I. CONSTRUCCIÓN DEL OBJETO DE ESTUDIO A. Contextualización de la problemática. problemática. La escuela secundaria nace en un contexto postrevolucionario, como un logro de la revolución mexicana; empezó a concebirse como una realidad realidad desde 1915, derivada de la Ley de Educac Educación ión Popular del Estado, promulgada promulgada en Veracruz eracruz,, pero es hasta 1925, que Moisés Sáenz, creó el departamento de escuelas secundarias. Desde el momento de su instauración se pensó en tres años de permanencia en el nivel, creando un puente propedéutico entre la educación elemental y la superior, con una natu na tura rale leza za fo form rmat ativa iva,, pe pens nsada ada para se segu guir ir es estu tudi dian ando do..
Esto Es to llllevó evó a qu que e se
contemplaran contem plaran nuevas materias materias en el plan plan de estudios estudios de las escuelas escuelas normales, normales, agregándose la secundaria como antecedente para ingresar a la normal, por lo que se abrió también la escuela normal superior, superior, especializando al docente para impartir clases en la escuela secundaria (UPN: 2005). De esta manera en 1926, en la currícula de la escuela secundaria y de la escuela normal superior, se agrega la enseñanza de una segunda lengua, siendo inglés o francés los idiomas elegidos, debido a que Francia ocupó un modelo importante de enseñanza y de estilo de vida en la época del porfiriato, y porque de ahí y de E.U. se exportaban métodos y modelos modelos de enseñanza; la bibliografía estaba escrita en esos esos idiomas, y alcanzar el dominio o conocimiento de una segunda lengua era una meta preponderante, además que en las preparatorias y la educación superior estaba en la currícula. “La enseñanza de lenguas tiene una larga historia que inicia desde los tiempos antiguos, las formas de describir el lenguaje variaron muy poco hasta 1993. Las descripciones del inglés se han apoyado en las gramáticas de las lenguas clásicas (griego y latín), descripciones que se basan en el análisis de cada palabra en la oración” (SEP (SEP,, 1996; 72).
La ens enseñan eñanza za de la len lengua gua viv vivió ió cam cambio bioss imp import ortant antes es en los años tre treint inta a con la llegada del estructuralismo, como un enfoque de las ciencias humanas que creció hasta convertirse convertirse en uno de los métodos más utilizados utilizados para analiz analizar ar el lengua lenguaje, je, la cultura y la sociedad.
10
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En 1935 el lingüista Bloomfield rescata las aportaciones de Ferdinand de Saussure, quien había establecido la distinción distinción fundamental entre lengua lengua y habla. La lengua la defifini de nió ó co como mo
un si sist stem ema a de si sign gnos os in inde depen pendi dien ente tess de dell hab habla la,, la cual sería sería la
utilización de la lengua efectuada por los hablantes. Partiendo de esta distinción, la semiología (nombre que propone Saussure para la ciencia de los signos) podría conce co ncebi birr el co conj njun unto to de dell le leng nguaj uaje e co como mo un una a est estruc ructu tura ra,, cuy cuyo o es estu tudi dio o de debe berí ría a efectuarse de modo sincrónico, y en el que el lenguaje aparecería como un sistema de relaciones en el cual el conocimiento conocimiento del siste sistema ma permitiría el reconoc reconocimien imiento to de loss el lo elem emen ento tos. s. El mé méto todo do es estr truc uctu tura rall en lilingü ngüís ístitica ca te tend ndrí ría a co como mo ob obje jetitivo vo la const co nstruc rucci ción ón de mo mode delo loss ab abst strac racto toss ca capac paces es de da darr ex expl plic icaci ación ón de to todo doss lo loss fenómenos (SEP: 1996). Desde Des de est esta a pers perspec pectiva tiva la gram gramáti ática ca se pres present enta a en est estruc ructur turas as sin sintag tagmát mática icass (declarativa, interrogativa, imperativa, etc.) y nociones como tiempo, género, número, espacio, etc. Éste És te mé méto todo do de an anál ális isis is liling ngüí üíst stic ico o co cond nduj ujo o al des desar arrol rollo lo de lo loss ej ejerc ercic icio ioss de sustitución. “La aplicación más duradera de la lingüística fue fue el sílabo estructural, que probó ser una forma eficaz para seleccionar y dar secuencia a aspectos lingüísticos, quienes tienen una graduación tal que las estructuras más simples pasan a ser más complejas, además proporcionan al alumno una descripción sistemática del lenguaje” (SEP, (SEP, 1996;73).
Los planes y programas estaban enfocados a la cuestión gramatical, con tres horas semanales a cada grado, el lenguaje se encontraba separado y fragmentado para su anális aná lisis is y se uti utiliz lizaba aba un cam campo po finito finito de est estruct ructuras uras que hacían hacían pos posibl ible e que el alumno alumn o accediera a un número infinito infinito de nuevas expresiones expresiones,, pero que fracasaba irremediablemente al querer llevar llevar al alumno a la comprensión comprensión del uso comunicativo de las estructuras (SEP: 1996). El enfoque enfoque tie tiene ne su part parte e med medula ularr en la lin lingüí güísti stica ca estructu estructural ral,, sie siendo ndo este un sistema gramatical que identifica, clasifica y analiza las estructuras de una lengua, fone fo nema mas, s, mo morf rfem emas, as, pa pala labra bras, s, fr fras ases es y or oraci acione ones, s, la lass cu cual ales es so son n or orde denad nadas as
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En los años cincuenta se desarrolló el método audio lingual enfatizando la oralidad de la lengua, donde el estudiante repite constantemente enunciados que nada tienen que ver con la realidad, hay un uso muy pobre del lenguaje creativo, con este método el laboratorio de idiomas es parte fundamental de la enseñanza de un idioma extranjero, por lo que una vez más se puede constatar su poca eficiencia, dado que en México debido debido a la condición socioeconóm socioeconómica, ica, muy pocas ciudades ciudades y escuelas podían contar con el laboratorio de idiomas para prácticas de escuchar y repetir. (lis (l iste teni ning ng an and d rep repea eatiting) ng),,
y la lass qu que e te tení nían an su la labo borat ratori orio, o, no co cont ntaba aban n con el
presupuesto presupu esto destinado destinado para para el sostenimi sostenimiento ento y equipamient equipamiento o continuo continuo del mismo. Éste método estaba diseñado para alumnos con pocas responsabilidades, excepto lass de pa la part rtic icip ipar ar en act activ ivid idad ades es or oral ales es,, es escu cucha chaba ban, n, re repet petía ían n y me memo mori riza zaba ban, n, siempre cuidadosamente guiados y con un mínimo margen de error (SEP: 1996). La fundamentación de estos métodos es coherente con la psicología conductista, misma que considera la adquisición de la lengua como una asociación de estímuloestímulorespuesta, donde la gramática es más importante, el maestro propone una serie de frases gramaticales, sustituyendo una a una las partes de esa estructura. Esta Esta teoría sostiene que el aprendizaje es un proceso mecánico de formación de hábitos y actúa utilizando el refuerzo de estímulo- respuesta. Posteriormente en Planes y Programas de 1957 hay cambios substanciales. En ese mismo año Noam Chomsky publica su obra “Estructuras sintácticas”, donde afirma: afirma: … “la descripción estructural es demasiado superficial, ya que sólo describe la estructura del lenguaje desde la superficie y por eso no puede explicar las relaciones de significado… describe que la lengua no puede tomarse como un fenómeno aislado de la mente, sino como una reflexión de los patrones humanos del pensamiento” (SEP, (SEP, 1996: 74).
Aún bajo el enf enfoque oque de la gramática gramática estructur estructural al en 1972 los Planes Planes y Prog Program ramas as sufren una reforma la cual orientaba los objetivos hacia la formación de nuevas generac gen eracion iones, es, bri brindá ndándol ndoles es una conc concien iencia cia his histór tórica ica y desa desarrol rrollan lando do una act actitu itud d científica. El programa se dividió en áreas programáticas elaborándose auxiliares
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func fu ncio ione ness re repre presen senta tan n la in inte tenc nció ión n de dell qu que e ha habl bla, a, por ej ejem empl plo o al pr preve eveni nirr, al amenaza ame nazarr, etc., las nociones nociones son las categorí categorías as en las que la mente divide divide la realidad y que puede ser frecuencia, tiempo, número, género, etc. Este enfoque muestra que en una oración es más importante el significado que las palabras que la constituyen, y que el contexto juega un papel muy importante; donde una misma respuesta puede ser equivalente para varios enunciados, a esto se le llama significado discursivo. En 1979 vuelven a cambiar cambiar planes y programas programas de estudio, el cambio radicaba radicaba en que anteriormente el programa se trabajaba por objetivos: generales, específicos y particulares, el maestro de inglés recibía un auxiliar didáctico con todos los objetivos desc de scri rito toss y la lass ac actitivi vida dade dess a re real aliz izar ar,, el pl plan an co cons nsta taba ba de oc ocho ho un unid idad ades es programáticas program áticas,, pero el el tiempo tiempo dedicado dedicado al al aprendi aprendizaje zaje del inglé ingléss no varió, varió, como como tampoco la forma de enseñar, el alumno era visto como un ser receptivo en el que se grababa información gramatical y los exámenes eran la forma de medir el logro alcanzado de los objetivos y la correlación de enunciados y vocabulario logrado. En 1983 dejan de distribuirse los auxiliares didácticos y en su lugar se publican programas únicos para cada área; como un intento de eliminar la división entre disciplinas, lográndose con esto una separación más general, que no impactó desde el punto de vista vista pedagógico ni metodológico, metodológico, ya que la enseñanza del inglés siguió su curso tradicional, verbalista y gramatical. Es así como desde el inicio de la década de los años sesenta a la fecha se han realizado en México cuatro reformas educativas generales (en los regímenes de López Lóp ez Mateos, Mateos, Echeverr Echeverría, ía, De la Madrid Madrid y de Salinas Salinas de Gortari), Gortari), y en tod todos os los niveles de escolaridad, que aunque se experimentaron muchos cambios en planes y programas, program as, las clases de inglés conti continuaron nuaron desarro desarrollándos llándose e con repeti repeticiones, ciones, memorizaciones, vocabulario, traducciones y con prácticas intensivas controladas y monitoreadas por parte del docente. En 1991, CONAL CONALTE TE propone un nuevo modelo de educación, fundamentado en los los
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Salieron los programas emergentes para una muestra de pilotaje que se efectúo en dist di stin inta tass en entitida dade dess de dell pa país ís,, por lo qu que e el 18 de may mayo o de 19 1992, 92, Fe Fede dera raci ción ón,, gobiern gob iernos os est estata atales les y Sin Sindic dicato ato Nac Nacion ional al de Tr Traba abajado jadores, res, fir firmaro maron n el Acu Acuerdo erdo Naci Na cion onal al pa para ra la Mo Mode dern rniz izaci ación ón de la Ed Educ ucaci ación ón Bá Bási sica, ca, im impl plem ement entand ando o tr tres es estrategias de política elementales a)
Reorga Reo rganiz nizaci ación ón del sis sistem tema a educ educati ativo; vo;
b)
Reformulació Reform ulación n de conteni contenidos dos y mater materiales iales y,
c)
Revaloración social de la función magisterial.
El Acuerdo Nacional comprende comprende la educación preescolar, preescolar, primar primaria ia y secunda secundaria ria y la formación de maestros para esos niveles; en lo concerniente al aprendizaje del inglés en la escuela secundaria, entre sus acciones propone: Utilizar conocimientos básicos de otras lenguas para tener acceso a diversas culturas y cambiar el enfoque y los propósitos al enseñar una lengua extranjera. Este apartado hace referencia a la necesidad de que el alumno se apropie de una segunda lengua como un instrumento de comunicación que le permita interactuar en un mu mundo ndo má máss gl glob obal aliz izad ado o y co comu muni nica cado, do, qu que e te teng nga a po posi sibi bililida dad d de ad adqu quir irir ir conoci con ocimie miento ntoss a través del ing inglés lés,, de expresar expresar y com compren prender der ideas, ideas, que tenga tenga acceso a los acervos culturales y a los adelantos tecnológicos. En este plan el alumno es el eje fundamental de proceso educativo, capaz de deducir reglas del funcionamiento de la lengua; un ser afectivo, con necesidades, intereses y capacidades diferentes. Según los puntos establecidos en este acuerdo toda enseñanza debiera ser de cómo se aprende, ya que todo aprendizaje es una reflexión sobre el pensamiento humano, por lo que es de vital importancia conocer la estructura y los procesos de la mente. En 1993 se consolida el proyecto para elaborar nuevos planes y programas de estudio, estudi o, hay cambios de áreas por asignaturas asignaturas,, así como nuevos libros libros de texto, el
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alumno alu mno de sec secund undaria aria con conoce oce su idi idioma oma mat materno erno,, ha adq adquir uirido ido est estrat rategi egias as de comunicación y cuenta con aprendizajes previos, además de contar con la lectoescritura, por lo que no es necesario utilizar un orden único de presentación de habilidades, se puede empezar por la comprensión auditiva o la lectura, siempre y cuando se tenga como objetivo principal desarrollar la competencia comunicativa, sin descartar descart ar gestos gestos,, actitudes actitudes corporale corporales, s, etc., etc., que que ayudan ayudan a que se compre comprenda nda el mensaje. En est este e enf enfoque oque la corr correcc ección ión gramatica gramaticall no es tan importan importante, te, lo pri princi ncipal pal es comunicarse y expresar la intención del que habla, no es necesario que las frases gramaticales sean perfectas, puede haber errores y sin embargo el mensaje se emite y se com compren prende, de, solamen solamente te cuando se estima estima que los errores errores gra gramat matical icales es que produce el alumno dificultan el mensaje, el profesor como facilitador del aprendizaje, ayuda para que se exprese de una manera que pueda ser comprendido. Con el enfoque comunicativo los contenidos programáticos se enuncian con base en lass fu la func ncio ione ness de dell le lengu nguaj aje e y re repre prese sent ntan an la in inte tenc nció ión n de dell ha habl blan ante te (sa (salu luda darr, presentarse, pedir información, ofrecer, pedir, invitar, etcétera). La gramática y el vocab voc abul ulari ario o es está tán n co condi ndici ciona onado doss po porr la fu funci nción ón,, la si situ tuac ació ión n y lo loss ro role less de lo loss interlocutores. Se concede mucha importancia a las condiciones en que se produce el mensaje y a la situación de comunicación (interlocutores, lugar, momento), porque un mismo enunciado puede tener varias funciones dependiendo del contexto, de quien lo lo dice y para quién. quién. En cuanto cuanto al registro registro de de la lengua lengua que se se enseña, enseña, se propone que el alumno se familiarice con dos niveles: el formal y el informal, a fin de comp co mpre rend nder er y te tene nerr ac acce ceso so a di dive vers rsas as fu fuen ente tess de co cons nsul ulta ta,, as asíí co como mo a la comuni com unicaci cación ón cotidian cotidiana, a, por lo que es necesario necesario que apre aprenda nda varias varias formas de expresar la misma idea para que adopte la o las que más se adecuen a su personalidad, pues en una situación de comunicación el que habla elige lo qué dice y cómo lo dice (SEP: 1993).
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y el descubrimiento descubrimiento de funcio funcionamien namiento to (analiza lo que sabe decir decir,, elabor elabora a hipót hipótesis, esis, las prueba, las modifica); eso lo conduce a reflexionar por medio de ejercicios de conceptualización que lo llevarán a deducir una regla parcial, que es la que necesita en ese momento. momento. En todo ese proceso proceso está presente presente el maestro maestro como un guía que prepara actividades para provocar ese análisis, brindando al mismo tiempo, un grado de autonomía, respeto, empatía y solidaridad con el que aprende; por todos esos puntos el papel del profesor profesor en el nuevo programa programa sufre un gran cambio: cambio: se le pide que ejerza un control menos riguroso, que reconozca que el alumno es capaz de part pa rtic icip ipar ar pr propo oponi nien endo do nu nueva evass si situ tuac acio ione nes, s, el elab abora orando ndo ma mate teri rial ales es o cre crean ando do diálogos, entre otras actividades. El profesor es el facilitador del aprendizaje y como tall es el or ta orga gani niza zado dorr de la lass act ctiv iviidad ades es de cl clas ase. e. Un Una a de su suss pr priinc nciipa palles responsabilidades es proponer situaciones donde se establezca la comunicación y procurarse los recursos para que ésta se lleve a cabo. Aquí cabe señalar que una actividad se considera comunicativa cuando reúne tres requisitos: Necesidad de información, elección de la forma de comunicarse y la retroalimentación que se recibe cuando hay respuesta del interlocutor. interlocutor. Hablar del enfoque comunicativo es concebir, de una manera nueva y diferente a la enseñanza; esta concepción se basa en el respeto hacia el alumno, sus intereses y su realidad; donde el alumno participa y se involucra realmente en su aprendizaje, reflexiona, propone, crea, comparte la responsabilidad del proceso educativo. Su postulado fundamental es que el aprendizaje de una lengua extranjera debe ir
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impres imp reso o que no haya sido elabora elaborado do con fines educati educativos, vos, como el periódic periódico, o, folletos, trípticos, y que por medio de la inducción, la predicción, el uso de cognados, estrat est rategi egias as y téc técnic nicas as de ens enseñan eñanza, za, alt altern ernati ativas vas de tar tareas eas glo global bales, es, aspe aspecto ctoss metodológicos inherentes al enfoque, contenidos de aprendizaje, sugerencias de activ act ivid idad ades es y re reco come mend ndaci acione oness de ev eval aluac uació ión, n, pa para ra qu que e el al alum umno no de desa sarro rrolllle e habilidades intelectuales, interactúe con el grupo la escuela y la comunidad, participe activamente activa mente en su aprendizaje aprendizaje y obtenga obtenga las bases lingüísti lingüísticas cas para continuar continuar el desarrollo del dominio del idioma en niveles subsecuentes. Otro punto importante, es que hasta la reforma de 1993, la SEP brinda libros gratuitos a los estudiantes, los cuales se convierten en fuente de consulta, y recurso didáctico que facilita la enseñanza- aprendizaje. Las bases teóric teóricas as en que se fundam fundamenta enta la reforma citada son del constru constructivi ctivismo, smo, haciendo hincapié en el aprendizaje significativo, pero hoy, a trece años de distancia, es cuando se vuelve a retomar con fuerza, pregonando dejar atrás el conductismo que prevaleció y sigue vigente en las aulas. La RES, (Reforma a la Educación Secundaria) retoma la idea de que el alumno debe reconstruir su propio conocimiento, operando sobre la información manipulándola y transformándola, donde la función del profesor profesor consiste en ayudarles a repensar sus ideas, dando prioridad a la la experimentación práctica, a la resolución de problemas y a la adquisición de conceptos, porque el aprendizaje supone cambios estructurales. El enfoque del inglés no cambi cambió, ó, solamente se reestructuró reestructuró el objet objeto o de estud estudio io que son las prácticas sociales, partiendo de la premisa de que:
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etapa de desequi desequilibrio librio,, pasa a la la observación observación reflexiva reflexiva que le permite permite adaptar adaptar los nuevos conocimientos conocimientos con los ya existen existentes, tes, luego ese círculo concéntrico concéntrico lo lleva a la conceptualiza conceptualización ción abstracta, abstracta, donde donde ya puede comprender comprender el significado significado de las ideas y situaciones situaciones presentadas, presentadas, para finalmente finalmente acomod acomodar ar toda esa información información y llevarla a la práctica. Se sugiere un marco metodológico para la enseñanza del inglés, donde todo parte de un texto, ya sea oral o escrito, basado en un tema que contiene funciones del lenguaje, lengua je, los aprendizajes aprendizajes esperados esperados de los alumnos es que logren escuchar escuchar y leer loss te lo text xtos os,, pa para ra lu luego ego de es esa a obs observ ervaci ación ón re reflflexi exiva va que ma marc rca a el mo mode delo lo de aprendizaje, aprendi zaje, lleguen lleguen a una reflexión reflexión sobre la lengua, para que finalmente finalmente puedan puedan producir sus propios textos, de una manera controlada o libre.
B. Planteamiento del problema. El pro proceso ceso del apre aprendi ndizaj zaje e del ing inglés lés data data de mucho muchoss años, años, sin embar embargo, go, los estudios realizados al respecto son recientes y muy escasos, sobre todo en la educación pública. En lo referente a la educación privada, se le ha invertido dinero, tiempo y espacio para investigar y preparar al docente que se encarga de impartir la enseñanza del inglés, así como en los países del primer mundo, donde el dominio de una segunda lengua es esencial y necesario.
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hogar como en el contexto escolar, concluyendo que es el hogar donde se sientan las bases principales para el domin dominio io y uso del idiom idioma a mater materno. no. Gertrude Moskowitz Moskowitz (197 (1 978) 8),, es escr crib ibe e un lilibr bro o de té técn cnic icas as hu huma maní níst stic icas as pa para ra al alum umno noss qu que e es está tán n aprendiendo una lengua extranjera, las actividades y técnicas que se implementan son refuerzos y retroalimentaciones que se pueden adecuar a todas las asignaturas, pero especialmente a los alumnos que están en proceso de conocer una segunda lengua, dice que tenemos mente y sentimientos, separarlas es negar lo que somos, integrarlas, integr arlas, es ayudar ayudar a realizar lo que se puede llegar a ser. ser. La finalidad finalidad de sus materiales materi ales es ayudar a los estudi estudiantes antes a ser ellos mismos, a aceptarse y a quererse como son, viendo la posibilidad posibilidad que tiene tiene el ser human humano o de ser perfectible. perfectible. Stein Steiner er Eric Er ich h (1 (199 997), 7), de descr scrib ibe e la re rela laci ción ón en entr tre e te teor oría ía y ap aplilicac cació ión n me meto todo doló lógi gica ca en la enseñanza del inglés en México y a la comprensión de la naturaleza humana al aprender una segunda lengua, teoría y práctica son vistas en una relación conjunta y dialéctica. dialéc tica. Federic Federico o Hess Ramos, María Susana Astivi Astivio o Montero y Eliseo Gustavo Ramirez Toledo (1992), escriben un libro para estudiantes de escuela secundaria despu de spués és de ha haber ber he hecho cho un an anál ális isis is co conci ncienz enzud udo o de dell nu nuevo evo enf enfoqu oque e y de la necesidad de desarrollar la habilidad de entender y expresar los pensamientos, de tener acceso a nueva información y de entender que la adquisición del lenguaje no depende solamente de métodos o materiales, sino de estrategias especiales. En los apuntes desde la perspectiva curricular, Delia Lerner (2006) (2006) explica el objeto de estudio de una lengua extranjera en la educación secundaria, que son las prácticas sociales de lectura y escritura y los contenidos involucrados en ellas, que
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A sa sabi bien enda dass qu que e la ed educa ucaci ción ón im impl plic ica a ca cada da dí día a nu nuevo evoss ret retos, os, di difificul culta tades des y oport op ortuni unidad dades es,, y qu que e es esta ta ép époc oca a se ca carac racte teri riza za po porr un una a in infifini nida dad d de nu nuev evos os paradigmas, paradi gmas, por los grandes avances cient científico íficoss y tecnol tecnológicos ógicos,, por la global globalizació ización n en qu que e el mun undo do es esttá env nvue uellto to,, por la gra ran n in infflu luen enci cia a de los med edio ioss de comunicación, comuni cación, la habili habilidad dad de expresars expresarse e y aprender aprender el inglés es una necesi necesidad dad para poder poder tener acceso acceso a nuev nueva a informaci información, ón, se busca comprend comprender er el anál análisi isiss mismo de la lengua, comenzando por los profesores y sus estilos de enseñanza, por loss pr lo proc oceso esoss de ap apren rendi diza zaje je y po porr la lass di dist stin inta tass cap capac acid idad ades es co cogni gnititivas vas de lo loss educ ed ucan ando dos, s, se de defi fine ne de man aner era a of ofic icia iall, un en enfo foqu que e pa para ra de desa sarr rrol olla larr las competencias compet encias comunicativa comunicativass y las cuatro habilidades habilidades lingüísticas lingüísticas tales tales como leer, escribir, escuchar, escuchar, hablar, hablar, que tiene cada una un proceso lógico y coherente. El maestro de inglés es concebido como un usuario del lenguaje más experimentado, quien está a cargo de crear las condiciones para que los alumnos aborden el idioma, así mismo, se encarga de guiar el proceso de enseñanza- aprendizaje, planeando cuidadosament cuidad osamente e sus clases clases,, organiz organizando ando el ambie ambiente nte de aprendi aprendizaje, zaje, interactuando interactuando y promoviendo la interacción, evaluando el logro logro de los estudiantes y el desempeño propio, que conoce el potencial de sus alumnos, como las características propias de su ed edad ad,, qu que e cr crea ea
la ne nece cesi sida dad d de ap apre rend nder er de desp sper erta tand ndo o el in inte teré réss de lo loss
educandos, que promueve las actitudes positivas de los educandos y el desarrollo de habilidades, que reconoce sus debilidades educativas y busca estar en constante actualización y mejoramiento de su práctica, así como de nuevas alternativas y estrat est rategi egias as de ens enseñan eñanza, za, que sab sabe e tra trabaj bajar ar en amb ambien ientes tes col colabo aborat rativo ivoss par para a
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Esto Es to se ha ge gene nera rado do po porr el
ingr in gres eso o de perso persona nass si sin n pe perf rfilil pa para ra cu cubr brir ir es esta ta
asignatura, lo cual se da por diversas circunstancias, ya sea por cuestiones políticas, porr comp po compad adra razg zgo, o, o po porr no en enco cont ntra rarr
maes ma estr tros os que que
cubr cu bran an
lass plaz la plazas as,,
especialmente si se encuentran en comunidades rurales o alejadas. Al presentarse estas situa situaciones, ciones, se generan generan una serie de factores que inciden inciden directamente directamente en el aprendizaje del inglés, lo cual se complejiza si se agrega que el alumno de la escuela secu se cund ndar aria ia pú públ blic ica a en Mé Méxi xico co en enfr fren enta ta un re reto to al ac acer erca cars rse e fo form rmal alme ment nte e al conocimiento del inglés, ya que es una lengua desconocida o poco conocida por él, dado que no existe ningún antecedente en la escuela primaria de manera oficial, por lo tanto en la mayoría de los casos, sus referentes hacia esa lengua, si los tiene, son contextuales. context uales. De ahí qué conocer conocer que sucede con el aprendizaj aprendizaje e del inglés en la escuela secundaria resulte importante para comprender como se vive realmente en este contexto el aprendizaje de una lengua extranjera. Ante estas consideraciones surgen las siguientes interrogantes de investigación: 1.-- ¿C 1. ¿Cóm ómo o se vi vive ven n lo loss pr proc oces esos os de dell
apre ap rend ndiz izaj aje e de dell in ingl glés és en la es escu cuel ela a
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que qu e se pr pres esen enta tan n en el am ambi bien ente te na natu tura rall de la vi vida da co cotitidi dian ana a de la es escu cuel ela a secundaria. Para lograr lo anterior, anterior, se plantea plantea la necesidad necesidad de realizar un análisis análisis que permita iden id entitifificar car y ca carac racte teri rizar zar lo loss enf enfoqu oques es qu que e pr preva evale lece cen n en la pr prác áctitica ca di diar aria ia,, conceptualizándolos de acuerdo a la actuación e identificación con algún modelo teór te óric ico, o, as asíí co como mo a tr trav avés és de la ub ubic icac ació ión n de lo loss ro role less en lo loss pr proc oces esos os de dell aprendizaje, que desempeñan el maestro y el alumno en su relación diaria y en las formas de interactuar que se generan y desarrollan en el ambiente escolar. Dentro Den tro de este contexto contexto al reconstru reconstruir ir y ana analiz lizar ar cómo se viven los procesos procesos del apren ap rendi diza zaje je de dell in ingl glés és en la esc escue uela la se secun cunda dari ria, a, no se pu puede ede de deja jarr de la lado do,, plantearse el objetivo de identificar qué tipo de factores inciden en dicho proceso, de qué manera favorecen u obstaculizan el mismo, esto con la finalidad de tener una comprensión más amplia del fenómeno estudiado.
D. Justificación.
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y co conf nfron ronta tado doss de desd sde e la lass di dife feren rente tess pos postu tura rass te teóri órica cas, s, do donde nde se en encl clava avan n lo loss modelos pedagógicos que servirán de fundamento. fundamento. En lo que respecta a la utilidad metodológica de éste estudio, es que cuenta con un diseño de de investigaci investigación ón muy propio propio que será será utilizado utilizado para indagar indagar el proceso del aprendizaje aprendi zaje del inglés, inglés, pero que puede ser utilizado utilizado para analizar analizar procesos procesos de la misma naturaleza en otras asignaturas de secundaria o de otros niveles educativos. Es indudable que todo estudio en el ámbito educativo tiene aportaciones importantes para la sociedad en general, por ser esta el ámbito donde se cristalizan dichas aport ap ortaci acione ones. s. As Así, í, qu que e mo modes desta tame ment nte, e, es este te es estu tudi dio o bu busc sca a con contr trib ibui uirr so sobre bre el aprendizaje del inglés como segunda lengua en en educación secundaria. De tal forma que si la pres present ente e inv invest estiga igación ción des despie pierta rta alg algún ún int interés erés en mae maestr stros, os, alu alumno mnos, s, padres de familia o autoridades educativas, se corroborará su razón de ser.
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II. REFERENTES TEÓRICOS El aprendizaje es un proceso que ha sido estudiado desde diferentes perspectivas, y que ha pasado por los ámbitos psicológicos, pedagógicos y sociológicos. En éste éste es estu tudi dio o se incu incurs rsio iona na
tant ta nto o en el
ámbi ám bito to psic psicol ológ ógic ico o co como mo en el
pedagógico. pedagóg ico. En el ámbito ámbito psicológico psicológico se realiza realiza un amplio amplio recorrido recorrido por las las teorías del aprendizaje, estas son diversas, desde aquellas que asociaban el aprendizaje com co mo un cambio de conduct cta a obse serrvab ablle en el ho hom mbre por medi dio o del condicionamiento y del estímulo estímulo o refuerzo, que centraban la fuerza de su teoría en todo lo observable y comprobable, por lo que los procesos internos de la mente fueron pasados de lado, se les resto importancia. Se abordan también las teorías cognitivas que como su nombre lo indica, se ocupan ocupan de los procesos de la mente, tales como la atención, la motivación, la percepción; al sujeto se le concede una capacidad más allá de la influencia del medio ambiente: ”Un aprendizaje aprendizaje por insight, que considera considera al aprendizaje aprendizaje como un proceso proceso de desarrollo desarrollo de nuevas nuevas ideas o como una modificación de las antiguas” (UPN 1990: 119). 119).
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A. Un acercamiento a las teorías del aprendizaje desde el ámbito psicológico. En est este e ap apart artado ado se in incur cursi sion ona a en el an anál ális isis is de la lass te teorí orías as de dell ap apren rendi diza zaje je ambientalistas, cognoscitivistas e interaccionistas, y se hace alusión a sus principales exponentes, así como a su contribución contribución central para explicar como se aprende.
1. Teorías ambientalistas Mientras en Europa se concebía la psicología como el estudio de las funciones ment me ntal ales es y ap apar arec ecía ía la fu func nció ión n de dell in inco cons nsci cien ente te,, en Es Esta tado doss Un Unid idos os se fu fue e desarrollando otro modo de entender la psicología que se basaba en la observación objetiva de los hechos, a través de una tendencia de la psicología positivista; como producto product o de los avances en la fisi fisiología ología,, surge el estudi estudio o de la conducta humana, humana, el el cond co nduc uctitism smo o es un una a co corr rrie ient nte e de dent ntro ro de la ps psic icol olog ogía ía qu que, e, en su mo mome ment nto, o, representa represen ta la revolución revolución más radical en el enfoque enfoque del psiquismo psiquismo humano, nace nace en un tiempo histórico, histórico, influenciad influenciado o por estas posturas posturas positivistas positivistas que pensaban, que el conocimie conocimiento nto debía debía ser ser comprobable comprobable y observable observable
considerando consi derando que, lo que que
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hombre, aseveración que plasmó Darwin y otros evolucionistas del siglo XIX. XIX. …”No existe diferencia fundamental entre el hombre y todos los animales superiores en cuanto a sus facultades mentales… ; por los que los psicólogos conductistas aseveraban que al experimentar con animales en el laboratorio se podían formular leyes del aprendizaje humano, ya que que cualq cualqui uier er camb cambio io de comp compor orta tami mien ento to es apre aprend ndiz izaj aje, e, y cual cualqu quie ierr apre aprend ndiz izaj aje e lógicamente lleva a un cambio de conducta “(Pozo, 2003: 29) .
Repitiendo, reforzando y condicionando las conductas, situando el principio motor de la misma, fuera del organismo, por lo que la aseveración es contundente en lo que respect resp ecta a a que el apr aprendi endizaj zaje, e, sie siempr mpre e es iniciado iniciado y con contro trolad lado o por el amb ambien iente te circundante.
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alumnos es una respuesta a su ambiente pasado y presente, aplica castigos para debilitar las conductas no deseadas. El alumno es un ser pasivo que se limita a responder a los estímulo que se le presentan, no da cuenta de lo que pasa en su interior, sino sólo de aquello que pueda ser mostrado, es calificado calificado con base en los estánd estándares ares de aprendi aprendizaje zaje que el profesor traza por igual, es un deposito vacío que adquiere conductas; no existen consideracion consid eraciones es sobre la organi organización zación interna del sujet sujeto o que aprende, ni hay límites de edad. Se puede enseñar todo con programas organizados, lógicamente desde la materia que se enseña.
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El aprendizaje por tanto, se logra cuando dos sucesos que ocurren reiteradamente juntos se asocian en la mente del individuo., después, la presencia de uno hace que recuerde al otro. Otro importante precursor del conductismo fue Edgard L. Thorndike, quien aplicó el método de ensayo y error con animales, animales, y luego aseveró, que las conductas que les resultan result an gratificantes, gratificantes, se imprimen imprimen en el sistema nervioso nervioso y es la razón por lo que pueden mostrar avances en el proceso, el cual consiste consiste en una serie de conexiones entre un estímulo y una respuesta. Además de experimenta con animales, lo hizo con personas, implementó implementó el uso de
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“El aprendizaje va a depender del número de conexiones y de la recompensa recibida, que a su vez influirá directamente en las conexiones vecinas; el sujeto va a lograr la comprensión dependiendo de los hábitos anteriores que posea, al relacionar las situaciones nuevas de aprendizaje con las antiguas” (monografías.com/trabajos13).
Tanto Thorndike como Pavlov fueron psicólogos moleculares, concebían que en la base
del comport comportamient amiento o había había conexiones conexiones simpl simples es E-R, que pueden pueden ordenars ordenarse e
jerárquicamente según la probabilidad de su ocurrencia, por lo que el premio o el castigo puede modificar esas respuestas. Al norteamericano Watson, Watson, se le conoce como fundador y el principal representante del con conduct ductism ismo, o, pro propone pone una psi psicol cologí ogía a obj objeti etiva va y ant antime imenta ntalis lista, ta, es dec decir ir la
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emociones, pero insistiendo que esas experiencias no se pueden medir ni observar. Afirmaba que la conducta es producto del cerebro. …“la unidad básica del aprendizaje es el hábito, por lo que éste debía de fortalecerse y ejercitarse hasta lograr la conducta deseada “(UPN, 2000:55).
Es decir, para aprender hay que memorizar a través de la repetición mecánica, de acuerdo a esta postura el hombre es totalmente producto de sus experiencias. Por consiguiente, adquiere importancia central el estudio del aprendizaje, es decir, la manera como el hombre se posesiona de un repertorio de comportamientos motores, verb ve rbal ales es,, so soci cial ales es,, et etc. c.,, qu que e lu lueg ego o se será rán n lo loss el elem emen ento toss co cons nstititu tutitivo voss de su
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“Considera a la ciencia como facilitadora de la observación y de la experimentación, por lo que aboga por una metodología científica y objetiva; se abstiene de investigar o teorizar acerca de las conducta conductass intern internas as por consider considerarl arlas as no suscepti susceptibles bles de observ observació ación, n, optand optando o por investigar las variables externas externas que controlan controlan la conducta, buscando la causa y el efecto efecto en el ambiente que rodea al sujeto que aprende, prediciendo de esta forma la conducta entre las variables variables independient independient (hech ambientales ambientales externos) externos) las variables variables dependiente dependiente (de
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Skinner menciona dos tipos de refuerzo; el positivo y el negativo, el primero provoca que aumente la probabilidad de una conducta o elimine una conducta inapropiada; se añade al entorno y trae consigo un incremento de la respuesta precedente o
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de respuesta de los alumnos, mediante el reforzamiento, y para el alumno, los efec ef ecto toss de la lass co cons nsec ecuen uenci cias as qu que e si sigue guen n a un una a acc acció ión, n, pu pued eden en se servi rvirr co como mo reforzamiento o castigo
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2. Teorías cognoscitivistas El cognosci cognoscitiv tivism ismo o part parte e de la suposic suposición ión de que el ser humano humano es un sis sistem tema a autorre aut orregul gulado ado capa capazz de bus buscar car org organi anizar zar reo reorgan rganiza izarr tra transf nsform ormar ar y emp emplea lear r
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de cont control rol,, ret retroal roalime imenta ntació ción, n, inf inform ormaci ación, ón, est estado adoss int intern ernos, os, ent entrada rada y sal salida ida de información, etc. desviaron el énfasis hacia perspectivas totalmente diferentes al conductismo ejerciendo una influencia significativa en la psicología experimental, en
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niegan la actividad pensante y constructiva constructi va de la mente. El sujeto es visto como una tabula tabula rasa en la cual se pueden grabar grabar impresiones. impresiones. Se minimizan los proceso mentales como las emociones y los sentimientos, hay estímulos y respuestas, reforzadores positivos y negativos. A. Vamos a copiar lo que está en el pizarrón P. Enseguida de los enunciados hay que ir haciendo l os dibujos en el espacio que dejaron. A. Miss ¿qué vamos a hacer? P. A dibujar o copiar los dibujos en su cuaderno. A. Pero los dibujos ya están en el libro. P. De todas formas ¡hágalo! . A. ¿Pintamos los dibujos maestra? P. Coloreamos hijo, usa tus colores Algunos alumnos trabajan otros continúan platicando, por lo que muy molesta, la maestra lleva a dos alumnos a trabajo trabajo social, ya que no pudo captar su atención atención ni tenerlos dibujando dibujando y coloreando, 13/12/06/OB/014 .
Este tipo de prácticas se observó en algunas clases, donde lo más importante era tener a los muchachos muchachos ocupados ocupados en cualquier actividad actividad relacionada relacionada con copiar copiar o dibujar del libro o del pizarrón. P. saquen su cuaderno de cuadrícula. (en el pizarrón está el mismo crucigrama que copió otro grupo).. grupo) A3. no lo traemos profe. P. arranquen una hoja de otro cuaderno o pídanle a un compañero y empiecen a copiar. A 4. profe la letra 5ª de la número 5 es e. A1. y luego la 3ª de la última línea es a. P. ven para que son los números, de esa manera se localizan locali zan más fácilmente las coordenadas. P. el profe se pasea por los pasillos, mientras los alumnos van dibujando el crucigrama y contando las casillas y copiando las letras de ayuda. A6. profe venga. P. ya copiaste mal, les digo que por estar jugando no ponen atención a lo que hacen. A6. es que este 1 era aquí. Algunos alumnos platican sobre los verbos que ya encontraron. Transcurren de esa manera los 45 minutos, los alumnos no terminan de copiar y el profesor les dice que para la siguiente clase lo deben de terminar. terminar. 21/11/05/OB/003 21/11/05/OB/003 El profesor tiene escrito en el pizarrón: CLOTHES Cap cachucha Jeans pantalón Jacket chamarra Sweater suéter shoes, etc. zapatos Seguidamente hace que los alumnos repitan cada palabra señalando su escritura en el pizarrón
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En estas observaciones se puede constatar que la interacción entre los alumnos es nula nu la,, el pr prof ofes esor or or orde dena na qu que e ha hace cerr, el al alum umno no co copi pia, a, re repi pite te
y re repr prod oduc uce e la
información inform ación solic solicitada, itada, la escribe escribe en el cuadern cuaderno, o, la dibuja, dibuja, la colorea; colorea; el profeso profesor r revis rev isa a
el trabaj trabajo o y da los ref refue uerz rzos os pos posititiv ivos os o ne nega gatitivo vos, s, al algu guna nass ve vece cess so son n
palabras amables, frases alentadoras, palomitas en el registro de participación o tachas si el alumno se niega a participar en la forma que el docente lo pide. p ide. La maestra pasa por los pasillos a revisar la tarea, de pasada va regañando a quien no cumple con su anotación respectiva y poniendo un diez a quien sí lo hizo. P. Oscar, por favor le tenemos que hablar a tus papas, recibo quejas de todos los demás docentes y tú de plano no haces nada de nada aquí en la escuela. Lo que son Oscar, Oscar, Daniel y Fabián, sólo están de adorno (dirigiéndose a mí). Todos los alumnos se ríen ante el regaño de la maestra, maestra, incluso los nombrados, nombrados, lo que aún la hace enfurecer más. 13/12/06/OB/014
En las práctica prácticass obs observa ervadas das los patrones patrones recurren recurrentes tes fueron fueron la traducci traducción ón y la repetición repeti ción de frases y palabra palabrass inconexas, esto a la luz de la teoría teoría,, necesariamente necesariamente encuentra sus raíces en la teoría conductista de Watson, la cual exige basarse en la observación observación de la conducta verbal, niega los procesos del pensamiento, atribuye el aprendizaje a los principios de frecuencia y proximidad. “Para Watson, el lenguaje se adquiere por condicionamiento. El niño oye asociar a un objeto su nombre y por consiguiente el nombre termina por evocar la misma respuesta evocada por el objeto. Progresivamente todo el sistema de movimientos que provocan la emisión del sonido palabra puede ser sustituido por una parte de movimientos, por lo que la palabra es sólo pronunciada en voz baja, o moviendo silenciosamente los labios, o bien mediante simples "hábitos de laringe". Watson creía que de esta manera se va formando el pensamiento y sugería que podía ser reducido a un conjunto de hábitos de laringe. En el plano teórico el punto central estaba representado por el hecho de que la actividad de pensamiento era un resultado de los aprendizajes comunicativos y no tenía por sí mismo importancia ni interés cognoscitivo” (monografías.com;1).
Se rescata de su aportación aportación la concepción concepción de aprendizaje, aprendizaje, que es visto como una formación de hábitos que se adquieren por la repetición constante, se limita a observar las conductas y lo que el organismo hace o dice, el hablar es visto como un hacer, por por lo tanto es observable y modificable, explica los procesos de aprendizaje de una lengua fisiológicamente, interesándose en el funcionamiento de las partes, es
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obte ob tenc nció ión n de dat datos os pa para ra co cont ntrol rolar ar la lass rea reacc ccio ione ness de dell ho homb mbre, re, pa para ra an antitici cipa parr y fiscalizar la actividad. Esta forma de concebir el aprendizaje del inglés, desdeña por completo que el aprendizaje es producto de la interacción del sujeto que aprende y del objeto por conocer,, que el conocimiento conocer conocimiento se va construyendo construyendo a medid medida a que se interactúa con el objeto para poder transformarlo. Esto no se logra dado que otorga primacía al objeto sobre el sujeto por lo que anula la posibilidad de transformación de su propio pensamiento. Existen además en la realidad educativa, otro tipo de prácticas, las cuales se pueden considerar miméticas o disfrazadas, pues pretenden dar un tinte democratizador y participativo, pero en el fondo siguen siendo tradicionalistas, porque el mayor recurso didáctico didáct ico que utilizan utilizan los docentes es la palabra, diversificado diversificado en explicación explicación de la regla regl a gra gramat matica ical,l, pregunta preguntas, s, leyendo leyendo enunciados enunciados o
lectur lec turas as del lib libro ro de tex texto, to,
regaños,, presiones, regaños presiones, dictados, dictados, consejos, ordenando, ordenando, etc., pero siempre siempre es él quien dirige y manipula el uso de la palabra, a continuación se citan algunos ejemplos: El profesor empezó a leer la lección del libro, luego pidió alumnos voluntarios que ayudaran con una traducción oral, un alumno hacia una parte del diálogo y el otro contestaba, enseguida repitieron el mismo procedimiento pero en inglés. A 1-¿Dónde está el lápiz? A 2- El lápiz está encima de la l a mesa…. P. Where is the pencil? AS. The pencil is on the table table 18/01/06/OB/005
El formar grupos, equipos, o dos alumnos que repitan, lean o interactúen el diálogo escrito escrit o en el libro, pizarrón pizarrón o texto facilitado facilitado por el docente, es una de las prácticas más recurrentes y rutinarias en el aula, este tipo de prácticas parecen tener tintes interaccionistas donde se facilita la participación individual y en equipos, donde hay ambientes colaborativos que ayudan a la socialización del aprendizaje; sin embargo, la repetición se vuelve mecánica, el profesor da por sentado que al repetir una secuencia secuenc ia del diálogo el conocimient conocimiento o va quedando asentado en el alumno, alumno, que el
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“Hay tres procesos para aprender una lengua, recibir el conocimiento o los materiales, memorizar la lengua por medio de repeticiones y usarla en la práctica real hasta que llega a constituir una habilidad personal” (1957:136)
En éste tipo de práctica tan recurrente recurr ente en las aulas de inglés, el alumno tiene papeles muy limitados y restringidos, se le dice cuándo hablar, cuándo traducir y cuándo repetir; repeti r; la interacción interacción está diseñada diseñada desde el exterior exterior,, el profesor es quien guía guía o mode mo dela la la re repe petitici ción ón a ef efec ectu tuar arse se,, la in inte tera racc cció ión n de dell al alum umno no es esta ta ve vela lada da y secuenciada por el diálogo del libro. Algunass clases empiezan con una frase escrita en el pizarrón en forma de dinámica Alguna para propiciar propiciar la com comuni unicaci cación ón ent entre re los alu alumno mnos, s, son prá prácti cticas cas de ense enseñanz ñanza a enmascaradas que pretenden que el alumno participe y exponga el punto de vista que exige el maestro. P. Open your notebook and copy this text in English and Spanish. “ONLY “ONLY THE HONORABLE CAN HAVE FRIENDS, BECAUSE FRIENDSHIP DOES D OES NOT ALLOW CONJETURE, SHADOWS OR DECEIT” P. Vean las palabras para ver cuales conocen y escriban la traducción. A3. ¿Qué quiere decir only profe? P. solamente A4. y allow? P. permite per mite A1.¿ Deceit? P. Dobleces “SÓLO LOS HONRADOS PUEDEN TENER AMIGOS, PORQUE LA AMISTAD NO PERMITE CONJETURAS, SOMBRAS O DOBLECES”. P. ¿Por qué creen ustedes que la amistad no permite sombras? A5. Porque uno no debe de creerse más que el amigo. A6. Porque un amigo no te invita a pintártela ni hacer cosas malas. 14/03/06/OB/009
Como puede observar observarse se estas práct prácticas icas educat educativas ivas son consider consideradas adas como de apertura apertu ra y reflexión, hay una partic participació ipación n muy limit limitada ada por parte de los alumnos, el docente docent e queda satisfecho satisfecho porque se le dijo dijo lo que quería escuchar escuchar,, condujo a los alumnos a las respuestas esperadas, para reafirmar sus propias convicciones, para luego, entrar en materia de estudio, el profesor decide qué contenido se va a abordar, ordena la forma de hacerlo, impone impone las actividades diseñadas por el libro,
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cuaderno cuadern o el pensamiento pensamiento elegido por el docente, docente, seguido por la traducción traducción literal, literal, dándosele las palabras desconocidas desde el exterior, sin llegar a profundizar en el tema te ma y si sin n enc encont ontrar rarse se art artic icul ulac ació ión n co con n el te tema ma pre prece cede dent nte, e, so sola lame ment nte e co con n la finalidad de ocupar el tiempo tiempo de clase, el alumno dócil, bueno y obediente es aquel que qu e cu cump mple le ca caba balm lmen ente te la lass ex expe pect ctat ativ ivas as de dell do doce cent nte e en cu cuan anto to al tr trab abaj ajo o encomendado. P. Bien muchachos, muchachos, con esta reflexión reflexión iniciamos iniciamos la clase del día de hoy, hoy, abran su libro en la lección 8, página 66. ¿Qué les dice el título. “Don´t eat in the reserve” AS. No comer en la reserve. P. Muy bien y vamos a estudiar las preposiciones, IN;ON;UNDER;BEHIND, les voy ayudar con dos ejemplos y luego ustedes continúan en lo que yo tomo lista. . 14/03/06/OB/009
Este tipo de prácticas rescata cierta participación del alumno, pero es en forma velada, sí existe la participación pero cuándo, cómo y dónde el maestro maestro la requiere, el tiempo y la forma es articulado y diseñado desde la perspectiva del docente, hay verticalidad vertica lidad en las decisiones decisiones,, el maestro manda, manda, el alumno obedece, obedece, el maestro maestro pronunc pron uncia ia los enu enunci nciados ados o el texto, texto, el alu alumno mno reproduce reproduce la pronuncia pronunciació ción. n. En resumen resu men,, el mae maestr stro o ordena todas todas las cosas que se hacen el aula, aula, la forma forma de acomodar las butacas, el material empleado, uso y abuso de la palabra, etc. Los alumnos se encontraban acomodados en una posición distinta de la usual, dos mesa bancos juntos y dos alumnos de frente con otros dos; se podía observar que interactuaban más en la clase, aunque sólo estaban revisando un examen parcial que habían hecho para reafirmar el uso uso de los los supe superl rlat ativ ivos os y de los los adje adjeti tivo voss y para para elab elabor orar ar publ public icid idad ad de Parr Parral al 07/03/06/OB/007
A este tipo de prácticas que se viven de manera cotidiana cotidiana en las aulas de la la escuela secundaria durante los procesos de aprendizaje del inglés, se les llama prácticas disfrazadas, disfra zadas, porque porque a simple vista parece que hay interacción interacción entre los alumnos, alumnos, el contenido y el docente, pero al observarse a la luz de la teoría, se puede constatar que sigue prevaleciendo el modelo hetereoestructuralista.
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B. La tiranía gramatical. Existe una gran gama de formas y manifestaciones que dan dan cuenta de la manera en que se aprende el inglés, el enfoque que se desarrolla y la posición teórica que subyace a su utilización, así como las técnicas a implementar. implementar. Todo esto sirve para describir lo que implica el aprendizaje de una segunda lengua así como la forma en que se enseña. La información empírica obtenida a partir de la la observación permitió identificar identificar todos estos aspectos en la vida cotidiana de la escuela secundaria. De acuerdo acuerdo a lo lo que que se observó en la la realidad realidad,, se se encontró encontró que en en las las aulas aulas las práct pr áctic icas as reg regis istr trad adas as en la en enseñ señan anza za de dell in ingl glés, és, ge gener neral alme ment nte e se ut utililiz iza a la explicación de la regla gramatical, lo que conlleva el uso del método de gramática traducción, don donde de el obj objetiv etivo o fundamen fundamental tal es acercarse acercarse a la lengua lengua a trav través és del análisis detallado detallado de sus reglas gramaticales, para seguir después con la aplicación aplicación de este conocimiento a la traducción de oraciones y textos desde la lengua materna, que sirve como referencia a la adquisición de una segunda lengua (Richards and Rodgers:1998). Rodgers :1998). La lectura y la escritura escritura son los focos principales, principales, la selección selección de vocabulario se basa en los textos de lectura otorgados por la SEP, las palabras se enseñan a través de listas de vocabulario, y la oración es la unidad básica para la enseñanza. P. Bien muchachos ahora vamos a hablar que hizo Brad, recuerden que todas las preguntas llevan el auxiliar DID, que transforma el verbo. Por ejemplo la primer pregunta. ¿Brad lavo los trastes? R. No, he didn´t. Recuerden que el auxiliar y lo transforma a pasado cuando traducimos al español, pero el verbo en inglés
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Por otro lado se observa que en aula impera un sistema autoritario, se hace lo que el docente docent e ordena en tiempo y forma, incluso incluso hasta hasta el color de tinta para disti distinguir nguir los títulos y las palabras a traducir. P. Vamos a utilizar nuestra hojita de verbos y encontrarlos en PAST PARTICIPLE, son los que escribimos escribimos con rojo para distinguirl distinguirlos; os; si se fijan vamos a encontrar encontrar en nuestra hojita hojita una columna en presente, una en pasado, otra en participio, en la última columna está la traducción, lo que significa cada verbo en tiempo presente; Ya saben que en el crucigrama los van a encontrar de forma horizontal, vertical, diagonal, de abajo hacia arriba, etc. Este ejercicio es para afianzar los l os verbos que ya habíamos visto. 21/11/05/OB/002
Esto Est o es parte parte del enfoque enfoque gram gramati atical cal,, así como como la forma forma en que que se trabaj trabaja a el contenido. conten ido. Este tipo de prácticas prácticas que se viven en las clases de inglés inglés se vinculan fuertemente con las teorías ambientalistas, ya que no hay consideraciones sobre la organiz orga nizaci ación ón int interna erna del con conoci ocimie miento nto ni de las dif diferen erencia ciass ind indivi ividual duales es del que apre ap rend nde; e; lo loss al alum umno noss no titien enen en co cont ntro roll so sobr bre e lo loss co cont nten enid idos os ni el ri ritm tmo o de dell aprendizaje, aprendi zaje, sino que el conocimiento conocimiento viene del exterior, exterior, del ambiente. Al no tomar en cuenta cuenta el proceso proceso interno interno de los sujetos, sujetos, es lógico lógico que al docente docente le interese interese enseñar y abarcar los contenidos del programa para que los alumnos lleguen al aprendizaje deseado, según sus parámetros de concepción del aprendizaje, sin tomar en cuenta los ritmos, estilos y necesidades necesidade s individuales de los alumnos. - ¿Porqué elegiste ser maestro de ing lés? Porque me gusta el inglés y para enseñar lo que sé y tratar de lograr los objetivos de planes y programas. - ¿Cuál es tu concepción de aprendizaje? Se entiende que cuando el adolescente aprende que se modifica su conducta.
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En contraparte, el poner en práctica nuevas estrategias de enseñanza aprendizaje del inglés en la escuela secundaria, secundaria, implica un saber ser, un saber hacer y un saber convivir; generar emociones, emociones, conflictos conflictos cognitivos, impulsar al alumno a superarse, hacer del trabaj trabajo o cotid cotidiano iano una perspe perspectiva ctiva distinta, distinta, enriq enriquecer uecer y renovar la prácti práctica ca educativa en el aula, ya que abordar el contenido por el contenido mismo no tiene sentido para el alumno, no tiene significado en su cotidianidad. Los contenidos solo deben utilizarse como un detonador que favorezca su desarrollo, para que aprenda a reconocer sus potencialidades. El aprendiz aprendiz requiere la acción acción de un agente mediador mediador entre el contenido contenido y él, para acceder a la Zona de Desarrollo Próximo, concepto propuesto por Vigotzky (1970), este mediador será el responsable de constru construir ir puent puentes es que proporcionen seguridad seguridad y permitan que el alumno se apropie del conocimiento y lo transfiera a su propio entorno. En lo concerniente al enfoque, según Edward Edward Anthony (1963) lo explica explica y define define como el nivel en el que se especifican los supuestos y las creencias sobre sobre la lengua y su aprendizaje, por lo que la presente observación encuentra que el enfoque que prevalece es el estructural, en el mejor de los casos, el audiolingüal, o una mezcla de vario var ios, s, pe pero ro qu que e no lllleg ega a al co comu muni nicat cativo ivo,, hay uso co cont ntin inuo uo de ej ejer erci cici cios os de repetición, memorización de vocabulario, preguntas y respuestas programadas. P. ahí está esa oración muchachos, díganme dí ganme como está conformada. PETER HAS R IDDEN HIS BICYCLE.
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materno, matern o, las palabras palabras se convierten convierten en cláusulas gramat gramaticales, icales, el maestro maestro da por sent se ntad ado o qu que e el al alum umno no co conoc noce e qu que e es un pr prono onomb mbre re,, un au auxi xililiar ar,, un pa pasad sado o participio, etc. Esto se relaciona con el enfoque estructural porque éste dice que la gramática se enseña de manera deductiva, a través de la presentación de la regla, que qu e ser será á pra pract ctic icada ada co con n ej ejer erci cici cios os de tr trad aduc ucci ción ón,, en ense señan ñando do de un una a ma mane nera ra sistemática y organizada, primero el tiempo presente, después el pasado y por último en tercer grado el participio. Esto implica implica que el alumno memoriza la conjugación de los verbos de una manera descontextualizada, se analizan los elementos de una oraci or ación ón bu busca scand ndo o la fo forma rmaci ción ón de há hábi bito tos, s, el ma maes estr tro, o, te tend ndie iend ndo o a en enseñ señar ar descono des conocie ciendo ndo los intereses intereses del alumno, alumno,
no hay con confli flicto cto cognitiv cognitivo, o, basta con
acertar a las respuestas que el docente pide. Todo esto se contrapone contrapone con la nueva concepción que se tiene del aprendizaje aprendizaje del inglés en la escuela secundaria: “El lenguaje es un objeto complejo a través del cual un individuo comprende el mundo y se integra a la sociedad, y que sirve, no sólo a propósitos comunicativos, sino también cognitivos y de reflexión. Desde este punto de vista, utilizar eficientemente el lenguaje significa ser capaz de interactuar con otros a través de la producción e interpretación de textos orales y escritos a fin de participar en la sociedad” (SEP, 2006:109)
Esto conlleva una gran responsabilidad del docente, pues las actividades deben estar planeadas y diseñadas de tal manera que se parta de los conocimientos previos del alumno, que aunque no no haya tenido inglés en el nivel de primaria, primaria, cuenta con una gama de conocimientos que ha adquirido por el medio en que se desarrolla,
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reflexión sobre la lengua y el uso del lenguaje, donde el alumno es capaz de expresarse, expresar se, ya sea oralmente oralmente o por escrito, las pequeñas pequeñas producciones producciones que pueda construir. El en enfo foqu que e co comu muni nica cattiv ivo o ba basa sado do en la lass pr prác ácttic icas as soc ociial ales es,, es un di dise seño ño fund fu ndam amen enta tado do en el co cons nstr truc uctitivi vism smo, o, qu que e so sost stie iene ne qu que e ca cada da in indi divi vidu duo o es está tá involucrado en dar sentido al mundo por medio de la construcción o reconstrucción de significados, partiendo de la interpretación de experiencias personales. Desde esta perspectiva, las técnicas que se utilizan en la enseñanza del inglés, sirven como herrami herramientas entas que ayudan a descri describir bir los procedi procedimient mientos os util utilizados izados para que el alumno conozca, reflexione, analice y produzca. El abordaje del inglés es similar en sus distintas clases; generalmente el profesor utiliza el mismo patrón para iniciar, ya sea con una pregunta o escribiendo en el pizarrón las instrucciones. El profe llegó saludó y escribió en el pizarrón la siguiente instrucción: MAKE QUESTIONS USING THE NEXT ADJECTIVES: Serious, young, tall, short, talkative, friendly. Algunos alumnos preguntaban que significaba tal palabra, (el profesor da el significado en español) P. Recuerden que a algunos adjetivos adj etivos se les agrega er o more. A. por ejemplo: Dania is younger than Silvia. 23/02/06/OB/006
Como se puede ver, no hay actividades de apertura, la interacción es entre el profesor, el pizarrón y el cuaderno y libro de los alumnos, se explotan las habilidades de leer y escribir, escribir, pero, únicamente las oraciones o frases que el docente considera
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leng le ngua uaje je pa para ra or organ ganiz izar ar su pe pensa nsami mient ento o y di disc scurs urso, o, pa para ra an anal aliz izar ar y re reso solv lver er problemas, para acceder al conocimiento de otras culturas, por lo que el desarrollo de la lass cu cuat atro ro ha habi bililida dade dess se pr prop opon onen en de desd sde e un ma marc rco o me meto todo doló lógi gico co de la enseñanza del inglés, donde el punto central es focalizarse en la comunicación de la vida real, el alumno va a partir de escuchar un texto o de leerlo, este texto debe contener las funciones del lenguaje que se desea abordar, cuando el alumno logra vincular el significado a los conocimientos que ya posee ( etapa de la experiencia concreta con un texto), va a desarrollar las habilidades de hablar y escribir, no repitiendo el texto tal cual aparece, sino la producción que el pueda elaborar con ese conocimiento ( etapa de experimentación activa). Se observó que la traducción literal acompaña a la gran mayoría de las clases, cuando el alumno no conoce una palabra, sólo debe de preguntar para recibir la respuesta, la cual es escrita en su cuaderno, la oración es la unidad básica para la enseñanza. El profesor explica los adjetivos y comparativos, hace énfasis en su explicación, cuestiona a los
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proceso.. Desde esta proceso esta perspectiv perspectiva a vigotskia vigotskiana na se sostiene sostiene que lo alumno alumnoss influye influyen n mutuamente en su desarrollo a través del proceso de colaboración. Otro aspecto aspecto característico característico del enfoque enfoque gramatical gramatical que prevalece en las aulas es la trad tr aducc ucció ión n liline neal al,, qu que e
es una té técn cnic ica a ut utililiz izad ada a co cotitidi dian aname ament nte e pa para ra llllev evar ar el
significado de las palabras o enunciados, lo mismo se usa traducir oralmente como por escrito, o que el profesor de una instrucción en inglés, para seguidamente trad tr aduci ucirl rla a él mi mism smo o pa para ra el re rest sto o de la cl clase ase,, si sin n fo fome ment ntar ar la pa part rtic icip ipac ació ión n y construcción colectiva de los significados. P. Open your notebook and copy this text in English and Spanish. Abran su cuaderno y copien el texto en inglés y en español. 14/03/06/OB/009 El profesor leía las indicaciones en inglés y luego las traducía al español. P. Vamos a repasar las preposiciones: IN, ON, UNDER, etc. El profesor empezó a leer la lección del libro, luego pidió alumnos voluntarios que ayudaran con una traducción oral, un alumno hacia una parte del diálogo y el otro contestaba, enseguida se repitió el mismo procedimiento pero en inglés. 18/01/06/OB/005
De esta esta manera manera se analiza analizan n los elemen elementos tos de una una oración oración buscan buscando do la formac formación ión de hábitos, de memorización, no hay conflicto cognitivo, basta con preguntar para
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los cuales fueron cuestionados junto con el docente. ¿Por qué sacó a los alumnos de clase? P. porque es imposible avanzar en el programa cuando sólo unos alumnos traen el libro y otros no, además, los que no traen traen el libro me ocasionan mucho desorden en clase. ¿Ha implementado otras actividades en el grupo para no tener que sacarlos? P. De ninguna manera voy a cambiar mi forma de trabajar solo porque estos irresponsables se les olvida todo. todo. Además Además ya les dije que hasta que venga su mamá vuelve vuelve a entrar, entrar, no crea usted que es la primera vez que se les olvida, más bien creo que lo hacen a propósito para no trabajar. (Se cuestionó a los alumnos reportados) Jóvenes, ¿por qué están fuera de clase? AS. Porque se nos olvidó el libro. -Se me perdió maestra y no tengo dinero para comprar otro. -Yo -Yo no tengo libro y no he sacado las copias por eso se enojó el profe. - ¿Y a ti? -No , pos es que yo me quede en la casa de mi abuelita y como ayer no me tocó inglés no lo traía en la mochila. 13/11/06/E/002 13/11/06/E/002
Estas medidas medidas muestran muestran que que no se empelan empelan recursos didácti didácticos cos adicionale adicionales, s, pues las aul aulas as cue cuenta ntan n con televisi televisión ón y vide videoca ocaset setera era integrada integrada,, grab grabado adora, ra, aula de medi me dios os co con n un pr prof ofes esor or enc encar argad gado, o, don donde de se pu puede eden n cal calend endar ariz izar ar la lass vi visi sita tass planeando los temas con anticipación, entre otros muchos que el docente puede
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para visualizarlo y memorizarlo.
D. La amenaza por delante. La evalua evaluació ción n de los aprend aprendiza izajes jes es uno uno de los proce procesos sos que que evidenc evidencian ian con mayor claridad el tipo de práctica y de aprendizaje que se está desarrollando en las aulas; al analizar los procesos del aprendizaje del inglés en la escuela se secundaria, se observó que existen existen diferentes diferentes momentos momentos previos previos a la evaluación propiamente propiamente dicha, estos momentos podrían considerarse como de preparación ante la evaluación inmi in mine nent nte, e, ca carac racte teri rizá zánd ndose ose pri princi ncipal palmen mente te po porr es esta tarr ca carg rgado adoss de co cont ntrol rol y sometimiento. El control es utilizado para domesticar, domesticar, para hacer que los alumnos se habitúen a la pasividad, pasivi dad, a la obediencia, a la retención mecánica mecánica de los contenidos. Al respecto Pablo Freire (1969) dice lo siguiente: siguiente: “La educación bancaria dicta ideas. No hay intercambio de ideas. No debate o discute temas. Traba Trabaja ja sobre el educando educando Le impone impone una orden que él no compart comparte, e, a la cual sólo se
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La conducta observada es un rasgo de primer orden que se califica, lo cual remite a las teorías ambientalistas, donde el aprendizaje se mide por el cambio de conducta observable, equiparando a todos los alumnos como seres iguales, con la misma forma de aprender, de responder ante mismos estímulos; los otros rasgos que el docente califica son observables y medibles. Desde esta perspectiva perspectiva la evaluación evaluación es utilizada como control, control, el que evalúa tiene el poder de dictar las reglas, de sancionar o recompensar, de intimidar al alumno en todo el bimestre para lograr el control del grupo. Algun Algunos os de los los aspec aspecto toss clave clavess para para logr lograr ar este este cont contro roll son son el desa desarro rrollllo o de productos productos de aprendizaje aprendizaje que serán serán objeto objeto de evaluación, evaluación, son aspectos aspectos como como la firma del docente en el trabajo terminado y aprobado del alumno, en el revisado del cuaderno, no en la producción y avance del aprendizaje del alumno. alumno. Por la manera efímera en que se desarrolla, se pone interés en la forma y no en el contenido del trab trabaj ajo, o, mucho ucho meno menoss en las habi habililida dade dess y capa capaci cida dade dess comun omuniicat cativas ivas desarrolladas. P. apúrense chavos, porque ese trabajo se los tengo que registrar y si no tiene mi firma ya
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tiempos, el maestro es el único responsable de enseñar o trasmitir trasmitir un conocimiento, y que la obligación del alumno es memorizarla y aprenderla, de esta forma el aprendizaje del inglés se convierte en un conocimiento desechable, que se utiliza para aprobar un bimestre o ganar la simpatía del docente, se vincula con la teoría ambien amb iental talist ista a porque la eva evalua luació ción n es ext externa erna su acento acento está en el control control y la calificació calif icación. n. El El docent docente e es el conduct conductor or de alumn alumnos; os;
es quien quien determ determina ina si si éstos éstos
aprendieron o no y, según sea el caso, emite una calificación. Los propósitos principales de este tipo de evaluación son de control del alumno, de la disc di scip iplilina na mo most stra rada da en el sa saló lón n de
clas cl ase, e, se ca calilififica can n la lass ha habi bililida dade dess y lo loss
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estatales estata les que le dan prestigio prestigio como buen maestro maestro si el alumno gana el concurso, o como maestro de mala calidad si lo pierde, la misma categorización se da para la escuela que gana o pierde. E. Profesor ¿ Qué me puedes decir de los concursos concursos de conocimiento a efectuarse cada año, primero a nivel escuela, luego a nivel zona, para finalmente concursar a nivel estatal? P. En las escuelas secundarias técnicas es un concurso muy desgastante, tanto para el alumno como para nosotros, primeramente un mismo alumno ha se participar en todas las asignaturas, por lo que el primer reto significa el ponernos de acuerdo los profesores cuales alumnos harán que tengamos un mejor papel ante las demás escuelas y ante la sociedad, se les aplica un examen interno muy exhaustivo para seleccionar el mejor alumno de cada grupo, luego cada profe buscamos nuestro propio espacio para dar retroalimentación extra al chico que nos representará, lo llenamos de ejercicios, de explicaciones, porque generalmente no podemos avanzar como el programa programa nos marca por distintas distintas circunstancias y actividades propias de la escuela.
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alumnos, alumn os, la manera en que la enseñan enseñanza za se unifi unifica, ca, pensan pensando do que todos tienen las mismas habilidades, el tiempo clase se agota copiando dibujitos, los más aptos lo logran, aunque sólo sea para obtener un revisado y una palomita en las listas de asis as iste tenc ncia ia,,
que qu e a la vez si sirve rven n de listas listas de evalu evaluaci ación, ón, donde donde por por medio medio de
crucecitas o palomitas se va distinguiendo el alumno que hace el trabajo y el que no lo realiza. El profesor tenía dibujitos en en el pizarrón para que los alumnos los copien copien y los relacionen con los enunciados escritos en el mismo, la instrucción dice lo siguiente: “DIBUJ “DIBUJA, A, OBSER OBSERV VA Y RELACI RELACIONA ONA PARA CONSTR CONSTRUIR UIR UN ENUNCI ENUNCIADO ADO POR CADA CADA DIBUJO,
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salen reprobados reprobados.. Me da gusto que esté usted aquí, aquí, porque de esa manera se puede dar cuenta que hago todo lo que está en mis manos para que ellos aprueben, pero vea, en vez de trabajar trabajar se la pasan haciendo haciendo
desorden, desorden, platicando platicando,, cuando ese trabajo trabajo lo podían podían terminar terminar
fácilmente en el tiempo clase. 14/03/06/OB/008
Que los alumnos se estén calladitos, en silencio, que reproduzcan el trabajo que el profesorr ordena, aunque no se refleje profeso refleje el conocimient conocimiento, o, es suficiente suficiente para tener una nota aprobatoria. Otra caracterí característica stica distin distintiva tiva es como como se etiqueta etiqueta al alumno alumno y en en base a esa distinción va la la amenaza de reprobación. La cla clase se y las demás demás observadas, observadas, se caracte caracteriz rizan an por el som someti etimie miento nto de los
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conve co nvenc ncim imie ient nto o si sino no po porq rque ue la am amen enaza aza va po porr de dela lant nte; e; se to toma man n en cu cuen enta ta aspectos como la firma del docente en el trabajo presentado o la firma del tutor, la limpieza del cuaderno, la la disciplina, la obediencia, etc., hay intimidación psicológica, acoso continuo. P.Si lo escriben mal van a ser errores. Haber tú, siéntate aquí, este muchachito nos lo mandaron de la técnica nada más a dar lata. A. Ni lo mande Dios, de la Luis Mora. P. pues de donde sea, pero como me das problemas. No crea usted maestra (dirigiéndose a mi) que nos mandan peritas peritas en dulce. Chinito, pásate pásate para acá por favor. En lo que los alumnos iban terminando la maestra aprovecha para continuar revisando. P. Luis Gabriel un diez. (se escuchan murmullos y muestras de asombro, ah…)
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preguntar pregunt ar.. Predomi Predomina na la autoridad del maestro, maestro, el alumno es sometido hasta en su forma de sentarse, se le dice cuándo debe guardar silencio, cuándo reírse, hablar o repetir, incluso cuándo puede pararse, voltear voltear para los lados, etc. En cuanto a la la comunicación se da en forma de preguntas dirigidas y temas elegidos
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impuestas verticalmente, de la misma forma se puede precisar como el docente se somete al director, cuya figura jerárquica impone que los alumnos estén dentro del salón y calladitos, la pluma roja al revisar es una forma de marcar los aciertos y má
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E. Conoces los expedientes de tus alumnos o los casos especiales que se manejan a través de Servicios Educativos Complementarios? P. Solamente cuando se han presentado situaciones difíciles, por ejemplo el otro día le dio un ataque de epilepsia a un alumno de mi clase y fue cuando me enteré de su problema de salud, también también el mes pasado me citaron citaron a junta de consejo para expulsar expulsar definitivame definitivamente nte a un alumno, conocí los problemas de su hogar.
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del pizarrón pizarrón,, que transcri transcriba ba del libro, que traduzca traduzca,, el doc docent ente e exi exige ge al alu alumno mno trabajo para entretenerlo, se propicia el trabajo individualizado. El profesor entregó copias de monitos que escenificaban las preposiciones, además revisó que
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a cada momento, como una negativa en blanco y negro que empieza a dibujarse la imagen en el papel, pero es el docente el que maneja el revelador, el tiempo, la calilidad ca dad y ni nititidez dez de la im imag agen en,, así su surge rgen n es espo pont ntán ánea eamen mente te la lass mu mues estr tras as de rebeldí
de oposición, oposición, el docente docente utili utiliza za diferentes diferentes mecanis mecanis
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