field field stre streng ngth th,, and and Char Charge ge density as a function of radial distance from the Sun's surface. All three of these plots are related mathematically. By the laws of electrophysics: E = - dV /dr /dr , and Charge density = dE dE/d /dr r . In words: The value of the EE-field, field, at every point r , is the (negative of) the slope of the energy plot at that point. (The reason for the negative sign in the first equation is that the force on a positively charged particle is down the potential potent ial hill, hill, not up.) The value value of the charge charge density at each point, r , is the slope of the Efiel fi eld d pl plot ot at tha hatt po poiint nt.. The tw two o la lay yer ers s of opposite charge density necessary to produce
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the compound shaped energy curve between points c and e used to be called a 'double sheath'. Modern nomenclature calls it a 'double layer' layer' (DL). It is a well known known phenomenon pheno menon in in plasma dischar discharges. ges. Becau Because se of the DL positioned between points c and e, a +ion to the right of point e sees no electrostatic forrce from fo from +i +ion ons s to the left left of po poin intt c. Th The e 'primary plasma' of the corona and the 'sec 's econ ondar dary y pl plasm asma' a' of th the e ph phot otos osphe phere re ar are e separated by the DL - a well known, and often observed property of plasmas. The en The ener ergy gy pl plot ot sh show own n ab abov ove e is va vali lid d fo for r positively charged particles. Because a positive EE-fiel field d rep repres resent ents s an out outwar ward d ra radial dial force (toward the right) per unit charge on any such particle, the region wherein the EE-field field is negative (a to b) constitutes an inward force. This region of the lower photosphere is, thus, an energy barrier that positive ions must surmount in order to escape the body of the Sun. Any +ions attempting to escape outward from within the Sun must have enough energy to get over this this energy barrier. So the presence of the single positive charge layer at the bot otttom of th the e tuf uftt pla lasm sma a se serrves as a constraint on unlimited escape of +ions from the surface of the Sun.
Tuft Shrinkage and Movement In or orde derr to vi visu sual aliz ize e th the e ef effe fect ct th this is en ener ergy gy diagram has on electrons (negati (negative ve charg charges) es) coming in toward the Sun from cosmic space
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(from the right), we can turn the energy plot upside down. down. Doing this this enables us to visualize the 'trap' that these photospheric tufts are for incoming electrons. As the the trap fills, the ener en ergy gy ga gap p be betw twee een n b an and d c de decr crea ease ses s in height, and so the tuft weakens, shrinks, and eventually disappears. This is the cause of the observed shrinkage and disappearance of photospheric granules.
Temperature Minimum Charged particles do not experience external electrostati electr ostatic c forces f orces when they are in the range b to c - within within the the photosphere. photosphere. Only random random ther th ermal mal mo move veme ment nt occ occur urs s du due e to dif diffus fusio ion. n. (Tem (T empe pera ratu ture re is si simp mply ly th the e me meas asur urem emen entt of the violence violence of such random movement.) This is where the 6,000 K temperature is measured. measur ed. Posit Positive ive ions have have their their maximum maximum electrical potential energy when they are in this photospheric plasma. But their mechanical kinetic kineti c energy energy is relatively relatively low. low. At a point point just to the left of point c, any random movement toward the right (radially outward) that carries a + ion even slightly to the right of point c will result in it being swept away, down the energy hill, toward toward the right. Such movement movement of charged particles due to an EE-field field is called a 'drift current' current'.. This drift drift current current of accelerating accelerating positive ions is a constituent of the solar 'wind' (which is a serious misnomer). As positive ions begin to accelerate down the potential energy drop from point c through e, they convert the high (electrical) potential energy they had in the photosphere into kinetic energy - they gain
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extremely high outward radial velocity and lose side-to-side side-t o-side rando random m motion. motion. Thus, they become 'detherm 'dethermalized alized'. '. In this region, region, in the upper photosphere and lower chromosphere, the movement of these ions becomes extremely organized (parallel).
The Transition Zone When these rapidly moving + ions pass point e (leave the chromosphere) they move beyond the radially directed EE-field field force that has been accelerating them. Because of their high kine ki neti tic c en ener ergy gy (v (vel eloci ocity ty), ), any co collllis isio ions ns th they ey hav ha ve at th this is po poiint (wi with th ot oth her io ions ns or wit ith h neut ne utra rall at atom oms) s) ar are e vi viol olen entt an and d cr crea eate te hi high gh amplitude random motions, thereby rether th erma mali lizi zing ng th the e pl plas asma ma to a mu much ch gr grea eate ter r degree than it was in the photospheric tufts (in the rang range e b to to c). c). This is what what is is responsibl responsible e forr th fo the e hi high gh te temp mper erat atur ure e we ob obse serv rve e in th the e lower low er corona. corona. Ion Ions s just to the right right of point point e are reported to be at temperatures of 1 to 2 million milli on K. Nothin Nothing g else but exactly exactly this kind of mechanism could be expected from the electric sun (anode tuft - double layer) model. The re-thermalization takes place in a region analogous to the turbulent 'white water' boiling at the bottom of a smooth laminar water slide. In the fu fus sio ion n mo mode dell no su suc ch (wat ater er sl slid ide) e) phenomenon exists - and so neither does a simple explanation of the temperature discontinuity.
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Acceleration of the Solar 'Wind' The energy plot (to the right of point e) actually trails off, with slightly negative slope, toward the negative voltage of deep space (our arm of the Milky Way galaxy). galaxy). A relatively relatively low density plasma can support a weak EE-field. field. Consistent with wi th th this is,, a lo low w am ampl plit itud ude e (p (pos osit itiv ive) e) EE-field field extends indefinitely to the right from point e. This is the effect of the Sun being at a higher voltage level than is distant space beyond the heliopause. The outward force on positive ions due to this EE-field field causes the observed acceleration of +ions in the solar wind.
Cosmic Rays The particles in our solar wind eventually join with the spent solar winds of all the other stars in our galaxy to make up the total cosmic ray flux in our arm of our galaxy. Juergens points out that the Sun is a rather mediocre star as far as radiating energy goes. If it is electrically powered, perhaps its mediocrity is attributable to a relatively unimpressive driving potential. This would mean that hotter, more luminous stars should have driving potentials greater than that of the Sun Su n an and d sh shou ould ld co cons nseq equen uentl tly y ex expel pel cos cosmi mic c rays ra ys of gr grea eate terr en ener ergi gies es th than an so sola larr co cosm smic ic rays. A star with a driving potential of 20 billion volts would expel protons energetic enough to reach the Sun's surface, arriving with 10 bill bi llio ion n el elec ectr tron on vo volt lts s of en ener ergy gy to sp spar are e. Such cosmic ions, when they collide with
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Earth's upp Earth's upper er atm atmosp ospher here e rel release ease the muo muon n neutrinos that have been much in the news recently. Hannes Alfven in his book, The New Astronomy, Chapter 2, Section III, pp 74-79, said about cosmic rays: "How these particles are driven to their fantastic energies, sometimes as high as a million billion electron volts, is one of the prime puzzles of astronomy. No known (or even unknown) nuclear reaction could account for the firing of particles with such energies; even the comp co mple lete te an anni nihil hilat ation ion of a pr prot oton on wo woul uld d no nott yield more than a billion electron volts."
Fluctuations in the Fluctuations Solar "Wind" It is interesting to note in passing that the three plots presented above are identically the plots of energy, EE-field, field, and charge distribution found in a pnp transistor. Of course in that solid-state device there are different processes goin go ing g on at di diffe ffere rent nt en ener ergy gy le leve vels ls (v (val alenc ence e band and conduction band) within a solid crystal. cryst al. In the solar solar plasma plasma there are are no fixed atomic centers and so there is only one energy band ba nd.. In a tr tran ansi sisto stor, r, the amplit amplitud ude e of the collllec co ector tor cur curre rent nt (a (anal nalog ogou ous s to th the e dr drif iftt of +ion +i ons s in th the e so sola larr wi wind nd to towa ward rd th the e ri righ ght) t) is easily eas ily con contro trolle lled d by rai raisin sing g and low loweri ering ng the difference between the base and emitter voltages. Is the same mechanism (a voltage fluctuation fluctu ation between the anodeanode-Sun Sun and its photos pho tospher phere) e) at work in the Sun? e.g e.g., ., If the
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Sun's voltage were to decrease slightly - say, beca be caus use e of an ex exce cess ssiv ive e fl flow ow of ou outg tgoi oing ng +ions - the voltage rise from point a to b in the energy diagram would increase in height and so re redu duce ce th the e sol olar ar wi wind nd (b (bot oth h th the e in inwa ward rd electron flow and the outward +ion flow) in a negative negati ve feedback feedback effect. effect. In May of 1999 1999 the solar wind completely stopped for about two days. There are are also periodic periodic variations variations in the the solar wind. The transistor-like mechanism described above is certainly capable of causing these phenom phenomena. ena. The fusion fusion model model is at a complete loss to explain them. Transistor 'cutoff' is a process that is used in all digital circuits.
Characteristic Modes of a Plasma In the page on Ele Electr ctric ic Pl Plasm asma a the three characteristic static modes in which a plasma can operate are discussed. Here is a more detail det ailed ed descri des criptio ption. n. The volt-am vol t-amper pere e char ch arac acte teri rist stic ic of a ty typic pical al pla plasm sma a di disc schar harge ge has the general shape shown below.
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The volt-ampere plot of a plasma discharge.
This plot is easily measured for a laboratory plasma contained in a column - a cylindrical glass tube with the anode at one end and the cathode at the other. These two terminals are connected into an electrical circuit whereby the current curr ent through through the tube tube can be controlled controlled.. In such an experiment, the plasma has a constant cross-sectional area from one end of the tube tube to the other. other. The vertical vertical axis axis of the volt-ampere plot is the voltage rise from the cath ca thod ode e up to th the e an anod ode e (a (acr cros oss s th the e en enti tire re plasma) as a function of the current passing through the the plasma. The horizontal axis shows the Current Density. Current density is the mea easu surreme ment nt of ho how w man any y Am Amps ps pe per r squa sq uarre me mete terr ar are e fl flow owin ing g th thro roug ugh h a cr cros ossssectio sec tion n of the tube. In a cylindri cylindrical cal tube tube the cros cr osss-se sect ctio ion n is th the e sa same me si size ze at al alll po poin ints ts along the tube and so, the current density at every cross-section is just proportional to the total current passing through the plasma.
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When we consider the Sun, however, a spherical geometry exists - with the sun at the center.. center The cross-s cross-section ection becomes an imagin ima ginary ary sphere. sphere. Ass Assume ume a con consta stant nt total electron electr on drift moving from all direc directions tions toward the Su Sun n an and d a con onst stan antt to tottal ra radi dial al fl flow ow of +ions outward. outward. Imagi Imagine ne a spherical spherical surface surface of large lar ge ra radi dius us th thro roug ugh h wh whic ich h thi this s to total tal cur curre rent nt passes pas ses.. As we approac approach h the Sun from from deep space, this spherical surface has an ever decrea dec reasing sing area. area. Ther Therefor efore, e, for a fix fixed ed total current, the current density density (A/m^2) (A/m^2) increases as we move inward toward the Sun. In deep space the current dens de nsit ity y th ther ere e is ex extr trem emel ely y lo low w ev even en though the total current may be huge; we are in the dar dark k cur curren rent t region; there are no glowing gases, nothing to tell us we are in a plasma discharge except possibly some radio frequency emissions. As we get closer to the Sun, the spherical boundary has a smaller surface area; the current density increases; we enter the normal glow region; this is what we call the Sun's "corona". The intensity of the radiated light is much like a neon sign. As we ap appr proa oach ch st stil illl cl clos oser er to the Sun, the spherical boundary gets to be only slightly larger than the Sun itself; the current density becomes extremely large; we enter the arc region of th the e di disc scha harg rge. e. Th This is is th the e anode ano de tuft. tuft. Thi This s is the photos photosphe phere. re. •
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The in The inte tens nsit ity y of th the e ra radi diat ated ed li ligh ghtt is much like an arc welding machine or continuous contin uous lightning lightning.. A high high intensity intensity ultraviolet light is emitted. Some early plasma researchers and most modern astronomers believe that the only "true" plasma is one that is perfectly conductive (and so will "freeze" magnetic fields into itself). The volt-ampere plot shown above indi in dica cate tes s th that at th this is do does es no nott ha happ ppen en.. Ev Ever ery y point on the plot (except the origin) has a nonzero voltage voltage coordinate. coordinate. The static static resistivity resistivity of a pl plas asma ma op oper erat atin ing g at any poi oint nt on th the e above volt-ampere plot is proportional to the slope of a straig straight ht line drawn from the origin to the point. point. This means means that, that, at every possibl possible e mode in which a plasma can operate, it has a non-zero static resistivity; it takes a non-zero E-field to produce the current density. Obviously the static resistivity of a plasma in the high end of the dark mode can be quite large. lar ge. (Th (The e arc region region and the left half half of the glow glo w reg region ion exh exhibi ibitt neg negativ ative e dynamic resistance - and the E-field can be quite small butt that is not what bu what is in quest questio ion. n.)) No real real plasma can can "freeze-in" "freeze-in" a magneti magnetic c field. The highest conductivity plasmas are those in the arc mode. mode. But But,, even in that that mode, mode, it takes takes a finite,, non-z finite non-zero ero value valued d electr electric ic field to produc produce e a cu curr rren entt de dens nsit ity. y. No pl plas asma ma is an "i "ide deal al conductor".
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Fusion in the Double Layer The zThe z-pi pinc nch h ef effec fectt of hi high gh in inte tens nsit ity, y, par paral alle lell cur urrren entt fi fila lame ment nts s in an ar arc c pl plas asma ma is ver ery y strong. Whatever nuclear fusion is taking place on th the e Su Sun n is oc occ cur urri ring ng he here re in th the e do doub uble le layer (DL) at the top of the photosphere (not deep within the core). The result result of this fusion proc pr oces ess s ar are e th the e "m "met etal als" s" th that at gi give ve ri rise se to absorption lines lines in the Sun's spectrum. Traces of sixty eight of the ninety two natural elements are found in the Sun's atmosphere. Most of the radio frequency frequency noise emitt emitted ed by the Sun emanates from this region. Radio noise is a wellll kn we know own n pr prop oper erty ty of DL DLs. s. Th The e el elec ectr tric ical al power available to be delivered to the plasma at any point is the product of the E-field (Volts perr me pe mete ter) r) ti times mes cu curr rrent ent de densi nsity ty (A (Amp mps s per square squ are met meter) er).. Thi This s mul multip tiplic licati ation on ope opera ration tion yield yi elds s Wat Watts ts per cu cubi bic c me mete ter. r. Th The e cur curre rent nt density is relatively constant over the height of the photospheric / chromospheric layers. However, the E-field is by far the strongest at the center of the DL. Nuclear fusion takes a great deal of power - and that power is available in the DL.
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It is also observed that the neut ne utri rino no fl flux ux fr from om th the e Su Sun n var arie ies s inv in ver erse sely ly witth wi sunspot number. This is expected in the ES hypot hy pothes hesis is becaus bec ause e the source of those neutrinos is z-pinch z-pin ch produ produced ced fusi fusion on which is occurring in the double layer - and sunspots are locations where there is no DL in which this process can occur.
Sunspots and Coronal Holes In a pl plas asma ma,, bot oth h th the e di dim men ensi sio ons an and d th the e vol olta tage ges s of the an ano ode tu tuft fts s dep epen end d on th the e current density at that location (near the anode). The tufts tufts appear and/or disappear, disappear, as needed, to maintain a certain required relationship between +ion and electron numbers number s in the total total current. current. This property property of of anode tuft plasmas was discovered, quantified, and an d re repor porte ted d by Ir Irvi ving ng La Lang ngmu muir ir ov over er fi fift fty y years ago. In the Electric Sun model, as with any plasma discharge, tufting disappears wherever the flux of incoming electrons impinging onto a given area ar ea of th the e Su Sun's n's su surf rfac ace e is no nott su suffi ffici cien entl tly y strong to require the shielding produced by the plasma double layer. At any any such location, the the anode tufting collapses and we can see down to the actual actual anode surface surface of of the Sun. Sun. Since there is no arc discharge occurring in these
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locations, they appear darker than the surrounding area and are termed "sunspots". Of course, if a tremendous amount of energy were being produced in the Sun's interior, the spot should be brighter and hotter than the surrounding photosphere. The fact that sunspots are dark and cool strongly supports the th e co cont nten entio tion n th that at ve very ry lilitt ttle le,, if an anyt ythin hing, g, is going goi ng on in the Sun's interi interior. or. The center center of the spot is called its umbra. umb ra.
A sunspot showing showing the umbra, penumbra, and surrounding anode tufts (DLs). Becaus Beca use e th ther ere e is no an anod ode e tu tuft ftin ing g whe here re a spot is located, the voltage rise (region a to b in the energy plot above), which normally limits the local flow of positive ions leaving the anode surf su rface ace,, do does es no nott ex exis istt th ther ere. e. In su suns nspot pots, s, then, a large number of ions will flood outward
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toward the lower corona. Such a flow constitutes a large electrical current - and, as such, will produce a strong localized magnetic field near the sunspot. The Sun's corona is difficult to see except in solar eclipses and in X ray images. This is because the corona is a "normal glow" discharge compared to the tufts which are in "arc mode". mode". In some X ray images images of the Sun (such as the one shown in the first figure at the very ve ry to top p of th this is pa page ge)) we ca can n se see e "c "cor oron onal al hole ho les s" - la larg rge e da dark rk reg egiion ons s in the br briigh ghte ter r image of the the solar corona. corona. The bright bright regions regions in X-ray images of the corona indicate hotter, more energetic areas; these are mainly above the sunspot regions. In the three images of a sunspot group, shown below: The top one is the photosphere tak ta ken in vi visi sibl ble e li ligh ghtt - whe here re,, in th the e umbrae, we can see down to the dark (cool (c ool)) su surf rfac ace e of the Sun. Sun. Io Ions ns are pouring upward out of the Sun at these locations. The mi midd ddlle im imag age e is ta tak ken in ultrav ult raviol iolet et lig light ht and sho shows ws the chromosphere / transition region. The lower panel is an X-ray imag im age e sh show owing ing th the e vi viol olent ent act activ ivit ity y in the lower lower corona. corona. This activi activity ty is due due to th the e fl floo ood d of ac acce cele lera rati ting ng po posi siti tive ve ions io ns esc escapi aping ng th the e Su Sun n an and d co collllidi iding ng with atoms higher in the atmosphere (lower corona). •
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The effects of +ions flowing out of a sunspot.
Strong electric currents also flow in and above the Sun un's 's sur urfa fac ce at the edge of su sun nspot umbrae due to the voltage difference between nearby anode tufts and the central umbrae of the th e sp spot ots s (w (whe here re th ther ere e ar are e no tu tuft fts) s).. Th This is region is called a sunspot's penumbra. These curr cu rrent ents s of co cour urse se pr prod oduc uce e ma magn gneti etic c fi fiel elds ds.. Since, Sin ce, in plasma pla smas, s, twisti twi sting ng electr ele ctrica icall (Birkeland) currents follow the direction of magnetic fields, the glowing plasma in these regions often shows the complicated shapes of these spot relate related d loopi looping ng magnet magnetic ic fields fields.. Remember. Brikeland currents TWIST !
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(c)
(Top) (Top) The Penumbr Penumbra a - Birkel Birkeland and curren currents ts follow following ing the voltage drop from the photosphere down to the umbra. (Bot (Botto tom) m) The The twis twisti ting ng Birk Birkel elan and d curr curren ents ts evid eviden entt in a detailed image of the penumbral streamers.
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Prominences, Flares, and CME's All of the ab All abov ove e dis iscu cuss ssio ion n app ppli lies es to th the e steady-state (or almost alm ost steady ste ady-sta -state) te) oper op erat ation ion of th the e El Elec ectr tric ic Su Sun. n. Bu Butt th ther ere e ar are e several dynamic phenomena such as flares, prominences, and coronal mass ejections (CME's) that we observe. How are they produced? Nobel laureate Hannes Alfven, alth al thou ough gh no nott aw awar are e of th the e Ju Juer erge gens ns El Elect ectri ric c Sun model, advanced his own theory (3) of how prominences and solar flares are formed electrically. It is completely completely consistent consistent with with the Juergens Juerg ens model. model. It too is electrical. electrical. Any electric current, i , creates a magnet magnetic ic field (the (t he st stro rong nger er th the e cu curr rren entt - th the e str tron onge gerr th the e magnetic field, and the more energy it contains). Curved magnetic fields cannot exist without either electrical currents or time varying vary ing electric electric fields. Energ Energy, y, Wm, stored stored in any magnetic field, is given by the expression Wm = 1/2 Li Li ^ ^2. If the current, i , is interrupted, the th e fi fiel eld d co coll llap apse ses s an and d it its s en ener ergy gy mu must st be delive del ivered red somewhe somewhere. re. The magnet magnetic ic field of the Sun sometimes, and in some places on its surface, surfac e, forms forms an "omega" "omega" shaped loop. loop. This loop lo op ex exte tends nds ou outt th thro roug ugh h th the e do doubl uble e sh shea eath th layer (DL) of the chromosphere. One of the primary primar y proper properties ties of Birke Birkeland land currents is that they the y generally generally follow follow magnetic magnetic field field lin lines. es. A strong looping current will produce a secondary toroidal magnetic field that will surround and try to expand the loop. If the current following the loop becomes too strong, the DL will be destroyed 1. This inter interrupts rupts the
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current (like opening a switch in an inductive circuit) and the energy stored in the primary magnetic field is explosively released into space.
(Top)Hannes Alfven's Solar Prominence (Bottom)TRACE Image of Plasma Loops
Circuit
It should be well understood (certainly by anyone who has had a basic physics course) that the magnetic field "lines"2 that are drawn
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to describe a magnetic field, have no beginning nor end. They are closed paths. In fact one of Maxwell's famous equations is: "div B = 0" 0".. Wh Whic ich h sa says ys preci precise sely ly that that (i (in n th the e lang la nguag uage e of ve vecto ctorr dif diffe fere renti ntial al ca calc lcul ulus) us).. So when magnetic fields collapse due to the interruption of the currents that produce them, they do not "break" or "merge" and "recombine" as some uninformed astronomers have ha ve cl claim aimed ed (e (e.g .g., ., se see e th the e qu quot ote e re rega gard rdin ing g the mainstream concerns above - in 4. Accel Ac celer erati ation on of th the e So Sola larr "Wi "Wind nd"" Io Ions ns). ). Th The e field simply simply collapses collapses (very (very quickly!). quickly!). On the Sun this collapse releases a tremendous amou am ount nt of en ener ergy gy,, an and d ma matt tter er is th thro rown wn ou outt away from the surface - as with any explosively rapid rapid reaction. reaction. This release is consistent with and predicted by the Electric Sun model model as descr described ibed above. above. Some astronomers have proposed that heat is routinely transported out to the lower corona by magnetic fields and released there by "reconnection of magnetic field lines, whereby oppositely directed lines cancel each other out, conver con vertin ting g mag magneti netic c ene energ rgy y int into o hea heat. t. The process requires that the field lines be able to diff di ffus use e th thrrou ough gh the plas plasma ma." ." Th This is idea idea is inventi inv entive ve but but,, unf unfort ortuna unatel tely, y, has no sci scient entific ific basis whatever. Note that although astronomers ought to be aware that magnetic fields require electrical currents or time varying EE-fields fields to produce them, currents and EE-fields fields are never mentioned in standard models. Possibly because they do not seem to be included in astrophysics curricula.
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1. Double layers can be destroyed by at least two tw o diffe dif fere rent nt mech me chani anism sms: s: a) Zene Ze ner r Breakdown - The electric field gradient beco be com mes st stro rong ng en enou ough gh to ri rip p al alll ch char arge ges s away from an area, thus breaking the discharge path; b) Avalanche Breakdown - A literal lit eral ava avalan lanche che occ occurs urs whe wherei rein n all cha charge rges s are swept away and no conducting charges are left - thus the conducting path is opened. 2. A magnetic magnetic field field is a continuum continuum.. It is not a set of discrete discrete 'lines' 'lines'.. Lin Lines es are drawn drawn in the classroom to describe the magnetic field (its direction and magnitude). But the lines them th emse selv lves es do not act actual ually ly ex exis ist. t. Th They ey ar are e simply simpl y a pedagogical pedagogical device. device. Propo Proposing sing that that these lines break, merge, and/or recombine is an error (violation (violation of Maxwe Maxwell's ll's equations) compounded on another error (the lines do not really exist in the first place). Magnetic field liline nes s ar are e an analo alogo gous us to liline nes s of la lati titu tude de an and d longitude. They are not discrete entities with nothing in between them - you can draw as many of them as close together as you'd like. And they most certainly do not break, merge, or reconnect any more than lines of latitude do. Opposit Oppositely ely directed directed magnetic magnetic intensity intensity H- H- fields simply cancel each other - no energy is stored or released in that event.
Conclusion This has been the briefest of introductions to Juergens' Electric Sun model - the realization that our Sun functions electrically - that it is a
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huge electrically charged, relatively quiescent, sphere of ionized gas that supports an electric plas pl asma ma ar arc c di disc scha harg rge e on it its s su surf rfac ace e an and d is powered by subtle currents that move throughout the now well known tenuous plasma that fills our galaxy. A more detailed description of the ES hypothesis as well as the deficiencies of the standard solar fusion model are presented in The Electric Sky. Today's orthod Today's orthodox ox therm thermonuclea onuclearr models fail to explain many observed solar phenomena. The Electric Sun model is inher inherently ently predictive of all these observed phenomena. It is relatively relati vely simple. It is self self consi consistent. stent. And it does not require the existence of mysterious enti en titi ties es su such ch as th the e un unse seen en so sola larr 'd 'dyn ynam amo' o' genie that lurks somewhere beneath the surface surfac e of the fusion fusion model. The Electric Electric Sun model does not viola violate te Maxw Maxwell's ell's equations as the fusion model does. Ralph Juergens had the genius to develop the Elect El ectri ric c Su Sun n mo mode dell ba back ck in th the e 19 1970' 70's. s. Hi His s hypothesis has so far passed the harsh tests of ob obse serv rved ed re real alit ity. y. Hi His s se semin minal al wo work rk may eventually eventu ally get the the recognitio recognition n it deserves. deserves. Or, of course, others may try to claim it, or parts of it, and hope the world forgets who came up with these ideas first. There Ther e is no now w en enou ough gh ine inesc scap apabl able e ev evid idenc ence e that a majority of the phenomena we observe on th the e Su Sun n ar are e fu fund ndam amen enta tall lly y el elec ectr tric ical al in nature. natur e. Ralph Juergens Juergens was was the person person with the vision to see it.
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Ralph Juergens in 1949.
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Sudbury Neutrino Observatory Report an Analysis Missing Neutrinos A thermonuclear reaction of the type assumed to be powering the Sun must emit a flood of electronneutrinos. Nowhere near the requisite number of these neutrinos have been found after thirty years of sear se arch ching ing for th them em.. A ser series ies of gr gran andl dly y ex expe pens nsiv ive e experiments exper iments have failed to find the necessary neutrino neutrino flux. Some solar neutrinos have indeed been observed - but only one-third the number required if the fusion reaction really is the main source of the Sun's energy energy production production.. These negative negative results results from the neutrino experiments have resulted not in any reexamination of solar models. Rather, an intense theoretical effort to discover new properties that solar neutrinos 'must have' has occurred. As a result of this effort, it was announced (June 2001) by the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) in Canada that neutrinos have mass mass and can change change 'flavor'. 'flavor'. This supposedl supposedly y accounts for why they have not been fully observed previously. However, several important questions
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remain rema in to be an answ swer ered ed ab abou outt th the e me meth thod odolo ology gy th that at was used by the SNO researchers in arriving at their conclusions. conclu sions. Of course, course, whether neutrinos neutrinos actually actually do change type or not has no bearing whatever on the validity of the Electric Electric Sun model. The neutrino problem probl em is a hurdle only for the stan standard dard fusion model. mod el. In the Electri Electric c Sun model there there is no energy energy produced in the core - radiant energy is released at the surface by electric arc discharge. So, there is no 'm 'mis issi sing ng ne neut utri rino no'' pr prob oble lem m fo forr th the e el elec ectr tric ic Sun model. The electron-nuetrinos that are observed are probably produced by fusion taking place at the solar surf su rfac ace e th that at pr prod oduce uces s he heav avy y el elem emen ents ts (o (othe therr th than an hydrogen and helium). For decades the measured deficiency of elec el ectr tron on-n -neu eutr trin inos os has ha s been be en a cont co ntin inui uing ng embarrassment for those who want to believe that the accepted accept ed H-He fusion model of how the Sun produ produces ces its energy energy is correct. Becau Because se this failure failure to observe observe the predicted neutrino flux clearly constitutes fals fa lsif ific icat atio ion n of th this is fus fusio ion n mo mode del, l, th ther ere e ha has s be been en a great effort to explain away the observed deficit.
The Official Announcement In June 2001, the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO (S NO)) in On Ontar tario, io, Ca Cana nada da ma made de an an anno noun uncem cemen entt that was joyfully hailed by proponents of the accepted mainstream fusion model. model. The complete official announcement can be viewed here . As a res esul ultt of th thei eirr in inte terp rpre reta tati tion on of th the e da data ta obtained from their experiment, SNO researchers claim that the deficit does not lie with the fusion model, but is due to the fact that neutrinos change from one flavor to another on their way from the center of the
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Sun to Earth. There are thought to be three flavors of neutrino: electron-neutrinos, muon-neutrinos, and tau-neutrinos. Some of these flavors were not measurable by the previous experiments that were looking for them. SNO researchers claim, on the basis of their experiment, that the measurable neutrinos turn into previously nonmeasurable ones enroute from the Sun's core. That 'oscillation', they say, explains the previously measured shortage.
Press Releases Press releases were filled with pronouncements of co conf nfiide denc nce e th that at th the e st stan anda dard rd fu fusi sion on re reac acti tion on is indeed ind eed alive alive and well well at the core of the Sun. Sun. The There re was, however, more rejoicing than factual information in most of these releases.
Some examples: 1."Physicists have wrestled with the 'solar neutrino problem' since the early 1970s, when experiments detected a shortfall of the particles comin co ming g fr from om th the e su sun. n. Th The e ne neut utri rino no sh shor orta tage ge me mean antt either that theories describing the nuclear furnace at the th e su sun' n's s co corre wer ere e wro rong ng,, or th that at so some meth thin ing g wa was s happ ha ppen enin ing g to th the e pa parrti ticl cles es on th thei eirr wa way y to Ea Eart rth. h. Monday's announcement demonstrates with 99 percent confidence that it is the latter." - AP article article appearing appearing on line line in The Nando Nando Times of June Ju ne 19 19,, en enti titl tled ed "P "Phy hysi sici cist sts: s: Ne Neutr utrin inos os hav have e so some me mass," by Matt Crenson. QUESTION: QUEST ION: What was the basis for the “99%
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confidence” figure? Was that a mathematically derived number based on a statistical analysis - or was it just pulled out of the blue – an example of unprofessional, non-scientific, hubris? 2. "Th The e SN SNO O det etec ecto torr has the ca capa pabi bili lity ty to determine whether solar neutrinos are changing their type ty pe en en-r -rou oute te to Ea Earrth th,, th thus us pr prov ovid idin ing g an answ swer ers s to questions about neutrino properties and solar energy generation." http://www.sno.phy.queensu.ca/sno/first_results/ QUESTION: How can the SNO team QUESTION: team claim claim the abilility abi ty to de dete term rmin ine e wh whet ethe herr so some meth thin ing g ha happ ppens ens to neutrinos neutr inos enroute from the Sun to Earth without making measurements at the Sun (at the start of the journey) or somewhere along the route? Or by making assumpt ass umptions ions about about how they started started out? Mor More e on this question below. 3."SNO appears to be measuring a rate expec ex pecte ted d fo forr al alll ty types pes of ne neut utri rinos nos co comb mbin ined ed bu butt a deci de cide ded d defi de fici citt for the th e elec el ectr tron on neut ne utri rino. no."" http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap010710.html COMMEN COMM ENT: T: Th This is appear appears s to be in complet complete e contradiction with the official announcement that states that the results of the only SNO experiment that can measure all three flavors of neutrino will not be announced until a later time.
Ana naly lys sis of Announcement
the
Official
The SNO observations were only made here on
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Earth. No satellite satellite observations were made anywhere along the path, certainly not at its beginni beginning ng where the neutrinos start their journey (inside the Sun). QUESTION: Consider a freight train that goes from fro m New York to Chicago Chicago.. We live live in Chicago Chicago and are ar e on only ly abl ble e to obs bser erv ve th the e tr trai ain n as it ar arri riv ves in Chicago. It arrives with with 4 freight cars, 2 tank tank cars, and 1 flat car. How is it possible, no matter how sophi so phist stic icat ated ed our me meth thod od of ob obse serv rvati ation, on, for us to make any conclusions about whether freight cars, tank cars, or flat cars have been added to or subtracted from the the train at, at, say, Cleveland? Cleveland? More Moreover, over, how is is it poss po ssib ible le to sa say y th that at fr frei eigh ghtt car cars s ha have ve my myst ster erio iousl usly y turrned in tu intto ta tank nk car ars s or fl fla at ca carrs alo long ng th the e rout ute e somewhere? (And do it with with “99% confidence”?) The an The answ swer er mu must st be th that at th they ey ar are e as assu sumi ming ng they know the value of the neutrino flux leaving the Sun. If so, so, this this is an exerci exercise se in circul circular ar reasonin reasoning. g. If they know what the solar neutrino flux leaving the Sun is, there is no need for the experiment. The experiment adds nothing in the way of verification of the assumption. It certainly certainly does not explain the low value of neutrino flux observed here on Earth, it only confirms it. The logic used in drawing conclusions conclusions seems to be faulty in other ways as well.
A sentence from conclusion of the report
the
In the conclusion of the Sudbury report it states: "Comparison of the (neutrino) flux deduced from the ES reaction assuming no neutrino oscillations, to that
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measured by the CC reaction can provide clear evidence of flavor transformation without reference to solar model flux calculations. If neutrinos neutrinos from the Sun Sun change into other active flavors, then CC flux < ES flux."
A log ogiica call ana naly lysi sis s of th the e las astt above sentence: Let: (a) = Neutrinos from the Sun change into other active flavors. (b) = Electron-neutrino flux measurement is less than the measur measurement ement that includ includes es electr electron-neu on-neutrinos trinos and some of the other two types as well. The sente sentence nce says: says: IF (a) is true, true, THEN (b) (b) is true. No one can disagree disagree with with that. But they are implying: IF (b) is true, THEN (a) is true. (If the measurement of the flux of electron-type neutrinos is less than the more inclusive measurement that includes some of the other types, then neutrinos from the Sun change flavor on their way to Earth.) That is a lo That logi gica call no nonn-se sequ quit itor or.. If th the e Su Sun n is emitting all three types of neutrinos, e+u+t, then any Earthbound experiment that measures only e will always have a lower output than one that measures (forr example) (fo example) e + 0.1 0.1u u + 0.3 0.3t. t. Mor Moreov eover, er, the report report states that the CC measured value (e type only) is "signifi "sig nifican cantly tly sma smalle llerr tha than n the mea measur sureme ements nts by [S. Fuku Fu kuda da in an ea earl rlier ier ex expe peri rime ment] nt]". ". So th the e ele elect ctro ron n neutrino flux just measured by SNO is even lower than previously reported levels. levels . And it is possi possible ble that muon-neutrinos oscillate into electron-neutrinos. And that presents a further complication to the SNO
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conclus concl usio ions ns be beca caus use e of th the e al alre ready ady ex extr trem emel ely y low value of measured electron-neutrino flux. There Ther e ha have ve be been en ot other her ne neut utri rino no ex expe peri rime ment nts s that have resulted in unclear answers about whether neutrinos 'oscillate' into different types. The final report of th the e Li Liqu quid id Sc Scin inti tillllat ator or Ne Neutr utrino ino De Detec tecto torr (L (LSN SND) D) experiment in 2001said their results strengthened previo pre viously usly pub publis lished hed,, but con contro trover versia siall LSN LSND D res result ults s that provided evidence of neutr neutrino ino oscill oscillation ation and mass. The LSND data, data, collected collected from from 1993 to 1998, 1998, suggested that muon anti-neutrinos oscillate into electron anti-neutrinos. However the MiniBooNE proj pr ojec ectt re resu sult lts s of 20 2007 07 re repo port rted ed no mumu-neu neutri trino no to elec el ectr tronon-ne neutr utrin ino o os osci cillllat ation ions s of th the e so sort rt th that at wo would uld expl ex plain ain th the e LS LSND ND re resul sult. t. Mi MiniB niBoo ooNE NE wa was s de desi sign gned ed specifically to look for this, and has successfully ruled it out at 98% confidence level. So it is now exceedingly doubtful that the long sought excuse for the solar neutrino flux deficit has been found.
A measurement that can and should be made but was not It is re regr gret etta tabl ble e th that at th the e SN SNO O re resu sult lts s do no nott address several other pertinent questions relative to the solar neutrino flux. For example, why does the total flux fl ux se seem em to be a fu fun nct ctiion of the sun unsp spot ot cy cycl cle? e? Physicist Wal Thornhill points this out in detail in his analy an alysi sis s of th the e ne neutr utrin ino o pr prob oble lem m at his Ho Holo losc scien ience ce web site. Thornhill points out that the Electric Sun model pred pr edic icts ts th that at fl fluc uctu tuat atio ions ns in th the e ne neut utri rino no fl flux ux wi willll be correlated corre lated with the level of electrical input to the Sun – that is, with such measurable phenomena as sunspot number num bers s and sol solar ar win wind d acti activi vity. ty. Thi This s cor corrla rlatio tion n has
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already been observed qualitatively. The standard solar so lar model model ca cann nnot ot ex expl plai ain n it. Ne Neutr utrin inos os ca carr rry y no electrical charge; therefore, the usual 'hidden strange magnet mag netic ic fi fiel elds ds lu lurk rkin ing g be bene neat ath h th the e Su Sun’ n’s s su surf rface ace'' cannot be invoked to explain away a correlation between neutrino flux and sunspot number if, indeed, that correlation correlation is real. Any quantitative determination determination of a relationship between neutrino flux and sunspot number num ber and and/or /or sola solarr win wind d int intensi ensity ty wou would ld abs absolut olutely ely falsify falsi fy the fusion fusion model once and and for all. And it would would be further validation of the Electric Sun model. But it was not undertaken.
Summary The high decibel level of rejoicing contained in the SNO pronoun pronouncem cement ents s is unprofes unprofessio sional. nal. It is a clue clu e that should should not be ignored. ignored. It stands stands in cur curiou ious s contrast to the existence of errors in fundamental logic conta co ntain ined ed in th the e re repo port rt.. Th The e pr prime ime requir requirem emen entt in research is scientific objectivity. And (given the paucity of actual data that was collected) there is substantial reason to question to what extent a degree of wishful thinking went into the announced conclusions of this report. There simply is no way that a measurement taken at only one end of a transmission channel can reveal changes that have occurred farther up the channel. The only way such conclusions can be made is when observations have been made at more than one place along the path! Further measurements (MiniBooNE 2007) have found no evidence to support the SNO 2001 announcement. Clearly, although the fusion model is beloved by its advocates, an objective analysis of the Sudbury and
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MiniBooNE experiments reveal that the missing neut ne utri rino no pr prob oble lem m st stil illl re rema main ins s ve very ry fa farr fr from om be beiing solv so lved ed.. An And d un unle less ss it is is,, th the e fu fusi sion on mo mode dell st stan ands ds completely falsified.
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Electric Cosmology Stellar Evolution Introduction If the Sun is essentially an electrical phenomenon, as seems to be the case, and it is also a fairly typical star, then all stars should exhibit prop proper erti ties es that that are are consi consiste stent nt with with the the Elec Electr tric ic Sun Sun (ES) model. Do they? Let us extrapolate the ES model and compare it to what we have observed about stars. In 1911 Ejnar Hertzspung constructed a plot of the the abso absolu lute te brig bright htnes ness s vs.. vs spec spectr tral al clas class s (temperature) of the stars whose distances we could then then accura accuratel tely y measur measure e by the parall parallax ax method. method. In 1913 Henry Norris Russell independently repeated this exercise. exercise. This plot plot is therefore therefore named named the Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram, and is one of the first topics presented in introductory astronomy cour course ses. s. It is clear clear that that the HR diag diagra ram m is a plot plot of actu actual al obser observa vati tions ons – not not somet somethi hing ng deduc deduced ed from from theory. So, any viable model of the workings of a star must must be consis consisten tentt with it. Is the Electri Electric c Sun (ES) model of how a star is powered consistent consistent with the HR diagram? diagram? If it is not, then then this would would disprove disprove the ES hypothesis.
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The RussellDiagram
Hertzsprung-
In the HR diagram, as it is usually presented, the vertical axis is labeled with two scales: Absolute Magnitude (lin (lineear sca scale from from about bout 18th 18th magn magnit itud udee at the the bott bottom om running up to perhaps -8 or so at the top), and Luminosity x Sun (log scale with 0.00001 at the bottom running up to 100,000 at the top). top). The horizontal axis axis also is labeled labeled with several scales: Spectral Class - left to right: O and B [blue], A [white], F [yellow], G [yellow-orange], K [orange], M [red]). Another horizontal axis scale - Absolute Temperature, also runs from left to right (from around 20,00 ,000 K down own to 3000 K) corr orrespon pondin ding to the (decreasing!) black-body temperature of those spectral classes. [As an engineer, I object to plotting increasing temperature from right to left! But such is the conv conven enti tion on of astr astron onom omer ers. s. We will will live live with with it.] it.] A single single given star defines defines a single single point point on this plot. plot. A web search for the topic "Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram" will yield many different renderings of the HR plot. Our Sun, being a fairly typical star, falls almost at the cente centerr of the diag diagra ram m (at (at Lumin uminos osity ity = 1 and and Abso Absolu lute te magnitude. = 5, Spectral Class Class G, and and (photospheric) Temp. Temp. = 6,000K). 6,000K). The points points on the plot seem seem to group group nicely nicely,, generally forming a long, slightly diffuse line, that snakes from the upper upper left left down toward toward the lower lower right. The line falls very steeply at the the lower right end. There are two two other less populated clouds of points: one group at the upper right and another one strung out across the bottom of the plot from a concentration in the lower left of the diagram. di agram.
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Add A Scale
New
Horizontal
Axis
In the ES model the important variable is: current density (Amps/sq m) at the star's photospheric surface. surface. If a star's current current density density increases, increases, the arc arc discharges on its surface (photospheric granules) get hott hotter er,, chan change ge col color (awa (away y from from red, red, towa toward rd blue blue-white), white), and get brighter. brighter. The absolute absolute luminosity luminosity of a star, therefore, depends on two main variables: current density at its effective surface, and its size (the star's diameter). Therefore, let us add a new scale to the horizontal axis of the HR diagram: 'Current Density at the Surface of
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each Star'. Consider moving from the lower right of the HR diagram toward the left. In so doing we are moving in the direction of increasing current density at the star's surface.
Red and Brown Dwarfs The first region on the lower right of the diagram is where the current density has such a low value that double double layers layers (DLs) (DLs) (photo (photosph spheri eric c granule granules) s) are are not needed by the plasma surrounding the (anode) star. This is the region of the brown and red "dwarfs" and giant giant gas gas plan planet ets. s. Rece Recent nt disc discov over eries ies of extr extrem emel ely y cool L - Type and T - Type dwarfs has required the original diagram to be extended to the lower right (See below below). ). Thes These e 'sta 'stars rs'' have have extr extrem emel ely y low low absol absolut ute e luminosity and temperature.
Notice that the surface temperature of the T Type Type dwar dwarfs fs is in the the range range of 1000 1000 K or less less!! For For comparison purposes recall that some points on the surface surface of Venus are are in the range range of 900 K. T - Type spectra have features due mostly to Methane - they
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resemble resemble Jupiter's Jupiter's spectrum. spectrum. The plasma plasma that constitutes a star of this type is in its 'normal glow' range - or perhaps, even the 'dark current' range. If all stars are indeed powered by a nuclear fusion reaction as is claimed, with the T dwarfs we must be in the 'cold fusion' fusion' range! range! Indeed, Indeed, for fusion reactions reactions to occur, occur, stan standa dard rd theo theory ry requ requir ires es that that the the temp temper erat atur ure e in a star's star's core must must reach at least least three millio million n K. And becau because se,, in the the accep accepted ted model model,, core core temp temper eratu ature re rises with gravitational pressure, the star must have a minimum mass of about 75 times the mass of the planet Jupiter, or about 7 percent of the mass of our sun. Many of the dwarfs dwarfs do not not meet these these requirement requirements. s. One mainstream mainstream astrophy astrophysicist sicist,, real realiz izin ing g this this,, has has said said that that thes these e dwar dwarfs fs must must be powered by 'gravitational collapse'. The orbiting X-ray telescope, Chandra, recently discovered an X-ray flare being emitted by a brown dwarf dwarf (spectra (spectrall class class M9). This This poses poses an addition additional al problem for the advocates of the stellar fusion model. A star this cool should not be capable of X-ray flare production. However, in the ES model, there are no minimum temperature or mass requirements because the star is is inherently inherently electrical electrical to to start with. with. In the ES model (if a brown/red dwarf is operating near the upper boundary of the dark current mode), a slight increase in the level of total current impinging on that star will move it into the normal glow mode. This transition will be accompanied by a rapid change in the voltage rise across the plasma of the star's star's atmosphere. Maxwell's equations tell us that such a change in voltage can produce a strong dynamic E-field and a strong dynamic dynamic magneti magnetic c field. field. If they are strong strong enough, enough, dynamic EM fields can produce X-rays. X-rays. Another simi simila larr phen phenom omen enon on can can occu occurr if a star star make makes s the the
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transition from normal glow to arc mode. As we progress leftward in the HR diagram, at first the plotted points move steeply upward; we enter the spectral M range where some arc tufting becomes necessary to sustain the star's electrical discharge. As current density increases, tufts (plasma in the arc discharge mode) cover more and more of the sur surface face of each each star star,, and and its its lumi lumino nosi sity ty incr increa ease ses s sharply – plasma arcs are extremely bright compared to plas plasma ma in its norma ormall glow glow mode. ode. You can look look directly at neon signs but not at electric arc welders. This accounts for the steepness of the HR curve in the M region – a slight increase in current density produces produces a large large increase in luminosity. luminosity. As we move move upward and toward the left in the diagram, stars have more and more complete coats of photospheric arcs (tufting). A case in point – NASA recently discovered a star, half of whose surfac face was "covered by a sunspot". A more informativ informative e way to say this would have been that "Half of this star's surface is covered by photospheric arcing." The present controversy about what the difference is betw betwee een n a giant iant gas gas plan planet et and and a brow brown n dwar dwarff is basele baseless. ss. They are are members members of a contin continuum uum – it is simply a matter of what the level of current density is at their surfaces. NASA's discovery discovery supplies supplies the missing link between the giant gas planets and the fully tufted
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star stars. s. In fact fact,, the the term term "pro "proto to-s -sta tarr" may may be more more descriptive than "giant gas planet".
Main Sequence Stars Continuing toward the left, beyond the "knee of the curve", all these stars (K through B) are completely covered with tufts (have complete photospheres), their luminosity no longer grows as rapidly as before. But, the farther to the left we go (the higher the current densi density ty), ), the the brig brighte hterr the the tufts tufts beco become me,, and and so the the stars' luminosities do continue to increase. The situation is analogous to turning up the current in an electric arc welding machine. The increased brightness of the arcs accounts for the upward slope of the line toward toward the left. Mathematical Mathematically ly we have the situation situation where the variable plotted on the horizontal horizontal axis (cur current ent dens densit ity y) is als also one of the the fact factor ors s in the quantity quantity plotted plotted on the vertical vertical axis (luminosity (luminosity). ). The more significant this relationship is, the more closely the plot will approach a 45 degree de gree straight line. [Remin [Reminder der:: Our progr progressi ession on from from right right toward toward the left is not a description of one star evolving in time - we are are just just movi moving ng acro across ss the the diag diagra ram m from from one one static point (star) to another.] That the stars do not all fall precisely on a line, but have some dispersion dispersion above and below the line, is due to their variati variation on in size. size. The relativ relatively ely straight straight portion of the HR diagram is called the 'main sequence'. sequence'. This nomencla nomenclature ture gives gives a false impression, that stars move around 'sequentially' in the HR plot. The HR diagram is a static scatter plot, not a sequence.
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White and Blue Stars When we get to the upper left end of the main sequen sequence, ce, what what kind of stars stars are these? these? This This is the region of O type, blue-white, high temperature (35,000+ K) stars. As we approach the far upper-left of the HR diagram (region of highest current density), the stars are under extreme electrical stress - too many Amps per sq. meter. Their absolute absolute luminosities approach 100,000 times the Sun's. Even farther farther out to the upper left is the region of Wolf-Rayet stars. Extreme electrical stress can lead to a such a star's splitting splitting into parts, parts, perhaps explosiv explosively. ely. Such explosions are called novae. novae. The splitting splitting process process is called fissioning . A characteristic of Wolf-Rayet stars is that they are losing mass rapidly.
Fissioning Wal Thornhill once said: "….. internal electrostatic forces prevent stars from collapsing gravitationally and occasionally cause them them to "giv "give e birt birth" h" by elec electr tric ical al fiss fissio ioni ning ng to form form companion stars and gas giant planets. Sudden brightening, or a nova outburst marks such an event. That That eluci elucidat dates es why why star stars s comm commonl only y have have part partne ners rs and why most of the giant planets so far detected closely orbit their parent star." If a sphere of fixed volume splits into two smal smalle lerr (equ (equal al sized sized)) sphe sphere res, s, the the tota totall surf surface ace area of the newly formed pair will be about 26% larger than the area of the original sphere. (If the split results in two unequally sized spheres, the
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incr increa ease se in tota totall area area will will be somet omethi hing ng less less than than 26%.) So, to reduce the current density it is experiencing, an electrically stressed, blue-white star may explosiv explosively ely fission fission into two or more more stars. This This prov provid ides es an incr increa ease se in tota totall surfa urface ce area area and and so results in a reduced level of current density on the (new) stars' stars' surfaces. surfaces. Each of two two new (equal (equal sized) sized) stars will experience only 80% of the previous current density level and so both will jump to new locations farther to the lower-right in the HR diagram. A possible example of two equal sized offspring may be the binary pair called called Y Cygni. Cygni. This is a pair of giant O or B type stars that orbit each other in a period of 2.99 2.99 days days.. Each Each star star is some some 5 mill millio ion n mile miles s in diameter and 5000 times as luminous as our Sun absolu absolute te magnitud magnitudes es about -4.5. -4.5. They are are some some 12 million miles apart (less than 2.5 times their diameters!). Their masses are 17.3 and 17.1 times the mass of our Sun. If the members of the resulting binary pair turn out to be unequal in size, the larger one will probably have the larger current density - but still lower than the original value. (This assumes that the total charge charge and total driving current to the original star distributes distributes itself onto the new stars stars proporti proportionally onally to their their masses.) masses.) In this case, the smaller member of the pair might have suc such a low value alue of curr urrent ent dens densit ity y as to drop rop it, it, abruptly, to "brown dwarf" or even "giant planet" status. That may be how giant gas planets get born (and are in close proximity to their parents). There was an interesting statement made in this regar egard d in the Jan. Jan. 1, 2001 2001 issu issue e of Scienc Science e Now Now magazi magazine ne (p.4). (p.4). "Astro "Astronom nomers ers are scratc scratching hing their heads over a strange new planetary system. A team discovered a huge gas ball -- apparently a failed star call called ed a brow brown n dwar dwarff -- cir circlin cling g a star star that that hold holds s
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another planet in its sway. But no one understands how something so massive as a brown dwarf could form form so clos close e to a nor normal mal star star with ith a pla planet netary ary companion." This was was in an article called "An awkward trio disturbs astronomers" by G. Schilling. The final distribution of mass and current density is sensitive to the mechanics of the splitting process. Such a process can only be violent - possibly resulting in a nova erupti eruption. on. Some Some mass may be lost lost to the plasma cloud cloud that that later later can can appe appear ar as a plan planet etar ary y nebul nebula a or nova-remnant that that surrou surrounds nds the binary pair . If the the char charge ge on the the origi origina nall star star was was high highly ly concentrated on or near its surface, and the fissioning process is similar to the peeling off of a onion's skin, then most of that original charge (and current) may end up on the offspring star that is constituted only of the skin skin of the origi original nal star. star. In this way the smalle smaller, r, rath ather than han the the larg arger of the the two two memb member ers s of the resu result lting ing binar binary y pair pair,, can can be the hott hotter er one. In any event, both stars will move to different positions in the HR diagram from where their parent was located.
Stellar Evolution Mainstream astronomy attempts to describe how stars 'age' (run out of nuclear fuel) and slowly migrate, taking hundreds of thousands of years to do so, tracing paths from one location on the HR diagram to another (the star going from one spectral class to anot anothe herr). The path paths s that hat star stars s 'mus must take' ake' are, are, of course, completely predicated on the assumption that stars are fueled by the various stages of nuclear fusion of the lightest elements.
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The ES model does not make that assump ass umptio tion. n. Hum Humans ans have have not been around long enough to actually obse ob serv rve e any an y star st ars s makin ma king g the th e pred pr edic icte ted d sl slow ow mi migr grat atio ions ns fr from om on one e place on the HR diagram to another. So, at present, slow "stellar evolution" is an anot othe herr on one e of th thos ose e co comp mpli licat cated ed theoretical constructs that live brightly in the minds of astrophysicists without any observational evidence of their actual existence.
Examples That Falsify (Disprove) The Accepted Stellar Evolution Process FG Sagittae The The star star FG Sagi Sagitt ttae ae brea breaks ks all all the the rul rules of accepted accepted stellar evolutio evolution. n. FG Sagittae Sagittae has changed changed from blue blue to yellow since since 1955! 1955! It, quite quite recently, recently, has taken taken a deep deep dive in luminosit luminosity. y. FG Sagitta Sagittae, e, is the central star of the planetary nebula (nova remnant?) He 1-5. It is a unique unique object in the the sense that that for this this star we have direct evidence of stellar evolution but in a time scale comparable with the human lifetime . [CCD Astronomy, Summer 1996, p.40.] "Around 1900 FG Sge was an inconspicuous hot star (T = 50,000 K) of magnitude 13. During the next 60 years it cooled to about 8000 K and brightened in brightened in the the visual sual regi egion to mag magnitu nitude de 9, as its its radi radiat atio ion n shifted from the far-UV to the visual region. Around 1970 a whole new bunch of spectral lines appeared due to elem elemen entts such as Sr, Y, Zr, Ba and rare are
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earths earths.. .... The star star cooled furthe furtherr in the 1970s 1970s and 80s and then all of a sudden in 1992 its magnitude dropped to 14. Further drops occurred from 1992 to 1996 with a very deep minimum near magnitude 16 in June of 1996." [Italics added] So, after abruptly brightening by four magnitudes, magnitudes, it has droppe dropped d seven seven magnit magnitude udes s. From From the the end end of the the last last cent centur ury y FG Sagi Sagitt ttae ae has has moved across the HR diagram changing from a normal hot hot giant iant to a "lat "late e spec spectr tral al type type"" (coo (cooll) star star with ith marked changes in its surface chemical composition. Its Its pres presen entt surf surfac ace e temp temper erat atur ure e is in the the rang range e of 4000K. 4000K. This This is not the kind of slow stellar stellar 'evolut 'evolution ion'' mainstream astrophysicists preach.
And FG Sagittae is a binary pair! The offi offici cial al wordi ording ng was, as, "In "In 1995 1995 FG Sge Sge changed in brightness in a quite sporadic manner from V~10.5 to ~13.0 according to the data by Hungarian Astronomica Astronomicall AssociationAssociation-Varia Variable ble Star Section. Section. During the spectral observations on 9/10 and 10/11 August, FG Sge was very faint (HAA-VSS data: V~12.5-13.0, according to Variable Stars Observers' League League of Japan: Japan: ~13.3) ~13.3) and theref therefore ore errone erroneousl ously y the visua visuall compan companion ion 8'' apart from FG Sge was actually observed. This is probably the first high resolution spectrum of the companion ever obtained. The The spec spectr trum um tur turned ned out out to corr corres espo pond nd to a quit quite e normal giant with the spectral type around K0." Is FG Sagittae an example of the binary fissioning (caused (caused by electrica electricall stress) stress) that was describe described d above? above? It seems to have all the basic characteristics: nova-like brig brighte htenin ning g foll follow owed ed by loss loss of lumin luminos osity ity and and loss loss of moving ng to a diff differ eren entt spec spectr tral al type type with tempera temperature ture - movi
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marked changes in its surface chemical composition, discovery of a binary companion, and the entire systems s ystems lies within a nebulous nova remnant .
Two More Examples That Falsify the Accepted Stellar Evolution Process Virg Virgin inia ia Trim Trimbl ble, e, prof profes esso sorr of phys physic ics s at the the University of California, Irvine, and visiting professor of astr astron onom omy y at the the Univ Univer ersi sity ty of Mary Maryla land nd,, has has said said recently: "We don't often see stars change their spectral types in a human lifetime. Thus, FG Sagittae, which brightened, cooled from about BO to K, and added lines of carbon, barium, and other elements to its spectrum in the century after 1890 was long seemingly unique. The standard interpretation has been that it experienced its very last flash of helium shell burning (the products are carbon and oxygen) and was about to become an R Coronea Borealis variable. These are carbon-rich stars that fade suddenly and unpredictably (which FG Sge started doing a couple of years ago) and that have hydrogen-depleted atmospheres (which FG Sge Sge has has just just deve develo lope ped) d).. In addi additi tion, on, the the "gal "gallop lopin ing g giant" is no longer alone. Examination of old images and spectrograms reveal that V 605 Aquilae, studied by Knut Lundmark in the 1920's was a similar sort of beast, though it is now very faint And the latest recruit is V 4334 Sagittarii , better known as Sakurai's object, for its 1994 discoverer. It, too, too, change changed d both both spec spectra trall type type and surfa surface ce compos compositi ition on very very rapidl rapidly y, and is now hydrog hydrogen-p en-poor oor and carbo carbon-ri n-rich, ch, and well on its way to becoming the century's third new R CrB star."
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And Yet A Example Monocerotis
Fourth V838
On October 2, 2002, NASA's Astronomy Picture of the Day (APO (A POD) D) an anno noun unce ced d wh what at is to them another "mystery "mystery star ". ". Click here for the official announcement. The official "explanation" reads, in part: "V83 "V838 8 Mon Mon was was disc discov over ered ed to be in outb outbur urst st in January of this year. Initially thought to be a familiar type of classi classica call nova, nova, astron astronome omers rs quickl quickly y reali realized zed that that instea instead, d, V838 Mon may be a totally new addition to the astro astronom nomica icall zoo. zoo. Obser Observat vations ions indica indicate te that that the erupti erupting ng transform ormed ed itself itself over over a period period of months months from a star transf small under-luminous star a little hotter than the Sun, to a highlyhighly-lum lumino inous, us, cool cool superg supergiant iant star star underg undergoin oing g rapid rapid and complex brightness changes. The transformation defies the conventional conventional understandi understanding ng of stel stella larr life life cycl cycles es.. A most most nota notabl blee fea feature ture of V838 V838 Mon Mon is the the "exp "expaandin nding" g" nebula which now appears to surround it." [Ital and emphasis added.] So now there are at least four prime examples of stars that do not evolve according to the accepted thermonuclear model of how stars are powered. These are stars that falsify the conventional understanding of stellar life cycles. All of them act in a manner predicted by the Electric Star hypothesis. In the Electric Star version of "stellar evolution" things things can happen happen quickly. quickly. If the fusion fusion model were correct, it would take hundreds of thousands of years for a star to change from one place in the HR diagram
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to another. another. It would not not be observed observed within within a "human lifetime". It didn't take FG Sagittae Sagittae hundreds hundreds of thou thousa sand nds s of years ears to "run "run down down." ." The The star star V838 V838 Monocerotis has moved half way across the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram in a few months. Migr Migrat ating ing acro across ss the the HR diagr diagram am can can happ happen en very very rapidly - and apparently apparently does! How many such counte counter-ex r-examp amples les does does it take take for astro astrophy physic sicist ists s to realize their stellar fusion theory has been falsified? f alsified?
Red Giants The diffuse group in the upper right hand corner of the HR diagram are stars which are cool (have low valu values es of curr curren entt dens densit ity y powe poweri ring ng them them)) but but are are luminous luminous and and so are though thoughtt to be very very large. large. They are highly highly lumino luminous us only becaus because e of their their appare apparent nt size. And that that size may well well be due to having having a huge corona corona rather rather than an inhere inherently ntly large large diamet diameter. er. At any any rate rate,, thes these e are are the the 'red 'red gian giants ts'. '. They They are are not not necessarily necessarily any older older than than any other star. star. Notice that that some are relatively quite cool - in the range of 1000 K. How do stars at this low a temperature maintain an internal fusion reaction? The simple answer is: They cannot cannot!! And they they do do not! not! And beneath an extended diffuse corona, they may be quite small stars.
White Dwarfs Similarly, the group in the lower left hand corner have very low absolute luminosity but are extremely hot. The ES model simply explains them as being very small small star stars s that that are are expe experi rienc encing ing very very high high curr current ent densit densities. ies. These These are the "white "white dwarfs dwarfs." ." Althou Although gh
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most of them are concentrated in the lower-left corner of the diagram, diagram, the white dwarf group actually extends thin thinly ly across across the bottom bottom of the the diagr diagram am.. Thus Thus the name white dwarf is a kind of misnomer. misnomer. The shape of this this thin thin grou groupi ping ng begi begins ns to drop drop off off stee steepl ply y at its its (cooler) right end much as the main sequence does. A professional astronomer has been quoted as saying: "The observed white dwarfs are basically cooling embe emberrs. The The nucl nuclea earr fir fire of the the star stars s bur burned ned out billions of years ago. The light emitted comes from the heat heat remai remaini ning ng from from the the earl earlie ierr nucl nuclear ear burni burning ng.. By measuring the spectrum of the light, the brightness in vari various ous colo colors rs,, the the temp temper erat atur ures es of the the star stars s were were determined. determined. The two coolest coolest of the white dwarfs studied, PSR J0034-0534 and PSR J1713+0747, are 3400 degrees Kelvin (5600 F), making them the coolest known white dwarfs. For comparison, the surface of the sun measures 5800 degrees Kelvin and the coolest previously known white dwarfs are 4000 degrees Kelvin." But But then then,, why why are are thes these e rel relativ ativel ely y cool cool star stars s called "white"? "white"? One presumes presumes it is only because because they they seem to be memb embers of the group ouping in the HR diagram that was originally given that name.
Spectral Lines in Various Types of Stars In a paper entitled “Stellar Spectra” (Aeon, Vol. V, No. 5, Jan. 2000, 2000, p. 37.) the late Earl Earl R. Milton, Professor of Physics, University of Lethbridge reported on research he had performed on spectral line broadening in 1971 while at the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory in Vancouver, British
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Colu Columbi mbia. a. This This work work prov provid ides es stro strong ng evid eviden ence ce in support of the Electric Sun model. If a relatively cool gas comes between a wideband light source and an observer, absorption lines will appe appear ar in the the ligh light' t's s spec spectr trum um.. Thes These e line lines s aris arise e beca becaus use e of the the abso absorp rpti tion on of (lig (light ht)) ener energy gy by the the atoms of the gas. Electrons Electrons in those those atoms jump jump from lower to higher discrete quantum energy states - they get the energy to make that jump from the light (having exactly the frequency that corresponds to that energy gap) that is passing through the gas. Each element in the gas produces its own own signature pattern pattern of lines. By recognizing the line patterns, we can identify the gas that that is caus causing ing those those lines. lines. This This metho method d is used used to discern what elements and molecules are present in the upper atmospheres of stars. If, If, on the the othe otherr hand hand,, a suff suffic icie ient ntly ly stro strong ng electric current is passed through a gas, the gas itself will emit a light spectrum in which only a few discrete colors (freque (frequencies) ncies) appear. appear. These are are called emis emissi sion on line lines. s. They They are are locat located ed preci precise sely ly at thos those e wave wavele leng ngth ths s (fre (frequ quen enci cies) es) at whic which h that that same same gas gas produces absorption lines as described in the previous paragraph. The spectra of most stars are heavily dominated by absorption absorption lines. Spectra from the cooler stars (such as types G and K) are dominated by molecular bands arising from oxides (like ZrO and TiO) and from compounds of carbon like CH, CN, CO, and C2. Stars like the Sun (type G) show “metal” absorption lines. Astronomers call any element heavier heavier than Helium Helium a “metal”. “metal”. In fact the Sun Sun shows shows the the prese presenc nce e of 68 of the the know known n eleme elements nts.. The The spectra of hot O and B type stars show few lines, and what what line lines s they they do have have appe appear ar quit quite e blur blurre red d or “broadened” “broadened”.. There There are a few possible possible causes causes of this
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broadening. If the absorbing gas is in a magnetic field, each line may split, symmetrically, into multiple, closely spaced lines. This is called the Zeeman effect - named for its discoverer, Pieter Zeeman (1865-1943). If the gas is in an electric E-field, then lines split unsymmetrically - this is called the Stark effect named for Johannes Stark (1874-1957). These secondary lines are very closely spaced in frequency (wav (wavele eleng ngth th)) and and so the the effec effectt is some someti times mes call called ed line-broadening or blurring. blurring. A most important important property is that the degree of Stark (electric field) broadening depends depends on the atomic atomic mass of the the affected affected gas. gas. The lines of heavy elements are only slightly broadened where hereas as thos those e of ligh lighte terr atom atoms s and and ions ions are are quit quite e smea smeare red d out. out. This This effe effect ct is not not note noted d in Zeem Zeeman an (magnetic field) broadening. As we progress from right to left up the “main sequence” in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram – from the less electrically stressed stars toward those experiencing higher current input, we see an increasing increasing broadeni broadening ng of spectral spectral lines. lines. In fact at the the upper left end (O-type stars) there is so much blurring that we can distinguish very little structure in the line spectra. spectra. Is this caused caused by the increasing increasing strengths strengths of the the E-fi E-fiel elds ds in the the star stars' s' DLs DLs as elec electr tric ical al stre stress ss increases? And, is increased E-field strength the only possible possible explanation explanation for this this line broadening broadening? ? Milton states that two pieces of evidence strongly suggest that the answer is yes. In high hi ghly ly stre st ress ssed ed B-ty Btype pe star st ars: s: 1. A line at 4471.6 Angstroms is accompanied by a 'forbidden' partner at 4469.9 Angstroms. It is well known that this latter line only occurs when an electric field is present. 2. Th Ther ere e is an ex extr trem eme e di diff ffer eren ence ce be betw twee een n th the e
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degree of broadening of the lines from hydrogen and helium (light elements) and those arising from sodium sod ium and ion ionize ized d calc calcium ium (he (heavi avier er ele elemen ments) ts).. This effect is only noted in Stark effect broadening.. broadening
The The usual usual mains mainstr tream eam expl explan anat atio ion n of line line broadening is that the star must be rotating rapidly – light from the limb going away from us is red shifted, and light from the limb coming at us is blue shifted – the total effect being to smear out the line widths. BUT, if that were the true explanation, the lines from hydrogen should be no more smeared out than those from from calci calcium um.. Both Both of these these obse observ rvat ation ions s (1 and 2 above) strongly suggest that it is the presence of a strong electric field that is selectively broadening the spectral lines in B-type stars. There There is no simple simple explanati explanation on of these these spectral effects via the (non-electrical) thermonuclear core core model. model. So, let us consider consider to what what degree degree this phenom phenomeno enon n – the existen existence ce of spectr spectral al absorp absorptio tion n lines and their selective broadening – is consistent with the Electric Sun model. In the Electric Sun model it is clear that the photosphere is the site of a strong plasma arc discharge. This produces the the Sun's Sun's continuous visible light light spectr spectrum. um. Immedi Immediatel ately y above above this in the Sun’s Sun’s atmosphere there is the Double Layer (DL) in which an intense, intense, outwardly outwardly directed directed electric electric field resides. resides. It is within this strong E-field that many heavy elements are create created d by z-pinc z-pinch h fusion fusion.. Recall Recall that the strong strong Efield dethermalizes the ions in that region and thus it is the (relatively) coolest layer of the Sun's atmosphere. Light that originates in the photosphere passes through the relatively cool, newly formed heavier
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elements elements in the DL. DL. These heavier heavier elements elements selectively absorb energy from the light's spectrum and thus the absorpti absorption on lines are are created. created. In fact they they are created in exactly the place where the Sun's E-field is strongest. Thus we have the ideal ideal situation for selective broadening of those lines due to the Stark effect. In those instances wherein we see emission lines in a star’s spectrum we may speculate that, just as in the laboratory, the easiest way to generate them is by pass passin ing g a str strong ong elec electr tric ic cur current rent thr through ugh a tenuous gas cloud. For example, example, type W (Wolf-Rayet) (Wolf-Rayet) stars are under such intense electrical input that they are hotter even than type O stars. They are located to the left of the top of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. They They typi typica call lly y show show stro strong ng emis emissi sion on line lines s in thei their r spectra. Since these stars experience stronger electrical currents than any other type star, there is ample probability that any tenuous coronal gases will be excited by such currents to produce p roduce emission lines. At the other end of the HR diagram, type M (relatively cool) stars also sometimes exhibit spectral emissi emission on lines. lines. Can we explain explain this via the Electr Electric ic Sun model model as well? well? Consider Consider the star star Betelgeuse Betelgeuse – a type M red 'giant'. 'giant'. The average average density density of Betelgeuse Betelgeuse is less than one ten thousandth of the density of the air we breathe. breathe. A star of such such tenuous tenuous nature nature has often often been called called a 'red hot vacuum'. vacuum'. The outer outer surface surface of this tenuous sphere (the radius of which is larger than the orbit of Jupiter from the Sun) has been found to have three bright areas of photospheric tufting above which we would expect to find DLs wherein z-pinch fusi fusion on may occu occur. r. It is fro from this his sourc ource e that hat the the absorp absorptio tion n lines lines in the M-type M-type spectra spectra come. come. But, But, in addition, Betelgeuse is surrounded by a coronal plasma that extends out several hundred radii from the
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surface surface of the star. star. This This corona corona is even even less dense dense than the star itself. Thus we have a gigantic gas cloud through which (according to the Electric Star model) electric current is passing – an ideal situation for the production of spectral emission lines. So, once again, in the case of stellar emission and absorpt absorption ion lines lines and their their selecti selective ve broade broadening ning,, we observe a stellar phenomenon that is more consistent with the Electric Sun model than it is with the “fusion core” model (in which, of course, no mention is made of electric fields).
Population I and II Stars There are are many ways to categorize stars. stars. While observing the Andromeda Galaxy, M 31, astronomer Walte Walterr Baad Baade e disc discov over ered ed that that he could could disti disting nguis uish h between two general types of stars in that object. He called them Population I and Population II. Population I stars are located in the arms of the galax galaxy. y. They They are gener generall ally y like like our our Sun; Sun; they are bright; are often blue giants, and are typically members of the "main sequence" of the HR diagram; there is usually lots of nebulosity, dust, and gas in their vicini vicinity. ty. Mainst Mainstrea ream m astron astronomer omers s call call them them "young "young"" stars. Population II stars are not found in the arms, but rather, in the nucleus of the galaxy and in globular clusters clusters that are are situated situated around its periph periphery. ery. These are less luminous, cooler, with fewer heavy elements; many are red and yellow giants; there is almost no dust and gas gas in their vicinity. vicinity. Mainstream astronomers astronomers call these stars "old". So we see that there is very roughly a lower-left half (Population I), upper-right half (Population II) partit partition ioning ing of the HR diagram diagram.. Therefor Therefore, e, from the
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Electric Star point of view, we note that the stars in Population I are more heavily electrically stressed than those in Population Population II. In the next page we we discuss the general shape of galaxies and then will be able to point out that the usual physical locations of these two star types in a typical galaxy are vastly different in electrical activity. activity. The arms (where (where Populati Population on I type stars stars are usua usuall lly y loca locate ted) d) are are the the foc focus of stro strong ng Birk Birkel elan and d current densities.
Blue Stragglers Up until recently no (Population I) O or B type stars were were observed in globular clusters. It was was thought that all stars in any given globular cluster were of a simil similar ar age age (old (old - Popu Popula lati tion on II). Ther Therefo efore re,, it came as a big shock when it was discovered that there were some blue "stragglers" (stars that hadn't "aged properly") properly") in certain certain clusters. clusters. It was said, said, in awe, that that these stars were "rejuvenated stars that glow with the blue blue light light of young stars"! stars"! "Stell "Stellar ar evolution evolution"" doesn' doesn'tt seem to be working too well in these cases. Anot Another her exam example ple of "stel "stella larr evol evoluti ution on"" that that is difficult to explain via the H-He fusion reaction is that in rece recent nt year years, s, the the cente centers rs of elli ellipt ptic ical al galax galaxie ies s (the (the other typical location of Population II stars) have been found to emit unexpectedly high amounts of blue and ultrav ultraviol iolet et light. light. Ellipt Elliptical ical gala galaxie xies s (and the star stars s in them) them) are are thou though ghtt to be quit quite e old. old. How, How, then, then, can can there there be so many "young "young"" blue stars stars in them? One mainstream answer is that some dying old stars suddenly decide to burn the Helium they had been prev previo iousl usly y prod produc ucing ing – or we hear hear (as (as alwa always ys)) the the mantr mantra a that that perhap perhaps s there there were were "colli "collision sions s betwee between n stars". Stellar densities in galactic nuclei are typically 50 - 60 stars stars per cubic cubic light year. year. Each star star occupies, occupies,
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say, 1/60 cubic LY. The cube root of 1/60 is approximately 0.25 - so, each star is 1/4 light year from its neighbor. neighbor. (Remember Burnham's model: Two specks of dust 1/100 inch in diameter separated by a distance distance of 1/4 MILE.) MILE.) What is the probabil probability ity of their colliding? From the ES point of view, any star can move quickly across the HR diagram if its electrical envir environm onmen entt chang changes es.. Anyo Anyone ne who who has has seen seen the the auror aurora' a's s plasm plasma a curt curtai ains ns moving moving and and fold foldin ing g in the the polar sky realizes that Birkeland current filaments are not not fixed fixed,, stati static, c, thin things gs.. They They move arou around nd.. If the galac galacti tic c Birk Birkel elan and d curr current ents s move move arou around, nd, it is likel likely y they will move relative to some stars - either increasing or decreasing the current densities these stars experience. A blue blue star is just one that is experiencing the the full full brun bruntt of a stro strong ng Birk Birkel elan and d curr curren ent. t. "Bl "Blue stragglers" aren't stragglers at all. They are a re just blue.
Variable Stars When When I was was rese esearch archin ing g topic opics s for this his article, Wal Thornhill said to me, "Have a look at variable stars, particularly burs burste ters rs,, wher where e I thin think k you you will ill find find the the brig bright htne ness ss curve is like that of lightning with a sudden rise time and exponen exponentia tiall decay. decay. Some Some stars are regular regular and others others irregular. irregular. The irregular irregular ones ones seem to average average the the power ower over over the the burst ursts. s. Whe When they hey are are more ore frequent, the energy is less per burst. If there is a long latency, the next burst is more powerful. It's the kind of thing you would expect from an electrical circuit when the trigger level is variable and the power input constant.
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I think many many variab variable le stars stars are actuall actually y binari binaries es with with some some kind kind of elec electr tric ical al inte intera ract ctio ion n . Long perio period d Mira Miras s (A type type of vari variabl able e star star)) may actua actualllly y have an object orbiting within the shell of a red giant (as I have proposed for the proto-Saturnian system)" Foll Followi owing ng Wal's Wal's sugge suggest stion ion,, I look looked ed at the the recent Hubble image of Mira itself, the flagship star of that that class of variabl variable e stars. stars. Mira's Mira's image image reveals reveals a huge huge plasma plasma emissio emission n on one side of the the star. star. The official explanation includes the words, " Mira A is a red giant star undergoing dramatic pulsations, causing it to become more than 100 times brighter over the course of a year. …. Mira can extend e xtend to over 700 times the size of our Sun, and is only 400 light-years away. The …. photograph taken by the Hubble Space Telescope shows the true face of Mira. But what are we seeing? The unusual extended feature off the lower left of the star remains somewhat mysterious. Possible explanations include gravitational perturbation and/or heatin heating g from from Mira's Mira's white white dwarf dwarf star compa companio nion n." [Italics added.] Mira has a white dwarf companion, just as Wal sugg sugges ested ted was likel likely. y. So, So, a much much bette betterr possi possibl ble e explanation of its pulsating output is that an electrical discharge is taking place between Mira and its companion, companion, much like like a relaxation relaxation oscillator. oscillator. It's not really "mysterious" at all. There are many examples of unequally sized, closely spac spaced ed,, bina binary ry pair pairss that that are are vari variab able le and and emit emit freq freque uent nt nova-like explosions. The list includes: •
SS Cygni - A yellow dwarf and a hot blue-white dwarf. Orbital period 6.5 hour ho urs! s! Sepa Se para rati tion on dist di stanc ance e 100.00 100 .000 0 miles or less. less. Bur Burnha nham m asks, "Is SS Cygni ..... dying out
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after having been [a full scale nova] in the past?" U Geminorum - A B-type blue dwarf and and a G-type dwarf. Orbital period 4.5 hours! Separation distance a few hundred thousand miles. In this case Burnham states, "Spectroscopic studies reveal the existence of a "rotating ring of gas" (plasma) around the blue star, and it appears that the explosive increase of light is due not only to the brightening of the star, but to a large increase of radiation from the cloud." Z Andromedae and R Aquarii Both Bo th of the hes se co cons nsis istt of a ho hott bl blue ue dwarf mated to a red giant. T Coronae and RS Ophiuchi Both Bo th have hav e recu re curr rren entt nova-l nov a-lik ike e eruptions and are close binary systems. •
•
•
Gamma Ray Bursters If you check the web page http://www.science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/ast1 3oct98 3oc t98 1.h 1.htm tm you will see the following description of what constitutes a "gamma ray burster". "October 13, 1998: Cosmic gamma-ray bursts have greatest st myster mysteryy of modern modern astron astronomy omy. been been call called ed the greate They are powerful blasts of gamma- and X-radiation that come from all parts of the sky, but never from the same
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direction twice. Space satellites indicate that Earth is illuminated by 2 to 3 bursts every day. What are they? No one is certain. Until recently we didn't even know if they came from the neighborhood of our own solar system or perhaps from as far away as the edge of the universe. The first vital clues began to emerge in 1997 when astronomers detected an optical counterpart to a gamma-ray burst. In Febru February ary 1997 1997 the BeppoS BeppoSAX AX X-ray X-ray astro astronom nomy y satell satellite ite pinpointed the position of a burst in Orion to within a few arcm arcminu inutes tes.. That That allowe allowed d astro astronom nomer erss to photog photograp raph h the burst, and what they saw surprised them. They detected a rapidly fading star , probably the aftermath of a gigantic explosion, next to a faint amorphous blob believed to be a very distant galaxy." [Italics added.] Doesn Doesn't 't this this soun sound d like like fissi fissioni oning ng again again? ? An explosion, explosion, followed by a rapidly fading star , accompanied by some sort of companion of companion!! Might it be that that the the reas reason on they they "nev "never er [com [come] e] from from the the same same direction twice" is that the creation of the binary pair has relieved the electrical stress (at least for a long enou enoug gh tim time that that we huma humans ns hav haven't n't yet seen seen a recur recurre renc nce) e)? ? The The Febr Februar uary y 2001 2001 issu issue e of Sky & Telescope magazine contains these words, "Does every gamma-ray burst begin with the supernova supernova explosion explosion of a massive massive star? star? New observation observationss from NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory and the ItalianDutch BeppoSAX BeppoSAX satellite suggest this is is so. Some astronomers think it's still too early to draw firm conclusions, though they hail the new observations as revo revolu lutio tiona nary ry.. In any any case case,, a link link betw betwee een n gamm gamma-r a-ray ay bursts and supernovae seems to be convincingly confirmed."
Pulsars Although pulsars do not occupy a specific place in the HR diagram, it is worth noting that they, too,
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have characteristics that are most comfortably explai explained ned via the ES model. model. Pulsar Pulsars s are stars that have have extr extrem emel ely y shor shortt peri period ods s of vari variab abil ilit ity y in thei their r production of EM radiation (both light and radio frequency frequency emissions) emissions) . When they they were first first discovered it was thought that they rotated rapidly like lighthouses. But when the observed rate rate of "rotation" got up to about once per second for certain pulsars, despite their having masses exceeding that of the sun, this official explanation became untenable. Instead, the concept of the "neutron star" was inve invent nted ed.. It was prop propos osed ed that that only only such such a dens dense e material could make up a star that could stand those rotation speeds. But, one of the basic rules of nuclear chemistry is the 'zone of stability'. This is the observation that if we add neutrons to the nucleus of any atom, we need to add an almost proportional number of protons (and their their acco accomp mpan anyi ying ng elect electro rons ns)) to main mainta tain in a stabl stable e nucleus. In fact, it seems that when we consider all the natural elements (and the heavy man made elements as well), there is a requirement that in order to hold a grou group p of neut neutro rons ns toge togeth ther er in a nucl nucleu eus s, a cert certai ain n numb number er of prot proton on-e -ele lect ctro ron n pair pairs s are are requ requir ired ed.. The The stable nuclei of the lighter elements contain approximately equal numbers of neutrons and protons, a neutron/proton ratio of 1. The heavier nuclei contain a few more neutrons than protons, but the limit seems to be 1.5 neutrons per proton. Nuclei that differ significantly from this ratio SPONTANEOUSLY UNDERGO RADIOACTIVE TRANSFORMATIONS that tend to bring their compositions into or closer to this ratio. Flying in the face of this observed fact, mainstream astrophysicists continue to postulate the existence of stars made up of solid material consisting
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only of neutrons, "neutronium". This is yet one more example of Fairie Dust entities fantasized by astrophysicists to explain otherwise inexplicable observations. The 'neutron star' is simply yet another fantasy fantasy conjured conjured up, this time, time, in order order to avoid avoid confronting the idea that pulsar discharges are electrical electrical phenomena. phenomena. A nucleus nucleus or charge free free atom made up of only neutrons has never been synthesized in any labor laborat ator ory y nor nor can it ever ever be. In fact, fact, a web web sear search ch on the the word ord 'neu 'neutr tron oniu ium' m' will ill prod produc uce e only only refe referrence ences s to a comp comput uter er game game – not not to any any real real,, scient scientific ific discussi discussion on or descri descripti ption. on. Lone Lone neutro neutrons ns deca decay y into into prot proto on - elec electr tron on pair pairs s in less less than than 14 minutes; atomlike collections of two or more neutrons will fly apart almost instantaneously. Perhaps some astronomers have begun to realize realize neutronium neutronium is embarrassing embarrassingly ly impossible. impossible. In any event, a less easily falsifiable falsifiable entity has now been proposed. proposed. Wal Thornhill Thornhill has written written about this this latest mainstream explanation of pulsar emissions: "The discovery now of an x-ray pulsar SAX J1808.43658 3658 (J18 (J1808 08 for for shor short) t),, loca locate ted d in the the const onstel ella lati tion on of Sagittarius, that flashes every 2.5 thousandths of a second (that is 24,000 RPM!) goes way beyond the red-line even for a neutron star. So another ad hoc requirement is added to the already long list - this pulsar must be composed of something even more dense than packed neutrons - strange matter! ...When not associated with protons in a nucleus, neutrons decay into protons and electrons in a few minutes. Atomic nuclei with too many neutrons are unstable. If it were were poss possib ible le to form form a neut neutro ron n star, tar, why why shou should ld it be stable?" "Strange "Strange matter"! matter"! Yet another another ad hoc fictional invention! They have been getting away with this kind of nonsense nonsense for decades. decades. How ludicrous ludicrous does does it have to get before some responsible astronomer cries out
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that this Emperor Has No Clothes On? Some pulsars oscillate with periods in the millis milliseco econd nd range. range. Their Their radio radio pulse pulse charact characteri eristi stics cs are: are: the the 'dut 'duty y cycl cycle' e' is typi typical cally ly 5% (i.e (i.e., ., the the puls pulsar ar flashes like a strobe light - the duration of each output pulse is much shorter than the length of time between pulses); some individual pulses are quite variable in intensity; the polarization of the pulse implies the origin has a strong strong magneti magnetic c field; field; magnetic magnetic fields fields requir require e electrical electrical currents. currents. These characte characteristic ristics s are consistent with an electrical arc (lightning) inte intera ract ctio ion n betwe between en two closel closely y spac spaced ed bina binary ry stars. stars. Relaxa Relaxatio tion n oscill oscillato ators rs with with charac character terist istics ics like like this have been known and used by electrical engineers for many years. Therefore, I was pleased when I saw the following announcement: Hubble Space Telescope Observations Reveal Coolest and Oldest White Dwarf Stars in the Galaxy: "Using the Hubble Space Telescope, astronomers at the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) have detected five five optica opticall compan companion ion stars stars orbiting millisecond pulsars. pulsars. Only Only two two othe otherr such such syst system ems s are are know known. n. Three of the companions are among the coolest and oldest white dwarf stars known." [Italics added] It is becoming obvious that pulsars are electrical discharges between members of binary pairs.
The Crab Pulsar The "Crab Nebula" (M1) is a cloud of gas (plasma) that is the remnant of a nova explosion seen by Chinese Chinese astrono astronomers mers.. Lying Lying at the center center of the nebul bula is a pulsar - a star called CM Tauri. The freq freque uenc ncy y of repe repeti titi tion on of the the puls pulsar ar's 's outp output ut is 30 pulses per second. The length of each flash, however, however, is approxim approximate ately ly 1/1000 1/1000 sec., sec., one millis milliseco econd! nd! The
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obvious question to ask next is: Is this star a binary pair? pair? No companio companion n is visibl visible e from from even the largest largest earthbound telescopes. But, the Hubble orbiting telescope has recently found a compan companion ion,, "a small knot of bright emission located only 1500 AU (1500 times the distance from the Earth to the Sun) from the pulsar. This knot has gone undetected up until now because even at the best ground-based resolution it is lost in the glare of the adjacent pulsar. The knot and the pulsar line up with the direction of a jet of X-ray emission. A second discovery is that in the direction opposite the knot, the Crab pulsar is capped by a ringlike 'halo' of emission tipped at about 20 degrees to our line of sight. In this geometry the polar jet flows right through the center of the halo."
M1 - The Crab Nebula
The shap shape e of thi this puls pulsar ar cent entered ered obj object ect is exactly that of an electrical homopolar motor generator.
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Supernova Supernov a G11.2-0.3
Remnant Remn ant
On August August 6, 2000, 2000, and October October 15, 15, 2000, 2000, the orbiting orbiting X-ray telescope Chandra discovered discovered a pulsar at the the geom geomet etri ric c cente centerr of the the supe supern rnov ova a remn remnan antt known as G11.2-0.3. This observation observation provides provides strong evidence that the pulsar was formed in the supernova of 386 386 AD, AD, whic which h was was also also witn witnes esse sed d by Chin Chines ese e astr astron onom omer ers. s. The The offi offici cial al desc descri ript ption ion of the the imag image e included the words: "The Chandra observations of G11.2-0.3 have also, for the first time, revealed the bizarre appearance of the pulsar wind nebula at the center of the supernova remnant. Its rough cigar-like shape is in contrast to the graceful arcs obser observed ved around around the Crab Crab and Vela Vela pulsa pulsars. rs. Howeve However, r, togeth together er with with those those pulsa pulsars, rs, G11.2G11.2-0.3 0.3 demons demonstra trates tes that that such such complic complicate ated d struct structure uress are are ubiqui ubiquitou touss aroun around d young pulsars." Upon examination, the image of the central star revea eveals ls that hat it is at the the cent center er of a 'ci 'cigar gar shap haped' ed' plasma discharge, discharge, not a 'bizarre wind nebula' (whatever that is). Although no binary companion has (yet) been found, the presence of the observed plasma discharge makes one suspect it is only a matter of time. Each Each new discovery discovery of a binary pair of stars, one of which is either a variable star or pulsar , at the center of a nova remnant, remnant, is one more piece piece of evidence evidence that Juergens' Juergens' electric star model and Thornhill's theory of the fissioning of those electric stars are both valid.
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Electric Star Evolution In the the Elec Electr tric ic Star Star hypot hypothes hesis is,, ther there e is no reas reason on to attr attrib ibut ute e youth youth to one one spec spectr tral al type type over over another. another. We conclude conclude that a star's star's location location on the HR diag diagra ram m only only depe depend nds s on its its size size and and the the elec electr tric ic curr curren entt dens densit ity y it is pres presen entl tly y expe experi rien enci cing ng.. If, If, for for whatever reason, the strength of that current density should change, then the star will change its position on the HR diagram diagram - perhaps, like FG Sagittae, abruptly. abruptly. Otherwise, no movement from one place to another on that that plot plot is to be expe expect cted ed.. And its its age age rema remain ins s indeterminate regardless of its mass or spectral type. Thi This is disq disqu uieti eting in the sense that we are now confronted by the knowledge that our own Sun's future is not as certain as is predicted by mainstream astrono astronomy. my. We cannot cannot know know whether whether the Birkelan Birkeland d curr curren entt pres presen entl tly y powe poweri ring ng our our Sun Sun will will incr increas ease e or decrease, nor how long it will be before it does so.
Summary A fresh fresh look look at the Hertz Hertzspr sprung ung-Rus -Russel selll diagra diagram, m, unen unencu cumb mber ered ed by the the assu assump mpti tion on that that all all star starss must must be inter internal nally ly power powered ed by the thermo thermonuc nuclea learr fusion fusion reac reactio tion, n, reveals an elegant correspondence between this plot and the Electric Star model proposed by Ralph Juergens and exte extend nded ed by Earl Earl Milto Milton. n. In fact fact the the corr corres espo pond nden ence ce is better than it is with with the standard standard thermonuclear thermonuclear model. The details in the shape of the HR diagram are exactly what the tuft tufted ed elec electr tric ic star star mode modell pred predic icts ts they they shou should ld be. be. The The obser observed ved action actionss of nova-l nova-like ike variab variable le stars, stars, pulsar pulsars, s, the anomalies in the line spectra of B-type stars, and the high frequency of occurrence of binary pairs of stars are all in concordance with Thornhill's Electrical Universe theory, his stella stellarr fissio fissionin ning g conce concept, pt, and the Electr Electric ic Star Star model model as 104
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well. well. Comple Completel tely y myste mysterio rious us and unexpl unexplain ained ed from from the thermonuclear model point of view is the 'impossible' evolutionary behavior of FG Sagittae and V838 Monocerot Monocerotis. is. Yet these phenome phenomena na are perfectly perfectly unde unders rsta tand ndab able le usin using g the the ES mode model. l. We eage eagerly rly awai awaitt NASA's next 'mysterious discovery' discovery' to further strengthen the case for the Electric Star hypothesis. h ypothesis.
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Galaxies The The usua usuall defi defini niti tion on of what what a gala galaxy xy is: is: 'An 'An island universe', or 'A vast collection of stars' is not wron wrong, g, but but it is misl mislea eadi ding ng.. Beca Becaus use e of the the vast ast distances that separate stars even in the most densely packed regions of most galaxies, a better definition is: 'A vast formation of plasma clouds that contain electri electrical cal curren currents ts and occasio occasional, nal, widely widely distrib distribute uted d tiny lumped points of matter called nebulae, stars and planets.' The shape that characterizes most galaxies was first described by Hannes Alfven in 1981.
The The shap shape e he prop propos osed ed is show shown n here here.. This This diagram is a vertical cross section of a three
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dimensional figure. The horizontal line at the center of the the diag diagra ram m is actu actual ally ly a circ circul ular ar disk disk lyin lying g in the the horizontal plane. It is this disk, when viewed not from the edge as it is here, but more face on, that is the familiar spiral shape picture of a galaxy that we are used to seeing. The parallel vertical lines coming out from the center of the galaxy (along its axis of rotation) represent a strong electrical current in a plasma that sometimes is visible as a "jet". The two pairs of letters - DL - in the sketch are Double Layers within the jet plasma. Recall that DLs contai contain n strong strong E-fields and are the source of radio frequency emissions. The two amorphous shapes at the the left left of the diag diagra ram m show show the resul esulti ting ng typi typica call "double radio source" that is observed in many galaxies. These are due to the presence of DLs. In some galaxies the jet plasma is in the dark current mode; in others it is clearly visible. This is Centaurus A. The jet is clearly visible in this his imag image. e. Halton Arp's cont conten enti tion on that that quasars are emitted from the centers of Seyf Seyfer ertt gala galaxi xies es along their 'second 'secondary ary axes' axes' (axes of rotation) is supported by these pictures. Recall that DLs are also the locations of strong electromagnetic z-pinches which which can compre compress ss disper dispersed sed materi material al into into denser denser objects. The general shape of a rotating disk carrying electrical electrical currents in the shape shown by Alfven
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defines what is called the homopolar motor genera generator tor.. Note Note that that the horizon horizontal tal disk (the arms of the galaxy) is where the current, I , is least spread out the current current density is greatest. greatest. This is where Popu Popula lati tion on I star stars s are are usua usuall lly y foun found. d.
In many many gala galaxi xies es the the jet jet stru struct ctur ure e cann cannot ot be seen seen in visi visibl ble e ligh light. t. So unti untill the the deve develo lopm pmen entt of infrared and x-ray orbiting satellite telescopes, most of these features remained undiscovered. There are now many images of galaxies that show the Alfven structure. The image at the right was taken by the Subaru orbiting IR telescope of galaxy M 82.
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Even our neighborin neighboring g Andromeda Andromeda galaxy, M 31, shows the disk like structure of the homopolar motorgenerator morphology. morphology. Below on the right is a normal, visible light photograph of M 31. Below on the left is an image of that same object obtained by the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) operated by ESA.
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But Alfven Alfven also also propos proposed ed that that indivi individual dual stars stars themselves had similar morphologies. He proposed an almost identical diagram for the operation of a typical star. Once again the plasmas involved may or may not all be in one of the visible modes of operation. So not all images of stars show this structure - but many do. Alfven's Alfven's heliospheri heliospheric c circuit is shown shown here. Because Because our Sun is a typical star, this diagram would apply equally well to it. This proposal remained in the realm of conjecture until the spring of the year 2001 when the spacec spacecraf raftt Ulysse Ulysses s discove discovered red long plasma plasma 'tubes' 'tubes' emanating from the bottom pole of our Sun. These tubes are long enough to extend out farther than the distance of the orbit of Mars from the Sun. There are also many images available now of individual 'jetted stars'. Of course, Alfven believed all stars were jetted but some less visibly than others. Below are a pair of images of stars that show the plasma jets and characteristic disk shape clearly.
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Notice in the right hand image (Goddard Space Flight Center) that the 'planets' (Herbig-Haro objects) are formed in a collinear array along the jet axis of the parent star. These clumpings are probably formed by DLs at those locations. In the center image (above) the tell tell-t -tal ale e twis twisti ting ng shap shape e of a large large Birk Birkela eland nd curr current ent containing DLs is clearly visible. Dr. Anthony Peratt points out that the number of objects typically formed
by the z-pinch effect is usually around nine. Whet Whethe herr we choo choose se to call call it the the homo homopo pola lar r motor - generator, the jetted disk, or the Alfven circuit, this shape is being seen with increasing frequency as more accurate and broader bandwidth instruments are deve develo lope ped. d. (Not (Notic ice, e, for for exam exampl ple, e, the the shap shape e of the the "Crab pulsar" shown on the Main page of this site.) All the images images shown shown below are are of stars. stars. All All exhibit exhibit the homopolar disk shape.
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The Solar System The Solar Plasma The space surrounding the Sun, its corona and beyo beyond nd,, is a plas plasma ma.. Inde Indeed ed,, much much of all all space is occupied by plasma - mostly in the dark current mode. The plan planets ets and and their their moons each carry an electric electric charge charge as they travel through this plasma.The plasma sea in which the solar syst syste em floa floats ts extends out to what is called the heliopause - where there is prob probab ably ly a doub double le laye layerr that that sepa separa rate tes s our our Sun's plasma from the lower voltage plasma that fills our arm of the Milky Way galaxy. In sola solarr flar flares es and and coro corona nall mass mass ejec ejecti tion ons s (CME's), charged particles are thrown outward from the Sun. These flows constitute electrical currents. And what form do (Birkeland) currents take in plasmas? - They twist!
Planetary Magnetotails Each planet has a 'plasma sheath' - a well
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known electrical phenomenon - the size and shape of which is determined by the difference between the electrical potential (voltage) of the planet and that of the nearby solar plasma. The shape of this plasma sheath is usually a tear-drop or wind-sock shape, the pointed end facing away from the sun. The boundary of this shea sheath th is a doub double le layer layer that that separ separat ates es the the plan planet' et's s surro surroun undin ding g plas plasma ma from from the the sola solar r plasma.
Interactions Magnetotails
of
The plasma sheath of Venus is extremely long, almost touching the Earth when the two planets are are at their closest approach. approach. Jupiter's plasma sheath has the same relationship with Saturn. Recently NASA astronomers have discovered discov ered what they call 'stringy things' in the long plasma tail of Venus. Such twisted (stringy) filaments are exactly the paths Birk Bi rkel eland and curr cu rrent ents s take tak e in plas pl asmas mas.. Apparently Venus is discharging an electrical curr cu rrent ent.. Th The e pl plas asma ma ta tailils s of all th the e pl plan anets ets today are in the dark current mode of operati oper ation. on. But wer were e they they alway always s thus? thus? The ancients reported that Venus once was seen to have ha ve a fi fire rey y ta tailil and 'twist 'twisted ed hair'. hair'. Co Could uld it have been that her plasma tail was then in the normal glow or even the arc mode of operation? Consid Cons ider er fo forr a mom omen entt wha hatt the sh shap ape e of Venus' plasma tail would look like if it were visi vi sible ble.. Th The e di diam amet eter er of th the e pl plasm asma a sh shea eath th around Venus is, at most, possibly two or three 116
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times the planet's diameter - say about 20,000 miles. But the distance from Venus to Earth during their closest approaches is in the order of 26 mi mill llio ion n mi mile les. s. So th the e Ve Venu nusi sian an ta tail il is approximately a thousand times as long as it is broad at its thickest point. That is a very long, thin, twisting snakelike shape. If, at some time in the past, this plasma tail were in the normal glow mode, it would have been visible from Earth! How would the ancients have described it?
Inte terrse sec cti tin ng Sheaths
Plasm sma a
When a planet is surrounded by a double layer shea sh eath, th, it is pr prot otect ected ed fr from om di dire rect ct el elec ectr tric ical al interaction with any outside body. Two electrically charged planets, each surrounded by su such ch a pl plas asma ma sh shea eath th ca cann nnot ot se see e ea each ch other electrostatically. However, if a body having a different electrical charge, penetrates the th e doub do uble le laye la yer, r, movi mo ving ng into in to the th e plasmasphere surrounding a planet, electrical interactions (current discharges) can and will occur. Thus, if any other body such as a large meteor (or asteroid, comet, etc.) should come close enough to Earth to penetrate our plasma sheath, violent electric discharges would occur between the two bodies. It would, of course, be unfortunate to be standing at the point of origin of such a discharge. But the discharge itself might destroy the intruder and thus protect the Earth from an otherwise disastrous collision. Physicist Physi cist Wal W al Thornhill Thornhill states that Io, the
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innermost of the four large moons of Jupiter, is presently experiencing electric discharges from Jupiter and is being electrically machined as a result. He points out that Io is a living laboratory of electric plasma discharges sitting right in front of us, if we are only willing to see it for what itit is. NASA released the photo of Io shown below below.. Io is prett pretty y much aglow aglow.. Note the he heav avie iest st glo low ws on Io ar are e on th the e si sid des directly toward and directly away from Jupiter. The famous 'volcanos' on Io cannot be true volcanos because they have moved around a distance of many miles since their discovery. Also the material ejected from the site of these phen ph enom omen ena a is no nott dis disbur burse sed d ov over er a ci circ rcul ular ar area as volcanic ejecta would be. It all lands in a thin ring ring - just as the output of a plasma gun does do es.. Th Thes ese e ar are e cl clea earl rly y el elect ectri ric c di disc scha harg rges, es, not volcanos.
Original Caption Released with Image: This eerie view of Jupiter's moon Io in eclipse (left) was acquired by NASA's Galileo spac spacec ecrraft aft whil while e the the moon moon was was in Jupi Jupite ter' r's s shadow shadow.. Gases Gases above above the satelli satellite's te's surfac surface e produced a ghostly glow that could be seen at visi visible ble wavel waveleng engths ths (red, (red, green green,, and and viol violet) et).. The vivid colors, colors, caused by collisions between Io's atmospheric gases and energetic charged
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part partic icle les s trap trappe ped d in Jupit Jupiter er's 's magnet magnetic ic fiel field, d, had not previously been observed. The green and red emissions are probably produced by mechanisms similar to those in Earth's polar regions that produce the aurora, or northern and southern lights. Bright blue glows mark the sites of dense plumes of volcanic vapor, and may be places places where where Io is electr electrica ically lly connected to Jupiter. The The view viewing ing geom geometr etry y is show shown n in the the image on the right. North is to the top of the picture, and Jupiter is towards the right. The reso resolu luti tion on is 13.5 13.5 kilo kilome mete ters rs (8 mile miles) s) per per picture element. The images were taken on May 31, 1998 at a range of 1.3 million kilometers (800,000 miles) by Galileo's onbo onboar ard d soli solid d stat state e imag imagin ing g camer camera a syst system em during the spacecraft's 15th orbit of Jupiter. JPL JPL man manages ages the the Gali Galile leo o miss missiion for for NASA's NASA's Office of Space Science, Washington, Washington, DC. This This image and and other image images s and data received from Galileo are posted on the World Wide Web on the Galileo mission home page at http://www. http://www.jpl.nas jpl.nasa.gov/ a.gov/galil galileo. eo. Background Background info inform rmati ation on and and educ educati ation onal al cont contex extt for the the images can be found at http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/sepo. (Underlining added for emphasis.) NASA recently directed the Galileo space probe to pass very close to one of the "volcanos" (electric arc discharges) on Io - with the th e fol follo lowi wing ng re resul sultt (New Sci Scient entist ist October 30, 1999): "On Oc "On Octo tobe berr 10 Ga Gali lile leo o passed within 611 kilometers of Io, using its solid stat ate e
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imager to reveal features as small as 9 meters across near the volcano Pillan. But radiation took its toll, zapping a critical bit in Galileo's comp co mput uter er memo me mory ry and an d blurring many images." Flying Flyi ng a co comp mput uter er th thrrou ough gh a hi high gh in inte tens nsit ity y electric field is much more likely to "zap" its elec el ectr tron onic ics s th than an si simpl mply y pa passi ssing ng it no ne near arer er than 380 miles distant from some smoke and molten rock.
Planetary Scars Thornhi Thor nhillll an and d ot other her lilike ke min minde ded d in inve vest stig igato ators rs also believe that the monstrous scar across the face of Mars(the canyon called Valles Marineris) was produced by electric arc machining. The rocks and rubble that th at are ar e foun fo und d strewn everywhere across the landscape of Mars are ar e mo most st pr prob obab ably ly the detritus from this huge excavation. Just look at the size of that scar! The Grand Canyon of Arizona would be lost in one small section of it.
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There are many vi There visibl sible e exa exampl mples es of elec electri trical cal scarring on Mars. Electrical scars have have characteristics that enable us to distinguish between them and water erosion and/or impact cratering. Venus also exhibits evidence of having been electrically machined. Present Pres ently ly a de deba bate te is oc occu curr rrin ing g am amon ong g so some me geol ge olog ogis ists ts as to ex exac actl tly y wh what at pr proc oces ess s fo form rmed ed th the e Grand Gra nd Canyon Canyon of Arizona. Arizona. The There re is no evidence evidence of where the soil that was removed went! There is no riverr delta. rive delta. It has all disappea disappeared. red. And the Colora Colorado do River would have had to flow uphill in order to create the Canyon. Also, no evidence of the "meteor" that formed Arizona's "Meteor Crater" has ever been found. Were both both these these scars also formed formed by electri electric c arc ar c machi machinin ning? g? It is highl highly y likely likely.. Fo Forr a de deta taililed ed description of the problems associated with the accepted explanation of how the Grand Canyon was formed see Wal Thornhill's page.
Mars A full disk image of Mars is on the right. Notice that the southern hemisphere is covered with craters. The northern hemisphere is, for the most part, smooth and an d ha has s ma many ny fe few wer cr crat ater ers. s.Be Belo low w is an im imag age e of Martian "Sinuous rilles". They are made up of chains of craterlets. This too is characteristic of electric arc machining (certainly not water flow). Notice the faint horizontal rilles crossing the large one. The horizontal rilles obviously were made later than the large rille. Notice too that the horizontal rille goes up hill and down hill, cutting right across the earlier structure.
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Terraced crater walls and small secondary craters sitting on the edge of larger craters are charac cha racter terist istic ic of elec electri tric c arc machinin machining. g. Als Also o not notice ice the th e fl flat at fl floo oors rs an and d al almo most st pe perf rfec ectt ci circ rcul ular arit ity y of th the e craters. crater s. If the twisting twisting arc that that creates an electri electrically cally formed crater stops on the rim and does not extinguish, exting uish, it will will form a secondary secondary crater. crater. This effect effect is cl clea earl rly y de demo mons nstr trat ated ed in a labor laboratory atory exper experiment iment shown on physicist Wal Thornhill's CD "The ElectricUniverse."
Venus On the right is a closeup of the upper left region of Venus' crater Buck. It is a classic example of when the arc is extinguished before it can make a complete circular rotation. The fact that the sinuous rilles are made up of strings of small craters is obvious in this image. There are two straight rills to the left of the crater (as well as the curving ones leading down into it from the top of the photo). Sinuous rilles are one of the typical characteristics of electric arc machining. The standard mainstream explanation for these horseshoe
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shaped craters is that one side of the crater wall has collapsed. What do you think? If all the "impact" craters on Mars, Venus, and our Moon were really formed by impacts, then pro pr oba babi bili lity ty wou ould ld di dic cta tatte th that at mo most st (o (orr at lea east st a significant fraction) of them should be elliptical. Meteors very rarely come straight down. On the other hand ha nd,, el elec ectr tric ic fi fiel elds ds alw alway ays s im impi ping nge e on co cond nduct uctin ing g spheres at right angles to their surfaces (i.e., vertically) and that is why all these so-called circular "impac "im pact" t" craters craters are round. round. They were were not made by impacts. They were were caused by electric electric anode scarring.
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Saturn's Rings
An inte in tere rest stin ing g phen ph enom omen enon on (cal (c alle led d "mysterious" by those in the mainstream) is the fact that the planet Saturn has radial "spokes" in its ring system system.. The radial radial nature nature of these these almost screams screams ELECTRI ELECTRIC C FIELD at at us! But one of the official explanations is that "they are thou th ough ghtt to be mi micr cros oscop copic ic gr grai ains ns th that at hav have e become charged and are levitating levitatingaway away from
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the ring plane." Levitating ?? ?? And yet another property of Saturn's rings is that some of them are braided! They twist! The following is a quote from Science Science,, Vol. 210, 5 Dec De c 19 1980 80,, p. 11 1108 08:: "T "The here re wa was s th the e F ri ring ng,, revealed in Voyager's narrow-angle camera to be kinked and triply stranded - and, perhaps, in defiance of all commonsense celestial mechanics, braided." braided." (Emphasis (Emphasis added.) Are the "braids" in Saturn's F ring due to just the th e ki kind nd of tw twis isti ting ng cu curr rren ents ts th that at Bi Birk rkel elan and d observed?
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Redshift What is redshift? If the lines in the spectrum of the light from a star or galaxy appear at a lower frequency (shifted toward the red) than where they are observed in the spec spectr trum um of the the Sun, Sun, we say say this this obje object ct exhi exhibi bits ts 'positi 'positive ve redshi redshift'. ft'. The accepted accepted explanatio explanation n for this effect is that the object must be moving away from us. This interpretation is drawn by analogy with the dow downwar nward d shif shiftt in the the pitc pitch h of a trai train n whis whistl tle e as it passes through a railroad crossing and then speeds away from from us. The question question is: Is recessio recessional nal velocity velocity the only thing only thing that can produce a redshift, as modern astrophysicists presume? It has become clear that the answer to that question is an emphatic NO! If the wavelength of an absorption line in an object's observed spectrum appears at a wavelength that that is, is, say, say, 1.56 1.56 times times its its 'nor 'normal mal wave wavele leng ngth th'' (the (the wave wavele leng ngth th at whic which h it is obse observ rved ed in a labo labora rato tory ry experiment here on Earth), then we say this object has a positive redshift of z = z = 0.56. The 'z value' z value' is simply the observed fractional increase in the wavelength of the spectral spectral lines. lines. The simple simple interpretati interpretation on of this is to say that this object must therefore be receding from us at 56% of the speed of light or 0.56 x 300,000 km/sec. Mainstream astrophysicists believe that recessional recessional velocity, velocity, v = cz . This This object, object, there therefor fore, e, must be very far away from Earth. But a high redshift value does not necessarily mean the object is far away. There is another, more important cause of high redshift values.
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Halton Arp Halton C. Arp is a professional astronomer who, earlier in his career, was Edwin Edwin Hubble' Hubble's s assista assistant. nt. He has ear earned ned the Hele Helen n B.War B.Warne nerr priz prize, e, the the Newcom Newcomb b Clev Clevel elan and d award and the Alexander von Humboldt Senior Scientist Scientist Award. Award. For years he worked at the Mt. Palomar and Mt. Wilson observat observatories. ories. While there, there, he develope developed d his well well know known n catal catalog og of "Pecu "Peculiliar ar Galax Galaxie ies" s" that that are are misshapen or irregular in appearance. Arp discovered, by taking photographs through the big telescopes, that many pairs of quasars (quasistellar objects) which have extremely high redshift z values (and are therefore thought to be receding from us very rapidly - and thus must be located at a great dist distan ance ce from from us) us) are are physica physically lly associ associate ated d with with galaxies that have low redshift and are known to be relatively close by. by. Arp has photographs of many pairs of high redshift quasars that are symmetrically located on either side of what he suggests are their parent parent,, low redshift redshift galaxies. galaxies. These These pairin pairings gs occur occur much much mor more ofte often n than than the the prob probab abil ilit itie ies s of rand random om placement would allow. Mainstream astrophysicists try to explain away Arp's observations of connected galaxies and quasars as being "illusions" or "coinci "coincidenc dences es of apparent apparent location location". ". But, But, the large number of physically associated quasars and low red
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shift galaxies that he has photographed and cataloged defies that evasion. It simply simply happens too often Because of Arp's photos, the assumption that high red shift objects have to be very far away - on which hich the the "Big "Big Bang ang" theor heory y and all all of "acc "accep eptted cosmology" cosmology" is based based - is proven proven to be wrong! wrong! The Big Bang theory is therefore falsified.
NGC 4319 and Markarian 205 A prime example of Arp's challenge is the connected pair of objects NGC 4319 and Markarian 205. Dr. Arp has shown in his book "Quasars, Redshifts and Controversies" that there is a physical
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conn connec ecti tion on betw betwee een n the the barr barred ed spir spiral al gala galaxy xy NGC NGC 4319 and the the quasar quasar like object object Markarian Markarian 205. This conne connect ctio ion n is betw betwee een n two two objec objects ts that that have have vast vastly ly different redshift values. Mainstream astronomers deny the existen existence ce of this this physica physicall link. link. They claim claim these two objects are not close together - they are 'coincidentally aligned'.
On Apri Aprill 4, 2002 2002 amat amateu eurr astr astron onom omer er John John Smith of Oro Valley, AZ obtained an image of the two objects. The author of these pages then quantized that image to show isophote contours (of equal brightness). brightness). This result is shown below. below. The isophotes in the central section of 4319 suggest that the the galax galaxy y is indeed indeed a barr barred ed spir spiral. al. Also Also the main main arms arms seem seem to be coming coming off at thei theirr roots. roots. Both Both of these observations were first noted by Arp and stated as such such in his book book.. Noti Notic ce that that only Mark Mark 205's 205's isophotes isophotes are stretched stretched back toward NGC 4319. None
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of the other objects in close proximity to 4319 are
distorted in this manner.
Then on October 7, 2002 the Astronomy Picture of the Day issued issued a Hubble Hubble Space Telescop Telescope e image of these same objects objects.. The orienta orientatio tion n is different different.. After processing this HST image in the same way as the above amateur image, the following were obtained:
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(a)
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(b) Notice, in the magnified isophote view, (b), that there is a distention of the shape of the Mark 205 inner isophotes back toward NGC 4319. There are also a series of secondary masses within Mark 205 on a line connecting 4319 and the center center of Mark 205. But NASA scientis scientists ts 'cannot 'cannot see any connection between these two objects.' The The offi offici cial al expl explan anat atio ion n of the the NASA NASA image mage states, states, "Appearances "Appearances can be deceiving. deceiving. In this NASA Hubble Space Telescope Telescope image, image, an odd celestial celestial duo, the the spir spiral al gala galax xy NGC NGC 4319 4319 [cen [cente ter] r] and and a quas quasar ar called Markarian 205 [upper right], appear to be neighbors. In reality, the two objects don't even live in the same city. They are separated by time and space. NGC 4319 is 80 million light-years from Earth. Markarian 205 (Mrk 205) is more than 14 times farther away away,, resi residi ding ng 1 bill billio ion n ligh light-y t-yea ears rs from from Eart Earth. h. The The apparent close alignment of Mrk 205 and NGC 4319 is simply a matter of chance." chance." Professional astronomers seem seem to be so enamo namorred of their heir 're 'redshi dshift ft equa equals ls distance' theory that it damages their eyesight. Stephan's Quintet In "Quas "Quasar ars, s, Redsh Redshift ifts, s, and Contro Controver versie sies" s" (p. 96-
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101) Halton Arp discusses the five interacting galaxies NGC 7317, 7318A, 7318B, 7319, and 7320 that constitute Stephan's Stephan's Quintet. Quintet. The last one, NGC NGC 7320, has a redshift value of 800 km/sec. The other four four have redshifts redshifts of either either 5700 5700 km/se km/secc or 6700 6700 km/se km/sec. c. Mains Mainstre tream am astro astronom nomer erss therefore claim those last four are about eight times farther away from from us than NGC 7320. Therefore Therefore,, they say, there cannot be any interaction between 7320 and the others. Arp Arp sta states tes "The "The deep deepes estt 200 200 inch inch (Mt. (Mt. Palo Paloma mar) r) plates that I have been able to obtain clearly show a 'tail' coming out of the southeast end of NGC 7320." He points out, "A tail like this from NGC 7320... must be an inte intera ract ctio ion n tail tail - whic which h coul could d aris arisee only only from from phy physica sicall interaction with the adjacent high-redshift members of the Quintet." He then states that at least one amateur has been able to see the tail but, "it is amazing that so many professionals have have diff diffic icul ulty ty seei seeing ng it." it." NASA NASA rout routin inely ely crop cropss thei their r images of Stephan's Quintet to exclude the area where this tail would be seen. However, my good friend, amateur astronomer John Smith acquired a full image of the Quintet. The large, dark galaxy on the left is the low redshift NGC 7320. Then going counter-clockwise we have 7317, 7318A, 7318A, 7318B, and 7319. At the top of the the image is the small galaxy NGC 7320C. After some digital image processing (which only increased contrast), the result shown below was obtained. It is apparent that a 'tail' does indeed extend out from NGC NGC 7320 7320 towa toward rd the the left left.. In fac fact it appe appear arss to curve urve around and connect to the small galaxy NGC 7320C. The redshift of this small companion galaxy is z = 0.02 which is about 10 times that of NGC 7320. So, onc once again gain we have have evide videnc ncee of a phy physic sical connection between two objects that have vastly different
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redshift values. Inherent Redshift
Arp believes that the observed redshift value of any object is made up of two components: the inherent component component and the velocity velocity component component.. The velocity velocity component is the only one recognized by mainstream astronomers. The inherent inherent redshift is a property of the matter in the object. It apparently changes over time in discrete steps. He suggests suggests that quasars are are typically emitted from their parent galaxies with inherentiredshift values of up to z = 2. They They continu continue e to move away, away, with stepwise stepwise decreasing decreasing inherent inherent redshift. redshift. Often, Often, when the inherent redshift value gets down to around z = z = 0.3, the quasar starts to look like a small galaxy or BL Lac Lac obj object ect and and begi begins ns to fall fall back back,, with with stil stilll decreasing decreasing redshift redshift values, values, toward toward its parent. parent. He has photos and diagrams of many such family groupings. Any Any addi additi tiona onall reds redshif hiftt (ove (overr and and abov above e its its inher inheren entt value) is indeed indeed indicative indicative of the object's object's velocity. velocity. But the inherent part is an indication of the object's youth and usually makes up the larger fraction of a quasar's total redshift. In addition, these inherent redshift z values of quas quasar ars s seem seem to be quan quanti tize zed! d! Unusually tight groupings of those calculated values occur centered around values of z = z = 0.061, 0.3, 0.3, 0.6, 0.6, 0.96, 1.41, 1.41, 1.96, 1.96, etc... etc... such that (1+z (1+z 2) 2) = 1.23(1+z 1.23(1+z 1). 1). [For example, 1.23(1+0.3) = 1.60]. The very existence of this quantization alone, is sufficient proof of the failure of the idea that redshift is only an indicator of recessional speed (and therefore distance). This quantization means (under the redshift equals distance interpretation) that quasars all must lie in a seri series es of conc concen entr tric ic shel shells ls with with Eart Earth h at the the
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center of the entire arrangement . Copernicus found out a long time ago that Earth isn't at the center of anything! Recently mainstream astronomers have joyfully announced that they can find no quantization effects in the observ observed ed redshift redshift values values of quasar quasars. s. Of course course not! not! The The raw raw meas measur ured ed tota totall reds redshif hiftt value values s of the the universal set of all known quasars are not quantized. It is the inherent redshift z values that are! Inst Instead ead of nomi nomina nati ting ng him him for a priz prize e (and (and simultaneously reexamining their assumption that "redshift equals distance"), Arp was (and continues to be) systematically denied publication of his results and refused telescope time. One would would at least expect the "powers that be" to immediately turn the Chandra Xray orbiti orbiting ng telesc telescope, ope, the Hubble Hubble space space telesc telescope ope,, and all the big land based telescopes toward Arp's exciting discoveries in order to either confirm or disprove disprove them once and and for all. Instead, Instead, these these objects have have been been comp complet letel ely y excl exclud uded ed from from exami examina nati tion on.. Official photographs are routinely cropped to exclude them. Those familiar with the Galileo story will remember the priests who refused to look through his telescope. Evidence Says Arp is Right - A Quasar In Front of a Nearby Galaxy The final irrefutable falsification of the "Redshift equals distance" assumption is the following image of gala galaxy xy NGC NGC 7319 7319 (Red (Redsh shif iftt = 0.02 0.0225 25). ). The The smal smalll object indicated by the arrow is a quasar (Redshift z = 2.11) This observation of a quasar between quasar between the galaxy and Earth is impossible if the quasar is over ninety times farther away than the galaxy.
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In fact, a higher magnification image of the quasar (bel (below ow)) show showss a "jet "jet"" of matt matter er exte extend ndin ing g out from from the center of NGC 7319 toward the quasar.
So, So, Arp Arp is corr correc ectt in his his cont conten enti tion on that that reds redshi hift ft is caused mainly by an object's being young, and only secondarily secondarily because because of its velocity. velocity. Therefore, Therefore, quasars quasars are not the brightest, brightest, most distant distant and rapidly rapidly moving things in the observed universe - but they are among the youngest. The Big Bang Theory is false - not because I or othe others rs clai claim m it to be fals falsee - but but bec because ause it has has been been scientifically falsified. Halton C. Arp is now at the Max Planck Institute in Germany Germany.. Occasion Occasionally ally he returns returns to the United United States to give lectures and visit family. family.
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More about Halton Arp's work Arp's Peculiar Galaxies Exploding the Big Bang Statistics Used as a Weapon
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Summary A complete summary of all the aspects of the Electric Cosmos is too extensive to fit into a single sing le web page. In fact fact,, thi this s ent entire ire web sit site, e, with all its pages, is only a cursory introduction to the vast implications of these ideas. Therefore, this summary page can only list a few fe w (not al alll) of the points tha hatt should be remembered by anyone who is trying to learn about the modern view of the Universe that is emerging. It is my hope that if you have read through these webpages, you may be interested in seeing a more complete
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description of these and other properties of the Electric Sky provided in my book by that name available through Mikamar Publishing and at Amazon.com. 1. The entire cosmos is permeated with plasma. In some regions (within a galaxy, within a solar system) the plasma is denser than it is in others. In some cases the plasma is visible, in some, not. But everywhere our spacecraft have gone - they have found fo und it. 2. The electrical properties of plasma vastly outweigh its mechanical (gravitational) properties.
There re is not nothing hing mys myster teriou ious s abo about ut mag magneti netic c 3. The fields. They do not "get tangled up", "break", "merge", or "reconnect". They require moving charges (electric currents) in order to exist. 4. The relative distances between even the most densely packed stars are vast in comparison to those stars' diameters. 5. The homopolar motor - generator shape seem se ems s to be ub ubiq iquit uitous ous.. St Star ars, s, pul pulsa sars rs,, and galaxies are organized in this morphology.
The e z-pi z-pinc nch h ef effe fect ct th that at oc occu curs rs in Bi Birk rkel elan and d 6. Th currents (electrical currents that flow thro th roug ugh h pl plas asmas mas)) is re resp spon onsi sible ble for th the e accretion of stars, planets, and galaxies. 7. It is quite possible that the solar system started out as a collinear array of "Herbig - Haro" type objects formed by a z-pinch.
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The e pres presum umpt ptio ion n th that at,, if an ob obje ject ct ex exhi hibi bits ts 8. Th redshift, it must be far away - is false. The e Big Big Ba Bang ng Th Theo eory ry is fa fals lse. e. It ha has s be been en 9. Th defended in a most unscientific way. 10. There is a lot more electrical activity out there in the cosmos than astrophysicists seem to want to admit.
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11. Astrophysicists and cosmologists need to take some courses in electrodynamic field theory and experimental plasma physics. 12. Astrophysicists need to stop acting in a "kneejerk" confrontational way to any new ideas, especially those involving electricity. True professionals do not engage in ad hominum attacks. 13. Astrophysicists should stop dreaming up impossible imaginary entities such as black holes, neutron stars stars,, strang strange e matter matter,, WIM WI MPs Ps,, MA MACH CHOs Os,, an and d MO MOND ND,, wh when en a perfectly real and well understood body of knowledge stands ready to explain all the things that "mystify" them so. For anyone
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who is interested in learning more about these ideas, some important web pages to take a look at are shown on o n the Links page that follows this one.
Some Some Last Last Thoug Thought hts s I have ave bee been asked sever everal al time times s recen ecentl tly y why I thin think k it is so impor importa tant nt that that the the Elec Electr tric ic/P /Pla lasm sma a Univ Univer erse se Theory Theory gains general general acceptance. acceptance. What difference can it possibly make to the future of humanity? humanity? How will will knowing knowing how the the cosmos operates operates benefi benefitt mankin mankind? d? Who cares? cares? Of what possible practical use is this information anyway anyway? ? Why get so exci excited ted about about it? it? How will it help us in the future?
A blun bluntt shor shortt answ answer er woul would d hav have been been:: "Posing that question is equivalent to asking, Why Why stud study y astr astron onom omy y in the the firs firstt plac place? e?"" It would have to have been asked by someone who can look at the night sky and not wonder about that marvelous sight. So, let me answer it this way instead: in stead: One One of the the attr attrib ibut utes es that that sepa separa rate tes s the the huma human n from from the the anim animal als s is our our year yearni ning ng to know about our world and our sky - to wonder about the cosmos and have a desire to find out how how it work works s and and what is up there. there. Anot Anothe her r attribute is that we do not like to be told things that are untrue and have these ideas forced on us by peop people le who clai claim m to have ave super uperio ior r know knowle ledg dge e and and inte intellllect ect.. We have have been been told told that we average humans are not capable of real really ly unde unders rsta tand ndin ing g the the cosm cosmos os - that that it is
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inhabi inhabited ted by myster mysteriou ious s and invisi invisible ble forces forces and and entit entitie ies s that that only only impe impene netr trabl ably y abst abstra ract ct mathematics mathematics can can explain. explain. We are told told to just just passively accept whatever the 'experts' tell us. We have become so intimidated by how complicated modern science has become that we throw up our hands and say, "You're the experts - we'll believe what ever you tell us." And they say, "That's good, because our continued funding depends on your feeling that way." What will will the reaction reaction of of the taxpaying taxpaying publ public ic be if and and when hen they they reali ealiz ze the the full full extent to which they are being bilked by the scientific power-structure? Educat Educated ed lay-pe lay-peopl ople e have have abdicat abdicated ed their their responsibility to think proactively and ask the ques questi tion ons s that that will will keep keep scie scienc nce e hone honest st.. It seem seems s we woul would d rath rather er just just lie lie back back and and believe whatever we read in "Discover" magazine. If 'they' 'they' tell us black-holes and dark dark matter exist - so be be it. The public public has become become enthralled by the magic show that astronomy, particle physics, and some other sciences have become. Why does every TV 'science' program have background music that is more appropr appropriat iate e for a sci-fi sci-fi horror horror movie? movie? And a narr narrat ator or's 's voic voice e that that soun sounds ds like like God? God? The The public apparently enjoys the magic, mysterytour our aura of most ost of present day scienc ence 'sho 'shows ws'. '. The The ship ship of scienc science, e, capt captain ained ed by astronomy and astrophysics, is not just steering a wobbling course - it is miles off track and and it is inte intent ntio iona nall lly y layi laying ng dow down a smok smoke e screen - implying that modern science has to be counter-intuitive and mysterious. The astronomical world badly needs a reality
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check. check. The challe challenge nges s embodied embodied in these these pages constitute just that. The present day peer review system determines which proposed research projects get funded funded and and which which do not. not. It also also dete determ rmin ines es what what resu result lts s get get publ publis ishe hed d and and which which do not. At first first it seems seems very sensib sensible le that any scientific field should be able to keep 'quacks and crack pots' from being funded and publ publis ishe hed. d. Howev However er,, when when any given given area area becomes controlled by 'experts' who have accepted a deductively arrived at theory, they tend to see any alternative data or proposed hypoth hypotheses eses as 'crack 'crack pot'. When thos those e who steer the ship of science refuse to allow alternative hypotheses from even being discussed or investigated, let alone published, it is little wonder we are wildly off course. course. The general general public public thinks thinks of science science as always looking for new ideas. The sad truth is: is: it does does not, not, cert certai ainl nly y not not in astr astron onom omy y / cosmology. cosmology. What it does do is cons consta tant ntly ly seek funding from friendly peer reviewers. When we think about the travesty the Roman Catholi Catholic c Church Church perpet perpetrat rated ed against against Galile Galileo o (waiting until late in the 20th century to admit it) we feel superior. WE modern modern folk folk would would never ignore and suppress a scientist in that way! No? Then how about astronomer Halton Arp who was denied access to Mt. Palomar and refused publication of his work because the present day high priests of the Big Bang Power Structure found the publication of his photog photograp raphs hs embarra embarrassi ssingly ngly contra contradic dictor tory y to thei theirr wellell-fu fund nded ed dog dogma? ma? Would Would it not not be educational to realize that we have just
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screwed up again - big time! If the Electric Star hypothesis is even partially partially correct, there is no guarantee that the Sun will continue to shine for millions of years as we have have been been assu assure red d by the the expe expert rts. s. What anxieties will this realization engender in a scientifically scientifically semi-literate semi-literate public? But, it may be reassuring for them to know that Earth has much less to fear from a near collision with an astero asteroid id or comet comet than they they now think. think. Why have billions of tax payer dollars been used to supp suppor ortt "acce "accept pted ed"" solar solar fusi fusion on model models s and and the Big Bang but none invested in any alternative ideas, however worthwhile they may be? The fundamental challenges that are desc descri ribe bed d in thes these e page pages s cont contai ain n the the most most potentially explosive ideas ever to have been issu issued ed in scien science ce.. They They const constit itut ute e a cosmi cosmic c reality check for the entire intellectual community. There is almost no field of of academic endeavor that will not be affected in some way (or even overturned) by these ideas. Areas of science that refuse to honestly address address these these questi questions ons will will become become irrelevant. Will it take another several hundred years (as it took Galileo) to gain official recognition of the vali validi dity ty of thes these e chal challe leng nges es from from thos those e who who prese present ntly ly occu occupy py Fort Fortre ress ss Scie Science nce? ? Will Will it ever happen? happen? I don't don't know. But does it have have prac practi tica call impo import rtan ance ce? ? You bet bet your your pock pocket etbo book ok it does does.. The The even eventu tual al outc outcom ome e depends on the public's attitude - do you want the expensive magic show to continue - or do you want honest answers from science?
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147
