EL
BAJO
IMPERIO KOMA jVO Luis A. García Moreno
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EL BAJO IMPERIO ROMANO
Luis A. García Moreno
EDITORIAL
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Reservados todos los derechos. dere chos. Está proh prohibid ibido, o, bajo ba jo las l as sanciones penales y el resarcimiento civil previstos en las leyes, reproducir, registrar o transmitir esta publicación, íntegra o parcialmente, por cualquier sistema de recuperación y por cualquier medio, sea mecánico, electrónico, magnético, electroóptico, por fotocopia o por cualquier cualqui er otro otro,, sin la autorización previa previa por escrito es crito de Editorial Síntesis, S. A. © Luis A. García Moreno ©EDITORIAL SÍNTESIS, S. A. Vallehermoso, 34. 28015 Madrid Teléfono 91 593 20 98 http://www.sintesis.com
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índice
Prólo Pr ólogo go ................................................. ...................................................................................................... ..................................................... ..
P r i m e r a Pa Re
st a u r a c ió n
t e t r á r q u ic a y
M
r t e
o n a r q u ía c o n s t a n t in ia n a
Intro In trodu ducci cción ón .............. .................... ............. .............. .............. ............. ............. .............. .............. .............. ............. ............. ............. ......
La cuestión cuesti ón constantiniana ........................ ................................. ................... ................... ................... ................... ............. Diocleciano y Constantino: dos caras de la misma moneda ............ Periodizació Periodi zaciónn .................. ............................ ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... ............. 1. La obra de Diocleciano (284-305) ......................................................
1.1. 1.1. 1.2. 1.2. 1.3. 1.3. 1.4 1.4. 1.5. 1.5. 1.6. 1.6. 1.7. 1.7. 1.8. 1.9. 1.9.
9
17 18 19 21
23 Los proble pro blema mass de Occidente. Occid ente. Maximian Maximianoo y Constancio Cloro . 24 El Danubio y el Oriente. Calo Ca lori ricc ................... ............................ ................... ................... ............. .... 26 La política política religiosa. religiosa. La gran p er erss e cu ció ci ó n ................................... 28 La abdicación de Diocleciano Diocleciano y M axim iano ............................... 31 Las reformas tetrárquicas. La filosof filosofía ía p o líti lí ticc a ........ ............ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ 32 La reforma refor ma de la administración administración.. La dióc di óces esis is .............................. 35 Las reforma refo rmass militares ........... .................... ................. ................. ................... ................... ................... ................ ...... 39 La reforma refo rma tributaria. tribut aria. La capitatio-iugatio ..................................... 40 La política monetaria. monetaria . El edicto edic to D e maximis ............................... 42
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2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 2.5.
La terce ter cera ra Tetrarq Tetrarquía. uía. El fin fin de Galerio Gale rio y Maximiano ............... Consta Constant ntino ino dueño dueño de O cc ccid idee n te .................................................. La conversion de Constan Constantino tino.. El edicto edic to de Milán Milán .................. ..................... ... Licinio Licinio en Oriente, Su política religios reli giosaa ............... ....................... .................. ................. .......
47 48 50 52
3. C on stan st antin tinoo , em p er eraa d o r c ris ri s tia ti a n o .... .................................................................................................. 57 3.1. La fundación d e Constantinopla .................................................... 57 3.2. El fina finall del reinado. reinado. Los problem pro blemas as suces su cesor orio ioss .......................... 58 3.3. Los problemas proble mas exteriores. Godos y persas pers as ................... ............................. ............. ... 60 3.4. Las reformas reform as adm adminis inistrativ trativas. as. Comitiva Comitiva y Prefecturas Prefectu ras .............. 61 3.5. La nueva nueva aristo aris tocra cracia cia constantinian constantiniana: a: cristiana cris tiana y de serv se rvici icioo .... .... 65 3.6. 3.6. Las Las reformas mi mili lita tare res. s. El ejército de cam ca m p a ñ a .......................... 66 3.7. Política Política fiscal fisca l y monetaria. El sólido .............................................. 67 3.8. Legislación Legisla ción y política r e lig li g ios io s a ........ ............ ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ......... ........ ........ ........ ....... ....... .... 69 Segunda Pa r t e La c o n s o l id a c ió n d e l Imper io r o m a n o c r i s t i a n o
I n tro tr o d u c c ió n ......... ............. ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ...... 75 La cristianización cristianiz ación del Imperio .................. ............................ ................... ................... ................... ................... ............ 76 La nueva sociedad y el Estado. Aristocracias de sangre, militar y de servi se rvicio cio .................. ............................ ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... ............. ... 76 4. Los hijos de Constantino (337361) (337361) ................. .......................... .................. .................. .............. .....
79
4.1. Constancio Constancio II en Oriente. Oriente. Los problemas proble mas reli re ligi gios oso o s .................. 4.2. Constante en Occidente. Occiden te. El donatismo ........................................ 4.3. La usurpación de Magnencio ................ .......................... ................... ................. ................. .............. ..... 4.4. Constancio II único august augusto. o. El césa cé sarr Galo ................................. ................................. 4.5. Julia Juliano no César. La fronte frontera ra del R in ................. .......................... .................. ................. ................ ........ 4.6. Constancio Constancio en Occidente. Los Los problemas problem as religiosos ................
80 81
5. E l re rein inad ad o de Julia Ju liann o e l A póstata pó stata (361 (3 6136 363) 3) .... .......... .................. .......... .......... ............... 5.1. La usurpación usurp ación de Juliano Juliano ......................... ................................. ................. ................... ................... .............. ..... 5.2. Creen Cr eencias cias y política religiosas religios as de Juliano Juliano .................................... 5.3. Política Política adminis administrat trativa iva y social soci al de Juliano ..................................... 5.4. La rsa y el fi de Juli
93 93 94 97 98
82 83 85
86 4.7. Las reformas refor mas administra administrativa tivass de Constanci Cons tancioo II, La buroc bu rocra racia cia .. 88 4.8. Política Política fiscal fisca l y monetaria mone taria de Constancio II ................... ............................ ............... ...... 90
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6.2. Valen Valentin tinian ianoo y Valente Valente se dividen el Im p e rio ri o ............................... 102 6.3. Valente en Oriente. Religión y fiscalidad fiscali dad ................... ............................. ................... ......... 103 6.4. La invasión invasión de los godos. Adrianópolis Adrianópo lis ......................................... 105 6.5. Valenti Valentinia niano no en Occidente. Occiden te. Los problema prob lemass militares militares .................. .......... ........ 106 6.6. Política Política adm adminsitra insitrativa tiva y social soc ial de d e Valenti Vale ntinian niano o............................ 107
6.7. Valentinia Valentiniano no y la religion. religion. Dámaso, Ambrosio y M a rtín rt ín......... .............. ..... 109 6.8. Graciano, Políticas religiosa religi osa y militar ilitar.. Ausonio ............................ 110 6.9. Teodosio Teodos io en Oriente. El foe god o y el radicalismo católico católico . 112 fo e dus du s godo 7. El predom pred om inio de Teodosio (383395) .............................................. 7.1. Máximo Máximo y Valen Valentin tinian ianoo II II en Occiden Oc cidente. te. Política Política y re reliligg ió n ....... 7.2. El Ori Oriente ente bajo ba jo Teodosio Teodo sio .................. ............................ ................... ................... ................... ................... ............ 7.3. Teodosio Teodo sio dueño de Oc Occid ciden ente te ................... ............................. ................... ................... .................. ........ 7.4. Teodosio, Teodosio, victorioso empera emp erador dor católico por la virtud virtud de D ios.. io s....
115 115 117 118 119
Te r c e r a Pa r t e El Imper io Cr i s t i a n o e n el s ig ig l o iv S o c i e d a d e s , e c o n o m í a s y c ivil vil iza c ión
In tro tr o d u c c ió n ........ ........... ....... ........ ........ ........ ....... ....... ........ ........ ......... ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ......... ......... ......... ....... ....... ........ .... 125 El singular esplendor del siglo iv: reparatio saeculi ............................ 125 El Estado burocrático y totalitario................. .......................... .................. .................. .................. ................ ....... 126 El nuevo nuevo Mundo undo C ris ri s tia ti a no no................ ................................. ....................................... ....................................... ................... .. 127 8. La sociedad y l a e c o n o m ía ........ ............ ........ ........ ....... ....... ........ ....... ....... ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ......... ....... .. 8.1. Las fuentes fuentes de info inform rmació ación. n. El El Código de T eod eo d o sio si o ................ ................ 8.2. Polarización Polarización s o c i a l ................. .......................... ................. ................... .................... .................. .................... ............. .. 8.3. La demografía b a joim jo im p ena en a l....................... l............................... ................. .................. .................. ......... 8.4. El Estado y la economía. economía. Fiscalidad y m o n e d a .................. ........................ ...... 8.5. La estructura social. Lo Loss podero pod erosos sos .................................. ........................................... ......... 8.6. La gran propie propieda dad d fundiar fundiaria. ia. El colonato colonato .................................. 8.7. La mediana y pequeña pequ eña propiedad rur rural al ...................................
129 129 129 12 9 130 131 134 13 4 138
142 146
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9.4. 9.5. 9.6. 9.7.
La historiografía historiogra fía .................. ............................ ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... ............... ...... La P atrí at ríst stic ica................. a......................... ................ .................. ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... ........... Las nuevas nuevas culturas cristianas. El m o n a cato ca to.......... ................... ................... ............... ..... Las artes ar tes plástic plá sticas as .................. ............................ ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... ............. C E píl
o g o
. D
u a r t a
Pa
165 168 169 172
r t e
is o l u c ió n y m e t a m o r f o s is d e l
Im p e r
io
.............................. ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... ............. ... 177 Introducción ..................... Del Occidente Roma Romano no imperial imperial al al Roma Ro mano noger germa mano no ....................... 177 Del Imperio Romano al Bizantino (siglos v v i i ) ..................................... 178 10. 10. Las grandes invasiones germ ge rm ánica án icass y el fin fin del Imperio Imp erio ... 181 181 10.1. 10.1. Invasores Invasores y usurpadores usurp adores (39 ( 3954 5420 20).). El El fo e d u s visigodo ......... 181 181
10.2. Valentin Valentiniano iano III. Bárbar Bár baros os contra bárb bá rbar aros os ................... ............................ ............... ...... 183 10.3. Los últimos últimos em emper perad adore ores, s, El final final del Oc Occid ciden ente te Romano Romano imperial per ial ................... ............................. ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... ................... ............ ... 185 11. El Imperio Romano en Oriente durante el siglo v .................. 11.1 11.1.. Las Las din dinas astí tías as y los grupos grupos de po p o d e r ............................................ 11.2 11.2.. Conflic Conflictos tos étnicos. étnicos. Bárbaros externos extern os y bárba bá rbaros ros inter int ernn o s.... 11.3. 11.3. Las disput disputas as teológicas, Oriente se aparta a parta de Occide Oc cidente nte ...... 11.4. 11.4. Hacia la nueva nueva socie so cieda dad d bizantin bizantina. a. La econom econ omía ía y el Estado .
189 189 190 195 197 197
Bibliografía ............................................................................................
201
..........
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Prólogo
El término Bajo Bajo Im perio fue utilizado por vez primera en 1752 por el francéss Lebeau cé Leb eau para referirse a la histo historia ria imperial roman romanaa a partir de ConstanConstantino tino y hasta el final final de Bizancio en 1453. El término hizo hizo fortuna fortuna en los ámb á mbiitos eruditos de las restantes lenguas románicas, Pero con el mismo no sólo se quería dar a entender que se trataba del periodo más tardío del Imperio Romano, sino que suponía una valoración profundamente peyorativa. Todavía los propagandistas del d el absolutismo monárquico y de la Contrarreforma Contrarreforma de la Modernidad valoraban positivamente la construcción monárquica de Cons Constan tantin tinoo y sus suceso s ucesores, res, con la interpenetración entre la Iglesia y el EstaE stado que suponía su monarquía de derecho divino. Sin embargo el nuevo "Siglo de las luces” vería en ello mismo uno de los peores vicios del Imperio tardío, causa caus a precisamente precisa mente funda fundame menta ntall de su ruin ruina; a; con él había h abía comenzado comen zado ya una una profunda decadencia de la brillante civilización grecorromana de los tiempos clásicos. Dos libros de enorme significación en la cultura septencentista, aunque
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ma histórico histórico de raíz biológica, considerando la supuesta supuesta decad de cadenci enciaa del de l Imperio como un proceso inevitable en todo ser vivo. Como no podía ser de otro modo para Montesquieu, la decadencia había venido de la mano de la pérdida de la antigua virtus republicana y de la aceptación acep tación de d e una tiránica tiránica monarquía teocrátic teocr ática. a. Para Para Gibbon Gib bon el hilo conductor de d e la historia historia tardorromana era la disolución disolución de la idea estatal romana romana,, basa ba sada da en la virtus y en la libertas, proceso pro ceso en el que el e l cristian cristianismo ismo había jugado un papel pap el decisivo decisivo.. Dos libros libros bás b ásico icoss de la gran histor historiog iografí rafíaa alemana del pasado siglo insisinsistirían en esas mismas ideas. El gran historiador de la cultura J. Burckhardt publicaba cab a en 1852 su famoso famoso La ed a d d e Const Constant antino ino el Grande, Grande, en el que consideraba la supuesta decadencia tardoantigua como un proceso de envejecimiento reflejado en la desintegración desintegració n de la civilizac civilización ión clásica, al triun triunfa farr la idea teo t eo-crática, la fe en la inmortalidad y en la vida ultraterrena, y al poblarse de fuerzas misteriosas misterio sas la antigu antiguaa religión religión pagana. Por su parte par te el eruditísimo eruditísimo historiador de la Antigüeda Antigüedad d O. O. S eeck ee ck en su magna Histo istori riaa de d e l hundimiento hundimiento del d el mundo m undo antiguo, publicado entre 1894 y 1920, planteaba el fin del Mundo Antiguo, del Imperio Romano, en términos demográficos. Imbuido del sociologismo finisecular, en su opinión en el Imperio tardío se habría producido una selección a la la in inve versa rsa,, con la desaparición desapari ción de los mejor me jores es elementos elemen tos humano humanos; s; y ello por causas caus as diversa diversas, s, como eran el despotismo monárquico, monárquico, la manu manumis misión ión de esc e scla la-vos extranjeros, extranjeros, los matrimon matrimonios ios entre libres y esclavos, la prohibición prohibición del matrimonio a los soldados, las continuas guerras, etc. Aunque con matizaciones diversas y con descubrimientos descubrimientos esenciales esen ciales todav todavía ía esas ideas decadentistas decadentistas estarán present pre sentes es en e n dos obras que han inf influ luid idoo buena bu ena parte pa rte de la historiog historiograf rafía ía contemporánea sobre el Imperio tardío; la Histo istori riaa social y econó eco nóm m ica de l Imperio romano del ruso M, Rostovtzeff, publicada en 1926 bajo el profundo impacto de la revoluc revolución ión bolchevique bolchevi que y del materialismo histórico; y la del alemán E Alt Alt heim La decad trass la terrible terri ble catáscat ásdec aden encia cia de l mundo an antig tiguo, uo, publicada en 1952 tra trofe trofe de d e la l a Alemania Alemania totali totalitari tariaa nacionalsocialista nacionalsocia lista y bajo ba jo la indudable influencia influencia de O. Spengler. Sin duda la idea de una decadencia del Mundo Antiguo, y más concretamente del Imperio Romano a partir de los tiempos de la Tetrarquía, cuando
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del Imperio Romano en sus últimos siglos de dominio sobre todo el mundo mediterráneo. Dos historiadores del arte, el ruso D. V. Ainalov y el austríaco A. Riegl, observaron las grandes continuidades artísticas entre los tiempos de Constantino y los de Carlomagno. El segundo acuñó el concepto de “Antigüedad Tardía" para referise a ese periodo, en el que veía innovaciones y desarrollos llenos de vitalidad y de gran significación para el futuro. En los años veinte otros dos historiadores, esta vez de la sociedad y economía, el vienés A. Dopsch y el belga H. Pirenne, establecerían de manera contundente la esen es encia ciall unidad unidad estructural estructural y continuidad continuidad de aquellos aqu ellos siglos tardoantig tardoantiguos uos con la Antigüedad clásica tan alabada. El decisivo ensayo del británico R Brown, publicado en 1971, El Mundo d e la A ntigü nti güeda edadd Tard Tardía ía,, lleva un suge rente subtítulo: “De Marco Aurelio a Mahoma". El primer nombre significaba para la tradición de Gibbon el emperador más representativo de los ideales clásicos de la feliz época de los Antoninos, mientras que el segundo en la tesis de Pirenne había iniciado el proceso de ruptura de la unidad mediterránea, típica de la Antigüedad. Peter Brown, tal vez el más prestigioso historiador actual de estos siglos tardíos, convertía significativamente al uno y al otro en claros exponentes de la Antigüedad Tardía. En la hora actual actual cada cad a vez parec par ecee más m ás evidente que qu e entre finales finales del siglo ni y las postrimerías del vil, aunque con importantes matizaciones regionales, se extiende un período dotado de unas características propias que lo diferencian de la situación posterior o Alta Edad Media. De estas características algunas son here h eredad dadas as del Alt Altoo Imperio y otras son nuevas nuevas;; algunas seguirían siendo factores importantes importantes en los tiempos medievales y otras no. Respecto Resp ecto de los tiempos anteriores lo esencial fue, según la afortunada formulación de P Brow rown, una redifinición redifinición del espa es pacio cio material material y vital vital del mundo antig antigu uo. La prepr esión de las l as fronter fronteras as y de los pueblos pueblo s exteriores exteri ores forzaro forzaronn a una una traslación traslación de los centros neurálgicos del Impe Imperio rio,, cobrando así mayor mayor importancia importancia áreas per p eriiféricas del Danubio y el Rin. Hasta la misma civilización grecorromano adoptó elemento elem entoss del mundo exterior, pues pue s culturalmen culturalmente te la Antigüedad Antigüedad Tard Tardía ía vio vio la invasión de nuevas creencias y espiritualidades. En lo esencial éstas serían un cierto desp de spego ego hacia el mund mundoo material y una una búsqueda búsque da incesante de la Div Divii-
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con el surgim surgimien iento to de una gran clase de campesinos campes inos dependientes. Pero Pero,, a difediferencia tal vez de d e otros otros period peri odos os de la Antigü Antigüeda edad, d, la esenci ese ncial al dinámica histórihistórica no fue el producto de la confrontación entre ambas clases, sino más bien el de la incesante lucha por el predomin predominio io y> y>la hegemonía hegemo nía entre una una serie se rie de a golgo lpamientos pamientos sociale so cialess verticales vertica les y profundam profundament entee jerarquizado jerarquizados. s. Ciertamente la cohesión de tales agrupamientos agrupamientos se conseguía por medios m edios coerc coercitiv itivos, os, pero también había elementos elem entos de mútu mútuoo interés entre entre el vértice vértic e y las bases, bas es, en sí plurale plurales. s. Institucion Institucionalm almente ente la solidaridad jerarquizada entre los miembros miem bros de tales agrupamientos se acabó plasmando en las relaciones de "patrocinio". Y éstas acabaron suponiendo, sin duda, un peligro para la misma subsistencia de un Estado centralizado e imperial, A la hora de articular en períod pe ríodos os esta Antigüedad Tardí Tardíaa así as í definid definidaa habría que distinguir al menos tres. Un primer momento se puede definir como el de la crisis del Imperio Romano, lo que abarcaría desde los comienzos de las graves dificultades externas con Marco Aurelio, en el último tercio del siglo Π, hasta los últimos últimos intentos intentos restauradores de los em emper perado adores res ilir ilirios ios ' y el sistema tetrárquico. En la disyuntiva de marcar un punto final en la misma Tetrar Tetrarqu quía ía de Dioclecia D iocleciano no o en la muerte mue rte de d e Constan Constantino tino preferimos preferim os esta e sta última. Y ello porque las fundamentales reformas realizadas por Constantino forma formann un solo bloque con las del régimen rég imen de Dioclecia Diocleciano, no, y en e n esenc es encia ia signisignificaron la institucionalización de unas estructuras que iban a dar sentido y unidad a todo el período de la Antigüedad Tardía. Lo único que hizo Constantino fue fue terminar con aquellos elementos element os residuales y arcaizantes defendidos a la desesperada por los emperadores ilirios, lo que en el terreno ideológico se centró en e n la adopción adopci ón personal, y para su Monarqu Monarquía, ía, del cristianis cristianismo. mo. El segundo períod de la üedad üedad Tard Tard ede definirse cronológi-
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nios bizantino bizantinoss del norte nort e de Africa y una buena bue na parte par te del Oriente Próxim Próximo, o, entre entre el 636 (batalla de Yarmu Yarmuk) k) y el 697 (captura defimtva de Cartago) y la ruina del Reino visigodo español (711). En estos años, agitados por grandes invasiones externas y crisis interiore interiores, s, el Estado Estado romano romano tar tardí díoo desaparec desa pareció ió en Occid Oc cidenente y en Oriente se s e vio obligado a realizar realizar drásticos drásticos ajustes y cambios. El presente libro libro tratará tratará de la parte fina final del primer período, régimen régim en tetrár quico de Diocleciano y Constantino,. y de todo el segundo; un epílogo abarca parte del tercero y algo más de los dos primeros tercios del siglo V . Con independencia independ encia de razones de tradi tradición ción historiográfica más o menos convencionales, como la fecha del 476, nos han impulsado a lo mismo otras de orden práctico y editorial. Lo cierto es que el período y las características de la llamada, con mejor o peor acierto, "Crisis del siglo III” han sido tratados en otros otros volúmenes de d e esta e sta colec co lecció ciónn de d e "Historia "Historia Univ Universal ersal”, ”, y otro tanto puede decirse de la última fase, Precisamente por ello nuestra cuarta parte se concibe fundamentalmente como un epílogo. Aquí nos limitaremos a un tratamiento esencialmente narrativo de los acontecimientos turbulentos del siglo V no se analizarán las causas de las grandes invasiones bárbaras ni la fundación y desarrollo primero de los nuevos Estados romanogermánicos surgidos en el antiguo Occidente del Imperio.
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P r i m e r a Pa r t e R e s t a u r a c ió n t e t r á r q u ic a y
M o n a r q u ía c o n s t a t i n ia n a
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Introducción En esta primera parte examinaremos la historia del Imperio de Roma entre el año 284 y el 337, desde la fecha de la consecución por Diocleciano de la supremacía imperial hasta la muerte de Constantino el Grande en Nicomedia el 22 de mayo del 337, día del Pentecostés cristiano. Un gran conocedor de la crisis del Imperio romano, Ramsey Mac Mullen, ha señalado recientemente la esencial unidad del periodo comprendido entre el 235 y el 337, para apostillar de inmediato que sus últimos años, los ocupados por las figuras dominantes de Diocleciano y Constantino, constituyen el momento culminante de ese decisivo periodo de la historia mediterránea. Lo cierto es que el Imperio que dejaría Constantino a sus sucesores se parece muy poco, en sus estructuras y en sus objetivos histó-
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La cuestión constantiniana Se ha llegado a negar la posibilidad de conocer la verdadera personalidad histórica de Constantino. Si esto mismo puede decirse en relación con cualquier gran protagonista de la Historia, en el caso de Diocleciano y Constantino resulta especialmente cierto. Uno y otro fueron testigos destacados de un acontecimiento tan decisivo como fue la definitiva victoria del cristianismo sobre el paganismo grecorromano. Diocleciano fue el senior Augustus primer Augustus primer emperador del gobierno que decretó la última gran persecución general contra la Iglesia y la religión cristianas, mientras que Constantino fue el primer emperador cristiano de Roma, considerado santo en la tradición de la Igle Iglesi sia a ortodo orto doxa xa y hasta una especie de decimo dec imote terce rcerr após apóstol. tol. Pero la transformación transfo rmación del Estado y del gobierno romanos de perseguidor en protector del cristianismo se realizó a través de una experiencia histórica llena de elementos dolorosos y terribles para muchos de sus protagonistas. La historiografía antigua grecorromana raras veces ha intentado ser neutral, si es que ello realmente es posible en algún momento. La historiografía cristiana y pagana que narraron tan trascendente época no podían ser .excepción por muchas razones. La Antigüedad legó así a ios modernos unos problemas de enjuiciamiento histórico que han perdurado hasta nuestros días. Frente a la admiración y el elogio de su grandeza, virtud y logros por parte de sus contemporáneos cristianos, Eusebio de Cesarea y Lactando este último muy crítico con sus antecesores tetrárquicos en su Sobre la muerte muerte de los perseguidores-, se se muestra la crítica sistemática de Juliano el Apóstata, Eunapio de Sardes y Zósimo a un Constantino maltratado por su lascivia, pereza, filogermanismo, avaricia y arbitrariedad, que habría arruinado los efectos de la restauración imperial de Diocleciano, siendo causa primera de la ruina poste pos terio riorr del del Imperio. Imperio. l redescub rede scub y publicación en del del o de la de Zósi-
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que critican que en lo que positivamente afirman. Alejados ya los tiempos del hiper criticismo de un Henri Grégoire y su escuela, hoy día parecen imponerse dos premisas para una más recta comprensión de estos decisivos años. Por un lado, una justa valoración de los testimonios contemporáneos, tratando de adecuar la información de Lactancio y Eusebio de Cesarea de las que no se puede seguir dudando a priori, como muy bien ha señalado T D. Barnes con la proveniente de otras fuentes no cristianas, como pueden ser los panegirices áulicos y los lemas monetarios, que reflejan los objetivos de la acción de gobierno, y los textos legales conservados en los códigos Teodosiano y de Justiniano. No puede por otra parte perderse de vista la diferencia que el fenómeno religioso tenía en la época de Diocleciano y Constantino en comparación con nuestros tiempos. Siguiendo, a este respecto, las sabias líneas trazada zadas s en 1929 por po r Norma Nor man n Hepb He pbur urn n Baynes Baynes,, los los moder mod erno nos s historiadores, historiadores, neutrales ante la autenticidad de ciertos fenómenos religiosos transmitidos por las fuentes, no pueden perder de vista un hecho esencial: su sincera aceptación por las gentes de finales del siglo m y principios del IV y, portanto, la cierta y fundamental incidencia de tal actitud en importantísimas acciones de gobierno.
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grandes compromisos del contenido de la enorme transformación que se había producido ducid o en el el Imp I mper erio io”” . Tal vez con ello Mazzarino ha llevado demasiado demasi ado lejos ciertas ciert as conclusiones, conclusiones, ya superadas p o r ejemplo, ejemplo, las las de Albe Al bert rtar ario io ( 1924), sobre s obre el Dere D erech cho o privado dioclecianeo y constantiniano, y cuyo primer defensor interesado fue ya Amia no Marcelino en el mismo siglo IV, al calificar malignamente a Constantino de "innovador y turbador de las leyes originarias y de la tradición recibida de los antiguos” (Res gestae, 21,10,8). gestae, 21,10,8). De hecho el dilema conservadurismo/revolución es un anacronismo de los modernos, pues en la propaganda imperial de la época conservatio reipublicae y reipublicae y regeneratio imperii estaban imperii estaban íntimamente unidas. En este sentido acierta Mario Amelot ti cuando, al referirse a Diocleciano, ha señalado el tradicionalismo de su ultimo objetivo político y el carácter innovador de los métodos utilizados para ello. Indicada asila esencial continuidad de objetivos entre Diocleciano y Constantino, tampoco está de más recordar que también ésta se dio en muchos de los instrumentos y medidas utilizados por ambos. Tanto uno como otro sostuvieron la teoría de! origen divino del poder imperial y del carácter sagrado de la misma función soberana, pero ya no la divinización de la persona física del emperador. En este campo la diferencia estriba en determinar cuál era la divinidad de la que emanaba dicho poder y que lo apoyaba. Las importantes reformas administrativas de Diocleciano se encaminaron hacia el ordenamiento rígido y jerárquico de la burocracia, el logro de la máxi-
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En fin, a pesar de las diferencias entre la política religiosa de Diocleciano y la Tetrar quía y la del cristiano Constantino, se encuentran ciertas semejanzas entre la doctrina cristiana perseguida y la teología oficial sustentada por la Tetrarquía perseguidora, como muy perspicazmente ha señalado W. Liebeschuetz: afirmación de la supremacía divina de Júpiter y presentación de su hijo, Hércules, como su representante ejecutivo en la tier ti erra ra y benef be nefact actor or del del hombre. A fin fin de cuentas la angustiosa angustiosa pregunta de los contemporáneos residía en saber, qué divinidad de las conocidas era realmente ese Dios supremo, cuya existencia era algo prácticamente aceptado por todos.
Periodizacíón Por razones de una mayor claridad expositiva trataremos la compleja materia histórica de esta primera parte en tres capítulos. En el primero estudiaremos el periodo transcurrido entre el triunfo de Diocleciano sobre Carino y la abdicación de los dos primeros Augustos, Diocleciano y Maximiano, en mayo del 305, periodo que constituye lo que tradicionalmente se conoce como primera Tetrarquía. En ese primer capítulo analizaremos, por un lado, la evolución general de los acontecimientos políticos y militares y, en segundo lugar, las grandes reformas introducidas por Dio-
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La obra de Diocleciano (284-305)
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1.1. 1.1. Los problem as de Occid ente. M aximiano y Constancio Clor Cloro o
Diocleciano, un típico "Emperador de los soldados” (Soldatenkaiser) por sus orígenes, demostró su prudencia política al asociar al trono a Maximiano el 1 de abril del 285. Este último, de origen también ilirio, había sabido labrarse una una brillante brillante carrera carrer a milit militar ar con Aurel Aurelia iano no (270 (2 70275 275)) y Probo Probo (276 282), pese a sus oscuros orígenes familiares, Investido del título inferior de césar (Eutropio, 9, 22,1), Maximiano partió de inmediato para las Galias, donde tuvo tuvo que qu e res r esta tabl blec ecer er una situación situación interior interior peligrosa peligro sa y confusa confusa,, tanto tanto polípolítica como socialmente. Las terribles invasiones de alamanes y francos de mediados de la precedente década habían venido a incidir en una realidad social ya tensa de por po r sí. sí. La ruin ruinaa de numerosos asentamientos asentamientos agrícolas, bien bie n atestiguada arqueológicamente, había afectado más a los pequeños campesinos libres que a los grandes propietarios, con mayores recursos para resistir tir la mala coyuntu coyuntura ra exterior. exterior. La crecie cre ciente nte concentración concentr ación de la propiedad propied ad fun fun diaria, diaria, caract car acterís erística tica de los años de d e la Anarquía Anarquía Mil Milit itar ar,, fue fue más intensa en un país como la Galia Galia,, con predo predominio minio de relaciones relac iones de d e producción en el campo de tipo señorial o clientelar clientelar desd de sdee tiempos prerromanos. prerromanos. Se produjo entonces el paso de numerosos campesinos libres a un estatuto de dependencia
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a usurpar la púrpura, buscando el apoyo de las tropas destacadas en Brita nia y de la poblac po blación ión civil civil del sur de la isla. isla. Posiblem P osiblemente ente esta últim última, a, en la que destacaba el poderoso grupo de comerciantes de Londinio (Londres), vio en el usurpador el mejor medio de defensa local contra los ataques del exterior, habida cuenta del control del Canal por Carausio y de sus buenas relaciones con los francos francos del bajo Rin. El Imperio Imperio británico británico de Carausio Carausio qu q u e mantuvo sus bases maritimas en el continente hasta c. 293 recordaba, en gran medida, lo sucedido en la Galia en las décadas anteriores, en tiempos del famoso Imperium Galliarum. La usurpación usurp ación de Carausio fue fue tal vez el motiv motivoo inmediato para promo prom o cionar a Maxim Maximiano iano,, proclamándol proclam ándolee Aug Augusto usto,, evitand evitandoo así cualquier cualq uier veleidad veleid ad de éste contra Diocleciano. Ello implicaba al mismo tiempo la negativa de
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nal. Aquí, en las provincias de Mauritania y zonas más próximas al desierto, habían ido en aumento las penetraciones de tribus moras y beréberes, sobre todo tras el licéncia l icénciamiento miento de la legión Tercer T erceraa Augu Augusta. sta. En la Mauritan Mauritania ia Tin Tin gitana el peligro parecía todavía mayor al unirse la lejanía y la menor presencia sen cia romana a los ataques por po r piratas piratas francos francos,, que en su osadía habían llegado a atravesar el Estrecho de Gibraltar. El principal enclave y foco de romanización de Tingitana en los siglos precedentes, el municipio de Volú bile, había sido abandonado ya entre el 274 y el 280. Maximiano primero cerróó el estrecho de Gibralta cerr Gibraltarr a los los pirata piratass germanos germa nos y batió en ambas amb as Mau Mau ritanias y Numidia a los grupos de nómadas invasores, para después en el año año 298 2 98 pro p roced ceder er a la reorganización de la fron fronte tera ra,, siguiendo a lo que parepa rece el modelo de Diocleciano en Siria y renunciando al dominio efectivo sobre
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bélicas bélic as también se viero vieronn acompañadas en el limes danubi danubiano ano por la reo r eorrganización de las defensas y la construcción de nuevas fortificaciones. En el estratégico sector danubiano de la Panonia Primera, Galerio creó una nueva provincia eminentemente militar, la Valeria, construyéndose una serie de fortificaciones en torno torno a la estratégica Aquinco Aquinco (cerc (c ercaa de Budapest) Budapest) y siguiendo el curso del río hacia el Sudoeste. Más al Este, la frontera dácica se reforzó con la reconstrucción reconstru cción de las fortalezas de Sucidava y Drobeta Drobeta,, que asegu as eguraraban un cierto control de la orilla izquierda. En fin, se levantaron también obras defensivas en la Escitia Menor, frente a los visigodos. En suma, esas victorias y reorganización fronteriza fronteriza aseguraron al Imperio Imperio diez años de paz en el Danubio. Solucionado Solucionado cierta medida los peligrosos problemas pro blemas anos y dan
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unas tropas, tal vez cuadruplicadas, un oficial de rango ecuestre con el título de “Duque (dux ) de Egipto, la Tebaida y las dos Libias", reduciendo así las amplias amplias atribuciones de los antiguos antiguos prefectos prefecto s de d e Egipto, Egipto, que q ue siguieron subsub sistiendo. Diocleciano adoptó también una solución realista, renunciando al pobre pob re y amenazado Oodec Oo decasc ascoin oinoo y situa situand ndoo la fronte frontera ra meridional meridional del Egipto romano a la altura de la primera catarata y de la isla de Filé (Assuán). Por su parte en el Dodecascoino se fomentó el asentamiento de la tribu de los nobatas, procedentes del Gran Oasis (ElKhargeh), con el propósito de detener las infilt infiltrac racion iones es de los peligrosos peligro sos blemmíes. Como acabamos de apuntar la crisis egipcia fue probablemente promovida vida por el sasánida Narsés. Narsés. El nuev nuevoo soberano persa p ersa debía deb ía estar es tar deseos des eosoo de recobrar el terreno perdido frente al Imperio en los años anteriores. Cier-
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ción de d e una serie se rie de importantes reformas admi admini nist strat rativ ivas as,, muchas ya iniciadas en e n los años anteriores. anteriores. Los problemas problem as surgidos de sus importantes importantes reformas en la la circulación circulación monetaria realiza realizadas, das, básicamente, básicam ente, en el 294 y el 1 de septiembre del 301, forzarían a un intento arbitrista y autoritario de detener la inflación de los precios con su famoso edicto de maximis de final finales es de ese e se mismo año 301, del que se hablará más adelante. Para un romano de comienzos del siglo IV la estabilidad del Imperio no podía asegurarse as egurarse mientras mientras no no se consiguiera el beneplác ben eplácito ito div divin inoo, que se se expresaba tradicionalmente con la fórmula de la p a x deor de oru u m . Desde su advenimiento, los tetrarcas se esforzaron por hacer públicas demostraciones de pieda pie dad d para con la religión religión tradicion tradicional al del Estado. Estado. El cuidadoso ritua rituall religioso seguido en la corte, las leyendas de las monedas y de los medallones pre-
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a envenenar al pacífico y disciplinado disciplinado pueblo pueb lo roman romano. o. Posiblemente, las n e c e sidades de la guerra contra Persia tuvieron algo que ver en esas medidas, Mayo Mayorr complejidad com plejidad y significación tendría tendría la gran persec per secuc ución ión contra contra el cristianismo, que se desarrolló en cuatro edictos consecutivos del 303 y del 304, y que fue fruto, sin duda, de una conjunta oposición al cristianismo for-
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Cloro no parece que hubiera una aplicación universal, sino más bien singular y en casos ele contumacia extrema. Distinto pudo ser el caso de Italia y Africa, bajo ba jo Maxim Maximian iano, o, donde sí pudo habe ha berr escen es cenas as de autén auténtic ticoo pán pánico ico.. Sin Sin embaremba rgo la resistencia de numerosas iglesias pudo ser mucho mayor de la esperada. Concretamente en la cristiandad africana surgió una corriente de oposición
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Esta decisión debió tomarse en la reunión que tuvo lugar en Roma entre ambos ambo s augustos augustos en noviembre del 303, con mot motiv ivoo de la celebraci celeb ración ón de los vicennalia de Diocleciano. Y se hizo efectiva algún tiempo después, tras la celebr cel ebraci ación ón del vigésimo vigésim o aniversar aniversario io de Maximia Maximiano no como com o Augu Augusto sto,, en mayo mayo del 305. Ambos Augustos depusieron simultáneamente sus poderes, en Nico-
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el triste espectáculo espectá culo de pronunci pronunciamie amientos ntos milit militare aress y usurpaciones de la ép é poca preceden prec edente. te. En su momento momento Ott Ottoo See S eeck ck in insis sisti tióó en el carác car ácter ter sistemático de la reforma tetrárquica, lo que difícilmente concuerda como señaló muy bien W Seston Ses ton con el modo modo de actuar actuar de Dioclec Dioclecian iano, o, hombre dotado dotado de un gran sentido práctico y de formación más empírica que teórica. La aso-
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No obstante las acusaciones de los antiguos, los préstamos orientales, helenísticos y persas, pers as, adoptados por Diocleciano Dioclecian o para su nueva nueva monarquí monarquíaa absoluta (Dominado) tuvieron sólo un carácter superficial: la diadema, los vestidos imperiales, el ceremonial cerem onial de la corte y el e l ritu ritual al de la pr p r o s k y n e s is o adoración. Pero la base ideológica del complejo edificio tetrárquico tenía un
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ción de de las las funciones civiles y militares con el total predomin pred ominio io de las las primeras. primeras. El reinado del intelectual Juliano propiciaría, paradójicamente, el desquite de los militares (vid. infra, infra, 92). Desaparecido con él todo representante masculino de la familia constantinia na, los fundadores de las nuevas dinastías Valentiniana y Teodosiana serán representantes diversos de esa nueva aristocracia militar tardorromana, cuya formación y exclusividad señaló hace unos años Alexander Demandt. Porque la verdad es que buena parte de la dinámica sociopolítica del Imperio se desarrollará a partir de entonces en torno a la formación de esa aristocracia militan de la burocrática y de gobierno, y de la capacidad que tengan los emperadores de dominar ambas fuerzas o, por el contrario, de la capacidad de éstas para estrechar lazos con la tradicional aristocracia terrateniente senatorial o, incluso, con los dirigentes de los grupos bárbaros vecinos del Imperio. Ambos fenómenos tendrán su plena eclosión en Occidente en la centuria siguiente, pero las bases de ese proceso se pusieron en este siglo iv. Baste a este respecto como muestra la política germánica de Teodosio, con sus asentamientos de bárbaros en el Imperio y el reclutamiento masivo de éstos como federados. Aunque la derrota del poder central sería posteriory con una diferencia temporal y de intensidad muy considerable entre Occidente y Oriente, ya en estos momentos la lucha del Emperador repetida, y en parte infructuosa, contra el fenómeno del patrocinio y de la autopragia era un presagio del porvenir (vid. infra, 157 y ss). Aunque la definitiva separación de hecho de las dos partes del Imperio no se realizó sino tras la muerte de Teodosio, lo cierto es que desde el 363 ambas mitades tuvieron gobiernos distantes, si no hostiles, salvo cortos espacios de tiempo. Cuando el último emperador romano en gobernar sobre ambas partes, Teodosio el Grande, dejó el Imperio dividido entre sus dos jóvenes hijos, Arcadio y Honorio, puso al primero en Oriente bajo la tutela de un gran burócrata, el Prefecto del pretorio Rufino, mientras en Occi Oc cide dent nte e situaba vigilante vigilante sobre el segundo al generalísimo generalísimo y semibárbaro Estilicón Estilicón.. Todo Todo un presagio del diverso futuro de ambas partes Imperii y Imperii y de su distinta situación a finales de la centuria. Pero de momento el Imperio parecía sólido, y sólo determinados grupos hostiles al régimen presagiaban los posibles males de confiar el Imperio a principes pueri (Historia Augusta, vita Taciti, 6, Taciti, 6, 5). Un Imperio que parecía descansar sobre el sólido armazón administrativo conseguido tras una evolución de más de un siglo, y que se reflejaba en su for forma ma mas acabada en la Notitia Dignitatum omnium tam civilium quam militarium, o anuario orgánico del Estado romano en el momento del cambio de siglo.
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Los hijos de Constantino (337-361)
Parece Par ece lo más probable prob able que a Consta Constant ntin inoo el Grande G rande le sorprendiera so rprendiera la muerte sin haber resuelto totalmente el problema sucesorio, con un inestable reparto regional del gobierno entre sus tres hijos y sus sobrinos Dalma cio y Hanibaliano (vid. supra, 59). Pero la rivalidad existente entre los príncipes dio lugar de inmediato a intrigas cortesanas, cuyo resultado sería la eliminación de Dalmacio y Hanibaliano del esquema sucesorio colegial diseñado por Constantino. El 9 de setiembre del 337, en la conferencia de Vimi nacio (actual Kostolac), en Mesia, los hijos de Constantino decidieron repartirse tirse solos el gobier go bierno no del Imperio Imperio y tomar para ello en exclusiva el títu título lo de augu august sto, o, Posiblemente Posiblem ente poco po co desp de spués ués un motín motín mil milita itarr tal ta l vez a instigación de Constancio daba buena cuenta en Constantinopla de toda posible oposición en el seno se no de la fam familia ilia imperial y del de l gobier g obierno, no, A la matanza matanza famili familiar ar,, en la que también perec pe recería ería el poderoso prefecto del pretorio pretorio Ablabio, Ablabio, tan sólo escapar esca paron on Galo y Jul Julia ianno, los dos jóve jó venes nes hijos de Julio Julio Constancio Constancio.. Según Seg ún el acuerdo alcanzado en Viminacio, Constantino II gobernaría las diócesis occidentales y Constancio II las orientales, mientras que al hermano menor, Constante, tan sólo se le reconocían ciertos poderes en el Ilírico, bajo la tutela de Constancio. Pero Constante soportó mal esta marginación. Tras vencer en el 339 a los sármatas del Banato y mostrar una actividad legislativa autónoma, obtuvo en la primavera del 340 una victoria definitiva en Aquileya sobre hermano Consta Constant ntin in ió en el combate. A partir de entonces en tonces
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4.1 . Constancio II II en Oriente. Los problem as religiosos
Durante Durante estos prime p rimeros ros años, años, hasta el 350, Constancio II tuv tuvo que enfrentarse con problemas exteriores en el frente danubiano y ante los persas; pero, sobre todo afrontó en Oriente una serie de dificultades internas provenientes, fundamentalmente, de su política religiosa. En la frontera oriental del Imperio no había dejado de existir nunca una guerra de posicio po siciones nes con los persas, a inic inicia iativ tivaa principalmente principalmente del sasáni da Sapor Sapo r II II. Este últim últimoo fracasó en e n el 350 en su tercer, y más importa importante, nte, intenintento por apoderarse apoderar se de d e la estratégica estr atégica plaza de Nisibe (actual (actual Nisibin isibin).). De momenm omento, Sapor Sapo r se contentaría contentaría con co n agravar en sus dominio dominioss la persec per secució uciónn contra contra los cristianos, iniciada en el 339340 como respuesta a anteriores iniciativas de Constantino el Grande (vid. supra, 61). De esta forma la religión se convertía en campo de lucha entre las dos potencias; toda una premonición de lo que sucedería en siglos venideros. En el frente danubiano Constancio restauró las obras de defensa realizadas en su día por su padre en la Dobrudja, mientras que las disputas religiosas le permitieron intervenir en los asuntos internos de los godos del Danubio. En política inter interior ior,, en esta es ta primera part p artee de d e su remado, remado, Constancio II se mostró como un continuador de las grandes pautas marcadas por su padre. Aunque Aunque su primera primer a legislaci legis lación ón insiste puntillosamente puntillosamente en la justicia y la moramor alidad de las costumbres, lo cierto es que reforzó las obligaciones e incapacidades cidad es de d e los curiales y acentuó el absolutismo absolutismo monárquic monárquicoo con el aumento de los agentes agente s policiales, policiales, que sería se ría característico carac terístico de todo su reinado reinado (vid. mira, 8890). Pero lo más importante en estos años fue su política religiosa, sobre todo en la la medida medida en que no iba a concordar concordar con la de sus hermanos que g ober ob er-naban el Occidente, donde la implanta implantación ción del cristianismo cristianismo era menor meno r y más reciente y donde, sobre todo, no existían escuelas teológicas y grupos ecle siales con la tradición tradición y rivalidad rivalidad de las de d e Alejandría y Anti Antioq oquía uía.. En la cris cr is-tiandad occidental de la época, las querellas cristológicas de las Iglesias oriental tal y griega grie ga eran escasa m ente comprendidas y predominaba sin apenas oposición el Credo niceno. Lo cierto es que cuando Atanasio, con el permiso de Constantino II, se dispuso a regresar de su exilio y reintegrarse a su sede se de alejandrina alejandrina se encontró con la abierta ab ierta hostilida hostilidad d de sus tradicionales tradicionales enemigos enem igos arríanos, arríanos, apoyados ahora ahora por el gobier go bierno no de Constancio. Constancio. Entre Entre el 340 y el 341 parec pa recía ía incluso incluso inminent inminentee un cisma cism a entre las Iglesias oriental oriental y occidental, occidental, a consec con secuen uencia cia del d el apoyo apoyo prestado a Atana Atanasio sio por el Papado Papado y de los esfuerzos de est e stee últim últimoo por hace ha cerr valer su preeminencia preeminenc ia en los asunt asuntos os
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los obispos orientales a asistir a él. Por su parte, estos últimos se reunían a su vez en Filipópolis (actual Plovdiv) y acordaban excomulgar a Osio de Córdoba y al Papa Julio. En tales circunstancias el cisma era un hecho, y parecía conducir incluso a la guerra entre Constancio y Constante. Sin embargo en el 346 Constancio cedería, permitiendo el triunfal regreso de Atanasio a su sed se d e de Alejand Alejandría ría.. 4.2 . Constante en Occiden te. £1 donatismo donatismo
Mientras tanto, en Occidente, Constante llevó a cabo una activa política. En el plano exterior el Emperador inspeccionó con cuidado las defensas en Britan Britania ia y en el frente frente del Danub Danubio. io. Un Un ataque de d e los godos god os en Tracia hacia el 346347 346 347,, contenid contenidoo por Constancio Constancio IIII mediante negociación, aconsejó acons ejó a ConsCons tante proteger su sector fronterizo en aquella zona, A tal fin creó una Prefectura tura del pretorio autónoma para el e l Ilíric Ilírico, o, desgaj des gajad adoo así de Ita Italia, lia, para facilitar el avitu avituall allam amien iento to de los importantes importantes contingentes de d e tropas estacionad esta cionados os sobre sob re el Dan Danub ubio. io. Constante Constante combatió también tam bién con éxito a los los francos francos en e n el bajo Rin en el 341 y 342. Mayo Mayorr trascendencia trascen dencia tuv tuvo la política política religiosa del menor de los hijos de d e ConsCons tan tantino. tino. Educado cristianamente al igual igual que sus hermanos, Constante mostró muy pronto un celo extremado en asuntos de religión. Posiblemente influiado por Maximino Maximino ob o b ispo is po de Tréveris T réveris y fiel defensor defenso r de Atanasio Atan asio y otros filós filósofo ofoss cristianizados, Constante legisló contra los judíos, al tiempo que prohibió a los paganos, bajo ba jo penas pe nas muy severas, severas, la celebr cel ebració aciónn de sus sacrificios. sacrificios. Esto últim últimoo contribuyó a agudizar su conflicto conflicto con la altiv altiva aristocracia senatorial s enatorial pagana pag ana de Roma Roma,, ya enemistada enemis tada por sus medidas centraliz centralizado adoras ras y el desgaj des gaj amien amiento to de d e la gran Prefectura de Italia, muy apetecida por ellos. Hacia el 347 Constante creó de nuev nuevoo una Prefectura del pretorio exclusiva para África África,, que había había sido si do engl e ngloobada ba da en la de d e Ital Italia ia a la muerte de Const Constan antino tino el Grande. Grande. Es posible que esta última medida administrativa tratase de asegurar también una mejor vigilancia de las provincias africanas, donde la cuestión dona tista estaba creando mayores problemas de gobierno. Constante continuó resueltamente la política política paterna pater na en relación relaci ón al complejo cisma donatis donatista, ta, agua gudizado en la medida en que la querella eclesial originaria había terminado por provocar un movimiento de claro matiz social. Las formas extremas del donatismo encontraron su mayor eco en los sectores rurales, entre indígenas empobrecidos y socialmente marginados (vid. mira, 157), conocidos con el nombre de circumcelliones (“los que merodean en torno a los graneros”).
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dia, un concilio reunido en Cartago en el 348 pareció restablecer la unidad en el episcopado y clero africanos. 4.3 . La usurpación de Magnencio
Pero la actitud de Constante, no del todo favorable a la aristocracia sena torial torial aunqu au nquee no impid impidió ió que miembros de ésta ocupase o cupasenn importante importantess puespues tos de gobierno territorial, incluidas Prefecturas del pretorio, con independencia de su credo religioso y sobre todo, la dura disciplina que impuso en el ejército, despertaron una fuerte oposición a su gobierno. En enero del 350 una conspiración tramada por el conde del patrimonio privado, Marcelino, lograba la aclamación imperial por el ejército de la Galia del brillante oficial Magnencio, un franco por parte materna. Al intentar huir a España, Constante fue alcanzado y asesinado en Elna, mientras el usurpador era prontamente reconocido en Africa, Cirenaica y Roma. Tan sólo en la zona del Danubio la proclamación de Magnencio fue contestada por el anciano Vetranio, un panonio de humilde origen que había alcanzado un magisterio militar. Impulsado a tomar el título imperial por Constancia, la viuda de Hanibaliano, y a luchar contra Magnencio, Vetranio optó finalmente por someterse a la jurisdicción de Constancio II, aunque durante un tiempo se mantuvo a la expectativa, con un cierto acuerdo de no agresión con Magnencio. ' En esta situación, Magnencio intentó atraerse el mayor número de apoyos en Occidente, ofreciendo para ello un un comportamiento político político ambiguo, bien reflejado en su actitud religiosa. Si su credo personal se discute, lo cierto es que intentó complacer a la aristocracia pagana romana, legalizando de nuevo los los sacrificios nocturnos (C od ex Theodos Theodosian ianus, us, 16,10,5), por ejemplo, mientras su moneda mantenía en su integridad los símbolos cristianos. En todo caso las exigencias apremiantes de una Hacienda obligada a grandes gastos mil militar itares es y la resistencia de la rica región renana impidiero impidieronn a Magnencio repetir la experien expe riencia cia del llamad llamadoo Imperio galo de la anterior centuria. En fin, la decisión de Vetranio de someterse a Constancio acabó cortando a Magnencio cualquier posibilidad de llegar a un acuerdo con este último. Constan Constancio, cio, tras tras resolver apremiantes dificulta dificultades des en el frente frente oriental oriental y enc e ncarargar de su vigilancia al recién nombrado césar Galo, se decidió a terminar de una vez con el usurpador en el 351, no sin antes haberle creado problemas en su retaguardia al incitar a los alamanes a invadir la Galia. Enfrentados en Mursa (actual Eszeg), la traición del general franco Silvano con sus germanos y la potencia potencia de d e la caball ca ballería ería acorazada dieron dieron la la victoria victoria a Consta Constanci ncio. o.
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nencio, que fue definitivamente derrotado en julio del 353 en el Mons Mo ns Se S e leu le u cus, en las proximidades de Gap; poco tiempo después se suicidó. La guerra tuv tuvo consecu con secuenci encias as en la propia propia Galia que, que, desguarnecida, desguarn ecida, sufr sufrió ió nuevas penetraciones de germanos del Rin: francos, sajones y, sobre todo, alamanes. Pero Pero de d e momento la unidad unidad del Imperio Imperio esta es taba ba de nuev nuevoo salvada; salvada; mantenerla iba a ser la gran obsesión de Constancio II, 4.4. 4. 4. Constancio II II único augusto. augusto. £1 cé sa r Galo Galo
La historia del Imperio entre el 353 y el 361, la de Constancio II como único y prepotente augusto, nos es fundamentalmente conocida por Amiano Marcelin celino, o, cuya cuya obra histórica se nos ha conservado precisam pre cisamente ente a partir del 353. Pero Pero el honesto oficial oficial e historiador historiador de Antioqu Antioquía ía no sentía demasiada demas iada simpatía por Constancio. Pues, además de contraponerlo a su héroe Juliano el Apóstata, le imputó la injusta desgracia de su protector, el general Ursici no; no; le criticó por su espíritu espíritu mezquino mezquino y desconfiado hasta el exces exc eso, o, así como por haberse hab erse dejado dominar dominar por cortesanos y burócratas burócratas poco recomendarecomend ables, como el chambelán Eusebio o el cruel notario de origen hispánico Pedro "el cade ca dene nero ro”. ”. Juliano Juliano el Apóstata Apóstata y el retor pagano paga no Libanio Libanio nos transmiten transmiten una una descripción descripció n bastante semejante semejant e del primero primero por el dese d eseoo de justif justifica icarr su conducta traicionera frente a Constancio. Y, si del lado pagano pesó negativamente la interesada versión de Juliano, la historiografía cristiana tampoco fue favorable a este príncipe. Aunque de austeras costumbres y animado de un gran fervor religioso, su arrianismo fanático y su hostilidad contra Atanasio de d e Alejandría Alejandría pesaron pesaro n más en una tradición tradición cristiana unánimemente unánimemente nice na e influida por las diatribas de Hilario de Poitiers. En todo caso, su política centralista, favorecedora de la burocracia palatina sobre sob re los gobie go bierno rnoss territorial territoriales, es, y su preferencia por los técnicos de la administración frente a los aristócratas de nacimiento (vid. mira, 8890) tenían que influir negativamente sobre una historiografía que reflejaba la opinión y los intereses de los círculos de la aristocracia senatorial. Y sin embargo,
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Galo, como su tío y augusto, no es un personaje bien tratado por la historiografía antigua, con excepción de Zósimo. Amiano Marcelino, en particular, cular, nos ha h a dejado deja do un retrato retrato muy muy negro neg ro del hermano herm ano de Julian Juliano, o, sin duda duda influido por la oposición a Galo de la aristocracia de Antioquia, La verdad es que Galo tan sólo tuvo que enfrentarse con dificultades menores en Isauria ria y regiones vecinas vecinas bandolerismo bandolerism o y mesian mesianism ismoo judí judíoo en D ioces ioc esare area a y gozó de cierto prestigio entre el ejército y los medios populares. Pero su carác ca rácter ter exaltado, exaltado, con co n frecuencia brutal, brutal, le ganó la hostili hostilidad dad de los grupos dirigentes antioquenos, que veían en él un demagogo contrario a sus intereses. El mismo Galo concitó sobre sí la animadversión de los altos funcionarios de la administración nombrados por Constancio, al descargar sobre ellos una violenta violenta represión, represión, con c e s e s fulmi fulmina nante ntess e incluso asesinatos. asesin atos. En estas condiciones era obligado que Constancio, informado por unos funcionarios en los que confiaba ciegamente, actuase contra su césar, temiendo incluso que pudiera surgir una revuelta contra Galo y una guerra civil (Zonaras, 13,9). Constancio envió emisarios a Galo exigiéndole que se presentase a rendir cuentas de su gobierno. La falta de tacto de los emisarios y el carácter de Galo acaba a cabaron ron por provocar una una tragedia. tragedia. Con sumo tacto y habilidad ConsC onstancio, en un segundo intento, consiguió traer a su presencia al césar y eliminar toda posibilidad de resistenci resis tenciaa milit militar ar en torno al principe. Despoja Des pojado do de sus insignias insignias imperiales, imperiales, Galo fue fue sumariamente sumariamente juzgado y ejecutad ejec utadoo en Pola a finales del 354. De este modo Constancio dejaba en claro su concepción autocrática del poder imperial, al considerar a su césar como a cualquier otro alto funcionario. La usurpación de Magnencio, cuya situación se esforzó Constancio por neutralizar, representó una catástrofe para la Galia desde la primavera del 354. Alas nunca bien reprimidas penetraciones de los alamanes se sumó al año siguiente la usurpación del general gen eral franco Silv Silvan ano, o, encargad enca rgadoo de la l a defensa del limes renano, tal vez movido por las intrigas de envidiosos enemigos en la corte, que le acusaron de d e preparar prepa rar una rebelión. Aunque Aunque Constancio, Constancio, con habilidad, supo reprimir y eliminar al usurpador, no pudo impedir que
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4 .5 . Juliano Juliano C ésa r. La frontera del Rin
Ehiuevo cés c ésar ar había pasado su infa infanc ncia ia y juv juven entud tud apartado apartado de d e los l os ambienam bientes cortesanos y de los asuntos de gobierno. Escapado a la catástrofe familiar del 337 había vivido durante seis años en compañía de su hermano Galo en un lejano castill castilloo de Capadocia, Capado cia, Macell una espe es pecie cie de exilio exilio doradora Ma cellum, um, en una do dedicado al estud estudio io y la cinegética, como recordaría después des pués con nostalnostalgia. gia. Posteriormente se le permitió permitió completar su educación edu cación intelectual intelectual en Constantin tantinopl oplaa y Nicomedi Nicomedia, a, donde asistió a las escue es cuela lass de d e retóricos retó ricos de prestigio como Nicocles y Hecebolio. Hecebolio. Tras Tras el nombrami nombramiento ento como cé césa sarr de su herhe rmano Galo, Juliano dispuso de mayor libertad de movimientos, frecuentando entonces las más famosas escuelas filosóficas de Atenas y Asia Menor. Las enseñanzas de Adesio de Pérgamo, un famoso seguidor de Yámblico, y de algunos discípulos discípulos suyos Eus E useb ebio io,, Crisantio y, sobr so bree todo, todo, Prisco Pr isco y Máximo de E fes fe s o introdu introdujer jeron on a Julia Juliano no en la pujante pujante corri c orriente ente neoplatónica más m ás afín fín a las prácticas teúrgicas y místicas, que se había convertido en el gran bastión del paganismo de las elites cultas. De entonces dataría su apostasia del cristianismo, cristianismo, que q ue también tam bién con c onocía ocía por p or su primiti primitiva va formación formación con vistas a la carrera carrer a eclesiástica. eclesi ástica. Sin embargo, Julian Julianoo ocultaría ocultaría su conversión conversión pagana pag ana hasta bastantes años años después, des pués, tras tras su abierta abi erta rebelión r ebelión contra contra Constanc Constancio. io. Sin duda el aprecio que hacia él sentía la emperatriz Eusebia debió ser decisivo para vencer las reticencias de Constancio Constancio y de algunos algunos de sus conco nsejeros para nombrar césar al hermano de Galo. Pero ello no era suficiente para que el Emperador eliminase todos sus temores ante la inexperiencia de gobiern gob iernoo del nuev nuevoo césar, cargo que q ue Constancio Constancio veía veía como el grado más alto alto del funcionariado, A ello se debería que rodease a Juliano de un conjunto de oficiales y funcionarios directamente nombrados por él. Sin embargo no hay motiv motivos os razonables para cre c reer er en una una sistemática desconfianza de ConstanConstancio hacia su césar, como la propaganda de Juliano afirmaría posteriormente. En todo caso, las posibles limitaciones que se le impusieron en el libre ejercicio de su mando imperial fueron eliminadas tras sus primeros éxitos mili , tares y el ces ce s e en el 357 de d e Marc Marcel elo, o, un un maestre de la caballería caba llería no no demasiado dócil a su autoridad.
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res de castigo sobre so bre el propio propio territorio territorio alamánico. alamánico. La del 358 35 8 la dirigió dirigió JuliaJuliano contra los francos del bajo Rin. Tras penetrar en el actual territorio belga, derrotó a los chamavos, que se disponían a invadir la Galia; pudo así restablecer las defensas romanas, sobre todo con nuevos fortines levantados en el curso inferior del Mosa y el reforzamiento de la flota de avituallamiento proveniente de Brita Britani nia. a. En el verano siguiente Juliano Juliano penetró penetr ó en territorio g e rmánico desde Maguncia, sin encontrar excesiva resistencia. De esta manera, ra, hacia el 360, 3 60, la fronter fronteraa del Rin Rin parec pa recía ía asegurada. 4.6 . Constancio en Occidente. Occide nte. Los Los problemas problem as religiosos
Mientras tanto, Constancio pasó en Occidente los años del 353 al 357 ocupado ante ante todo todo por los problemas problem as suscitados por su polític políticaa religiosa. religiosa. Desa D esa-parecid par ecidos os Constante y Magnencio, Magnencio, Constancio se propuso propu so relanzar su políti políti-ca de imposición imposición del arrian arrianism ismo, o, credo que contaba con esca es caso soss seguidores en Occidente, fuera de algunas provincias danubianas. A base de una violenta coacción obtuvo la condena de Atanasio y de sus seguidores en sendos concilios reunidos reunidos en Arlés y Mil Miláán, aunque las ausencias au sencias y protestas del epis e pis-copado occidental fueron notables en ambos sínodos. Envalentonado con estos logros, logros, a partir del 355 3 55 Constanc Constancio io se s e propuso propuso conseguir con seguir todos sus .objetivos religiosos, utilizando la fuerza, si fuese preciso. Osio fue entonces relegado a su patria hispánica; Hilar Hilario io de Poitie Poitiers rs,, nuev nuevoo camp ca mpeón eón de la ortodoortod oxia en Occidente, desterrado a Frigia. Mediante la provocación de un motín en Alejandría consiguió una una nueva nueva expulsión de Atanasio de su sede. sed e. La persecución de los rúcenos en este momento pareció correr pareja con la del paganismo. Entre el 356 y el 357 Constancio promulgó una serie de constituciones constituciones que qu e prefigur prefiguran an ya ya las de Teodosio. Fueron decretad decr etadas as severas penas contra los que diesen culto público a los dioses paganos, ordenando el cierre de los templos, y contra los practicantes de la magia y adivinación. Estos ataques al paganismo de alguna manera iban dirigidos también contra la poderosa aristocracia pagana de Roma. Entre el 353 y el 357 todas las Pre-
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tonal, giro político que esta última habría sabido apreciar y valorar en el futuro. Lo cierto es que en dicha ocasión no obstaculizó la emisión por la aristocracia pagana de la Urbe de los famosos medallones conmemorativos, denominados contomiatas, indudable instrumento de propaganda pagana, al tiempo que procedía al nombramiento de nuevos sacerdotes paganos. Entre Entre el 357 y el 359 35 9 Constancio Constancio permane perm aneció ció en la Prefectura Prefectura ilí ilíri rica ca,, ocuocu pado en la defensa de la frontera danubiana y en la solución de los agudos problemas suscitados por su política 'religiosa de fanático arnamsmo. Aprovechándose del esfuerzo bélico romano frente a los alamanes, los cuados habían vuelto a invadir la Valeria a partir del 357, mientras que sus aliados sármatas devastaban la Panonia Segunda. Constancio II, desde su cuartel general de Sirmio (actual Mitrovitza), consiguió en el 358 derrotar a los sármatas y logró un acuerdo de paz favorable con los cuados. Más al Este, había conseguido en el 357 la derrota de los sármatas siervos o limigantes, que se s e habían rebelado rebela do contra contra sus señores, los sármatas argaragan argaragantes, tes, entonentonces clientes del Imperio. Estas victorias aseguraron la estabilidad en estas vitales zonas' del limes danubiano por más de quince años. Pero Pero los años de residencia r esidencia de Constancio Constancio en Sirmio Sirmio destacan des tacan sobre so bre todo por un recrudecimiento de las querellas religiosas más concretamente cris tológi tol ógicas cas a causa de la bruta brutall polí políti tica ca impues impuesta ta por el emperador em perador en el e l 355 y 356. La disp disputa uta se centró en cuatr cuatroo posibles posib les soluciones, soluciones, que iban desde des de la ortodoxia de los llamados Homousianos (Atanasio e Hilario) a los arríanos extremos, extremos, defensores defen sores de la subordinaci subordinación ón completa del de l Verbo a Dios Dios Padre Padre (Marcelo (Marcelo de d e Ancyra Ancyra y Foción de Sirmio), Sirmio), pasando por p or las intermedias, de los arríanos puros Eunomianos (Eunomo de Capadocia) y de los moderados Homeusianos (Ursacio de Singidun Singidunoo y Valente Valente de Mursa). Un primer sjnodo reunido en Sirmio en el 357 adoptó una postura arriana estricta. Pero a los pocos meses, a la vista del imposible acuerdo, un segundo sínodo reunido allí mismo llegó a una decisión a base de la fórmula de los Homeusianos. Presionados por el emperador y las circunstancias, el Papa Libe rio rio y el cord c ordob obés és Osio aceptaron esa e sa form formula ulaci ción ón.. Pero Pero la misma ambigüedad amb igüedad del símbolo sólo sirvió para provocar nuevas nuevas variantes variantes y disputa disputas, s, En el tercer terc er
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tales u occidentales. Constancio, irritado, no vio entonces más solución que obligar a los delegados de ambos concilios a firmar el citado "símbolo datado", mediante graves amenazas amen azas y atropello atropellos. s. Sin embargo, embar go, Hilario ilario de Poiti Poitiér érs, s, vuelto a la Galia, siguió manteniendo una férrea oposición reflejada en la publicación de su Contra Constancio. Entretan Entretanto to habían había n surgido dificultades en la frontera frontera con los persas. pers as. Un malentendido de los servicios de información sasánidas fundamentalmente las embaja em bajadas das intercambiadas entre el prefecto del Pretorio Pretorio orient oriental, al, Estra Estra tegio y el gobernador sasánida de Babilonia, Tamsapor lanzó en el 358 a Sapor II a romper las negociaciones de paz. El rey persa, persuadido de la debilidad de Constancio y confiando en su ausencia de Oriente, reivindicó la herencia aqueménida sobr so bree la Mesopotamia y Armenia Armenia romanas romanas.. La noti noti-cia de la caída de Amida (Diyarbakir) en manos de Sapor que evitó atacar a la muy bien fortificada Nisibe (Nisibin), produjo en el 359 un cierto pánico en todo el Oriente romano, obligando a Constancio a abandonar el frente danubiano danubiano para ponerse pon erse perso p ersonalme nalmente nte al frente frente de las fuerzas romanas. romanas. Sin Sin embargo, las tropas sasánidas todavía se apoderaron de Singara (Sindjar) y Bezabde (Djeziret ibn Omar). Pero al año siguiente la ofensiva persa se detenía. Posiblemente Sapor estimó más prudente una guerra de posiciones, esperando la paulatina secesión de las poblaciones mesopotámicas, cuyos habitantes, étnica y culturalmente muy mezclados, se resentían de la interrupción del comercio con el Imperi Imperioo persa, como consecuencia conse cuencia de las prolongá prolongádas das hostilidades. En todo caso, Constancio II no pudo emprender la contraofensiva siva,, porque recibió r ecibió en es e s e momento momento la notici noticiaa de que el cé césa sarr Julian Julianoo avan avan-zaba por el Danubio tras haber usurpado el título de augusto (vid. infra, 94). Cuando Cuando s marcha hacia Europa Europa para detener por p or la fuerza a su sobri-
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en cualquiér acto público o legislativo; y cuando quedó como único emperador no toleró la extralimitación de sus Césares, a los que siempre consideró como co mo subordinados suyos. suyos. Sistematizó y jerarquizó jerarqu izó todavía más las fun funciones y títulos palatinos, y deben de ser creación suya los condes intra orden. Su esfue esfuerzo rzo por recalcar recalca r el elemento elemento sob s obrereConsistorium de primer orden. humano de la función imperial en sus apariciones públicas llegaba a veces a lo lo grotes gro tesco co por po r su hieratismo extremo extremo,, como señala señ ala Amian Amianoo Marcelino Marcelino al relatar su triun triunfa fall entrada en Roma en el 357 (16,10,1 (16 ,10,10). 0). Pero, sobre todo, Constancio reforzó el aparato administrativo central y represivo, y tuvo buen cuidado al reclutar a sus altos funcionarios y oficiales. Temeroso de los podere pod eress de los funci funciona onario rioss de gobierno gob ierno territorial territorial y de los oficiales del ejército, separó aún más drásticamente las dos ramas de la mili tia. Puso Puso al poder po der civi civill por encima del mil milit itar ar,, realizó realizó frecuentísimos cambio cam bioss entre los titulares de los magisterios militares, sujetos siempre a fulminantes caídas en desgracia, y dio preeminencia a los funcionarios de la administración central sobre los de la territorial. A este último respecto fueron fundamentales menta les los cam ca m bios bio s introducidos introducidos en la prefectura del de l pretorio. pretorio. Constante y Constancio, continuando la obra paterna, dieron forma definitiva a las llamadas Prefecturas regionales. Entre el 337 y el 353 los prefectos del pretorio acabaron acabaro n perdiendo sus últi última mass características caracter ísticas minister ministeriales, iales, como co mo seguid s eguidoores del emperador y fautores de la política, para convertirse en gobernadores y administradores territoriales supremos. Esta transformación de los prefectos del pretorio benefició, fundamentalmente, mente, al maestre mae stre de d e los oficios, oficios, que heredó h eredó gran parte pa rte de las funciones políticas de aquéllos. El maestre de los oficios pasó a controlar entonces la guardia palatina y las fábricas de armas, Pero el gran poder de este alto funcionario
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ja Roma, Roma, seguiría segu iríann siendo sie ndo las cimas a alcanzar, Constancio Cons tancio permitió perm itió que se pudiese acceder a ellas desde los altos puestos de la administración palatina. Esto significaba, al mismo tiempo, la constitución de una verdadera carrera burocrática y una cierta marginación de la aristocracia senatorial romana. Porque Porque los puestos de la burocracia palat palatin ina, a, todavía todavía menospreciado menosp reciadoss por la aristocracia senatorial, fueron confiados, principalmente, a miembros de la aristocracia local de las grandes ciudades del Oriente, como Antioquía, a juristas jurist as o, incluso, incluso, a simples sim ples advenedizos. advenedizo s. Constancio Constan cio busc bu scóó para pa ra su fúncio nariado la cualificación técnica y la lealtad a su persona, por lo que fomentó la entrada de orientales fervientemente arríanos. Estas gentes formaron así una una aristocracia de servicio, muy muy adicta adicta al emperador, emperador, que poblaría po blaría el nuevo Senado de Constantinopla, aumentado ahora a 2.000 miembros, y trasmitiría a sus descendientes el gusto por las funciones administrativas. Pero Constancio II no era un maniaco de la burócratización y centralización, y tenía conciencia de los peligros que su exceso podía aparejar. Especial preocupación le merecieron merecie ron los graves vicios vicios de la venal venalidad idad de los carca rgos públicos o de dignidades honoríficas, que otorgaban privilegios fiscales divers diversos, os, y los abusos abuso s que pudieran surg surgir ir del exce ex ceso so de vigilancia vigilancia de los palatinos sobre la administración territorial. A cortar el primer tipo de abusos - c e s s e t omnis ambitio atque suf suffr frag agiu ium m ( C od ex T heodosi heodosianus, anus, 6, 29, 4) iría destinada una abundantísima legislación represiva, cuya misma reiteración es un síntom síntomaa de su impotencia para cortar co rtar todos los abusos, tales como la evasión de curiales, principalmente en Occidente y Egipto. Pero junto a estas esta s medidas medid as represivas, represivas, Constancio trat tratóó también de frenar la ambición de los palatinos palatinos,, resistiéndo resist iéndose se a la la inflació inflaciónn desorden deso rdenada ada de títu títulos, los, restringienrest ringiendo el rango del clarisimado, y actuando con notable parsimonia en las pro-
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de suprimir cualquier tipo de exención fiscal individual, y restituyó a las ciudades un cuarto de las rentas de las propiedades comunales confiscadas por su padre. Pero, a la vez, mantuvo inmunidades fiscales de tipo colectivo demasiado gravosas para la Hacienda estatal, como las otorgadas a los bienes de la Res privata privata imperial imperial,, a la Iglesia y a los clérigos. cl érigos. Por ello aparecieron modalidades de defensa del contribuyente contra el Estado, que Constancio trató de eliminar con energía. Y, sobre todo, Constancio tancio fue fue el primer emperador empera dor romano romano en tener que combatir la perniciosa práctica del patrocinio (cf. infra, 157 y ss.), ss .), ya muy muy difundida difundida en Egipto Egipt o a finales de su reinado. Ambos hechos eran indicios de uno de los peligros internos más graves que habrían de acechar al Estado tardorromano: la colusión frente al Estado de los intereses de los humildes con los de la aristocracia latifund fundista ista y altos funci funciona onarios, rios, con frecuencia las mismas personas, pers onas, Pero a mediam ediados del siglo iv la batalla no había hecho nada más que comenzar, y no se puede negar a Constancio II el mérito de haber comprendido el peligro y actuado con pronti prontitud tud y dureza. La política monetaria de Constancio II, que anuncia la evolución posterior, muestra también los mismos claroscuros que la fiscal. Tras la muerte de Constantino, continuó depreciándose la moneda de vellón (vid. supra, 63), lo que se reflejó reflejó en una una considerable conside rable in infla flaci ción ón de los precios expresad expre sados os en denarios, denarios, especialmente evidente en Egipto y Oriente. Ello hizo necesaria hacia el 348 la acuñación de una nueva nueva moneda mon eda de vellón vellón,, el nummus centenionalis, con un peso cuatro veces superior a los anteriores tipos occidentales, y con un valor facial discutido: cien denarios o una centésima de sólido. En todo caso estas pesada pes adass monedas de vellón vellón fue fuero ronn retirada retiradass en el 354, posibleme posib lemente nte al habe ha berr sido subvalora subvaloradas das y proc pr oced eder er el público público a su apreciación apreciación al peso. Pocos años
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El reinado de Juliano el Apóstata (361-363)
5.1. 5.1 . La usurpación usurp ación de Julian Juliano o
A medida que pasa pa saba ba el tiempo tiempo y aumentaban sus éxito éxitos, s, el césa cé sarr Julia Juliano no iba ib a sintiéndose sintiéndose más molesto con una situa situación ción que consider co nsideraba aba de in inju justa sta suborsub ordinación, falta de autonomía y asfixiante vigilancia por parte de unos funcionarios colocados coloca dos por po r Consta Constanc ncio. io. A ello ello contribuir contribuiría ía el especia esp eciall cará c arácter cter de Juli Juliaano, al que tantos años de ocultar sus verdaderas creencias habían convertido en intolerante y violento, con facilidad para sentirse herido en su orgullo; por
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Persia. Persia. Los amigos de Julia Juliano no prepararon entonces enton ces un motín motín de las tropas concentradas en París, París, en el que el cés c ésar ar fue proclamado augusto por sus soldados. Todavía prudentemente Juliano trató de llegar a un acuerdo con su tío, dándole explicac exp licaciones iones por po r escrito escr ito de lo sucedido, sucedido, aunque sin sin dejar dej ar la menor duda sobre sob re el carác ca rácter ter irreversible irreversible de d e su promoción a Augus ugusto to.. Todavía en ese año de 360 Juliano reforzó su prestigio en la Galia, realizando una nueva campaña al otro lado del Rin contra los francos y alamanes, tal vez incitados a la guerra g uerra por p or Constancio. Constancio. Al Al tiempo que qu e fortifi fortificó có y restauró el antiguo limes. En todo caso la negativa de Constancio a admitir la promoción autónom autónomaa de Julian Julianoo como coleg co legaa suyo suyo decidió a éste ést e a marchar a Oriente para zanjar por las armas el contencioso. Pero cuando Juliano se encontraba en Naiso (Nish) recibió la noticia de la repentina muerte mue rte de su tío tío en Tars Tarso. o. Mientras tant tantoo, Juliano Juliano había h abía conseguido, la adhesión de numerosos medios occidentales, entre ellos la aristocracia senatorial romana, en un principio dubitativa, y de las provincias balcánicas. Sin em emba bargo rgo Juliano Juliano difu difund ndió ió de inmediato inmediato la noticia noticia,, cier ci erta ta o no no, de que Cons Co ns-tancio en su lecho de muerte le había designado sucesor. De esta manera legitimó su poder y no obstante la furibunda propaganda contra Constancio de un momento antes, antes, honró la la memoria de d e su antecesor, antece sor, ganándose ganánd ose así la la
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Esto obliga a indagar en primer lugar lugar sobre cuáles eran la creencias creen cias relireligiosas del nue nuevo vo emperador, determinadas en gran medida medid a por la formación intelectual intelectual recib rec ibida ida en su juventud juventud (vid, supra, 85). La abundante y muy interesante obra literaria del propio propio Julia Juliano no permite ya percibir percib ir el trasfon trasfondo do heléhe lénico de su formación cultural. De Porfirio (c. 234301/305) y Yámblico (c. (c. 250330) tomó posiblemente la peligrosa ecuación reduccionista de helenismo igual a paganismo. Para Juliano la antigua literatura helénica, por spues to pagana, era la fuente principal de la cultura, siendo imposible separar su belleza formal de su contenido ideológicoreligioso. Todo lo contrario de lo que preconizaban preconiz aban los intelectuales intelectuales cristianos como Arnobio Arnobio,, Lactancio Lactancio o GreG regorio de Nacianzo, Sin embargo, la realidad era que su helenismo era muy particular, denotando tando claramente claramen te la inflexión irracional y simbolizante de d e su siglo. siglo. La filosofía helénica se reducía para él a Pitágoras, Platón y sobre todo, a Yámblico y sus discípulos. De tal forma que Juliano, filósofo hasta en el atuendo físico, era un hombre religio reli gioso so m ejo ej o r aún, supersticioso, propenso al mistic misticism ismo, o, a la teurgia y a las prácticas prác ticas adiv adivin inat ator orias ias.. Por Por eso detesta dete staba ba por igual igual a los pagapaga nos agnósticos, como los cínicos, y a los cristianos, a los que en cierta manera considera consi dera ateos. Jul Julian ian juventud juventud había hab ía recibi rec ibido do importan-
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más numerosos. Juli Juliano ano restauró restauró templos destruidos por po r Constanti Constantino no (Egea (Eg eass en Cilicia) y, sobre todo, pretendió levantar el antiguo templo de Jerusalén. Y esto, esto, no tan tanto to por afecto hacia los judío judíos, s, a los que q ue más m ás bien despr de spreciab eciaba, a, como por renovar el antiguo Judaismo sacrificial, sólo posible en el templo, y contradecir así a los Evangelios cristianos. Pero la oposición, por múltiples razone razones, s, del judaism judaismoo rabínico rabínico sinagogal y ciertos hechos hecho s terremotos, sabo sa bo-tajes, e t c , que pudie pudieron ron ser se r interpret interpretados ados como sobrenaturales sobrenaturales (Ami (Amiaano Marceli Marcelino, no, 23, 1,3) 1, 3),, abligaron al abandono del proyecto al poco po co de d e com enzar, inmediatamente antes de su partida para la guerra pérsica. Julia Juliano no no se conten contentó tó con la restaur restauració aciónn de cultos cultos y templ templos, os, sino sino que, que, conscon sciente de las circunstancias materiales de la rápida expansión del cristianismo y de las exigencia ex igenciass de su propia propia reli religios giosidad idad,, se propuso propuso la tarea urgente de organizar organizar una una espe es pecie cie de antiIgle antiIglesia sia pagana, capaz capa z de atraer nue nuevos vos prosélitos. tos. Trat Tratóó así de reorganizar reorganizar el clero pagano pag ano con criterios crite rios unificador unificadores es y jerá je rárrquicos, quicos, en gran medida copiados cop iados de la Iglesia. Iglesia. Y a tal tal efecto instauró instauró en cada cad a provin provincia cia una una espec esp ecie ie de archisacerdotes paganos, reivind reivindica icand ndoo para sí, sí, ca c abeza de la nueva Iglesia pagana, el venerable título de pontífice máximo. Al clero pagano le concedió también privilegios fiscales e in inte tent ntóó fomentar fomentar en él é l las las dos virtudes que más consideraba y envidiaba en el cristianismo: la pureza de
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sas tendencias teológicas teológica s contra contra el enemigo común común.. Pese P ese a las recompensas recomp ensas ofrecidas ofrecidas por el Empera Emperador, dor, las apostasias apostasias de líderes cristianos cristianos debieron d ebieron ser s er escasa esc asas. s. Y en Siria el ejército ejércit o y la población de Anti Antioq oqui uia, a, en e n su mayor mayor parte cristianos, cristianos, le mostraron cada cad a vez más su hostil hostilidad idad.. En esta est a última última ciudad se se ganó la hostilidad de las clases acomodadas, de amplia cultura helénica, y del pueblo bajo, enfurecido por las muestras de impiedad cristiana del Emperador, no obstante que Juliano quiso favorecerla en perjuicio de la Constantinopla cristiana, añadiendo nuevos curiales ricos, vendiendo trigo a bajo precio y promulgando una tarifa de máximos en tiempos de escasez. Al final, Antioquia vivió en un ambiente de exaltación de la odiada figura de Constancio II, que el propio Juliano reconocería en su amargo panfleto titulado Mis M isop opog ogon on o “El que odia al hombre de la barba”, en vísperas de partir para la guerra. En este clima de cre crecie ciente ntess dificultades dificultades e impotencia, impotencia, Julian Julianoo fue pasando de una una actitu actitud d liberal a medidas cada cad a vez más claramente represivas para con co n el criscr istianismo. Un paso decisivo en este sentido fue su constitución del 17 de junio del 362, en virtu virtud d de la cual se prohibía a los cristianos cristianos la enseñanza enseñanz a de d e la gramática y de la retórica, retórica, pretextando el e l contenido pagano de los lo s libros de texto texto.. Era un durísimo durísimo golpe gol pe a largo plazo para para la Iglesia, cuya injustic injusticia ia afirmaría resueltamente resuelt amente Gregorio Nacianceno Nacianceno (Oratio, 4, 5), pues pu es implicaba implica ba la marginación de los cristia-
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Juliano s e m ostró os tró intere int eresa sado do en llenar lle nar los pues pu esto toss de la administ adm inistraci ración ón central y territor territorial, ial, y no no solamente los superiores, con paganos pagano s notables notab les por su cultura. Hacia el 362 decretó la incompatibilidad del cristianismo con cualquier puesto puesto en ambas militiae. Una orden que se cumplimentó en la civil, pero apenas en la administración militar. En todo caso es innegable que, en contraste con Constantino, el reinado de Juliano significó un paso adelante en la ocupación de puestos de d e gobierno, sobre so bre todo en la admin administr istraci ación ón territorial rial occidental, por p or parte pa rte de la aristocracia aristocra cia senatorial roman romana. a. El mismo JuliaJuliano dictó otras medidas favorables para los senadores, tanto de tipo judicial como fisca fiscal,l, tratand tratandoo especialmen especia lmente te de atraerse el favo favorr del Senado de ConsCons tantinopla, cuyos miembros habían sido implicados por Constancio en la maquinaria administrativa del Oriente. Más positiva y coherente parece su política para con las ciudades. Intentó restablecer en ellas las finanzas urbanas y decurionales, restituyéndoles sus antiguos patrimonios y dispensando a los curiales de las contribuciones de oro y plata. Con malévola complacencia reintegró a los clérigos cristianos a sus antiguas curias, permitiendo también la inserción en ellas de los plebeyos ricos. Por el contrario, quedarían exentos de las cargas municipales los sacerdotes paganos, los veteranos, los palatinos, los médicos y ¡los
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el parecer de sus íntimos consejeros paganos, se lanzó así a una aventura bélic bé licaa de d e dudoso resu resultad ltado; o; a ella ella también le empujaba em pujaba su megalomanía de quererse emparejar con Alejandro Magno, el gran héroe del helenismo. Para terminar con la guerra de posiciones y desgaste que se suponía benefic ben eficiab iabaa a los Persas Persas a la larga (vid supra, 88)Juliano contaba con la alianza del rey armenio Arsaces. La intención última de la magna expedición de 65.000 hombres que logró reunir el emperador romano parecía ser la instalación en el trono trono pers pe rsaa del de l príncipe Hormisda Hormisdas, s, hermano de Sapor Sapo r II que había hab ía huido huido al Imperio romano romano en e n el 324. 3 24. Los testimonios testimonios de Zósimo Zósimo y Amia Amia no, principalmente, permiten una reconstrucción bastante precisa de la marcha del ejército romano, iniciada en marzo del 363. Una gran victoria lograda cer c erca ca de Seleucia Seleu cia del Tigris permitió permitió a Jul Julian ianoo alcanzar la capital capital sasánida, sasánida,
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El imperio bajo la Dinastía vale va len ntin tinian ia na (363-383)
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Salutio, Era éste un civil bien visto en los ambientes militares y espirituales próximos al fallecido Juliano. Sin duda se trataba de una opción de compromiso destinada a ganar tiempo, por lo que Salutio optó prudentemente por rechaza rech azarr el ofrecim ofrecimien iento. to. Entonces En tonces fue fue elegido eleg ido el panonio panonio Jovian Joviano, o, jefe je fe de los domésticos, ciertamente a inciativa de sus inflyentes compañeros, los oficiales ilirios. Joviano organizó con co n rapide rap idezz la retirada retirad a del ejérc ejé rcit itoo d e Persia. Para ello concluyó una paz con los persa pe rsass por p or treint treintaa años en condiciones cond iciones muy muy fav favoorables rable s para éstos. El romano romano abandonaba abando naba las ganancias territoriales de d e Dio Dio cleciano y la Mesopotamia conquistada por Septimio Severo en el 199, que incluía incluía las importantes plazas p lazas fuertes fuerte s de d e Nísibe (N (Nisi isibin bin)) y Singara Singa ra (Sindjar) (Sindjar).. S e cedía, cedía , en fin fin, la mitad mitad de Armenia y se pag p agab abaa un fuerte tribu tributo. to.
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bién una una serie de medidas m edidas de gobierno. En materia religio religioía ía se acordó a cordó la con ciencia, medida apaciguadora apaciguado ra tras tras la la r e a c c i ó n cristiana de l i b e r t a d de conciencia, Joviano, Joviano, En lo tocan to cante te a la fiscalidad, s e proc pr ocla lam m ó el prin p rincip cipi:i: de que qu e nadie debe de bería ría quedar fuera fuera del régimen impositi impositivo vo general. I n d u d a b l e m e n t e el Estado Estado necesita nec esitaba ba medios m edios para recon reconsti stitui tuirr el ejército, y pe' sus oríge nes sociales los emperadores no tenían por qué sentirse solidarios de los senadores de nacimiento. Estas mismas necesidades militares determinaron a su vez que se tomaran tomaran las contradictorias contradictorias medi m edida dass de d e reforzar refo rzar e' e'. principio principio de d e la herencia de los status socioprofesionales y d e adjudicar a la la burocracia burocra cia de los gobernadores provinciales la tarea de recaudar el impuesto fundiario, liberando así a los curiales cur iales de una funció funciónn muchas vec v eces es imposib imposible le de cumplir plir ante ante las resistencias resis tencias de los poderosos.
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Tan Tan pronto pronto como co mo pudo verse ve rse libre de d e usurpadores, Valente Valente tuvo tuvo que ocu parse pars e de d e los serio se rioss problemas problema s existentes en la fron fronte tera ra balcánica, balcáni ca, agravados como consecu con secuenc encia ia de la guerra de Proco Procopi pio. o. Aqu Aquíí las penetraciones penetracion es y rapiñas godas (Terv (Tervin ingio gios) s) habían habían comenzado en el año año 364, para hacer ha cerse se esp es p ecialmente cialmen te peligros pelig rosas as al año año siguiente. siguiente. Entre el 367 y el 369 36 9 Valente, Valente, instalado instalado en Marcianópolis Marcianópolis (actual (actual Pra Prava vadi) di),, realizó tres grandes gra ndes campañas cam pañas de castigo, que obligaron a los godos godo s a pedir la paz sobre so bre la b ase as e de no volve volverr a cruzar el Danub Danubio io y ejerc eje rcer er el comercio com ercio con el e l Imperi Imperioo solamente a travé travéss de d e dos lugares. Todo lo cual significaba el fin del acuerdo de federación conseguido por Constantino en el año 332 (vid. supra, 60). A partir de entonces los godos tervingios, agolpados sobre la frontera danubiana, se convertían en potenciales enemigos.
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ju e c e s en caus ca usas as m enor en ores es surgidas surg idas en sus pro p ropie pieda dades des.. Com Co m enza en zaba ba así el camino hacia la autopragia o inmunidad inmunidades es bizanti bizantinas nas y feudales. E n fe, acen ac en-tuó tuó también la sujeción de los mineros y los curiales a sus oficios respecti respectivos. vos. Hombre rudo, rudo, Valente tenía un un gran temor a la la magia. En el 3 7 0 proh prohibi ibióó el estudio de la ciencia de los mathematici, que incluía incluía principalmen princi palmente te a astrónomos y astrólogos. Tal prohibición fue el instrumento de una terrible per-
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Adrian Adrianopol opolis is (actual (actual Edirne) Edirne) la carga carg a de la poderosa poderos a caballería caballe ría gótica transformó una batalla, hasta entonces indecisa, en una completa catástrofe para el Imperio, en la que sucumbió el propio Valente con los dos tercios de su ejército. Afortunadamente para Roma, las fortificaciones de Constantinopla salvaron salvaron por prime pr imera ra vez en su historia historia a la ciudad de lo que, de otra otra forma forma,,
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dor romano Símaco. Desde estas líneas, entre los años 372 y 374, lanzó un gran ataque contra los alamanes del rey Macriano, establecidos enfrente de Maguncia. Pero, al final, presionado por dificultades en Panonia, llegó a un acuerdo de paz con los alamanes de Macriano. En virtud del mismo éstos se comprometían a no realizar nuevas incursiones en territorio romano a cambio de la entrega de subsidios.
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lia de tradició tradiciónn burocrática, burocrática, descrito con los peores peor es colores colore s por Amiano Amiano MarMarcelino. Maximino ocupó la Prefectura de las Galias entre el 371 y el 376. Recordando a sus antepasados ilirios del siglo III, Valentiniano mostró en su legislación cierta comprensión por los humildes y recelo hacia los poderosos, temeroso de que éstos socavasen los fundamentos del Estado unitario
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desataron desata ron una nueva espiral inflacion inflacionista ista de la l a moneda mone da fracciona fra ccionaria ria de d e vellón vellón,, cada vez más abandonada a su suerte. Los efectos de este est e diversif diversifica icado do proceso ces o se hicieron hicieron visibles en la centuria sigui siguiente, ente, pero la contribución de Valentiniano fue decisiva, En definitiva, el objetivo último de la política interna de Valentiniano fue el
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nos centros y regiones pa rec recen en destacar des tacar por p or una una producción producción mayo mayorr y conc e n t r a d a : elNórico, como consecuen cons ecuencia cia de sus impo importan rtantes tes veneros férricos; férricos; todas las provincias danubianas; Cilicia y Antioq Antioquía uía.. La constru cons trucció cciónn naval naval se encontraba, por el contrario, más concentrada, obedeciendo en su localizade l gran come co mercio rcio maríti marítimo mo,, Por Por ello ello,, los principaprinci pac i ó n a la mayor densidad del les arsenales se encontraban en las costas del Mediterráneo oriental, destacando los situados en Chipre (figura 8.1). Junto con co n las activ ac tivid idad ades es constr con struct uctiva ivass y la ce cerá rám m ica, ic a, la arte ar tesa saní níaa textil text il debía deb ía ser s er la otra otra rama privilegiada privilegiada del secto se ctorr secundario. secundario. Como en tiempos anteriore anteriores, s, en la artesanía textil textil d e lana lana y lin linoo, principa pri ncipalme lmente nte se s e observa obs erva una gran especialización del trabajo entre artesanos diferentes. Este hecho, junto junto con co n su no fragilidad fragilidad y es e s caso ca so peso, pes o, favorecían una una mayor concentr co ncentración ación de la producción textil textil y unas rede re dess de distribución distribución más complejas comp lejas y ampl amplia ias, s, sobre todo para ciertos tejidos de lujo. Las telas de púrpura eran controladas en su fabricación fabricació n y distribució distribuciónn por el Estado, Estado, que contaba contab a con c on factorías propias a tal efecto, efecto, como era la situada en las islas Baleares. Y otro otro tanto tanto ocurría con la comercialización de los tejidos de seda, en su totalidad importados. Los centros textiles más importantes se localizaban también en Oriente: Laodicea de Frigia, Tarso de Cilicia, Corico (actual Korghoz), Alejandría de Egipto, y las principales ciudades c iudades de la costa fenicia. fenicia. En estos centros existía con frecuencia una multitud de pequeños artesanos trabajando por cuenta de comerciantes al por mayor, que les garantizaban trabajo, ofrecían la materia prima y organizaban la producción, producción, obteniendo para ellos el máximo de b eneen eficio en su distribución. Para terminar este in inve vent ntari arioo habría que hablar ha blar de d e dos producciones produ cciones minominoritarias pero que, por ser de lujo, ofrecían un máximo radio geográfico de distribución y procuraban amplias a mplias ganancias: la l a vidriería vidrierí a y la orfebrería. En el Bajo Imperio se testimonia testimonia la existencia exist encia de importantes talleres talleres de d e vidrios en e n Italia Italia y en la región renana renana.. Sin embargo, la producción mayor mayor seguía procediend pro cediendoo de los grandes gr andes centros orientales orient ales de d e Fenicia, Siria y Pales Palestina tina,, junto junto con co n Alejandr Alejandría, ía, que imponía imponía sus gustos y sus productos de d e lujo lujo.. Los vidrie vidrieros, ros, exentos ex entos de deterdet erminadas minadas cargas carga s fiscales, fiscales, eran, eran, jun junto to con los orfebres, artesanos artes anos de un cierto potencial potencial económico. económico. Frecuentemente Frecuentemente la activi actividad dad de banquero ban quero s e combinaba combinab a con la de orfebre. orfebre. En la orfebrería orfe brería existían existían importantes talleres talleres de propiedad propiedad estatal, en Constantinopla, Sirmio (Mitrovitza), Nish o Tesalónica, dispuestos a subven subvenir ir a las necesida nece sidades des de las larguezas larguezas imperiale imperiales. s. Además se observ ob servaa una una importante importante actividad actividad de orfebrería orfeb rería en Siria, Siria, Alejand Alejandría, ría, Roma y Cartago. Carta go. En el trabajo de la plata destacaban los centros occidentales. En su conjunto la producción artesanal no parece haber sufrido retroce-
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) r o t u a : a i c n e d e c o r p ( s i b r o s u i t e t o i t p i r c s e D
a l n ú g e s v i o l g i s l e d
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s e l a n i f a o n a m o R o i r e p m I l E . 1 . 8 a r u g i F
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incluso de que se registra algún progreso tecnológico, principalmente en relación con la fuerza hidráulica, conocida de antiguo pero hasta entonces poco utilizada. El siglo IV vería así la difu difusió siónn de molinos molinos de d e agua y serr s errerí erías as movimovidas por la fuerza del agua. Otras innovaciones tecnológicas serían la utilización de sierras de grandes dimensiones en el trabajo de cantería, y la máquina de peda p edall para introdu introducir cir moti motivo voss decorativos durante el pro p roces cesoo del tejido. tejido. Por el contrario, no parecen haberse realizado mejoras en la organización y estructu estructura ra int interna erna de la la empresa empres a artesana. Con exce e xcepc pción ión de unas unas pocas grandes factorías imperiales (fabricae) lo predominan predominante te era el e l pequeño pequ eño taller artesano, artesano, donde trab t rabajab ajabaa un patron patronoo ayudad ayudadoo por algunos algunos aprendic apr endices es y unos unos pocos esclavos, menos frecuentes que antes y con un estatuto muy cercano al de los jornaleros jornale ros libres. Más raramente existía otro otro artesano asalariado. asalariado. En general estos pequeños artesanos libres no eran dueños de sus propios talleres, que alquilaban a otros más fuertes. Con frecuencia los artesanos vendían directamente sus propios productos, muchas veces fabricados por encargo. Sin embargo, este individualismo se veía contrarrestado por otra tendencia característica de la época: la existencia tencia de las^ôrpôràcio las^ô rpôràciones nes profesi profesionale onaless (collegia). El Estado, por claras motivaciones fiscales, había forzado el tradicional régimen asociativo romano, introduci introduciend endoo medidas coercitivas coercitivas que aseguras aseg urasen en su estabilidad en ben b eneeficio de los intereses estatales. Precisamente en razón del mayor o menor intervenc intervencionism ionismoo del Estado se s e puede pu ede esta es tabb lecer lec er una clasificación clasificación tripar tripartit titaa de los colegio co legioss o asociacion aso ciaciones es profesionales en el siglo siglo rv: a) Las que reunían reunían a los artesan art esanos os de d e las las factorías imperiales. b ) La que agrup a grupaban aban a los artesano artes anoss u otros otros profesionales profesion ales que, a guisa guisa
de impuestos, se comprometían a entregar al Estado una determinada porción porción de su producción o de sus servicios, Aquellas otras otras más libres que perte pe rtene necen cen a actividad actividades es de interés marc) Aquellas ginal ginal para el e l Estado Estado,, aunque ocasionalmente éste és te pudiese pud iese interven intervenirlas irlas.. Los Los primeros estaban estab an compuestos comp uestos por los trabajadores de las minas minas y de las canteras, y por los obreros de ciertos talleres (fabricae) estatales, de armas, de tejido tejidoss brocado bro cadoss (barbaricarii), de lino (lyniphia) o de lana (gynecaeia)-, de moneda u otros objetos de orfebrería, y de papiro. Todos estos trabajadores más que colegiados eran considerados corporati, existiendo entre ellos verdaderos esclavos. Pero todos ellos estaban esta ban unidos a su trabajo por po r un vínvínculo culo de por vida y hered hereditari itario, o, y también también estaba e stabann bloqueada bloqu eadass sus propiedades, como co mo en el caso cas o de d e los decuriones. El segundo grupo lo cons constit tituí uían an aqueaqu e-
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venía venía siendo tradicional tradicional desd de sdee hacía tiempo: la vincula vinculación ción vitalic vitalicia ia y hereher editari ditariaa de tales profesionales a su ofi ofici cio, o, el bloqueo bloq ueo de sus capitales indisolublemente unidos a sus funciones, y la obligación de realizar una determinada cuantía de servicios o entregar gratuitamente al Estado un cierto número de productos, Pero, fuera de estas cuotas, el Estado permitía a estos profesionales la venta libre, o a un precio de tasa (panis fiscalis), de sus servicios o bienes. bien es. Conviene señalar que este tipo de sujeción s ujeción se s e testimonia testimonia sin sin lugar a dudas para la ciudad de Rom Roma, a, cuya'más estricta es tricta y precis pre cisaa reglamentación reglamenta ción se habría debido a Valentiniano I. Sin embargo es dudoso que el régimen haya sido aplicado en Constantinopla o en las otras grandes metrópolis orientales, tales, signo de una mayor mayor riqueza y prosperid pros peridad ad del Oriente, Oriente, que hacía h acía innecesari ces arias as tales medidas compu compulsi lsiva vas. s. El resto resto de artesanos y comerciantes se s e agrupaba, por lo general, general, en asoas ociaciones profesionales, completamente libres de obligaciones para con el Estado Estado.. Se organizaban organizaban por lugares y ramos ramos,, y la pertene per tenencia ncia no era oblig o bligaatoria. La principal función de este tipo de colegios libres era la de repartir y recaudar los impuestos impuestos y cargas estatales y municipale municipaless entre todos sus asoaso ciados, así como fijar las condiciones de trabajo y el precio de sus servicios o bienes. Para esta última función los colegios actuaban como interlocutores de las autoridades estatales o municipales y mediante amenazas de huelga o de abandono de su ciudad, tendían claramente al establecimiento de monopolios que a duras penas lograría reprimir el Estado. También en este aspecto las asocia a sociacione cioness orientales orientales demostraron una una mayo mayorr capacid cap acidad ad de d e influen influen-cia en la administrac administración ión pública. pública. El ni nive vell de vida vida de estos artesanos y comerciantes era muy muy variable, como demuestra demuestra un una encuesta realizad realizadaa sobre sob re la documentación documentación de las necróp necr ópoolis de Tir Tiroo. Se daban desde des de patronos patronos cap aces ac es de costears co stearsee tumbas monumonumentales hasta otros que se tenían que contentar con enterramientos anónimos y colectivos en pobres cuevas. En todo caso se nota una puntillosa distinción distinción entre patronos patronos,, asalariados asalaria dos y esclavos. En con conju junto nto,, no pare pa rece ce que constituyesen en ninguna ciudad el sector más importante de la población. Prevalecía en ésta la plebe urbana, gentes por lo general miserables y con un nivel nivel de vida vida muy muy cercano a la mera subsistencia. La ciudad ciudad se s e encontraba dominada por los grandes propietarios fundiarios del lugar. Porque Porque la verdad es que el signo signo de d e los tiempos fue fue el establecimie estab lecimiento nto del control cada vez más estrecho de estas aristocracias sobre los artesanos y profesionales, entrando para ello en una competencia directa con el Estado. Dueños del capital circulante, las aristocracias fundiarias dominaban a artesanos y comerciantes mediante mediante la usura y directamente o por intermediarios,
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verdaderos capitalistas que solían invertir sus ganancias en tierras. Pero, sobre todo, esta aristocracia fundiaria, merced a la gran producción de sus fincas, dominaba el mercado de bienes agrícolas. El testimonio de Libanio prueba la existencia en Antioquía de fuertes lazos de dependencia y patronato entre los pequeñ peq ueños os comerciantes comercian tes y la aristocracia ar istocracia fun fundiar diaria ia,, interesados interesado s unos y otros otros en fijar precios altos para sus productos. Por su parte, la creciente presión fiscal y el escas es casoo poder p oder adqu adquis isit itiv ivoo de la mísera mísera plebe pleb e urbana habrían habrían aca a caba ba-do, sobre todo en Occidente, por desviar una buena parte de la actividad de los artesanos y pequeño s comerciantes comerciantes hacia el campo, campo, donde encontraban encontraban un mercado mercad o protegido de los emb e mbates ates del fisco fisco por la supremacía de la aristocracia local. Esta, por su parte, veía aproximarse el mercado para su producción y unas unas condiciones con diciones de vida favorables favorables a la estabilidad estabilidad de d e su cam c am-pesinado dependiente. Así, la multiplicación de ferias semanales y de artesanos itinera itinerante ntess por las grandes propiedades propied ades y aldeas contribuía a la decade deca denci nciaa económica de las ciudades y al afianzamiento de la dominación de la aristocracia fundiaria. De nuevo este proceso se iniciaría antes en Occidente y vería su plena coronación en la centuria siguiente. 8.11. 8.1 1. Movili Movilidad dad y conflicti conflictividad vidad social
La descripción que acabam os de hacer hac er de la estr estruct uctura ura socioeconóm ica del siglo IV ha mostrado mostrado las tensiones que conten contenía, ía, engendra enge ndradas das por po r la mut mutua ua contradicción de los tres principales factores concurrentes en la dinámica socioeconómica: el Estado, la aristocracia fundiaria y los humildes. Hemos podido podido también también observar obs ervar cómo una una gran gran parte de la dinámi dinámica ca socioec soc ioeconó onó-mica del siglo iv iv se encuentra encuentra dominad dominadaa por el desesp des esperad eradoo esfuerzo del Estado por asegurarse unos ingresos fiscales regulares y elevados. Estos objetivos prioritarios del Estado condujeron a la creación, desde el poder, de un imperfecto sistema de castas, con sujeción hereditaria de ciertos grupos sociales socia les a su fun funci ción ón económica económ ica respectiva. respectiva. Pero Pero también pudimos pudimos observ ob servar ar que el Estado no alcanzó sus objetivos. La multipli multiplicid cidad ad de las leyes sob s obre re la fijeza de los estamentos y profesiones es la mejor prueba de su ineficacia. La corrupción administrativa y solidaridades familiares o de grupo acabaron creando numerosos portill portillos os por donde esca e scapa parr del estatismo asfix asfixia iant nte. e. En efecto, contamos con datos que parecen indicar, en el siglo IV, una mayor mayor movili movilidad dad social soc ial con co n respect res pectoo a periodos perio dos anteriores, anteriores, El serv servic icio io é n l a burocracia o en el ejército ofrecía amplias posibilidades de promoción para las personas perso nas audaces y cualifica cualificadas. das. Pero también también es e s verdad que q ue esta movimovi-
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la vía más fácil, se fue degradando y_por último, se cerraría del todo a principios del siglo V la entrada en el ejército a los colonos adscritos. En el proceso ce so de degradación degrada ción del nivel nivel de vida vida y del estatu estatuto to jurídico jurídico de los humilio primordiales.in tereses de d e un Estado cada c ada vez más má s débil tuvi tuviero eronn que res, los primordiales.intereses busca bu scarr su acomodo acom odo con los de la gran aristocracia aristo cracia fun fundiar diaria ia¿¿ de cuya cuya lealtad lealtad acabar aca baría ía dependiendo dependiend o la suerte suer te del Imperio en las centurias inmedi inmediata atas. s. Sometidos así a una una doble dob le presión del Estado y de los poderosos, no puede extrañar que entre las masas numerosísimas de campesinos dependientes hiciesen h iciesen su aparición brotes de rebeldía, más o menos organi organizada zada y más o menos violenta. Tkl desafección desafe cción tendría tendría sus manifestaciones manifestaciones más pasivas en el abandono del medio social soci al normal por aquellos sujetos que se s e consideraban considerab an sometidos a una una máxima presión. En el siglo iv aum aumentó entó,, el fenómeno fenóm eno tradicio tra dicional nal en algunas regiones de Oriente y, sobre todo, en Egipto de la anachoresis (huida de la aldea), ligado a los decrecientes rendimientos agrícolas y a la proliferación de los agri agri des erti a lo que ya nos referimos con anterioridad. Sin embargo, este ^fen ^fenóm ómen enoo tradicional tradicional adquirió adquirió formulaciones religiosas reli giosas en tierras ti erras donde el cris cr is-tianismo había hecho amplios adeptos entre los campesinos. De tal forma que la huida de esos anacoretas entre los campesinos sedentarios y los beduinos del desierto desiert o a las regiones lim limítr ítrof ofes es se encontrase encontr ase relacionada con la aparición aparición en Egipto y Siria del d el monaquisino y el eremitismo eremitismo (vid. mira, 167 y ss.). En otras ocasiones se asistir asistiría ía a la la momentánea momentánea agrupación agrupación de campesinos desarraigados bajo el liderazgo liderazgo de un san santó tónn, pudiendo pudiendo merodear merodea r en los bordes bord es del desierdesie rto sirio sirio duran durante te los mese me sess de menor m enor actividad actividad agrícola. Otras Otras formas de desconten des contento to podían tomar un tinte tinte más má s violento y activ activo. o. La legislación del siglo IV es abundante en recordar las graves penas contra el esclavo fugitivo y los que se atrevieran a ayudarle y ocultarle. Estas prohibiciones y castigos fueron extendidos a la amplia categoría del campesinado dependiente, a los colonos cada vez más sujetos a su tierra y trabajo. En las zonas fronterizas no debía ser nada infrecuente que estos fugitivos huyesen al cercano mund mundoo bárbaro, bárba ro, como señala seña la una ley de Constan Constantin tinoo y Lic Licmi mioo (C od ex Just Justin iniiani ani, 6, 1, 3) y sería algo generalizado en Occidente en la cen-
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obedecían exclusivamente a los miembros jerarquizados de dicha Iglesia, los llamados “jefes de los santos”. En su inmensa mayoría estos circuncelio nes serían com c om o indica, indica, al parecer, su nom no m bre br e pobre po bress jornaleros agrícolas q u e , en la época de la cosecha, iban de granja en granja, y de granero en g r a n e r o . Pero, de los escritos de Optato y Agustín se deduce que en sus acciones violentas, de bandidaje, estos circunceliones atacaban el orden social establecido, pues procedían a romper los títulos de las deudas y a perseguir a los ricos acreedores. A agudizar el problema contribuiría también la presión sión de de las las poblaciones ber b eréb éber eres es de nómadas nómadas de los los bordes del desierto desierto sahariano, que presentaban un peligro para la agricultura sedentaria africana en manos de una poderosa aristocracia fundiaria. 8.12. 8.1 2. El patrocinio patrocinio
Pero la oposición de los humildes al sistema no siempre se manifestaba en una explosión violenta violenta contra los ricos ric os y poderoso pode rosos. s. Más inquietante inquietante para el futuro del Estado imperial sería la aparición de una alianza de mutuo interés entre los humildes y los poderosos frente al Estado, representado principalmente en sus exigencias tributarias. Este significado tuvo la institución del patrocinio, considerado tradicionalmente como uno de los fermentos del posterior orden feudal y señorial, al interponerse entre el Estado y los súbditos el poder del patrono. En el Bajo Imperio se dieron dos tipos distintos de relaciones de patrocinio: una era la llamada clientela campesina (clientela rusti corum) o patrocinio de los po p o t en tes te s , y la otr otraa se conoce con oce bajo el nombre de patrocinio aldeano (patrocinium vicorum). En virtu virtud d del primer tipo tipo de patrocini patrocinioo numerosos campesin cam pesinos os libres se ponían bajo ba jo el patronat patronatoo o protección prote cción de d e un gran gran propietario, propietario, al encontrarse encontrars e abrumados por la presión fiscal, la corrupción de los funcionarios, la situación de inseguridad reinante, pero también, y cada vez con más frecuencia, por instigación de los l os mismos mismo s futur futuros os patronos. patronos. Según Seg ún la nueva relación relació n entre ambos, el patrono se comprometía a defender a su cliente contra terceros, a cambio de lo cual cual éste le entregab e ntregab eña propiedad agrícola, agrícola, para
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de patronato patronato se documenta, en particular, particular, en Asia Menor y en la región de de Antioquia. Libanio, en su famoso discurso So bre br e los patroc patrocini inios, os, nos ha dejado un cuadro especialmente sombrío de este tipo de patrocinio, por lo que significaba de marginación y perjuicio para el predominio tradicional ejercido sobre tales aldeas por la oligarquía de Antioquia, a la que él mismo pertenecía. Pero dado el estado de fluidez social de estas aldeas sirias es posible que la figura de tales hombres fuertes, respetados por todos, fuese necesaria y benéfica, como reconoce el propio Libanio (Orationes, 47, 19). Es más, estos aldeanos sirios parece que sabían beneficiarse de las posibles rivalid rivalidades ades entre los los poderoso pode rososs que competían por asegurar as egurarse se el patr patroc ocini inioo sobre sob re ello ellos. s. El verdadero peligro para el Estado y para los aldeanos residía en que la figura figura del patrono patrono y del de l principal propietario del lugar coincidieran coin cidieran en e n la misma persona. En ese caso la simiente del sistema señorial estaba ya puesta; como en su día dijo Marc Bloch “la sombra del señorsoldado empezaba a proyectarse proyectarse sobre sobr e las aldeas". aldea s". Por Por todo ello ello los emperadore em peradores, s, desde des de la segunda mitad del siglo, prohibieron tajantemente ambos tipos de patrocinio. Sin embargo emb argo la misma misma reiteración en las prohibiciones pro hibiciones demuestra la la impotencia impotencia del poder pode r imperial imperial (vid. supra, 129). Cuando a lo largo del siglo V la debilidad del pode po derr central central se hiciera hiciera paten patente, te, el patroc patrocini inioo de d e los poderosos poderoso s sería plenamente reconocido en las nuevas realidades de los Estados romanoger mánicos de Occidente.
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La civilización dei Imperio Cristiano del siglo iv
Como es natural, las realizaciones culturales de este siglo IV se encuentran profundamente enraizadas en el proceso de transformación de la civilización grecorromana iniciada en la centuria precedente. Pero considerar a la civilización del Imperio Cristiano como una mera heredera y continuadora de la anterior sería una visión parcial. Las diferencias con el siglo ill residen, fundamentalmente, en la estabilización del Imperio, aunque fuera a la defensiva, defensiva, en la existenc exis tencia ia de una relati relativa va movilidad movilidad social soc ial y en el indiscutiindiscutible triunfo del Cristianismo. Es teniendo en cuenta estos factores como es posible realizar una perio dización de la evolución cultural del siglo IV. Si la centuria comenzaba con unos tiempos todavía muy vinculados al periodo de crisis precedente, con sus típicos elementos culturales ambivalentes, su final estaba marcado por los Theodosiana tempora. tempora. En estos últimos decenios del siglo se anuncia en el terreno cultural, junto a la plena consolidación del Imperio Cristiano, el comienzo de d e la desintegración de los elementos elemento s cultur cultural ales es clásicos; el inici inicioo
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tian tiana. Ambas fueron causa cau sa funda fundame menta ntall de que se pueda pue da hablar del gran legaleg ado de la Antigüedad clásica a la cultura occidental, hecho de civilización de énorme énorm e trascendencia históric históricaa que comenzó a frag fraguars uarsee en esta es ta cuarta cence nturia. Y ello fue posible porque en esta época los líderes cristianos del mundo romano supieron hacer compatible con la nueva fe la cultura grecorromana clásica, así como las necesida neces idade dess intelectuales intelectuales de los grupos tradicionale tradicionaless que habían sido hasta hasta ese es e moment momentoo los creado cr eadores res y transmisor transmisores es de aquella aquella gran herencia, El siglo IV vería así el pleno triunfo de los ideales de los primeros apologetas cristianos de finales del siglo II. A partir de entonces, el cristianismo fue la máxima garantía de la conservación y transmisión cultural grecorromana. Los intelectuales cristianos del momento estaban plenamente convencidos de que el Dios de los cristianos y su Iglesia habrían de salvar al Imperio y espiritualmente a su civiliz civilizació ación, n, ahora purificada purificada mediante median te su cristianización. Pero hicieron todavía más en este sentido: trabajaron por su extensión dentro y fuera del Imperio, De lo primero hablaremos mas adelante, debido a su extremada importancia (vid. infra, 167 y ss.). En relación al segundo aspecto no puede pue de olvidar olvidarse se que en el siglo siglo IV s e inició inició una verdadera misión cristiana fuera fuera de los límites límites del de l Imperio. Imperio. La cristianización de Armenia y de los visigodos, que marcó la historia y el carácter de ambos pueblos, son el botón de muestra más claro claro de lo que decimos. Técnicamente Técnicam ente el conservaduri conservadurismo smo de la cult cultur uraa de la épo ca se explica por la persistencia del sistema educativo del Alto Imperio, que a su vez lo había heredado heredad o del periodo heleníst helenístico. ico. La pa p a i d e i a para pa ra el mun mundo do de habla latina, humanitas- del siglo IV seguía consistiendo consistiendo en la enseñanza es colar basad ba sadaa en el aprendizaje gramatical gramatical en una una primera etapa y la retórica, retórica, en una una fase superior y decisiva. decisiva. La enseñanza retórica exigía exigí a la atenta atenta lectura lectura e imitación imitación de determinados textos litera literario rios, s, considerados consid erados clásicos clás icos por p or su forma pero también por su contenido doctrinal. En todo caso convendría adaptar algo a las nuevas condiciones del momento histórico por vía de la exé gesis ges is y de d e la interpre interpretación tación simbóli simbólica. ca. Esta enseñanza retórica igualaba en su formación y apetencias culturales tanto a los intelectuales paganos como
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posteridad un poderosísimo instrumento de análisis racional, en una época dominada dominada más bien por los elementos elem entos irracionales irracionales.. En todo caso cas o los intelectuales cristianos adaptaron adaptaron las técn té cnica icass filológicas y los instrumentos instrumentos filosóf filosófiicos a la exégesis de sus textos sagrados y a la disputa y análisis teológicos. Al mismo tiempo que el primer gran poeta cristiano, el hispanorromano Juvenco (c. 330), componía una epopeya cristiana sobre la vida de Cristo según los Evangelios, Evangelios, con la decidida intención de alinearla con con las inmortales obras obra s de Homero Homero y Virg Virgili ilio, o, cuya forma métric mét ricaa en hexámet h exámetros ros seguía, otros otros autores cristianos preferían interpretar la famosa cuarta Bucólica de Virgilio en términos alegóricos de profecía de Cristo. Pero no sólo en lo relativo a la técnica y a la formación cultural coincidían los intelectuales paganos y cristianos del siglo rv, sino también en lo fundamental de su actitud espiritual, de su concepción del fenómeno religioso. Así se explica que el paganismo que Juliano y sus colaboradores quisieron vivificar tuviera abundantes elementos tomados del cristianismo, por no hablar hab lar de la misma teología oficial oficial de la Tetrar Tetrarqu quía ía dioclecian diocl ecianea ea (vid. supra, 30 y 96). Unos y otros intelectuales, bebiendo de la común fuente platónica, estaban esta ban convencidos de d e la posibilidad posibilidad de llegar lleg ar a comprend com prender er lo div divin inoo por medios racionales, dado que Dios se reflejaba en el mundo visible. Unos y otros estaban convencidos de que el aparente carácter caótico y misterioso del Universo sensible podía adquirir plena significación a la luz de lo divino y de que el hombre tenía en su interior un algo inmaterial. Para unos y otros, los mito mitoss y relatos relatos heredados heredad os de los tiempos antig antiguo uos, s, aparentemente incoherentes, podían ser comprendidos solamente como signos de la Divinidad. Para Para paganos paga nos y cristianos, cristianos, sin embargo, esta posibilidad de comprensión del mundo material y del invisible pasaba por un proceso de disciplina y cam-
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estudioso de las “curvas elevadas", base de la posterior geometría proyec tiva, y comentarista de Arquímedes y Hierón. Este mero carácter de comentarista tiene ya Teón de Alejandría (¿40395), estudioso de Euclides y Tolo meo. Una hiia d e éste é ste.. Hipati Hipatiaa (370 (3 704 41SV 1SV cierra cie rra la list lista. a. Su triste fina final, asesi a sesinad nadaa por un fanático cristiano, es el de las Matemáticas antiguas, al tiempo que puede ser indicio de la irresistible tendencia de éstas a mezclarse con las llamadas ciencias cien cias ocultas, ocultas, que q ue seguirían teniendo teniendo un éxito y difu difusió siónn crecien crec ien-tes. En vano los intelectuales y líderes cristianos reaccionaron contra ellas. Las prácticas cristianas del culto a las reliquias, a los mártires y santos contribuyeron indirectamente a integrar y cristianizar tendencias y hábitos ancestrales, trales, fuertemente fuertem ente arraigado arraig adoss en e n la mentalidad mentalidad popular popular.. El resto de las disciplinas científicas vería reducido el ámbito de su cultivo a fines utili utilita taris rista tass o de conservació conse rvaciónn de los conocimientos conocim ientos heredados. hered ados. De ahí la proliferación de los léxicos o diccionarios de realia, las compilaciones de esca es casa sa o nul nulaa originalid originalidad ad teórica, y los comentarios. Así en la Medicina Medicina cuyo máximo representante fue Oribasio de Pérgamo, médico y amigo de Juliano el Apó A pósta stata ta proliferaron los manuales manua les que qu e conc co nced edían ían un gran e s p a cio a la patología y terapia de las principales dolencias. Sin contar con el éxiéxi to de ciertas formas de medicina popular, basada en conocimientos prácticos de tipo botánico, en los que destacó Marcelo de Burdeos (c. 410); o claramente claramente desviada hacia las las ciencias ocul ocultas tas,, como el caso ca so de la llamada llamada “medicina hermética" que hacía abundante uso de remedios tales como "la piedra de la sabiduría” o el "elixir de la vida". Carácter puramente recopilador de conocimientos adquiridos tienen el famoso tratadode Veterinaria de Veq V eqec ecio io,, un cortesa cort esano no de Teodosio I, autor autor también tambi én de un tratado tratado de estraia muy leido; leido; el uaLd ultu d ladi ladi ba do principalmente
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autores autores.. Gracias Gracia s a ellos se s e nos han transm transmitid itidoo fragmentos fragmentos poéticos poétic os de obras o bras perdidas. Como es lógico, la época sentía especial gusto por obras literarias de carác car ácter ter antic anticua uaris rista, ta, de d e valor valor liter literario ario mediocre medio cre y originalid originalidad ad escasa, esca sa, pero de gran importancia para la historia de la cultura, por transmitirnos noticias sobre sob re hechos hech os institu institucio cional nales es y cultu cultural rales, es, por lo general genera l religiosos religiosos,, del pasa pa sa-do remoto de Roma, Tal carácter tiene la obra poética de Rufo Festo Avieno y de Macrobio. Este Est e últi últim mo estuvo estuvo relacionado relaciona do con co n un posib po sible le renacimiento pagano en los medios senatoriales de Roma hacia el Cuatroc Cuatrocien ientos. tos. La enseñanza retórica, retórica, las nece n ecesid sidad ades es propagandí p ropagandísticas sticas de la autocracia autocracia imperial y el deseo de enlazar con las glorias del pasado lejano del mundo grecorromano, por parte de la aristocracia senatorial romana y de las oligarquías garquías municipa municipales les del Oriente griego, explican el desarrollo de un g éneén ero muy muy particular de oratoria: oratoria: el panegír p anegírico. ico. En latín habría que destacar la serie de 11 panegíricos anónimos destinados a los emperadores Maximiano, Constancio Cloro y Constantino, además del de Juliano por Mamertino y el de Teodosio por Pacato. Todos sus autores proceden de las Galias, donde florecían las importantes escuelas retóricas de Autu Autunn y Burdeos. Burdeos. Cercano Cercan o al panegíri pan egírico co se encuentran encuentran las las famosas Relationes, o memorandums dirigidos a los emperadores, del gran senador romano Quinto Aurelio Símaco (c. 345402), 3454 02), moderado defensor de la tradi tradi-ción pagana de Roma y de la dignidad de su Senado capitalino, así como centro de un complejo haz de relaciones políticas en la aristocracia occidental, bien reflejado en su completísimo epistolario, escrito en un latín barroco y arcaizante. En lengua grieg gr iegaa también abundan abundan los los panegíricos, con frecuencia frecuencia más
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Const Constan antin tino,y o,y de la Iglesia. Iglesia. El me mejor jor exponente e xponente de la misma es Lactancio Lactancio con sutratado Sob re la la muerte d e los perseguido res, en el que defendía el imperio de Dios sobre el curso de la Historia. Con esa obra, Lactancio era al mismo tiempo el representante de la última gran apologética cristiana, que constituía el núcleo de sus fundamentales Divinas Divinas instituciones. inst ituciones. En ellas seguía la huella de su maestro, el africano Arnobio, mostrando un gran dominio de la cultura literaria clásica y de los recursos formales de la retórica, de la que ambos fueron eximios profesionales. Pero mayor interés para el futuro de la historiografía cristiana tienen las obras de Eusebio de Cesarea (c. 260340): Crónica, Historia eclesiástica y Vida de Constantino. Pues las tres fueron pilares fundacionales de gran parte de la historiografía medieval cristiana, lo que obliga a plantearse el problema de sus orígenes. Los inicios de una historiografía cristiana son ciertamente anteriores a la conversión conversión de Consta Constanti ntino. no. El desconocimiento desconoci miento de la historia judía por po r parte pa rte de los paganos hizo hizo que la Iglesia se viese vies e obligada desde des de muy pron pronto to a comcom poner una forma especial de historiografía, la cronografía que, al dar un esquema de la historia historia bíblica, mostraba la antigü a ntigüedad edad del cristianismo cristianismo y cómo cóm o todo el devenir histórico, incluido el de los pueblos gentiles, se acomodabaal esquema judeocristiano de la creación y redención. Por eso la historiografía fía cristiana nació con un espec esp ecial ial interés por la_cronolog la_cronología,.y ía,.y con una filos filosofí ofíaa histórica providencialista providencialista en un horizonte horizonte de d e historia unive universa rsal.l. Los orígen o rígenes es de esta historiografía se remontan así a los siglos π y ni ni con las las obras ob ras de CleCl emente de Alejandría, Julio Africano e Hipólito de Roma. Eusebio.de Cesarea prosiguió y culminó la obra de sus predecesores, poniéndola más en concordancia c oncordancia con la herencia grecorromana, grecorro mana, que cons constit tituí uíaa ya el universo cultural de la Iglesia. Eusebio eliminó de su Crónica cualquier
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Rufino de Aquileya realizó también una labor infatigable de traductor de obras orientales de interés eclesiástico, entre ellas una Hist Histor oria ia d e lo s monjes de Egipto, que señala el auge del género hagiográfico a finales del siglo iv. Este género, una de las grandes invenciones literarias del cristianismo, hundía sus raíces en las narraciones martiriales de la tradición cristiana y en la biografía helenística. helenística. Su arquet arquetipo ipo sería se ría la Vida de Constantino de Eusebio, mientras su prototipo lo sería la Vida escr ita por Atana Atanasio sio de Vida d e San Antonio, Antonio, escrita Alejandría en el 346. La hagiografía original en lengua latina se inicia con la Vida de San Martín de Sulpicio Severo. Por su parte, la historiografía pagana de mediados del siglo iv tiene como uno de sus fines principales el avivar el recuerdo del pasado grandioso de Roma al al servicio de la nue nueva va clase dirigente dirigente,, dese de seos osaa de afirmar afirmar sus sus prestiprestigiosas raíces. Por eso esta historiografía tiene su manifestación más característica en los llamados breviarios o epítomes de historia romana, con frecuencia realizados por encargo de los mismos emperadores. Tales son los casos de la obrairistórica obrairistó rica de d e Eutr Eutrop opio io cuyo cu yo Breviario desde la fundación de la ciudad, dedicado dedicad o a Vale Valent nte, e, sería ser ía traducid traducidoo al griego grieg o en el 380 y alcanzaría una una gran difusión difusión y Fes Festo to,, ambos ambo s contemporáneos co ntemporáneos y pertene pert enecien cientes tes a la carrera burocrática. Un aspecto aspe cto disti distint ntoo presenta present a la obra ob ra del d el pagano africano Sexto Aurel Aurelio io Victor Victor,, que compuso c ompuso una una serie ser ie de apretadas apretadas biografías imperiales desde des de AugusAugusto al 360. Todos Todos estos escritos escrit os tienen unos unos mismos presupuestos metodológicos, constituyéndose constituyéndose el moralismo moralismo de tradición salustiana salustiana en elemento elem ento ordeorde nador de la narración histórica. histórica. Esta últ últim ima, a, por po r lo demás, demás , e s fundamen fundamentalme talmente nte acrítíca y pasa por alto los problemas más acuciantes del momento, ante el temor a la reacción del cristianismo triunfante. Por tal razón, esta historiografía pagana pag ana pudo ser s er ampliamente utili utiliza zada da por los l os cristianos cristianos
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especie de juicio políticomoral sobre los emperadores pasados, con un fin de propaganda, por lo que los anacronismos son numerosos. Un marcado tono tono paganizante paganizante debieron tener los perdidos Ann A nnale aless del gran senador Nicó Nicó maco Flaviano (c. 33439 334 394), 4), supuesta fuen fuente te de Amia Amiano no y de la Historia Augus ta. ta. Nicómaco Nicóm aco sería s ería el traductor traductor al latí latínn de la Vida Vida d e Apolonio, A polonio, un famoso taumaturgo del siglo I, en un claro intento de contraposición a la hagiografía cristiana. Un tono de polémica anticristiana tendría también la última gran obra historiográñca de la Antigüedad en lengua griega, la de Eunapio de Sardes (c. 345420). Este retor neoplatómco compuso una gran Historia Univer sal, continuación de la de Dexipo, en la que concede una gran importancia a los elementos anecdóticos y biográficos, y no oculta su admiración por el Apóstata y su crítica hacia Constantino. Continuada en el siglo v (407425) por Olimpiodoro de Tebas, la obra de Eunapio sirve de base a la Historia nue va de Zósimo, ya a principios del siglo vi. Significativamente, Eunapio es también el autor de unas interesantísimas Vidas d e lo s sofist sofistas, as, continuación de las de Filóstrato, clara apología de una serie de intelectuales paganos del momento.
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del siglo IV. Destacan en lengua lengua grieg g riegaa Eusebio Euseb io de Cesarea, Atan Atanas asio io de Ale jandría jand ría (c. 295373), Basilio de Cesarea (c. 330379), Gregorio de Nacianzo (c. 326390), Gregorio de Nisa (c. 335394) y Juan Crisóstomo (c. 350407). Todos ellos, junt juntoo con co n la lucha infatigable por po r la ortodoxia, ortodoxia, centrada centrad a en los picb pi cbiem iem as trin trinita itario rios, s, contribuy contribuyeron eron también tamb ién con sus escritos escrito s a la organización del culto culto y de diversas diversas institucione institucioness eclesiá ecl esiástic sticas, as, como el monaquisin monaquisino. o. Los Los llamados Padres de la Iglesia Iglesia,, occidental occidenta l son menos y por lo general, general, más tard tardío íos. s. A excep exc epció ciónn de Hilar ilario io de Poitier Poitierss (f36 (f 367), 7), que luchó luchó denodada den odadamenmente contra el arrian arrianism ismo, o, los restantes Padres occidentale o ccidentaless se s e preocuparon más de cuestiones de organi organizac zación ión eclesiástica eclesiás tica y de catequesis, catequesis, que eran los los problemas más urgentes de sus iglesias, más jóvenes que las orientales y con escasos debates doctrinales. Tales son los casos de Ambrosio de Milán (c. 334397), Jerónimo (c. 340420) y su contrincante Rufino de Aquileya. 9.6. Las nueva nuevass culturas cristian as. El monacato mona cato
Pero el cristianismo no sólo conservó la cultura clásica y amplió su campo de atención, también trató de extenderla a las masas populares, que has
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ficado, que ficado, qu e hacía hi hinca ncapié pié en la literali literalidad dad de la oposición op osición entre pobr po bres es y ricos, e incluso incluso en una visión visión apocalíptica apocalíptica según la cual el Mun Mundo do y sus g o b er er-nantes no eran más que representantes de Satán. Como señalamos anterior m eñte eñ teen en los primeros momentos este estado de d e ánim ánimo, jun juntó tó a una una circunscircunstancias sociales y fiscales más opresivas, produjo especialmente ascetas y anacoretas en los bordes de los desiertos de Egipto y Siria, como sería el caso del famoso Antonio, un campesino egipcio de una cierta fortuna que hacia el 270 lo abandonó todo para retirarse al desierto oriental, Aunque otros muchos siguieron el ejemplo de Antonio y en el delta del Nilo o en el Wadi Natrun, al sudoeste de Alejandría, hubo auténticos asentamientos de anacoretas, retas, el verdadero movim movimient ientoo monástic monástico, o, con la presen pres encia cia de comunidades cenobíticas rígidamente estructuradas, se debió a Pacomio (c. 290346.}. Tras un intento de vivir como anacoreta Pacomio fundó una primera comunidad monástica hacia el 323 en Tabennisi, al sur de Licópolis en la orilla orien taTcTelNilö, en la Tebaida. Antiguo soldado de Licinio Pacomio organizó su monasterio como un fuerte y un destacamente militar. La comunidad vivía encerra ence rrada da tras unos unos altos muro muross que la separa sep araban ban del mun mundo do exterior, mientras tras en su seno regía re gía una una estrecha asociación para el rezo y el trabajo, trabajo, ne n e ce ce-sario para el e l sustento sustento de d e la misma misma,, así como una estricta es tricta disciplina disciplina.. Un hábiháb i-
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literarios literarios como las '^pleg '^plegaria arias”, s”, primera forma de expresión religiosa rel igiosa del puepue blo egipcio. Entre los monies de Siria, más dados al misticismo, Efraín el Sirio (+373) (+373) crea cr eaba ba una gran gran poesía po esía hímnic hímnicaa en lengua siriaca, siriaca, celebrando celebra ndo la victoriosa resistencia de su natal Nisibin ante el asedio de los persas. En ambientes semejantes surge también las hagiografías, en las que se glorificaba la memoria de los padres del yermo que comenzaron a proliferar en gran núme ro, principalmente en las region re giones es orientales del Imperio. Imperio. Ya Ya nos hemos hem os refere ferido a las circunstancias que favorecieron la dispersión y la proliferación de ascetas (vid. supra, 156), pero conviene convie ne recorda reco rdarr que una una razón de su éxito éxito residía en su capacidad d e diálogo diálogo directo con co n Dios Dios (parrhesia) que les atribuía el pueblo, y mediante media nte ella en la posibilidad posibilid ad de inter i nterced ceder er ante la Divin iviniidad en favor de los hombres. De esta forma, forma, a finales finales del siglo iv los humildes y los poderosos, poderoso s, el munmundo urbano y el rural, volvían a tener un mismo objetivo cultural, lo que no ocurría en el mundo mediterráneo al menos desde el siglo V a. C. Un mismo objetivo centrado en un sistema sistem a de valores val ores de d e nueva nueva plan planta, ta, nucleado en torno al problema del pecado y de su castigo, de la salvación del hombre en virtud de la Redención por Cristo, del Juicio final de la humanidad. Un objetivo objetivo en torno al que s e adapta la herencia herenc ia cultu cultura rall clásica clásic a del d el mun mundo do gregre -
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culto a los santos y a los mártires, era un ejercicio espiritual que se integrab a directamente en su estilo de vida. vida. Su apartamient apartamientoo rural rural tenía tenía que qu e ver con el ideal clásico de un Horacio, por lo que no cabe extrañarse de que su poesía tenga numerosos numerosos punto puntoss de d e contacto con la de su pred pr edec eces esor or Auso Ausoni nio, o, criscris tiano pero muy fiel a los valores del naturalismo clásico, horaciano y virgilia no. Por su parte, el monaquismo oriental atrajo a multitudes del pueblo y estableció un nuevo contacto entre la ciudad y el campo, el occidental fue en sus inicios un fenómeno propio, sobre todo, de los grandes propietarios rurales, Las diferencias sociales de Occidente y Oriente condicionaban las respectivas modalidades de la nueva civilización cristiana a finales del siglo iv. 9.Z 9.Z. Las artes plásticas
Para terminar, convendría señalar, brevemente, cómo estas nuevas conr diciones culturales influyeron sobre las artes plásticas. Como mostró magistralmente R. Bianchi Bandinelli, ya en el siglo ni tuvo lugar un neto declive de las formas clásicas, paralelo al auge del llamado arte plebeyo del viejo fondo itálicoromano. Esto último se habría debido, entre otros motivos, a la nue
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El arte de la pint pintu ura, ra, desp d espués ués de la corrien co rriente te “tachista” de la centuria anterior rior,, tiende exclusivamente a la decoración decoració n o a reducir las las representacion repres entaciones es a sus trazos fundamentales y más expresivos, con claro predominio de los temas y formas "plebeyas". El mosaico se somete a las formas arquitectónicas, escue es cuela la romana, romana, y gusta del colorido brillan brillante te y las las esce es cena nass mitológicas mitológicas abigarradas Si en estos últi últim mos, os, como en los sarcófagos, sarcófagos, los programas iconográficos son los mismos de otros tiempos, sus formas, sobre todo en las provin provincia ciass europeas, se hacen hace n mucho mucho más esquemá esqu emáticas ticas y expresivas, expresivas, con un marcado simbolismo. simbolismo. Cierta perfección técnica y clasicismo clasicismo forma formall se conserva empero en los productos del llamado arte áulico, sobre todo en la orfebrería, y de algunas provincias orientales, como Siria. De esta forma, también en las realizaciones
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el tema de Orfeo o del Ave Fénix, frecuente en las decoraciones sepulcrales. Tan sólo desarrolló una iconografía propiamente cristiana en ciertos lugares centrales como los ábside áb sidess basilicales, donde se s e expusieron temas de fina finalilidad esencialm esen cialmente ente didáctica, didáctica, con esc e scen enas as tomadas del Antig Antiguo uo y el Nuev Nuevoo Testamento. Pero incluso en estos casos, ciertas figuras tan típicas como la del orante, Cristo en majestad o el Buen Pastor, provienen de un repertorio tradicional, creado por los filósofos, o los teóricos del poder imperial, desde tiempos helenísticos.
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to habían confiado en los destinos del Imperio, parecían ya desconfiar del mismo. Máxime cuando en el curso de dos decenios pudieron darse cuenta de que el gobierno imperial imperial reclui r ecluido do en Ravena era er a cada vez más presa de los exclusivos exclusivos intereses e intrigas de un pequeño grupo de altos oficiales del ejército itálico. Además, muchos de éstos eran de origen bárbaro y cada vez confiaban más en las fuerzas de sus séquitos armados de soldados de su misma etnia y en los pactos y alianzas familiares que pudieran tener con otros jefes bárbaros instalados en suelo imperial con sus propios pueblos, que desarrollaban cada vez una política más autónoma. Necesitados de mantener una posición de predominio social y económico en sus regiones de origen, reducidos sus patrimonios fundiarios a dimensiones provinciales, y ambicionando un protagonismo político propio de su linaje y de su cultura, estos representantes de las aristocracias tardorromanas occidentales habrían acabado por aceptar las ventajas de admi-
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que de la historia bizantina hizo Ernest Stein. Dicho periodo se definiría por mantener las características esenciales de los tiempos anteriores, los propios del Imperio Romano universal del siglo IV, pero también por poner las bases y las condiciones propias del Bizancio clásico de la Alta Edad Media. Entre dichas características heredadas cabría señalar en primer lugar la decidida
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de subsistencia, a lo que también contribuyeron los asentamientos de eslavos en los Balcanes. Recreación campesina que ciertamente sería la base para un cambio fundamental en el reclutamiento militar; propio del Régimen Temático clásico. Al mismo establecimiento de éste contribuyó muy fundamentalmente el cambio en la administración pública exigido por la contracción territorial del Imperio y la constitución de casi todo su territorio en una posible frontera en profundidad, así como la necesidad
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invadido la Península ibérica en el 409. A cambio, en lugar de obtener los tradicionales subsidios alimenticios, el Imperio permitía a los godos su asentamiento en la Aquitania II, entregándoles a tal efecto dos tercios de una serie de fincas que serían repartidas entre los diversos agrupamientos nobiliarios godos y el del rey con sus séquitos. Aunque quedaba la antigua administra-
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Sería precisam prec isamente ente la lucha lucha que a partir partir del 409 se desarrollaría desarrollaría en las las Galias entre el usurpador y las tropas leales a Honorio, reorganizadas por el patricio Constancio, lo que facilitaría la invasión hispana del 409, pues los invasores pudieron penetrar casi como aliados de la rebelión contra Constantin tantinoo II III surgida surgida en el e l seno se no de su propio ejército ejérc ito destaca des tacado do en la penínsu península, la, recibiendo de sus servicios el derecho a exigir subsidi subsidios os a los
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