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CAROLINGIANANDROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE8oo-r2oo I
- ,.
KENNETHJOHN ..,r--..rearuui*r*^
CONANT
*4 I t
KennethJohn Conant CAROLINGIAN
AND ROMANESQL E
A R C H I T E C T L R E 8 O OT O 1 2 O O
Yale UniaersityPress' New Haaen and London
First published 1959by PenguinBooksLtd Fourth edition r978. New impressionrgg3 by Yale University Press z o r g 1 8 r y 1 6 t 5 1 4 1 31 2 r r r o g 8 7 6 5 Copyright @ Kenneth John Conant, ry59, 1966,ry74, ry78 Set in Monophoto Ehrhardt, and printed in Hong Kong through World Print Ltd Designedby Gerald Cinamonand Inge Dyson All rights reserved.This book may not be reproducedin whole or in part, in any form (beyondthat copying permitted by Sectionsro7 and ro8 of the U.S. Copyright Law and exceptby reviewersfor the public press),without written permissionfrom the publishers. ISBN o-3oo-o5zg8-7 Library of Congresscatalogcard number 78-r4g8or
To my two namesakes Ken and Kenny
CONTENTS
This new edtion, in addition to routine minor rectifications, contains text changes suggested by increasing knowledge of the development of the Romanesque style, and figures have been introduced which tend to make this development clearer. The text has new material on
Note on the Second Intesrated Edition
6
rr
Foreword Maps:
Carolingian Divisions in and near France c. 8oo 814 France and Contiguous Areas about rooo
14
r5
Montecassino, Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire, Saintes, Cluny, Florence, and Saint-Denis. It presents
Medieval Ecclesiastical Metropolitanates (France) and Provinces (Germany)
the great church at Cluny as embodying the classic moment of the Romanesque, with
T h e S t y l i s t i c B o u n d a r i e so f R o m a n e s q u e F r a n c e
Saint-Denis and Sens Cathedral as the first Gothic churches provided with flying buttresses of systematic design The original drawings were made or adapted by Donald Bell-Scott, further drawings were done for this edition by Ian Stewart, and the maDS were drawn bv Sheila Waters.
The Pilgrimage Routes to Santiago de Compostela Spain and Portugal
British Isles
25
Scandinavia
26
The Holy Land
20
2r
Germany, Neighbouring Lands, and Hungary Italy and Yugoslavia
16-ry
r8-rg
22-23
24
27
Part One: The Pre-Romanesqueand Proto-Romanesque Styles r . The Preparation for Medieval Architecture The Institutional Background
3r
3r
Primitive and Local Architectural Trends
34
The Persistence of Roman Architectural Ideas and Practice The Transition from Roman to Early Medieval Architecture z. The Carolingian Romanesque
36 37
43
Northern Architecture in the Reign of Charlemagne,TTr
8rq
43
Church Architecture in the Northern Part of the Empire under the Later Carolingians 3. Pre-Romanesque Architecture in the North, outside the Empire Ireland
69
Ninth- and Tenth-Century Scandinavia
77
Architecture in Saxon England
72
69
55
8
coNrnNrs
Architecturein SouthernEurope 87 4. Proto-Romanesque
187
The Asturian StYle 87
Abbot Pons, or Pontius, de Melgueil
The MozarabicStyle in Northern Spain 93
Abbot Peter the Venerable
roo
The Lombard Kingdom
227
Part Four: The Mature Rornanesqueof Midd,k and Southern France
Styles Part Tpo: TheEarlier Romanesque 'First ro7 Romanesque' The Lombardy
zo8
213
r r. The Cistercians and their Architecture
The ByzantineExarchate ro2
5.
Abbot Hugh of Semur
rz. General Considerations in regard to the Regional Schools r3. The Kingdom of Arles, and Burgundy
49
243
Ducal Burgundy 243
ro7
Dalmatia r r I
Provence 2So
Cataloniaand Andorra r r I
Aquitania,with BorderingAreason the Loire and the Mediterranean 263
The Kingdom of Arles r r9
The West of France 26+
Germany r rg
The SchoolofAuvergne 293
Romanesque Architecture in Germany
The SchoolofLanguedoc 297
under the Saxon and Franconian Emperors (936 r rz5) The Ottonians; the Ottonian Romanesque The Salian or Franconian Emperors France: goo ro5o The Ambulatory
r2r r7. Styles dependdnt on the Moors and on Lombardy
r3I
Mud6far Romanesque Architecture in Brick
r3g
The Mature Catalan Romanesque Style
r3g
18. Styles dependent on France r4r
BurgundianDevelopments
The Spacious Wooden-Roofed Basilicas
Aragon and Navarre
8. The Great Churches of the Pilgrimage Roads The Preparation: General Considerations
r57
r57
t6z
Saint-Martial at Limoges Sainte-Foi at Conques
3o3
303
306
3r I
Preliminary Considerations 3rr
I53
Part Three: The Mature Romanesqueas Inter-Regional and International Architecture
St Martin at Tours
Part Fiz:e: The,44ature RomanesqueArchitecture of Spain, Portugal, and the Holl Land
12r
L e o n , C a s t i l e .a n d G a l i c i a J I 5 Portugal
329
The Templars and the Hospitallers The Holy Land
t6z
3r2
333
336
E x c h a n g eo f I n f l u e n c e s : T h e P r o b l e m o f A r m e n i a
34I
r63
Saint-Serninat Toulouseand PilgrimageSculpture r65 Santiagode Compostela,Goal of the Pilgrimage 167 Reflexfrom the Pilgrimage ry7 The Role of Cluny in the History of RomanesqueArchitecture r85 The Early Abbots;the'EcoleClunisienne' r85
Part Six: .I4ature RomanesqueArchitecture in the Land.sAsstttiated pithin the Holy Roman Empire Introduction to Chapters rg zz rg. The Two Sicilies 345 Apulia
345
The Basilicata
352
343
IO
CONTENTS
Sicil-v
3Sz
Campania and Neighbouring Regions zo. Central ltalY
FOREWORD
367
Rome and the Papal State Tuscany
362
367
372
zr. Northern Italy Venice
38-5
385
Lombardy
Neighbouring Regions showing Components of Mature Lombard Style zz. Germany, with the Netherlands and Flanders
,+o3
4I r
4r-1
Saxony and Neighbouring Regions The Lower Rhine Main District The Netherlands
121
+27
43r
Norway'
436 +Jg
F r e n c h R o m a n e s q u co f t h e S c h o o l o f t h e E a s t , o r R h i n e l a n d F r a n c e The Royal Domain (ile-de-France) and Champagne Normandy
442
England: l'he Saxo-Norman Overlap Norman England Notes
5og
time
the monasticism and the incipient medievalism
Cistercian architecture in France.
of Late Classical times, before the creative spirit
With all these materials now available, it is possible to present - as such - the monastic
,+54
4j9
-+39
49.1 50I
preparing
his encyclopaedic work
on
tion. Following the epoch of mature Romanes-
accomplishment in church architecture. The
que achievement, the after-life of the Romanesque extended into the thirteenth and fourteenth
reader will find here, following an account of the renewal in Charlemagne's time, a record of
centuries in regions where the style offered a
the architectural advances by which the highly organized conventual establishment and the
suffrcient answer to local needs. and exoressed
beauti(ully articulated great monastic church were achieved. This record, during Rornan-
are not numerous. In view ofthe enduring value
esque times, brings forward
of Paul Frankl's Fr il hmit tela h erlic he und r omani-
traditional
a synthesis of
forms culminating
ter, a freer pattern has been adopted for this
at Cluny and Citeaux. Its foil, in our exposition, is the flowering o{' the many and varied regional styles,
treatise, which is somewhat more personal, cast
some of them carried forth by missionaries or
when possible in the form of a narrative. The
colonists as the Romanesque area expanded
theme of the book is carried by' church archi-
into Spain, the Holy Land, middle Europe,
tecture,but that is natural in the work ofan author who is academically the heir of Herbert
and Scandinavia.
Langford Warren and his teachers Henry Hob-
particularly wide panorama of interesting re-
son Richardson and Charles Eliot Norton, the
gional styles: older architectural forms were
latter an intimate f riend ofJohn Ruskin.
perfected and embellished, and the noble monu-
The greatest direct indebtedness ofthe author
List of Illustrations Index
4-5.+
$j
Bibliography
architecture well, it is necessary to understand
scheBauhunst, rather encyclopaedic in charac-
24. Northern France and Norman England
Cluniac and Cistercian art in Burgundy. Nt.
ment would imply. To understand Romanesque
General works on Romanesque architecture
$+
Joan Evans was engaged on her comprehensive publications in England, and M.
Marcel Aubert. to whom the author is much beholden for many kindnesses, was at the same
the local temper well.
zq. Scandinavia 43I
Sweden
Charles Oursel on his learned works concerning;
ofthe Carolingian Age gave them a special direc-
4I5
Part Sez;en:Mature RomanesqueArchitectarc in Scandina.^ia, Britnin, and Northern France
Denmark
Dr
cipal artistic effort of four centuries, but the chronological limits are not as strict as this state-
386
South Germany
The present volume is devoted to the genesis, development, and transformation of Romanesque architecture and is concerned with the prin-
In the Holy
Roman Empire there was a
ments which resulted in such great numbers
is, however, to his mentor, colleague, and liiend,
have been admired ever since the Romanesque
Arthur
Kingsley Porter, whose wide-ranging
centuries. But they do not show the drive for
re-study ofRomanesque art and chronology resulted in considerable activity on the part ofart
logical synthesis in structure which characterized the North-western region. Therefore at
shown in
several significant studies in the Cluniac am-
the end of our work we ref'er to Romanesque Normandy, England, and the ile-de-France in contrast with the Empire; the result of their
bient by Americans during the period when
effbrt in architecture was the creation ofa new
historians. His interest in Cluny,
important work of his own, was responsible for
12
FOREWORD
structural unit which had elements drawn from all of the older types of vaulting, but surpassed them all. Fully developed, this unit the typical ribbed groin-vaulted bay with its spur or flying buttress - was universally applicable, and became the mainspring of Gothic architecture. It was further remarkable in that designers, by its use, could reinterpret and carry on all of the effects achieved in local varieties of the parent Romanesque. By making clear these facts the author hopes to enrich the reader's appreciation both of Romanesque and of Gothic architecture. The author wishes to express his gratitude to the medievalists who have been mentioned for the benefits which have come from their scholarly work and their counsel. He is grateful for the generosity of the Hon. John Nicholas Brown, who made excavations at Cluny possible through the Mediaeval Academy of
America; he also owes thanks to Miss Helen Kleinschmidt, to Dr Harry H. Hilberry, to Dr ElizabethReadSunderland,and to Dr Alice Sunderland Wethey for their work in fitting parts of the Cluniac puzzle together; to Dr Isabel Pope Conant for thoughtful criticism; and to Mrs Hart Chapman and to Mrs Judy Nairn for experthandling of the manuscript. Special thanks are due to Dr Turpin C. Bannisterfor a searchingreviewand discussion of the text while it wasin proof. And thanksare most particularly due to the Editor, Professor Sir Nikolaus Pevsner,who is deeply versedin the subiectmatter of the volume; his work on the manuscriptwasthat of a wisecolleagueand friend, far exceeding the merely editorial function. KENNETH JOHN CONANT
.28June r954
Maps
r4 . Carolingian Divisions in and near France r.8oo 8r4
France and Contiguous Areas about rooo
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27
PART ONE
THE PRE-ROMANESQUE A N D P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U ES T Y L E S
CHAPl.ER
I
THE PREPARATION FOR MEDIEVAL
T H E I N S T I T L I T I O N AB LACKGROTJND The Leaders
ARCHIf'ECTURE
It is fiair to sa]' that the great triangle formed b y t h e R h i n e , t h e L o i r e , a n d t h e s e a ,q u i e s c e n t before, now put forward almost all the grand
The 1'ear 8oo came to a Western rvorld readv for a great revival of'man1' things which Antiquity held dear. The barbarian torment and
conceptions on which the new medier,al world of gor,ernment, philosophl', and art was to be
the civil strife which had overturned the f'alter-
clude all the mid-continental
ing late Empire were far from ended, but the
moted the Christianization of this vast dom-
lorces of order were decisivelv rallied, and great men like Charlemagne and his companions were hnding, in the pattern of classic
i n i o n , a n d b o u n d i t b y s t r o n g e c c l e s i a s t i c aal n d political links to Rome. Bv his care fbr the
life and thought, the wa].s in which the half Roman. half German medieval rvorld could be organized. The consular dignity'conferred in
institution,
based. Charlemagne extended the area to inGermans, pro-
Roman Church he gave new impetus to that which
was perhaps the greatest
s i n g l ei n h e r i t a n c ef r o m A n t i q u i t v , a n d b 1 ' a c t i v e favours to learning he made a beacon of his
5 o 8 u p o n C l o v i s , w h o r v a sa l r e a d y K i n g o f t h e Franks in 476, when Romulus Augustulus was deposed, had implications which began to be realized as the Frankish settlers showed their
court. -Ihus,
sturdy worth and their power to build an enduring state. The implic'.rtions \\ere further real-
task of administrative and economic development, \1erefbrming the groundwork on rvhich
ized when Charlemagne's grandfather, Charles N{artel, repulsed the Saracenic advance near
an1'' lasting renaissance perforce would rest. 'l'his socien, rvhich had been confused and
Poitiers in 732; when his irather, Pepin, aided i n e s t a b l i s h i n gt h e p a p a l P a t r i m o n l ' ; a n d m o s t
periphcral, found its direction and its unil-ving
o f a l l w h e n C h a r l e m a g n eh i m s e l f c r e a t e d a p a n Germanic state with an orderlv political system, and enlarged the boundaries of Christendom by his conquests.
by the year 8oo, learning and legal
svstem rvere being advanced again, and the monasteries,by addressing themselvesto Rome's old
p r i n c i p l e ; i t m a d e a s v n t h e s i so f G e r m a n i c c u l ture with traditional late Roman lbrms and persistent influences from B1'zantine and Oriental l a n d s , u n d e r t h e c o n f i d e n ta n d e n e r g e t i cC . h a r l e magne, whose coronation as Roman Emperor
?2
THE PREPARATION FOR MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE
P R E - R O M A N E S Q U E A N D P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U ES T Y L E S
at Christmastide,8oo, happily marks a symbolic new beginning. Artistic initiative stirred, and new aesthetic lbrms were created which e\'!ntuall)' became 'I'he creation of Carolingian symbols of the age. art, with its reflexes of oriental, northern, and Mediterranean origin, is a very complex pheno-
under construction even when favoured by exc e p t i o n a l r e s o u r c e sa n d o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
teristic Romanesque I'eatures or elements were created and used, though not on the scale nor
The impulse fbr novel alchitectural development came chiefly lrom the monasteries. A m o n a s t e r yo f i m p o r t a n c e o f t e n s e r v e dn e a r l y a l l
with the great assuranceof later times. f'he C a r o l i n g i a n R o m a n e s q u ew a s i n r e n t i r e I i t w a s also experimental
Romanesque in the test-
the needs of a thousand persons or more, and thus presented architectural problems on the scale of a whole town. Yet its design would be
tube rather than a well-knit. fullv articulated style.
menon, and only the architecture can concern us here; suffice it to say that the fecund and dynamic character so notable in the other arts is equally found in the architecture. In archi-
It is important to realize in this connexion that
t e c t u r e a l s o , d e s i g n e r sh a d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o merge what was good in all the old forms within
the Carolingian Romanesque was an architecture intended for relatively small groups of
the ample horizon of vast civic and religious
people, and not a great urban architecture suclt
conceptions, though the architects were rela-
as classic architecture had been. The population of the entire Roman Empire in Hadrian's
tively more dependent on Mediterranean models. The abounding energy and initiative ofthe Emperor himself, and the great gifts for understanding, organization, and synthesis which were possessed by the gireat masters of rhe Palace Alcuin and Einhard particularly
were
strongly I'elt in architecture. The brilliant ideas
decline from nearly r,ooo,ooo to its nadir of about ro,ooo. Constantinople, which main-
The leading Carolingian architects antici-
tained a population of nearly r,ooo,ooo in the
pated certain Romanesque characteristics, but
\{iddle Ages, seemed labulous to visitors from
scholars hesitate to sav that Romanesque archi-
the West. Medieval London had only about z5,ooo people,and all England only 5,ooo,ooo,
in western Europe, and receded before Gothic art lrom about rr3o onward. This is perhaps becauseCarolingian painting, manuscripts, and sculpture differ more sharply than architecture lrom acknowledged Romanesque works. Bec a u s el h c R o m a n c o m p o n e n ti s \ e r \ i m p o r t a n t . the name C:rrolingian Romanesque is suitable
Monasticism itself came to Carolingian times with the strong Roman imprinr giren to an originally Egvptian and cenobitical institution 'l'here by St Benedict of'Nursia (r. 48o 5.13). is indeed something of Roman grandeur and durability in the Rule which he compiled for his own
been small, and the countrvside rather sparsely peopled. In the late classical period the popula-
have been interpreted in successive styles throughout the centuries, up to modern times.
term fbr the better integrated art which flourished from the time of Otto the Great (936-73)
.Monasticistn
The cities in the north and west had always
magne's day were of enduring importance. J'hev
tecture properly so called began in the Caro'f lingian Ren:rissance. hel prefbr to reserve the
the consequence that novel problems would arise spontaneously'.
time is believed to have been about 55,ooo,ooo. There were several cities approaching r,ooo,ooo in population, but all were in the south and east.
tion of the Empire declined, particularly in the cities, Rome being an e\treme example with a
developed by the church architects of Charle-
more monumental, and integrated in a more sophisticated manner than that of a town, with
The Arc hitectural Ambit
monastery of Montccassino about 5zg. This Rule made its rvavthroughout Western C.hristendom on its os'n mcrits, and acted as an international constitution in the early Middle Ages when temporal government had broken down, and the monastic commonwealth remained as the only stable community 2 The way of Roman churchmanship in Gaul was smoothed by Pepin III, who introduced the Roman, and prohibitcd the Gallican, liturgv
while the German urban centres had from 5ooo to ro,ooo people; l'rance was relativelv
tn the Frankish kingdom, j54 68.Charlemagne reinforced the tcndencv by imposing on all monks a rule of Bencdictine character. Roman
more settled and prosperous. It seems clear that most of the building operations were traditional, and were done, even in late medieval times, on the modest scale which we associate
in spirit (78g). Benedictinism itself. then in relativc decline because of uphcavals. was enormously benefited by Charlemagne and his successorsfrom
with villages.l The conditions of society were such that the solutions developed in Roman and barbarian times for the various problems ol' ordinary architecture were still sufficient, so that there was little occrsion for the exercise of
for the architecture. For the discerning historian can see that the general programme of earll' medieval architecture was already understood
new ingenuity in such work. Ambitious projects involving new problems were few in num-
at the court of CharlemaEne and that charac-
ber, and with rare exceptions they were long
L
3J
liturgy fbr its magnificence. Priories on identical lines were soon founded. Louis the Pious, who succeeded Charlemagne in 8r,1, built the Cornelimiinster on the Inden, near Aachen, for him to regularize monastic life in the Emperor's dominions.s Benedict, and instructed
The groups of men who withdrew fiom the ordinary pursuits of the world to live together under the rule ofan abbot, taking vows ofpoverty, chastity, obedience, and stability, lbund rich rewards in the spiritual pattern of the monastic liturgies. Such conmunities became oases of Christian life in the midst of wild countr) or social chaos; sound and strong, the monastic institute was able to accept manifbld opportunities to preserve piety and learning, to aid communications by turnishing hospitality to wayfbrers ofer,ery degree, and to enlarge the borders of Christianitv bv missionary endeaYOUr. .{lthough the monks were individualll'' vowed to poverty, the communities received great gifts of land and endou'ment; and in general thel managed their quite considerable resources well. f'he monks patiently developed and improved their properties, which were often largelv uncultir,ated or dcsolate when g;iven, and bv this process a ty'pical monastery would become the garner and the agricultural capital for a considerable surrounding area ; becauseof large land holdings it would have certain administrative and judicial lunctions too, in addition to being the spiritual capital. Much
invective
a g a i n s t u s u r p i n g a n d u n s u c c e s s f u la d m i n i s t r a tors has come down to us in the texts, and this f'act tends to obscure the excellent general record ofthe monasteries as orderly and peacclul islands within a society ruhich was struggling
779 onward, when a refbrm was inaugurated under St Benedict of Aniane (died 8zz). A splendid nt:w monrster]' was built at Aniane, which lies nerr Saint-Guilhem-le-D6scrt or
after the Dark Ap;es. The larger monasteries presented intricatc administrative problems,
Gellone in Languedoc, between Arles and Narb o n n e . I t d r e w o n a l l t h e r c s o u r c e so f ' a r t a n d
and were the accepted schools for men of business and government. In addition they were the
out ofdeep confusion.'l'heir industry laid the lbundations of economic recoverl in Europe
34
THE PREPARATION FOR MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE
pRE-ROMANESQUEAND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES
training places for talent in the arts, and the refuge of intellectual activity. Thus the monasteries did yeoman service in creating all four ofthe baseson which medieval
cipal tool, and a traditional log-wall construction developed which came to its culmination in the Russian medieval spire churches.
P R I M I T I V EA N D L O C A L A R C H I T E C T U R ATLR E N D S
civilization was to rest: (r) economic revival, (z) the fusion of the Latin and the Teutonic
north of Europe, it would be natural to expect influences in architecture lrom the
In the West, more sophisticated tools were used. and several schemes of more efficient, lighter construction were worked out. In the
peoples, in which the conversion of the invaders, the unified world view presented by Christianity, and its common mode of thought were fundamental, (3) the afterlife of Roman
year 8oo onwards. The situation is well expressed in Charles Rufus Morey's reference to 'the naive effort of the barbarian races them-
palace halls there was evidently foinery ofa high order adorned with intricate carving, of which the wagons and sledges found with the Norse
selves to revive the Rome which their fathers
law in the monastic Rule, the canon law of the
had ruined', and his definition of Romanesque
grave-ships probably offer us specimens. At Lojsta on the Isle of Gotland a palace ruin as-
Church, and the Holy Roman Empire, (4) the
art as that'which reflects the gradual sinking of
feudal system, which set up new hierarchies of power, and enabled the monastic orders to ex-
Latin culture below the Celtic and Teutonic
tend their influence and their benefits generally. The great monasteries, thus developing as
primitive peoples could hardly have the superb beauty, the 'coiling vitalitv' of their works of
imposing hnancial, educational, and territorial
minor art, but as their compositions sought out
corporations, were lar larger, more complex,
the eccentric effects of nature itself, so their
and more influential than they had ever been in
architecture alwavs was both functional and
Antiquity.
organic.a
Since many of their architectural
problems were new, their architecture became the living and growing architecture of the time.
With
the creation of' a central power in the
Northern
surf'ace'. The architecture of these migrant and
r. Lojsta, palace(restored).Original ofr. rooo
dated ror3, still existsin the church at Greenstead, Essex [zl. Wooden frames with vertical sheathing and braced mast construcfion were of the Scandinavian ships is essentially like
used by the Norse. The clinker construction weather-boarded construction in building. It may go back as f'ar as the third century a.o. 'Half-timber' construction among the barbarians may also be lairlv ancient, as Strzygowski believed.
the primitive wooden forms can be, even without the lavish carving and colour which the
shown that Roman work in outlying regions must often har,e adjoined that of the bar-
Lojsta type were used all over northern Europe for many centuries in noble, domestic, farm, and
In the North-east, where primeval timber
Palisade wall construction was used by the Saxons, and a solitary example of their work,
cribed to the period about a.o. rooo has been restored, and here one may see how handsome
original work doubtless possessedIr, 36.t]. Accumulating evidence shows that halls of the
was abundant, the adze was the builder's prin-
35
Excar,ations in the Gallo-Roman area have
barian settlers; indeed it seems likely that the barbarian builders near the borders ofthe Empire learned something also from the Romans.5 The prosperous household among the Ger-
(later) church construction [4e]. They may even 'bay be responsible for the introduction of the
mans would have a hall like that at Loista. or a
system' in stone-built Romanesque.
acter. Subsidiarl' buildings of' the same sort
z. Greenstead,woodenSaxonchurch (part), ror3, brick basemodern
the number of such courts would be the measure
more sophisticated building of similar charwould gather, arranged about courtvards, and of'the household's importance. It is probable t h a t t h e ' p r o l i f ' e r a t i n g q u a d r a n g l e s 'o 1 ' t h e g r e a t monasteries carry on something of this mode of agglomeration.b 'r,ernacular'or folk architecturewas of Such course f-ar from adequate lbr the nccds of an imperial building programme, but being rooted and native in the north, it would be bound to have some efl'ect on an-vimported st1,le.Specificallv, the mode of design where liamed wooden compartments make up a building
is quitc
different from that of classic architecture in brick, stone, or concrete. L,r'cn in the first attempts at strict imitation, the local habits and conditions would inevitably make themselles f'elt. Northern builders preler austere shapes, lbr their climate is severe on involved e\terior fbrms. Northern rooI.s arc stecp, in order to evacuate rain more quickll' and diminish the hazard of snow and icc. The exterior materials
>-
PRE-ROMANESQUEAND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES
36
which resist the weather well are nearly all either red or gre)', so that the colour range is limited. Yet in the Carolingian period the north'vernacular' architecture was obviousll' so
ern
simple that almost any really monumental new development would be largely dependent on Roman sources. l'he elements. the items, the f'eaturesof great buildings would be Roman, but the manner of their employ would be affected by northern artistic discipline and taste. During the Carolingian period both Roman and native elements were used increasingly, with admir' able inventiyeness. in church architecture.
T H E P E R S I S T E N COEF R O M A N A R C H I T E C T U R AILD E A SA N D P R A C T I C E The Romanesque which came after the Carolingian period profited by these erperiments, and b1' the dreadful experience of the Viking and Hungarian invasions. These incursions, with t h e i r b u r n i n g s o f t o w n s a n d c h u r c h e s ,o c c a s i o n ed a considerable ellbrt to build fireproofchurches in the ensuing period of revival, after the middle of the tenth century. Perforce the designers drew on the constructional experience of imperial Roman vaulted architecture. The nidespread and sucttss.fuluse of Roman types of vaulting as a clntrollins Jeature in design marks a distinction between the newer, Romanesque, architecture, irnd the older Carolingian. Examples of the ancient Roman stvle were built throughout noarly the entire area in which the Romanesque later flourished. The Roman manner of building, although it degenerated in the Dark Ages, remained as an ideal, and was never quite lost in practice. A Roman architect and a Roman engineer would easilv have unders t o o d t h e u o r k o f t h e i r R o m a n e s q u ec o n t i n u ators. Yet there are obvious differences. Apart from commemoratiVe works and garden architecture, onlv the Roman temples had a character which
THE PREPARATIONFOR MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE
we should now call fully monumental. All other tvpes of building, even the most ambitious, tended to have plain or uninteresting exteriors, and
Early Christian churches remained as an active inspiration while new ideals were developing for the Romanesque. Other tvpes of building made static rather than d1'namic contributions, but
the layout of the cities gave little opportunit]', apart from the fora, for individual structures to
retained prestige as classic works. Even the shrunken wretched estate of medieval Rome
present imposing effects, or to become dynamic elements in the city picture and the landscape.
to a fraction ofits ancient size, and scourged by malaria, private warfare, and disturbers from did not prevent high-minded popes abroad
Such effects are achieved almost as a matter of course 6rst in medieval, then in Renaissance, Baroque, and neo-classical planning. On the contrarv, Roman civic works were often masked
from maintaining the dignity ofthe ancient traditions of the Church, and with that dignity something ofthe lofty ideals ofancient architecture.
fiom the street or forum b1'enclosing porticoes, so that the compositions were inward-looking;
Ancient Rome created no ne\rymonumental
typically they had the classicalhorizontality and
37
architecture continued to be built. Indeed it continued to be built fbr centuries. often with l i t t l e c h a n g e b e c a u s ei t w a s w e l l a d a p t e d t o c u r r e n t n e e d s .J u s t a s t h e w o o d e n a r c h i t e c t u r e o f the north was the 'background architecture' 'vernacular' there. so the architecture of the old Roman districts was the background architecture of the south. Almost the onlv demand fbr large new buildings came from the Church, and in consequence ecclesiastical architecture became the premier architecture from the time of C o n s t a n t i n eo n w a r d . The imperial architects achieved brilliant results in the new Earlv Christian architecture. - { f t e r t h e P e a c eo f t h e C h u r c h ( 3 r 3 ) , t h e l ' p u t
self-contained unitv.
types after the Christian Roman basilica. Later designers, struggling on new problems without
In contrast the Romanesque, through bold imagination, came to be characterized by free,
Rome's leadership, worked on a regional basis. Departing from the common and Roman theme,
active, and arresting combinations of architectural forms. The Romanesque contributed great-
though conscious ofits significance, the provincial architects and engineers capitalized on the
lv to the development ofhighly articulated, expressive exterior and interior design. It laid the
special variations in materials, skills, climate, and predisposition which fbrmer conditions,
tbundation ofGothic successesin that field, and
\Ualls. The churches which had been destroved throuehout the Empire during the persecution of Diocletian (:o: +) were pJenerallyreplaced
under the Romans, had tended to minimize. They even gained from such self-imposed limit-
a c t e r - t y - p i c a l l y ' w i t ha g a t e w a ] ' o 1 ' a p p r o a c ha, n
t h u s i t u n d e r l i e s s t i l l f u r t h e r a c h i e v e m e n t so f R e n a i s s a n c ea n d m o d e r n d a t e : a n o t a b l e d i f f e r -
ations. Buildings with such local savour could be constructed more cheaply and would command the affection of folk in the locality from the very fact of being 'their own'. The result was, in the many regional schools of Romanesque architecture, a rich varietv unexampled in
entiation, surell'', from the Roman. Romanesque variety developed out of Roman unity. For, from the first years of our era, the architecture of the city of Rome was the model throughout the whole area of the Western Empire. Provincial approximations, often imper-
the parent imperial st1.le.
f'ect because of different materials and other conditions, nevertheless departed little in essential structure, and not at all in ideals,lrom the
the imprint of'unmistakable Roman grandeur on the Constantinian basilicas of Old St Peter's in the Vatican [3] and St Paul's outside the
r v i t h n e w b u i l d i n g s o l t h i s s a m e b a s i l i c a nc h a r a t r i u m , a w o o d e n - r o o l e d n a v e a n d a i s l e s ,a n d an apse, often with a transept and perhaps sacr i s t i e sa d j o i n i n g i t . Eastern Christendom was able to continue t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f R o m a n v a u l t e d a r c h i t e c t u r ea s a living stvle, and applv them successfullv to the problems of church building, thoup5h under strong oriental influence. When the architects
T H E T R A N S I T I O NF R O M R O M A N T O E A R L YM E D I E V A LA R C H I T E C T U R E
augustexemplars in the imperialcity. The growing centralization ofthe state, the constantly in-
Rome was indeed not built in a dav; but bv the beginning ofthe fourth centur]'ofour era it had been built, and the grandiose civic and religious
creasing property holdings of the Emperor (amounting, it is said, to about a quarter of the area of the Empire in Diocletian's time), and the consequent spread ofuniform
organs of the Empire were becomingly housed. Coming in a time of decal', this meant that the wonderful system of working co-ordination
e n g i n e e r i n go f ' t h e c a p i t a l .
which had produced these buildings would wither away through disuse. The tradition of masonrv vaulting on a grand scale was lost in
control in the des i g n i n g o f b u i l d i n g s , e n c o u r a g e dq u i t e g e n e r a l con(brmitv in practice to the architecture and Although Rome's primacy in architecture departcd during the fifth cenlur), its imposing
this manner. Ordinarl., every-day,'r,ernacular'
>-
began to build masonrv domes in churches, the Byzantine style was constituted, in the time of Justinian (specifically, with the design of St S o p h i a i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e ,5 - 1 2 ) . Carolingian designers usually had to be satisfied with cheaper buildings
basilicas roof'ed in
rvood. It is characteristic that thev sought models in the new East Christian sil'le when thela t t e m p t e da m b i t i o u s l a u l t e d b u i l d i n g s , b u t t h e l d i d n o t p o s s e s st h e s o p h i s t i c a t e dt e c h n i q u e s b y which Byzantine works were achieved. Such Carolingian works acquired a local salour because the builders had to do rvhat thev could on
38
P R E - R O M , \ N E S Q U EA N D P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U E S T Y I - F - S
the basis of their Roman commonplace architecture and the wooden architecture of the
ably mark the silhouette of medieval towns. The vigour ofthe utterly un-Roman sky-line ofthese
North. Yet a traditional feature of church polity maintained the need fbr church buildings on a
tolvns is the measure of the local initiatir,e, ima g i n a t i o n , a n d a e s t h e t i cp o u e r w h i c h w a s g e n e rated in Carolingian, Romanesque, and Gothic
grand Roman scale. Originally, each citf in
times.
F-arlv Christendom had had only a single church, and the whole communin'expected to meet for
crme in the Carolingian period and later, built
services at one building. Increase of numbers meant that this would be a large building. Rome was exceptional in possessing three churches
The powerful monasteries, when their turn churches on a comparable scale to house the manl altars, to satisfy the extensive requirements for choir space,and to provide an impres-
which, when they were built, could accommo-
sile setting for processionrl liturgies. Like the
d a t e s u c h i n c l u s i v es e r ri c e s n a m e l y , t h e c a t h e dral of'the Saviour (324, rebuilt as St John
cathedral of a metropolitan centre, the church of a monasterv invariablv dominated its en-
L a t e r a n ) a n d t h e p i l g r i m a g e c h u r c h e so f O l d S t Peter's (323 6; the nave and atrium hnished
semble, even when the conventual buildings themselves were veritable cities. The orderly
a b o u t 4 o o , e p i s c o p i al a t e r ) a n d S t P a u l ' s o u t s i d e -I'hese were built for a the Walls (386-423).
t h o u g h t w h i c h p r o d u c e d t h e s ec o m p o s i t i o n sr e calls the planning which created the Roman
community' which numbered about 5o,ooo at the time. As a matter of course the congregations
colonial cities. The groupings are picturesque. b u t i t i s a n o r d e r e d p i c t u r e s q u e n e s s ,b a s e d o n
stood at the services, chairs being provided for
an organic distribution of functional elements. From the beginning even in Constantine's
dignitaries only. Later, when the chief metro-
time
the medieval cities of the West, being smaller,
church buildings. 'l'o review this process, for better under-
No doubt there was a compelling appeal fbr the bishops and architects of the West alike, in this situation. Fullv r5,ooo peoplecould crowd into the Ottonian cathedral of N{ainz (987 'I'he phenomenon obviousll' points to ro36).; an ideal of church br.rilding whereby the whole population could be accommodated on both the communitJ' and the parochial levels.8 With the disintegration of the Roman state in the West, the bishops gained in importance as
f,
cognizable as Christian; for the pagan crucilbrm buildings were small, and not for congregational uses. By contrast, this special purpose of the church was most obvious: the light construction and thin walls. so different from the voluminous imperial vaulted works, admitted of
standing, we may recall that the first of the new elements to appear was the transept, which
no disguise for the functional interior shapes arising from practical needs.
provided additional capaciq'to one side and ano t h e r o f t h e s a n c t u a r ya n d c h o i r p l a t f o r m s . T h e asceticaE l arly Christiansknown as monai0nt(s,
Pylons and towers were also established by the sixth centur]' as important but ancillary ele-
devoted confraternities.and singers appear to have had a claim on this desirable interior space. In Old St Peter's (323 6) [3] its separatecharac-
ments. Their advent marks the beginning of a verticality which became increasingly characteristic as Early Christian and Carolingian design gave way to later Romanesque, and that in turn to Gothic, where almost every structural
ter was indicated by its narrow entrances from the aisles, constricted as the]'were by columnar screens.Such a T-shaped plan resulted in an ele-
who above all others were desirousof building
vation of bold form which could easily be distin-
noblv fbr the Christian communities, and could
g u i s h e d f t o m t h e c i v i c w o r k s o f t h e a g e .B y t h e
c o m m a n d t h e n e c e s s a r vr e s o u r c e s b e c a u s e o f t h c r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e sw h i c h t h e y i n h e r i t e d f r o m
filih century the Greek as well as the Latin cross plan (the former with arms of equal length, the
thc Roman liovernment. Thus, in an odd way, Roman architectural thought is responsible for the huee bulk of the churches which inefface-
latter with a west arm longer than the others) were also accepted, the latter perhaps suggested by svmbolism. All such buildiqgs were easily re-
ffi Lt^i
,-':--.
3. Rome, Old St l'eter's, 323 6, with additions, ro i. 5oo (the approach, the episcopia, rhe arrrum, the Imperial mausolet). Restoration study. Thc columns flanking the main portals were moved from recessedlateral porticos, filled in when the episcopia wrre built. The Triclinium is omitted (K.J.C.)
a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y ' b o l ds h a p e si n t h e m a s so f t h e
l e a d e r s ;c i r , i c s p i r i t w a s m o u l d e d b y t h e s e m e n ,
P'iiI1, ',; ; d, r.:r
;:t'
the result was strong articulation in plan,
politan centres became entirelv Christian, such inclusive assemblieswere no longer possible,but were able to maintain the old Roman practice.
,i-t ":
and decorative line f-eelsthe vertical imoulse. The pylons ol thc exrerior proprlrea ol the (never finished) late classical temple ofBaalbek were inherited bv a basilican church erected in Its main courtyard by Theodosius. Thus, accidentally, Theodosius's basilica was one of the very first to have a truly monumental entrance
L
way.
'I'his
precedent was probably fbllowed in the f'agadesof the Syrian Early Christian churches, but their pylons or dwarftowers, flanking a porch, were attached to the west fronts, and at once gave an unclassical look to the designs.') Towers for Fortification were a sign ofthe new 'I'hey were occasionally built beside
times.
S1'rian churches during the Late Roman period. In the West the coming of the barbarians and perdistent local war made them importanr; for the church building was usually the mosr capacious and substantial building in the community, and consequently the refuge. 'Lantern' towers, with windows admitting light above the space in front of the altar, were also brought into church architecture on a practical and f unctional basis.l'rIn the East, masonry domes were replacing such towers by a.o. -5oo, and Byzantine architecture was the result; the Early Christian lantern towers live on, to the present day, in the central domes ofByzantine, Armenian, and Russian churches.
r'.O
PRE-ROMANESQUE AND PROTO-ROMANESQT]ESTYLES
THE PREPARATION FOR MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE
spite the lact that the original church was replacedin the sixth century, showedits vitality in later works of considerablehistorical and artisticimportance.Among thesewerethe monasticchurchesofCentulaor Saint-Riquier(79o8oo) [5], Gernrode(96r-twelfthcentury)[75, 76], and Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire(c. ro8o, twelfth century) [zor, zo3]; alsothe cathedrals of Ely (ro83, 1323).374land Avignon (twelfth century) [r94]. St Louis IX, King of France, wasbaptizedin sucha building,of Early Gothic The destrovedGothic style,at Poissl'-sur-Seine. cathedralof Cambrai exemplified the theme
In the West, mere constructional expediency might have caused low towers to be built at the crossing of the nave and transept in basilican churches, where intersecting trusswork is awkward to construct and ugly to behold. A low tower is easily built at the crossing, with the nave and transept roofs stopping against its walls. Windows are easily introduced into such a tower without much extra weight or risk, and thus by the fifth century such lantern towers were much used in the West, even in churches without transepts. The use of church bells provided another practical element which distinguished the new Christian style. Small bells were used in Late Roman times to call the faithful to prayer. The monks used them in their liturgies, and for a long time the bell-ringer stood in the space bet w e e n t h e s a n c t u a r ya n d t h e m o n k s ' c h o i r , w i t h the bell mounted on a roof turret overhead. often above a lantern.ll Becauseall three of'the tower types previously mentioned
fortification, lantern, and belfry
appeared in the design ofthe influential monastic (later collegiate) church of St Martin towers
at f'ours, this building was clearly, from our point of view, proto-medieval [4]. The vertical
4. Tours, St \{artin, as in 47o, restoration studl The elements are certain, but all details are hvpothetical (K J C.) O
5M.
elements had transformed radically and for good the basic Roman basilican theme.12 Aesthetically and symbolically, this is a matter of great importance. The composition of St Martin was not horizontal, self-contained, and inward-
o
15FT.
looking, as classical compositions are; rather it was made up of aspiring and intersecting forms. In St Martin, with its two axial towers, the new dvnamic mode is unmistakable. Once established. this new mode of composition was instinctively accepted in the Roman area leavened by Frankish immigration and versed in nonclassicalartistic modes. Once it was well assimilated in Charlemagne's dominion, the Carolingian Romanesque style was fully constituted. The scheme of the church of St Martin, archaic though it was in medieval terms, and de-
4e. Early South German constructions Brenz, St Gallen. Rcstoration based on excavations by Boda Cichy (K.J.C.). Wooden church, r. 65o, on stones and chassis; successor church, r. 73o, in stone (destroyed)
>-
4I
handsomely. The flamboyant church at SaintRiquier is, like the church of Saint-Quentin, an example of such a Gothic building being carried fbrward and finished in Renaissance times. French colonists brought the new theme to the New World, as is shown by the old church of Saint-Jean-Port-Joli near Quebec (r779). In view ofwhat the Franks and the French achieved with this idea in the development of medieval architecture, there is a happy historic symbolism in the fact that Clovis, their first great king, received the Roman consular insignia in the old church of St Martin at Tours.
CHAPTER 2
THE CAROLINGIANROMANESqUE
N O R T H E R NA R C H I T E C T U RIEN T H E R E I G \ O F C H A R L L M . { G \ E 7. ? r - 8 r - t
in 78.2 fbr the monasterv of Aniane. Ret'erence has already been made to its great reforming abbot, Benedict of Aniane. Nothing remains of
The character of Carolingian Romanesque mav easily be seen in the buildings raised under
the church, reportedlv a magnificent building 'westwork' with a erected on the advice of'
Charlemagne's own patronage. The themes are in general Roman, and the labric continues
Charlemagne. The edi{ice may be ultimatelv responsible for the earlv medier,al flowering of
Roman traditions, but there are evident ex-
church arts in the region. It offered a sumptuous beauty to the sen iceofthe liturgv.r Benedict's project was indeed lbrward-looking, and
amples of Bvzantine and oriental influence. More important still, there is an originality which achieves often captivating effects both 'I'he in architecture and decoration. buildings made up an orderly programme, like the political acts of Charlemagne. Earliest among the churches was a new building at Saint-Denis (later roy'al pantheon). The old church (built about 475 by-St Genevidve and dedicated, according to legend, bv Christ himself, 636?) was replaced, beginning about 75.1, by a new work dedicatedin 775. According to careful studies based on partial excavarion,' this
Following this, during the decade after 7go. came the most characteristically- Northern and energetic ofthe church designs, the reconstruction of the important monastery of Centula or Saint-Riquier, near Abbeville [5]. T'he work was on a very considerable scale, and it was carried out when Angilbert was abbot, the 'Homer' of the Palatine Court and one of its
was a wooden-rool-ed columnar basilica with a spacious transept extending slightll. beyond the
l i v e l i e s t p e r s o n a l i t i e s .H e l e a v e st h e i m p r e s s i o n that he was an e\trovert and a rathel show!' m a n ; a n d p e r h a p s t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i ch a s s o m e -
aisle walls, a lantern tower, and a west end of experimental form. Charlemag;ne's f'ather,
monumental character of his buildings.s LIe
Pepin, was buried at the entrance. To augment the dignity of this part of the church an apse was projected, which would have made the building a 'double-ender' like many notable later Carolingian churches, but t$ o small towers and a porch were ultimatell. built, linking the church with the more usual type of Romanesque church f'acade. This earlv church was b a s e do n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l R o m a n b a s i l i c , r :s e er h e plan, illustration j78. Next among the important churches built b1. Charlemagne was rhai which uas .onr,rr.r.d
E-
it came to full fruition in the North at a later date.
thing to do with the remarkably novel and was linked to Charlemagne b1'mutual afl-ection, and the building had much direct aid fiom C h a r l e m a g n e i n t h e f b r m o f g e n e r o u sf u n d s a n c l the lurnishing of craftsmen to work in stone, m a l b l e , g l a s s ,s t u c c o , a n d w o o d ; m o r e o v e r , t h e great patron ordered bases, columns, and mouldings to be specially transported from Rome. T h e n e r v c h u r c h l v a sd e d i c a t e dt o t h e S a v i o u r and All Saints, but the chicf altar, in the apse, $ a s r c l a t e dt o t h e t o m b o l S t R i u u i e r , a n i r s c c t i c who died in 645.
44
PRE-ROMANESQUE
AND
PROTO-ROMANESQUE
THE CAROT-INGIAN RO[,lANESQUE. 45
STYLES
'. x ru:'lv'AN D'( soZiil '!,,f.-iir,(l ., ,. 'u l i ^ r'.6, , .. i c l i 3 - r q r n ' P : o c a o r c E L(e^'-r'r"r; i t( -
"1il
qlt
1...-';1rl"
':
scheme ol'framing lbr wooden spires has continued in use down to the present
The vaults ofthis whole section of the church served as a platfbrm for a chapel ofthe Saliour in the fbrm ofa tall spire-like central altar space,
t i m e ; i t l v a s d o r . r b t l e sa sn original developrnent in medier,alcarpentrv. Il'the drum and spire
.
' . 9
_
ofthe chapel were clearh didactic in intent: to emphasize the cult of the Saviour in a rather
m a i n c h u r c h , b a s i l i c a n ,w i t h a i s l e s ,a n d a w o o d en roof-. In the middle of the nar,e stood the altar
superstitious period when it tended to be obscured bv devotions to local saints and wonder-
of'the Cross. as is usual in monastic churches.
atilell' elaborated and so d-vnamic:tllvcomposed as to eridencc Illl maturitv in the Carolingian Romanesque st1le. The church rvas about 2-5o {'eet long, and rvith its atrium mcasured about 'I'hc c r o s s i n ga n d t h e m a i n f h g a d e , each crowned bv an elaborate tower, reached a qo feet morc.
h e i g h t o f ' a b o u t I 8 0 f e e t . +J ' h e a t r i u m h a d a r i a l a n d l a t e r a l e n t r a n c e - $ ' a v s ,e a c h w i t h a t o w e r ; t h e p o r t i c o e so f t h e a t r i u m s u p p o r t e d a n u p p e r passagc giving acccss to a chapel installed in each to\ler
the earliest example we know of
this interestingarrangement.
Space to the west was left open lbr congregational use and processions, while the area farther erst was kcpt pri\ate, the main part of it being marked off by a chancel paraper or screcnas the rcgular choir of the monks. Tlvo minor altarswere near the scrcen in front ol'it
form level. The galleries of the westwork were assigned
o r b e s i d ei t ( p e r h a p s i n t h e a i s l e s ) . f'he monks'choir probably extcndedinto the crossing ol the tlansept, and the transept as
t o a b o y s ' c h o i r d u r i n g s e r r , i c e s ;t h e b o v s s a n g with great effect as an angel choir in thc solenn
usual had minor altars (fbur at Saint-Riquier). Here, as wls customary, the monks enteredthe
liturgies, when one or two choirs of men sang in the main church. Two slender round stair turrets of stone flanking the outer vestibule fur-
church by the transept lvhen conring lbr services; typicallr. the altar ncar the cloister door-
q *
_
.
-
,,a1i1,ilil:,,
,.,,.;.tc,
I o l l 8 , c n g r a r c d i n t 6 t z ( l e . l i) , 5 r a n i l n . S r i n t - R i q u i e r . H i r r i u l i m a n u s c r . i p td r a w i n g o f antl skctch restoration as in 3oo (K J C ; rrylr). F,xcarations show that the tower o1'tlrc chapcl ofthe virgin and the Apostles (b\ttom tl'5t) was bascd on a srmbolic dodecagon uith aislcs. not radirting chapcls, and thrt thc clclister {f,s I ler} large tri:tnglc
The scheme wls basilic:rn, uith two arial 'I'ours, rowers,as at St \{artin in but so imagin-
lverc open, as the engravings show, an observer on the pavement at Saint-Riquier would seea most intriguing telescopic efl-ectlrom below. Beyond the westwork lav the nave of the
the fact that at Saint-Riquier the entrance element was an entire vertical church, with vestibule, subsidiarv altar and lbnt below, and a chiefaltar, dedicated to the Saviour, at the plat-
.
a mast.
cut off from the main nave b]' an arched screen and surrounded on the other three sides byaisles and salleries. The placing and bold firrm
workers. The growth of medieval feeling since St N{artin in Tours was built is well shorvn by
,,: '.tir,
'l'his
on a forest of piers and columns. It contained a font and an altar.
Grander in sc:rle and more imaginative still 'westwork', or entrance element, of the was thc m a i n c h u r c h , w h i c h w a s t h e e a r l i e s tr e a l l ) ' i m posing and boldll- articulated fagade in church architecture a historical landmark. At the base there was a vaulted outer vestibule which cont a i n ed t h e t o m b o f A n g i l b e r t a n d a r e m a l k a b l e painted stucco relief of the Nativitl' on a gold mosaic ground, surelv the forerunner of the
s t o o d b e t l v e e nt h e c h o i r a n d t h e m a i n s a n c t u a r y of the church, under the belfry. Stucco reliefi (e.r gipsr) of the Passion,Rcsurrection, and
c a t e t h a t t h e m a s o n r J ' c o n s t r u c t i o no l t h e w e s t work extended upward onll' as f'ar as the base
. { s c e n s i o nd c c o r a t e d t h i s p a r t o 1 ' t h e b u i l d i n g . . { t S a i n t - R i q u i e rl h e c r o s s i n gr o u e r w a s l r v i n
of the round drum, and th:rt this drum, likc the spire above [5], was of wood. l'rvo engraved copies of Hariulf's manuscript show the drum
( a t 4 u a l i s lt o t h e d r u m a n d s p i r e o f t h e c h a p e l o f '
opening up into the spire, :rnd suggest a crissc r o s so f ' b e a m s a t t h e b a s eo f t h e s o i r e . W e h c a r o f a c h u r c h o l ' 7 3 5 - 8 7 a t S r i n t - \ \ ' a n d r i l l c .n e a r
extended castward bct*een ancl bevond thc
Saint-Riquier, in which rhe spire was built about a mast, with the supports of the r,arious stages arranged like horizontal wheels on the
sculptures which gathered about the portals of Romanesque and Gothic churches. Be1'ond this there was an inner vestibule which served as narther or antechurch - in effect a low, sha-
mast.t' Possibly the criss-cross ol beams at the b a s eo f t h e S a i n t - R i q u i e r s p i r e s u p p o r t e d s u c h
dowed western transept rvith its vault carried
L-.
wav was more important than the orher minor altars beciruscrelics placcd there were venerated
nished access to the upper parts of the westwork, and composed beautilulll' with a tall rounded staged tower set over the central space asthe Chronicle of Hariull'shows.5 New studies conducted bv the :ruthor indi-
bl each monk as he cntercd. 1'he bell-ringer
the Saviour, and, like its mate, was flanked by two tall round stair toners. The main sanctuilrv stair towers, composing handsomell. in an arrangement which became tradition:rl. I m m e d i a t c l v e a s t o f t h e c r o s s i n g t h e r e r v a sa sanctuarr bay which contained an altar dedicatedto St Peter, and bchind that thc tombs of' St Riquicr and his two companions. 1'he ba1' seems to have scrved as choir spirce lbr thc
-FF
a6
pne-nouANESQUE A N D P R o r o - R o M A N E S Q U sEr Y L E s
'-fhrone
ol' St Riquier', a semicircular apse paved at a level higher than the nave, and containing the altar of St Riquier with a baldacchino or,er it. This apse was marked offby a screen of six marble columns brought from Rome, and thirteen small reliquaries were placed on the beam. Monrstelies usuallv have, in the sanctuary area, an altar for the chief'ceremonies, including the capitular mass of the day, and a l e s s e ra l t a r w h e r e t h e m o r r o w m a s s i s s a i d . I n this, as in so many other wa)'s, Saint-Riquier ,"o5 6.1,pical.; The wonderf ul design fbr Angilbert's church, dedicated in 7gg, evidentll made a sensation, and echoes of it are perceptible in ecclesiastical
T H E C A R O L T N G T ARNO M A N E S Q U.E; 1 7
There were nine towers in all on Angilbert's m a i n c h u r c h . I t i s t h e 6 r s t k n o w n e x a m p l eo f s o l a r g e a g r o u p o f t o w e r s s y s t e m a t i c a l l va r r a n g e d on one church building. There can be no doubt that similar groups of later date are in debt to the astonishing original. Examples are Saint-B6nigne at Diion Iro8l of with
note o1'the two chapels in the cloister. Of the c o n v e n t u a l b u i l d i n g s i t i s n o t p o s s i b l et o s p e a k ;
a l o n g d e v e l o p m e n t .F 6 c a m p i n N o r m a n d y ' h a d an early'west\\.ork, fiom which, perhaps, the
thel'', like the atrium, have been omitted from
Befbre quitting Saint-Riquier we should take
the miniature, and have been entirelv replaced 'I'he arrangement of the old on a different plan. 'trianptular', offers cloister itself, reported as
Psalter demonstrates, built a cathedral in the grcat da!'s of Archbishops Ebbo (8r6 4I) and
dilficulties, but the chapels appear to be drawn
Hincmar (8+-s8z). This building wasdedicated in 86.:, antl it sccms rvithout question to have
cated to the Ever-Virgin
with knorvledge and care.e The chapel dedit h e H o l r ' - { p o s t l e sw a s o r i g i n a l l y a s p i r e - c h u r c h . dodecagonal with an ambulator.v. It v'as a realll'
t o w e r a t t h c c r o s s i n g ,a n d t h c a p s e w e r e s h o w n i n s o m c d e t a i l . I r r o m S a i n t - R i c l u i e r ,R e i m s , a n d a l s o C - o r b i ct h e m o t i l ' r v e n t t o G e r m a n l .
primitir e or
o f ' C o r b i c i n P i c a r d y 'i n s p i r e d t h a t , d e d i c a t e di n 8 8 . 5 ,a t C i o r v e r o n t h c \ \ ' e s e r l z z , z 3 l . I n f l c t , the design of Saint-Riquicr had an enduring succcssin Germanl', where its influencc can be traced from gcneration to generation, through 'l'he centuries. cathedral of \[ainz comes to
6e and n. -{achen, thc palacc. and thc palatine Chaoel. l a r g e l v 7 q u t ( o . s .p l a n , a n d m o d c l u f r , 1 f , ; h r l , . n F i r r g u t
Mother of God and
cxciting northern version o1'San \''itlle in Ravenna. The other chapel (of St Benedict and
The westuork of Reims uas the inspiration
old work l6e and nl.
sion to the vertical impulse than the executed work. All were intended to be much more like
tower-like lvcst block with an entrance and \,estibule and a chapel above this, underwent
of that of thc cathedral of Hildesheim (dedicated in 872. sincc rebuilt), and the westrvork
the Holl' Abbots) was a barn church of the 'r'ernacular' t 1 ' p e ,d o u b t l e s sn o r t h -
:.:;,f,
ern, rvhich lve hare alreadl' considcred. This chapel, the lean-to roofs or,er the transept and lateral parts of'the chapel of the Saviour in the m a i n c h r . r r c h ,t h e c r e s t i n g o f t h e c h u r c h n a v e ,
,trr
a n d t h c t h r e e r c m a r k a b l c s p i r e s ,a l l c o n f i r m t h e northern imprint on the architecturc of'SaintRiquier. \Ve pass now to a considerationof the bcst
known of' Charlemagne's buildings, the Palamind: the building ot 978 and its successive tine f.hapel or llinster at -{achen (AixJaC h a p c l l e ) " ' [ 6 - r o ] . I t t e a c h e si n t e r c s t i n g l e s s o n s transfbrmirtions through 85o 1-.earsare mcrelv v a r i a t i o n so n t h e C e n r u l a t h e m e ' [ 7 8 , j i 3 ] .
and its arrangement about an oblong courtvard. The Sala Regalis, with an apse added bv Charlemagne fbr the throne, was at the north, on one
seven, and Chartres with six at least. All these buildings as planned p;avemuch llller expres-
Saint-Riquier in external effect.
becn reprcsented on Hincmar's sarcophagus, where the \lestern torver, the nave, the lantern
honour of the Virgin bl Pope Leo III in 8o5, and by good fortune has come down to us almost entire, though it underwent rcstoration in g81
courtyard also survives, surrounded bv later buildings which incorporate some vesriges of
so on to the Early Gothic cathedrals such as Tournai [339] planned with nine, Laon with
architecture fbr centuries. The west*ork theme, that is the theme of a
m o t i f p a \ s e d t o E n g l a n d . R e i n r s ,a g r e a t a r l i s t i c centre in the ninth centurv, as the Utrecht
It is easy to divine the general lavout of the group as it was in Charlemagne's time. T'he p a l a c eh a s r e t a i n e d i t s o l d a r i s , n o r t h a n d s o u t h .
and r88r. and has consequential Gothic and Renaissance additions- The area of the palace
nine towers, Santiago Irz3] planned with nine, Cluny Ir.19] with seven, and roor-r?
influences in the north. It was designed bv Odo of Metz and begun in 792. The building has alwal'shad cathedrtl rank; it was dedicated in
rcgarding Roman antl B1'zantine architectural
E-
o l ' t h e s h o r t s i d e s ,w h i l e t h e l o n g s i d e sh a d o t h e r a p a r t m e n t s a n d g a l l e r i e s ,f u n c t i o n a l l v d i s p o s e d . 'I'here were quarters lbr officials, clerics, and servitors, for the School, and for the assemblv. 'I'he imperial aparrmenrs were dienified and
48
PRE-ROMANESQUEAND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES
courtvard could be crowded if need be with
ample; they included a bath and an audience chanrber. f'here is no doubt that the group \r'as intended to be reminiscent ol'the Lateran Palace in Rome, which gave its name to a part of'the
about Tooo people. The Emperor could make official appcarances at the tribune in the wcst-
establishment, and suggested the placing of a
the laqade of the Palace ot the Exarchs in
bronze statue brought from ltaly. Reminiscences of Rar,enna also a Roman capital are
work o1'the church. which rvith its niche recalls Ravenna. Flanking spiral stairwa-vsin cylindri-
m o s t c l e a r l y 's e e n i n t h e d e s i g n o f t h e C h a p e l ,
cal turrets Eiaveaccessto the throne room in the tribune of the Minster, and continued upward
which fbrmed the south end of the ensemble.
to a chapel rvhich containcd Clrarlemagne's
R e b u i l d i n g a n d a d d i t i o n s h a v e d e s t r o v e dt h e unity of the Minster gioup, which, in the beginning, had a noble and easill' understood monu-
remarkable collection of relicsrr [(r,t and al. f'he \Iinster itsclf was a compler composition arranged about a tall vaulted octagonal 'I'he westwork connected the
mentality. The church building was the climar
central space.
ol- a vast centralized s)'mmetrical composition m e a s u r i n g a b o u t 3 o o f - e e to n t h e p r i n c i p a l a n d
Nlinster at the tribune level with the court and the palace. The throne was in the tribune,
transverse axes. The whole design wrs more
directlv over the main portll
elaboratethan that of San Vitale in Ravenna.
F rom each side of the thronc area the tribune continued as an annular gallerl-, divided from
which obviouslv inspired it. There wasa monu-
of the church.
m e n t a l e n t r a n c e w a \ a t t h e r , r c s l e r ne r r r e m i t l
thc octagonal central spaceby columnar screens,
of the main axis, lbllowed by an atrium with
to a sanctu:lrv of its own opposite the tribune. At the ground level a decp porch led to the
g a l l e r i e so n t w o l e v e l s r v h i c h w a s d o m i n a t c d b y the tall westu'ork i'acade of the church. l'he
Palatine Chapel, 792 8o5, Iigade, lateral view, and interior 7 to g. Aachen,
interior [gJ. Therc the visitor finds an annular
..4 _.,rii
>E;
I
50
pRE-RoMANESQUE AND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES
aisle, vaulted and rather dark, which, like the gallery, embraces the octagonal central space. This annular aisle led to a sanctuary'opposite
carried on generous diaphragm arches. The tri-
and here, on the diaphrxgm arches, eight ramp-
The net effect produced by the building is not Roman, yet there is an assurance and urbanity which make it a worthy successor to the works of Antiquitl'. In spite of its resemblance
ing tunnel vaults are raised. These come into the octagon above the screened arches and pro-
to San Vitale in Ravenna, it is more Roman than Byztntine. Rich fittings, including a mosaic on
metrically' placed on a cross axis, one to the
vide an unyielding support for the clerestory w a l l a n d t h e h i g h v a u l t . S m a l l p i l a s t e rb u t t r e s s e s
north and one to the south ofthe main building. Unlike the galleries, the annular aisle opens
t h e c e n t r a l v a u l t ( r e s t o r e di n I 8 8 I ) , m a r b l e c o l umns and bronze parapets brought fiom Italv, an organ ofByzantine type (8rz or 856, now
eli-ectively.
the entrance and below the upper sanctuarv, where the great Gothic axial chapel norv stands, and also provided accessto twin chapels ofaisled basilican type, now destroved, lvhich were sym-
anglesthus formed leave the cardinal and diagonal ba1''sof the gallery with a square shape,
stiffen the exterior corners of'the clerestorv
on the central space through undivided, big,
The tall octagonal central sprce has a very
plain arches, well proportioned with respect to
special character. We must think if it as en-
the arches and screensof'the gallery above. The exterior wall on both levels is ingeniously ar-
riched rvith several altars and their liturgical furniture, but even so its tallness and the per-
ranged with sixteen sides. In the aislesthe cardinal and diagonal sides join the eight arches of
sistent senseof compartmentation make it seem 'I'his verv different fi'om an ordinarv church.
the octagon in supporting groin vaults, and
lends colour to the idea that Odo of Nletz con-
clever triangular penetrations fill out the vault 'lhese same sides have on the remaining sides. ramping triangular vaults above the gallery,
ceir,ed it basically' as a tomb house, but the
lost), a splendid pulpit (gift of Emperor Henrl' II, about ror4), and a huge light crown (given by Frederick Barbarossa in r r68) contributed a superficial Byzantinism, to be sure. (n fact, however, the theme of San Vitale was radically simplified. Brick and the Bvzantine technique of light terracotta rault construction uere not available; the warped and domed Byzantine forms were replaced by tunnel and groin vaults,
similar and slightl5' earlier dodecagon at Saint-
and on the highest level by an octagonal domical (or cloister) vault, all of Roman inspilation. The
Riquier was nevertheless a chapel.
fact that Roman ruins had to be demolished to obtain the necessary stone, and that rich materials were scavenged elsewhere, shows what a special effort the Minster was. Linked by date(8o6)and by programme with the Minster at Aachen is the interesting Palatine group at Germignr,-des-Pr6s Ir r-r j], near
I
S a i n t - B e n o i t - s u r - L o i r e , r 2b u i l t f b r T h e o d u l p h , bishop of Orl6ans, a Goth from Septimania (Provincia Narbonensis), and member of the Imperial court circle. 'I'here are slisht remains o f t h e p a i n r e dh a l l sa n d t h e r m a eo f r h e p a l a c e i,rs o r a t o r y o f ( i o d t h e C r e a t o r a n d P r e s e r v e ro f A l l Things existed, with little change, unril the nineteenth century.'r Heretofbre we have seen how Carolingian architects used Roman, Earlv Christian, Byzanrine, and Germanic lbrms. .\t Germigny-des-Pr6s the tincture is Bvzantine and oriental.I Moreorcr. the other eramples are grand in scale Germignv_des_pr6s is minus_ ; cute - a charming architectural plavthing. 'I'here ts a tower-like square central s p a c e .t h e m i d d l e one of a set of nine vaulted comDartments sustained on four piers in rhe middic of rhe buildIo. Aachen, Palatine Chapel as represcntcd on the Krrlsschrcin
L-_
t r and I:. Gcrntignv-dcs-l)rds, C)ratorr', flo(r rcbuilt ;867 76, plan antl r icw h'om thc eirst (the mlin apsc orig-inallr had fl:rnking absidiolcs)
<2
P R E - R O ] \ T A N E S Q U E A N DP R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U E S T Y L E S
THE CAROLINGIA\
regrettably becausethe rich fittings ofthe chapel - the furniture in white and coloured marble, the metalwork, and the fabrics have all been
But the type is one which we owe to the Roman world, and its effective development took place in Armenia and the Byzantine hnds. The general arrangement is anticipated in the Roman praetorium at Phaena (Mousmieh, near
lost.' Connected with Germigny-des-Prds by its horseshoearches and their stucco decoration is the little church of San Benedetto at llals or Malles, near Trent. It is dated about the year
D a m a s c u s ) , r 5b e f o r e a . o . r 6 9 , a n d i t a p p e a r si n t h e c a t h e d r a lo f E t c h m i a d z i n a s r e b u i l t i n 6 2 8 . r 0 By the tenth centurv it was established in the Eastern Empire as the typical 'lbur-column
8oo. The horseshoe arches, three in number, look in upon an open, box-like central space, which is the nave. There are traces of fresco
church', which is the most important of all the later Bvzantine church types.
decoration. Near-by Mtinster in Graubiinden (Grisons), in Switzerland, is a contemporarv add more monumental example of the same
The chapel at Germigny-des-Pr6s antedates an-v knorvn Bvzantine example, but the strong oriental flavour makes it clear that the type was not originated in Neustria. Yet something must
arrangement, thoup;h without
Another building, in old Neustria, with finer wall-work than those which we have considered, brings up the question of the Gallic masons. It is doubtful that Notre-Dame-de-la-Basse(Euvre at Beauvais actually dates fiom the life-
t a i n o f ' t h e g r e a t C a r o l i n g i a n b a s i l i c a s ,t h o u g h , u n l i k e t h e m . i t h a d r h e m a i n e n t r a n c ec u t t i n g through the western apse. He verv ingeniously and picturesquely placed Carolingian arcaded 'flving screens' under the tower walls, where the light plays very pretfily on them. The rather
time of Charlemagne, but after being accepted as Carolingian, it is now assigned to the period of 987 98.le It is a fragment of the compound early medieval cathedral establishment of Beau-
barn-like nave is a much later addition. The central space was lbrmerly about tlvelve
vais. The entire tenth-century church of Saint-Pierre, and all the easterlv parts of Notre-Dame made way tbr the celebrated
l'eet higher than it is at present, and formed a tall lantern and bellry. Exactll'how this was arranged in Theodulph's time is lar from certain,
Gothic building Notre-Dame-de-laIt+]. Basse-(Euvre was a handsomely proportioned basilica with a plain interior and a sreep roof
fbr the oldest drawings seem to show a Romanesquecentral tower; but we may perhaps suppose that this was a reconstruction resulting
i n g . O n t h e m a i n a n d t r a n s v e r s ea x e s t h e r e a r e t u n n e l r , a u l t sa t a n i n t e r m e d i a t el e v e l , w i t h a p s e s just bevond, and the corner compartments \\ ere
f i o m a h r e i n t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y . I n a n v c a s et h e tall lantern and belfry is a Germanic scheme, and the oriental elements were) so to speak,
vaulted with little domes on squinches at a lorver level. The corner compartments at the eirst opened on lateral apses flanking the main
arrangedaround and below it.rt
a p s e .T h e o r i e n t a l f l a v o u r o f t h e b u i l d i n g i s d u e t o h o r s e s h o ea r c h e si n p l a n a n d e l e v a t i o n . ' f h e s e
fi'angaised'Arch6ologie, has left us rvith an in-
were certainly inspired by Visigothic art, and t h e p l a n a n d e l e v a t i o no f ' t h e b u i l d i n g m a r a l s o have been inspired b1' old Christian work in Spain.
the horseshoe
arches.
be conceded to the Carolingian architect. He 'double-ender'like laid the church out as a cer-
r.3.Gcrnrigni-des-l)r6s,Oratorr',tlo6, rcbuilt r867 76, interior
ROM.1),IESQUE 5
A brutal and ignorant restoration of r86776, carried out over the protests of the Soci6t6 a c c u r a t e m o d e r n c o u n t e r fe i t o f t h i s i m p o r t a n t Carolingian monument. Some fragments of the original were incorporated in the reconsttuction. Interesting remains of its fine decoration in stucco lvere destrol'ed or denatured, the more
b-_
(Euvre, r4. Bcauvais,Notre-Dame-de-la-Basse eighthcenturl( i) or 987-98
which gives much characler ro the finc gable, adorned by a great cross, on the l'aqade. The
sionally used, but such masonry was ordinarilv confined to quoining or alternale coursing. as
wall-work is regular and excellent, with patternwork in the masonry over the windows. Other tragments of such construction, datable to the tenth and early eler.enth centuries. point ro a w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e ds c h o o l i n r h e n o r t h a n d , n e s to l ' France. The 'Gallic masons' of rhe resion had an established reputation, which was well deserved. Texts speak of heavv work in larse cut stone blocks more antiquorun which *"r-oaar-
seen in the tenth-century works for the monks of Saint-Philibert at Grandlieu and at Tournus, 'Gallic where masons' were obvious[v emoloved [24, g9). f'he more usual Gallic wall-work of good character was composed of much smaller materials - a rough core ofrubble enclosed by neatll' cut facing-blocks of stubbv rectangular lbrm, set with wide mortar ioints. Pattern-work facing often recalls the barbarian r/oisazzy'stvle.'where
54
THE CAROLINGIAN ROMANF:SQUE 5q
p R E - R O N I A N E S Q U EA N D P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U E S T Y L E S
everything becomes decoration'. but it was derived from the classicRoman 0Pern(reticulatum, sl)icatum,mittum). Occasionally there are whole walls of pattern-work, interspersed sometimes
eighth-centurl' church o1'the monastery (at Lorsch) there was a large open court, and the
with degenerate gable and panel decoration in relief. The work of the Gallic builders may be traced to England: Benedict Biscop called for
ever, the Lorsch gatewa-vwas built as a threearched open hall, like a propl'laeum illogically
G a l l i c m a s o n sa b o u t 6 8 5 , t o b u i l d J a r r o w " ' I r 5 ] .
transformed into a chapel, sometimes rvrongll' identified rc the tcclesia xaria, achapel of'about 86o attached to the church. Nor is this trans-
gateway stood free near the entrance to it, like a Roman triumphal arch in its forum;21 how-
formation at Lorsch out of line, fbr the propylaeum of Old St Peter's had an altar of St
standing unattached.Abbot Richbod is known to have replacedthe wooden monastery build-
r5. Jarrow, wall-work,r. 685
.. 8oo r6. Lorsch, monaster!',gatewa-v,
'l'he
ings in stone,and the gateway may have lliled to be speciall.vrecorded on this account, for such propvlaea were used in the ceremonial monastic
accomplishments ofearll' masons prepared the wal' fbr immense Early Romanesque constructions at Poitiers. at Chartres, and elsewhere in the Loire country. 'l'he famous three-arched gate\!a!.at Lorsch seems to be connected somehou (perhaps
time when Charlemagne himself was lamiliarly
Another curious combination of Carolingian medievalism and classical revivalism involving
time an architcctural revival lvhich was archaiz-
Old St Peter's occurrcd at Fulda. The first church there was founded by St Bonil'acc (W.vnfrith, the great English missionarl') in 742; the
idcas set forth in the major buildings have a basic esque architecture. The Basse-(Euvre at Beau-
monastery,one of the great lights ol'northern Europe, was founded in 744. A small church of
work. Lorsch, Fulda, and the Roman churches
t h r o u g h V e r d u n a n d N 1 e t z )w i t h t h e i r r v o r k , b e masonr\'. This f-eatureand the remarkable composite capitals, and other sophisticated details,
St Peter's in Rome [r]. where great visiting dignitaries were received. Lorsch repeats the g e n e r a ls h a p e ,t h e a r c h e s ,t h e c o l u m n s , a n d t h e
point to it as an interesting Carolingian example ofclassicalrevivalism anacademicdesignsuch
windows of the propy'laeum of Old St Peter's. A corresponding three-arched gateway was
as might be expected to issue lrom the court of Charlemagne Ir6]. In front of'the important
built at Cluny also. The latter became part of t h e a b b o t ' s o a l a c e .w h i l e t h e o n e a t L o r s c h w a s
cause of the excellence ol the pattern-work
i.rg
but it was f'ar more than that. The new
importance for the wholc historv of Romanr,aisstands fbr the fine tradition of Gallic mason
St Boniface, who was martvred in 754, were brought to the monastery. To gir,c them a pro-
ed Roman architecture. Aachen with its relative
northern vigour and bravura which transformsimplicitv stands asa northern interpretation ofa Bvzantine theme, representinB the old Roman
ofthe new nave,on the model ofOld St Peter's
i d e a o l s u b s t a n t i a l s t r u c t u r e w h i c h s u r v i r , e si n
in Rome, where, in fact, the transept was at the w e s t .T h e e n d c o m p a r t m e n t s o f O l d S t P c t e r ' s ,
the hear'1'Romanesque of medieval Germany.
and even their bulls-eye windows, were reproduced at Fulda; furthermore, the length of'the
ceptibilitl' to Byzantine and oriental influences, and its greater receptiveness to sophistications
capital,in Constantine's golden age ol'Roman tmperial Christianity. The Carolingian architects turned aside lrom buildings of intermediate date which had resulted from the rise ofByzantine power, the influx oforiental monks, a n d t h e s u c c e s s i o no f G r e e k and Syrian popcs. Santa Anastasia (about 8oo), Santo Stefano
L-.
Thus, in the sum, we find in Charlemagne's
stand fbr the will to make Rome live again in a classicalrerival. Saint-Riquier stands lbr the
A comprehensive recent studv convincingly brings out the importance of Old St Perer's in the Carolingian revi'r,al.2:Old St Peter's stood for the last glorious moments of the ancient
rect original of the Lorsch gatewa]. was obl i o u s l l ' t h e p r o p l ' l a e u m o f ' s i m i l a r d e s i g na t O l d
called Flavius Anicius Caelusbv '\lcuin.
75 r was rebuilt after 7go in the lbrm of a basilican nave with its apse flanked bv tlvo round towers, as at Saint-Riquier. The relics of
western transept, z5o f-eet,is close to that ofthe great original. Behind the ncw apse a large courtyard was arranged, as at the cathedral of R o m e ( S t J o h n L a t e r a n ) . - l - h en e r a ' w o r ka t F u l d a was proiected in 8oz, dedicated in 8 r g, and provided with its uestern cloister in 8zz.
liturgies as processional stations, iust like other parts of'the conventual establishment. I'he di-
basilicas in Rome which, by their imitation of I'eaturesof Old St Peter's, show the tendency to look into Rome's own past for inspiration, at a
Mary and could be usedasa church upon occasion , as, for example, when the emperor \\as received at the \iatican Basilic:r.
p e r s e t t i n g , a t r a n s e p t a n d a p s ew e r e b u i l t w e s t
L
degli Abessini (befbre8r5), and Santa Prassede ( a b o u t 8 r 7 ) a r e r i g h t l y a d d u c e d a s e x a m p l e so f
Finalll', Germigny-des-Prds t1'pifiesGaul'ssus-
than Germany'; thus it is a fbrerunner of the acc o m p l i s h e d . s u b t l e R o m a n e s q u eo f F r a n c e .
C H L I R C HA R C H I T E C T U R E I N ' f I I E N O R T H E R NP A R TO F T H E E M P I R E U \ D E R 1 ' I I FL, A T E R C A R O L I N G I A N S Germany The fhmous manuscript plan ol'r. ,t.o.8zo in the monastic librarv ol'St Gallzr lr7] was doubtless preparcd in the ambit of Benedict of'Aniane, or 'Beseleel, of Einhard himself , that the man filled with the spirit of God, in wisdom and in unders l a n d i n ga n d i n k n o w l e d g ea n d i n a l l m a n n e r o f workmanship', lirst commissioner of works and director ol the imperial workshops. Einhard,
.56
P R E - R O N { A N E S Q U EA N D P R O T O - R O I \ t A N E S Q U E S T Y I , T , S
who came from the monasterv of Fulda shortly after 7go to be a pupil of Alcuin in the Palace School of Aachen, was intellectually a classicist.
across assigned to the hostel for poor wayf'arers and the quarters for servitors, horses, and larm
He became the personal lriend and adviser of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious.2a Hence the plan of St Gall presents an autho-
ber that the existence of the monks lbr whom
rized conception ofa large, well-organized monas.terl',which might have been built in any prosperous part of the Carolingian realm. It is now clear that the layout was drawn up after a council of 8 r 6 at Inden, near Aachen, and this somewhat imperf-ect copv sent with alternative dim e n s i o n sb - vA b b o t H e i t o o f R e i c h e n a u( 8 o 6 - 2 3 )
**-
]
a n i m a l s ( i n c l u d i n g a p i g g e r - r ) ,w e m u s t r e m e m -
!
the group was built was a retired existence, in-
4 t L
terior to the monastery and centred on the cloister ancl the altar. The ancillary'buildings fbrmed a s o r t o f r i n d a b o u t t h e e s s e n t i a kl e r n e l o f c h u r c h and cloister. From the monks' point of view all the ancillarv buildings were in the background n o t i n t h e f b r e g r o u n d . a s t h e v a p p e a rt o t h e a p 'I'he proaching visitor. terrain to the east of'a monastic group tends to be someuhat private;
to Abbot Gozbert of'St Gall (8r6-37), who had
g u e s t sa r e l i k c l y t o b e p l a c e dt o t h e n o r t h , m e n i a l
not attended the council.
activities to the south. and service courts to the
f'he method of drawinp; and the fact that the plan was not closely folloq'ed after the oldest parts of the church rvere built (at the east, 83o-
west in the tradition:rl monastic lavout; this is
5) have given the impression that it was merely a
across the St Gall plan. On it an ample walled
diagrammatic lay'out, which is f'ar from being
avenue ertcnds for r6o f'cet from the westerlv
the case. It could easily be translated into mo'l'he la1'dern form and built with little change. out was in fact modular (4o-foot squales, z1-
tem of thc main estahlishment. The importance
",I
of'this ke1-point of crrculation is signalized b1 the presence of two cylindrical towers, each
r!
lbot sub-module) as Walter Horn has shown. 'l'hus we see that the Roman tradition of modu-
with a chapel at the summit.'Ihe
suggestion for
towers came ultimatelv from
the stair towers of the narthex
cluded within a rectangle,slightly diminished at the south-lvest becauseof'a wane in the parch-
ol
outskirts of the monastery to the entrancc svs-
the ctlindrical
1'he group was intended to be constructed on
DC^MIiJ\YI BCr'E
Only one longitudinal axis luns entireh
lar construction was present in Carolingian
I'airly ler,el ground; fbr the whole scheme is in-
CALEFACTARf
true at St Gall.
rvork, and it was without doubt transmitted to later times.
to measure about .16o b1 64o 3o,1-millimetre 'I'he Carolingian f'eet. church nave with its lpses
tico, *'hich looked across a little garden strip towards the western apse, and gave entrance on
was to be about joo feet long, and with its aisles about go l-eetwide; the transept was to be about
e a c h s i c l eo l t h e a p s e t o a n a i s l e o ( ' t h e c h u r c h .
surprised to 6nd the western or approach side occupied by an area 45o i'eet wide and r4o f'eet
t IJ
--1 I .lI f - - -T- i ' l rA
l 1
(: l:i
iT
L
- - ti']rT
7 l,/RN E R.f ,
IAL^loNRYl
tl W;:,ti1
KIT'hEN
B^EW er BAKEHOUST
towers 1rere attached outside a semicircular por-
I
i
rzo feet across, and the cloister about roo feet In imagination we shall visit this group asit is known from rhe plan. When as tisitors we are
I
.1
[:-t r o l -]trrFR
t:-fl
monasteries ofien showed lights in such towers. 'I'hc arrangement fbr St Gall, as shorvn on the plan, difl'ers Irom all of the others, for thc
frt
F]
F,___ill'i,l Fli I oil
-l-
been built at Fulda, Aachen, and Saint-Riquier before the plan of St Gall was made.r5 Earl'r'
ment. Various small elementslike beds, which indicate scale, show that the great rectangle was
square.
' ''i'^" o I
HOSTEI (?)
r 7 . P l a nl b r a m o n a s t c r t c, . 8 z o . Basedon a diagramin the ChapterLibrrrr_r,St Gall. Some*hat rcsularized. small satcllite b u i l d i n g so m i t t e d .G r i d o f ' . 1 o - f(tr z r b - r ' n e t r c ) squarcsin the church, somcwhatmore looscll appliedelsewherc,basedon the church axis
2 ts a
E-.
F0^ !irrNRy
CAOPER'
i: :i :1
tl
oa I I lrRyrN6l hourE I I
JERf;ra?t q/qEJ
IAEif
]
E E:i [;I EE [;;]
I
!r1 rLJ
q8
p R g - n o n A N E S Q U EA N D P R o r o - R o r , t A N E s Q U Es r Y L E s
Adjoining the cornersofthe church there were
was square, and contained the high altar, dedi-
t r v o v e s t i b u l e sa c c e s s i b l ef i o m t h e p o r t i c o . T h a t to the lefi led to a whole range of residential,
cated to St Gall, set over a crrpt. l'he altar in the adioining eastern apse (pendant to that of St
s c h o o l , a n d h o s p i t a l b u i l d i n g s . T h e v e s t i b u l et o
Peter) was dedicated to St Paul. At the left of
t h c r i g h t g a v ea c c e s st o t h e H o s p i c e , t h e C l o i s t e r , and (be-lond a wall) to the menial parts of the 'l'he c h u r c h . w h i c h c o n t i n u e st h e establishment.
the sanctuarl' was the scribes'room, lvith thc
main axis, was bv f'ar the most important indi-
a f'ew hundred codices. in rrddition to the neces-
not a large room, fbr the medi-
vidual element. The old plan shows it with a
sarv service books. At the right ofthe sanctuarv was the sircristv, lvith the restrl- above, and an
i n 8 o z r g , w i t h a n a p s e i r t e a c he n d .
annexe where sacramental hosts and chrism
For the western apse,dedicated to St Peter,
were prepared. The passageslbr cilculation in
the lirst designer sacriliced the imposing axial rista which entering risitors erpect in great 'lhe churches. s m a l l l a t c r a l e n t r a n c e si n d i c a t e
the nave u'erc prolonged across the transcpt, gir,ing accessto the dir,isions there, and to thc the church to
sevcnteen. 'l'he monks' entrance fi'om the cloister u as b1'
nevcr be more than incidental. T'he spccial
wa1'of the south transept; once arrived at the
c h a r a c t e ro f t h e m o n a s t i c r e g i m e a l s o s h o u s i n
crossing, he tbund the main sanctuarl to his leli towards the western apse.
the pavement area, instead of being openr was c u t u p b r p a r a p c t s c r e e n si n t o a s e r i e so l ' c o m -
c l o s u r e ,a n d t h u s w a s d e s i r a b l ea n d n a t u r a l i n a m o n a s t i c c h u r c h . B e c a u s eo f i t s p r e s t i g ci n n l o n -
partments, each with an altar, and accessiblebv
astic architecture, the arrangement came to bc
paths, somewhat liko corridors. These wals
u s e d i n c a t h e d r a l st o o , w h e r e i t w : r s m u c h l e s s
w e r e a l s ou s e d a s p r o c e s s i o np a t h s .
appropriatc.
Thus we find the nar e divided, lrom west to
church to a small curved courtlard, and so intcr the monastic quarters. These cannot be des-
placed at cifix (with a larse crucifir, t_v-picall-v''
cribecl here: thc reader mrrst be reI'erred to tl-re
the rltar), and the space in liont of the eastern ( s i n g e r s ' )c h o i r . E a c h o l ' t h e a i s l e sh a d f b u r c h a -
diagram Ir7], or fbllow the itinerarl-, with a detailcd commentarv on the monasterl"s life, in
p e l s , m a k i n g t r v e l v ec o m p a r t m e n t s i n a l l w i t h i n
Note 26.
t h e n a r e a r e a . { n d t h e c o m f a r t m e n t a t i o nc o n -
What is known of the tvpe of lbbric in all of
tinued in the transcpt, rvhich had a chapel and
t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s? T h e c h u r c h c e r t a i n l y ' ,a n d a s
an Apostles' altar in each arm, and the monks'
much of the remainder ls possible,hacl well'l'he rooling was o1'timber. built walls of stone.
T h e s a n c t u a r va t S t G a l l h a d a s p c c i : r lh i s t o r i cal interest. Here were sung at lcstival-time thc o l d e s t o l - e x t a n t t r o p e s , c o m p o s e d b 1 -t h e m o n k Notker
the starting-point fbr the historl. of
mcdieval drama and lvric. The sanctuary bav
One would expect that this vert. important e s t a b l i s h m e n ta t S t G a l l w o u l d b e s u r r o u n d e d bv a stockade, if not an actual girdle wall, em-
with either framed or masonry rvalls. In some casesthe outer chambers were carried entirelv around the central space, as in the Almonrv and the School, while in other cases the Almonrl. kitchen is an example - the smaller rooms occur
p h a s i z i n gt h e f a c t t h a t i t w a s a w o r l d i n i t s e l f . S t Gall was, however, insufficiently protected when the Hungarians attacked it earlv in the tenth centur]. Of course, e\-en rhough it was self-centred, a great monastcr-v did look outw a r d . I t h a d i t s v a r i o u s p o s s e s s i o n sl l . o m u , h i c h it received supplies, its various ecclesiastical dependencies, its associarionswith other nrona s t e r i e sa, n d i t s c o n n e x i o n sw i t h R o m e . Once a monastery was well established, the m o n L s d e v o le d t h e m s e l l e st o m a n a e i n g i t s o p e r ations, rather than to labouring with their own hands. The number of serr.itors.and artisans w o u l d b e a t l e a s te q u a l t o t h e n u m b c r o f e c c l e s i -
t 8 . I n g e l h e i mp, a l a c er,. 8 r o
The great axis of St Gall continued from the
east, into the western choir, the Chapel of St John Baptist (with a fbnt), the chapel o1'the cru-
choir between.
row apartments at the side, and which must, therefore, have looked somewhat like basilican churches. Such buildings might be constructed
have been considered fanciful; the truth seems to be that thev were a familiar part of thc architectural scene in Carolingian times. The subsidiary buildings as represented on the plan give us a lively idea of the lost traditional wooden
e n c l e r ' a r r a n g e m e n t i n c r e a s e d t h e s e n s eo f e n -
'vernacular'
architccture of the North in the Middle Ages a fact of great intercst and sis_ nificance.
right and the minor altars stretching off to the -I'he 'doublc-
w a s b a s i l i c a n ,w i t h n a v e a n d a i s l e sl i k e t h e r a s t ancient churches designed fbr public assembh',
the wide spansbeing trussed and coveretlwith tin or shingles. NIan1. of the lesser buildings were o1'timber or half-timber and roofed with
00
shingles, while modest structures like stablcs, p e n s , a n d h e r d s m e n ' s s h e l t e r sm i g h t b e o f w a t -
000
L-
qq
tle work and thatch. On looking at the plan ofst Gall one is strucli with the number of subsidiary buildings which have a central hall with nar-
along one side onlr'. It is worth noting that such one-sided buildings are lrequently represented in Carolingian miniatures; they abound, lbr instance,in the Utrecht Psalter (about 83.u). Thel'
c r v p t , w h i c h d o u b t l e s s h a t l a n a l t a r a l s o ,r a i s i n g the number of altars within
out regard to public attendance, which can
the interior arrangement. Although thc church
r1 11
librarl.above
e v a l l i b r a r i e s r v e r en u m b e r e d i n s c o r e so r a t n o s t
s i n g l e t r a n s e p t , a n d , l i k c F u l c i a ,n e w l v c n l a r g e d
that the lunction of the building is diferent. 'Opus Dci' is perlbrmed quite withThe monks'
l
THE CAROI-IN(;IAN ROMANESQUE
00 00
o000ga00g
6o
p n n - n o t r A N E S Q U EA N D P R o r o - R o M A N E S Q U Es r Y L E s
astical persons, and might be more. The reformed orders, whose members performed more manual work, usually had less to offer the
monly used to give monumental character to
reviving medieval world than the illustrious institutes which stror,e to be intellectual and
rvell as in the Lateran Palace at Rome during this period. The second court at Ingelheim was
artistic capitals for their respective regions, granted that to serve as agricultural and indust-
semicircular; the festival hall, which lay be-
rial capital of a region was indeed a great work
forms predominated in this palace.
fbr a monasterv to perform.
We are fortunate in having a description o1' the paintings at Ingelheim in an account br
Another ensemble of considerable impor-
important rooms of several kinds. They were so used in the Sacred Palace in Constantinople as
tween the two courts, was a trefoil. Church
tance which claims attention here is the palace
Ermoldus Nigellus. In the church were scenes
g r o u p a t I n g e l h e i m , n e a r M a i n z I r 8 ] . ' Z iW o r k s were begun under Charlemagne and finished
of the Old Testament and, opposite, corres-
under Louis the Pious. Excavationsshow that t h e p a l a c e w a s l a i d o u t i n t h e c l a s s i c a lm a n n e r
mental and lucidlv arranged cycles underlie the
and built of masonr\'. Rangesof various rooms
Saint-Denis,and others.
occupied three sides of a vast court, of which the fourth side was bounded by a special axial
ponding scenes from the New. Such monudidactic schemes developed later b1' Suger at The great hall had paintings from secular his-
composition. There the great hall, set broad-
torv, deeds of ancient kings and heroes, Ninus, Cyrus, Phalaris, Remus, Hannibal, and Alex-
wise at the fbot of an atrium, communicated by gallerieswith the palace church, which lay at
ander the Great, and, opposite, scenes of a more contemporarv history the ibundation
t h e e a s t .O n e i s s t r u c k b v t h e n u m b e l o f c h a m -
of Constantinople, and events of the reigns
b e r s a u g m e n t e d w i t h a p s e s ,a s i f ' t h e y w e r e c h a pels; in fbct, however, these recesseswere com-
of Theodoric,
Charles Martel,
,7{
0
Pepin, and
Charlemaene.r"
^ft( a T
Chapelol St Jrnuariusabove 6. Kitchen 7. Cloistergarth ll. Chapelof St Pirminius
$', ."i r
i:ir$:,x r g. N{ittelzell trlinster, Reichenau, s k e t c h r e s t o r a t i o na s i n r . r o 5 o ( G r u b c r )
zo Mittelzell Minster, Reichenau,ilrg, ro,1l3;belfiv later
E--
6z
P R E - R O M A N E S Q U EA N D P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U E S T Y t , E S
Belbre the break-up of the empire of Louis the Pious an ephemeral prosperity made possible the construction of many churches. Basilican churches are regularll'triapsidal with transept, otien with passagesand cr1''pt, regularll' aisled, and pror,ided with towers and a narthex or at least a narthex only at the west. Among these are St Justin at Hiichst, near Frankfurton-N{ain (after 8oo, or c. 825), and Einhard's own church at Steinbach (8zr).:'r Einhard's church largely survives, and its original form is easily traceable. It had a p1''lon-like entry with a lateral compartment to each side. The nave terminlted in a sanctuar]-separated by a screen and provided with an apse; lateral chapels with apses fbrmed a sort of dwarf transept which c o m m u n i c a t e d o n l y w i t h t h e c h a n c e l .E a c h a i s l e gave rccess to a crucilbrm crvpt under the corresponding transept, and a more elaborate cruciform crypt lay on the axis between.
TlrE cARoLINGtAN RoMANlsqur.
Ref'erence should be made to the area, important in early Carolingian history, which lies
c o n s e r l ' a t i Y e a, l m o s t c l a s s i c a l .T h e r e a r e t h r e e sites St Peter at Niederzell dating from 7g9; at Mittelzell, founded in 724, enMinsfer the l a r g e d a n d d e d i c a t e d i n l l r g ( w h i c h r v a sl i r t h e r
to the north of ltaly. Venerable for age among its bishoprics are Chur (fbunded about 45o), Constance (578), Augsburg (about 6oo), St Gall
enlarged in the tenth centur]'i and provided with a western apse and tower, dedicated in ro48) [rg, zol, and st George, oberzell, 836
(6r4), Strassburg (r.675), and Regensburg (739). The great early shrine ofthe region is St Emmeram at Regensburg, where there was alreadf in the eighth century (Z+o-8o) an impor-
(containing later construction also, including a crypt of 985) [zr]. The churches are basilican, set in serene and opulent countrl'side, with the aura of the monastic centuries still hanging about the scene. The School of Reichenau is
tant basilican church of pilgrimage. Burned in r o2o, restored under Henry II, it has interesting sculpture of c. ro65 in a lateral porch, but has lost character through further rebuilding. Sentimentally and historically great is Reiche'Insula Felix' of nau, the enchanting monastic
famous fbr its paintings, both miniature and architectural. St George, Oberzell, has a parti-
Lake Constance.:roIt was a frequent stoppingplace on imperial iournevs, and a powerful
cularly impressive ensemble of old paintings. The churches have survived with forgivable changes down to the present, and there are in-
centre fbr missionarl' effort. Like a gentler, more accessible Athos, it has had a profound reliEious influence. Its church architecture is
deed f-ew places where one ma\. enjoy so satisfactory an impression of a Carolingian painted church.
zr. Oberzell,Rcichcnlu, St George,836 and later
Corle,t,ontheWeserIzz,z3lalsohelpsgreatly to visualize the developments of its period. 'the corr,ev is New corbie', founded in gzz bv a colonv of monks from Corbie in picar.lr, nor fbr from Saint-Riquier. -{rchitectural influence came from Saint-Riquier by way of Corbie to corvev, where a westwork was built between 87j and t18,5.Though this design, being Germ a n , i s h e a . r , i e ra n d l e s s s o p h i s t i c a t e d , a n d though, about r146, the middle of' its fagade was carried higher between the old pair ofstair towers, this rvestwork is the best existing repres e n t a r i v eo 1 ' t h e S a i n t - R i q u i e r f r o n t i s p i e c e . A t Corvev the galleried spire church was not car_ ried up to a rounded pinnacle, but rather to a square tower of the tvpe which the Germans strikingly, cill a Halmhaus..l From the point of view of future develop_ ments, this westwork at Corvev was less important than the original east end. -I.he two
z:. Con'e),ontlre \fcser. u,cstu'ork,873 E5, looLingu.cst
L-
(r3
T H E C A R O L I N G I A NR O M A N E S Q L I Eb 5
64
later At Corvey, and at Saint-Riquier in the reliquarr chapels lay belond the t h e crypr, There is good antique precedent church apse.
L---, *-1.,EJq
and where it occurs' no f91 this arrangement, problems arise. But the most condifficult very t h at ofOld St Peter's in p r e c e d e n t spicuous p l a c e dt h e m a i n a l t a r d i r e c t R o m e( a b o u t 6 o e ) ly above the Apostle's first tomb. In some cases the church sanctuarv was elevlted because the
.-*) ETI' t^
t
i' it
'sil:il t
til I
D'OD o$d:n
2-iA rnd B. Corrcl
Lll I
l
s0 f
I
I
sacred spot was at or near the level of the nave Davement; this was the case at Old St Peter's. but in other casesthe tombs were below ground,
fi
and crypts rvith special srstems of access had to be built. From the time of thc construction in Rome of St Paul's outside the Walls, sanctuaries and
il:ilTT-
on thc \\'cscr, sketch restorirtion shoring
lvestlvork ot E7.1 8-5, uith plan ofcheret
sanctuarv aisleseach had a chapel at the end,
cult of relics. Until
a n d t h e s e c h a p e l sc o m m u n i c a t e d b v a n a n n u l a r
b o d i e so f s a i n t s l a i d a w a t i n t o m b s o r s a r c o p h a g i werc, if' possible, lefi undisturbed. Beginning probably' with a reconstruction (r. 6oo) of thc
corridor, curving betwcen thern outside the great apse, with a cruciform chapel beyond the apse and on the main axis. Here indubitably w e h a v e t h e g e r m o f t h e s c h e m eo f a p s e , a m b u l a t o r r ' , a n d r a d i a t i n g c h a p e l sw h i c h i s o n e o f ' t h e finest contributions of the Middle Ages to religious architecture. The German churches lbr generations kept to simpler schemes fbr these c h a p e l s .T h e i d e a w a s d e v e l o p e d a n d s y s t e m a tized chiefly in the area which we norv call France.
chapels were customarilv oriented. If correctly oriented chapels were attached to the access corridors about the tomb chapel, an awkward angular corridor resulted, and the circulation
the eler.enth century the
The great architectural achievement of France
s a n c t u a r yo f O l d S t P e t e r ' s i n R o m e , t h e a p s e s of'churches with such relics were often arrangcd rvith narrolv access corridors under the par,cment.rr Such corridors followed the interior curve of the apse, and connected axially with the tomb chamber, or crypt, under the high 'I'he altar. ever-increasing numbers of pilgrims d e s i r o u so f v i s i t i n g t h e s e t o m b s p u t i n t o l e r a b l c pressure on the narrorv corridors and exiguous in the number of ordained priests among thc monastic and canonical clergy, which in turn augmented the need fbr altars and chapels. Ad-
in the period of Louis the Pious and Charles
ditional altars could be used for the exhibitiorr
the Bald is the basic solution of thc dillicult p r o b l e n r o f t h c a p s e ,a m b u l a t o r y , a n d r a d i a t i n g
o f r e l i q u a r i e s ( t h u s i n c r e a s i n gt h e i n t e r e s t o f t h c
chapels. In large measure the solution was worked out in the basilican school of western France, to which we have already referred. 'l'his problem assumed importance with the greatly increased interest in pilgJrimagesand the
Partitioning oft'the nave,as at St Gall, was impossible in a church where great crowds ol pilgrims gathered fbr festival liturgies. The solu-
this arrangement marked an advance, and there are two influential examples of it still in existence, which were built in France during the period which we have under consideration. The venerable monastery on the Isle of Noirmoutier, off the west coast of France near Nantes,built a priory church in 8r4 rg at D6as, near the Lake of Grandlieuir [24-6]. This church had a nave with aisles, a crossing with stubby transepts, and the usual three apses. -I'he island was so situated as to receive the full brunt of' the Norse raids which began at this period and continued through a dreadful century. The monks had to abandon Noirmoutier, but the1. took the relics of'their sainted patron P h i l i b e r t w i t h t h e m t o D 6 a s ,w h i c h t h u s b e c a m e Saint-Philibert-de-Grandlieu.A pilgrimagedeveloped, and in 836 g the monks adapted the priorv church ver.v cleverly fbr this cult. The
24. Saint-Philibert-cle-Grirndlieu,8r4 r. ii47, navc lookins east k' srnctuar,\;nnc
crypts. At the same time, there was an increasc Frantt
of a press of pilgrims was difficult. Nevertheless
p i l g r i m a g e ) i l ' s u i t a b l e a c c e s sc o u l d b e a r r a n g e d .
tion lay in a corridor round the apse, with c h a p e l sr a d i a t i n g o u t w a r d t r o m i t .
L-_
picrs.. tooo, roof modern
bo
P R E - R O M A N E S Q U EA N D P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U ES T Y L E S
THE cARoLINGIAN
Ro]vTANESQL)E 6?
(or a little later) it was included within a little vaulted crypt church possessing a corridor around the tomb chamber. In 85o g an apse !chelon with an angular processional path was ingeniously built around the little crypt church, and extended to join a rotunda at the head ofthe main axis Iz6o]. This arrangement of apse 6chelon and rotunda also had an important future in Romanesque and Gothic
architecture. It was becomingly inaugurated, for the Emperor C h a r l e st h e B a l d h i m s e l l ' c a u s e dt h e r e l i c s o f S t
25. Saint-Philibert-de-Grandlicu,
Germain to be installed in the crvpt (859). It was then decorated with fine paintings, which ambulatorv and chambers under sanctuary, looking west, r. 847
are among the oldest murals now existing in France.3a
u n d e r t h i s a p s e , w h e r e t h e s a r c o p h a g u so l ' S t
The new chapels were placed 'step-wise' or 'ladder-wise' in plan (t:n ichelon in French) f z6a cl, whence the nrme of utrseiche lon for this lc:rture. which runs through a whole series()l
Philibert was installed b1'839 and still remains.
i m p o r t a n t c h u r c h e s d u r i n g t h e e n t i r e h i s t o r - vo 1
T h e s a r c o p h a g u sc h a m b e r a n d t h e n a r r o w l a t e ral passageswere at ground level; consequently
!chelon of Saint-Philibcrt-de-Grandlieu
original apse was demolished, and a square sanctuary bay was built with a new apse beyond it. Narrow
exterior corridors led to a chamber
\i'as
the floor of the church apse was raised above
built befbre 847, but served the monks onll until 858, when, the region being overwhelmeci
In order to provide additional altars and a
b . vt h e N o r s e , t h e c o m m u n i t y m o v e d t o C u n a u l t
better approach to the tomb under the apse, the narrow corridors were soon replaced by a series
in Anjou. 'I'he o t h e r i m p o r t a n t a p s e6 c h c l o no f t h e n i n t h ccnlur.\is in the crvpt of thc abbel church ol
o f c h a p e l s . T h e s e w e r e s o a r r a n g e dt h a t a r a t h e r
In 872 the relics of St Martin were brought to this crypt from Tours, because of further Norse forays. The clergy of St Martin's then had first-hand experience of this remarkable c r y p t ; w e s h a l l p r e s e n t l v s e et h e r e s u h . At Chartres Cathedral, because of the renowned pilgrima!ie, the church was rebuilt af ter
Romancsque ancl Gothic architecture. The apsc
the level ofthe nave pavement.
awkward processionrl path (somewhat like that of Corvey) was provided at the ground level.
Saint-Germain at Aurcrre. Here were venc-
running entirely around the apse. The path gave access to the sarcophagus chamber from the east, so that pilgrims could visit it without dis-
churchman. who prepared St Patrick lbr hi.
t u r b i n g s e r v i c e si n t h e m a i n p a r t o f t h e c h u r c h .
u n d e r t h e m a i n a p s e . I n a r e c o n s t r u c t i o no f 8 - 1 t
2 6 . I ) e v e l o p m e n t o f ' t h e c h e r e t : t c ( a h o t a) . r . 8 r , 1 . 1 7 ,S a i n t - l ) h i l i b c r t - d c - G r a n d l i e u ( G r e c n ) ; o (ltclop). r.8-5o 9, Slint-Germain, Auxcrre. crlpt (skctch rcstoration b1 K.J.C.)
a fire of858 with a curved corridor arouncl the a p s ei n t h e c r y p t a great impro\emenr. l96l turthermore, the rounded apse wall was pierced, giving a good view of the apse liom the a m b u l a t o r ya n d r i c e \ e r s a . , , p i e r c e d a p s e sg o b a c kt o R o m a n r i m c s , b u t t h e p r e r c e da p s e w i t h an ambulatory was novel. It produced interestrng.aesthetic effects by uniting the apse lnd the ambulatorysparialt]. Felicitous useof rhis idea wts made in t h e R o m a n e s q u es r y l e a t Jumidges a b b e y( r o 3 7 6 8 ) l J 5 7l , . n j i n t h . C o r h i c s t r l c ar 1\otre-Dame i n p a r i s ( r r6 3 ) .
ratcd the relics of that great fifih-centurl Irish mission ol 432-6r. St Germain's tomb was below the church pa\ement lerel, anJ
L--
o
o
+
It lr
at
lr ) i I L-.I tr t l
rl
68
p n E ' - n o v A N E s Q U E A N DP R o r o - R o M A N E S Q U Es r Y L E s
However, the Carolingian architects went farther than this, cleverly uniting the lessons of Saint-Germain at Auxerre (859) with those of
sign of maturity in the experimental French
Chartres Cathedral (after 858), in a new church of St Nlartin at Tours, built in go3 r8 after a
on the road to the mature Romanesque sty'le.
d i s a s t r o u sh r e l z 6 , 9 5 , 9 5 A 1 . Here the aisles and the larger part ofthe nave were open to the pilgrims who thronged the
Carolingian Romanesque. This
marked national character in Ireland, England,
ioin the sanctuarv and apse, with St Martin's tornb at the head, close to the middle of the apse
buildings which, being admired, really al1'ected the mature Romanesque and Gothic stylcs
wall. The aisles were continued at approximately the same level into an ambulatory which
which later came to these areas from abroad.
chapels which we have seen obstructing the naves or making awkward corners in the apse 6chelons of older churches were here built as round absidioles, like those of the cr.vpt of SaintGermain, Auxerre, but radiating from the outer wall of the ambulator-v as a whole. This design rvasa perf-ecttunctional solution, and a genuine integration of the difficult elements of a pilgrimage sanctuarY in a monastic church.3n 'l'he creation of such a remarkable feature as t h e a p s e ,a m b u l a t o r y , a n d r a d i a t i n g c h a p e l si s a
O U T S I D ET H E E M P I R E
I t i s l o g i c a l , t h e r e f o r e ,t o i n t e r r u p t o u r s t u d r of French architecture at this point in order to consider developments of Carolingian date and Scandinavia, Spain, and Italy. Localism and practical experiments resulted in successful
viewing it liom the back through openings in the apse wall. Quite as important, the minor
p R E - R O I , I A N E S q U EA R C H I f ' E C T U R E I N T H E N O R T H ,
marks a stage in our exposition; it is a landmark
church. The remainder of the nave contained the canons' choir, which continued eastward to
c u r v e d r o u n d t h e o u t e r s i d e o f t h e a p s ea n d a l 'St Martin's Rest', lowed the faithful to reach
C H A P T E R3
achievement
Northern design as developed in contact with Roman traditions within the Empire showed great vigour and originality. Outside the area of' strong contact with Roman architecture the resourcesavailable for building were smaller, the problems simpler, and the results less spectacular. Yet these more remote buildinp;s often
Yet the study ofthese early regional works is not really a digression. Mature Romanesquc
have interest in their own right becauseofindependent local conceptions, and the skilful use of
architecture resr-rltedwhen one ofthese success'I'he lul local stvles coalesced with two others. 'First Romanesque' style of north Italv carried
local materials and methods Celtic in lreland, Germanic in England and Scrndinavia. Com-
forward the tradition of Roman vaulting. Its contact with Carolingian architecture in thc Rhine Valley produced the splendid Rhenish with
positional types here in the North, as well as in pre-Romanesque Spain and Portugal, tend to be additive, or compartmental. Where preRomanesque buildings have been preserved
Basse-(Euvre at Beauvais, Saint-Riquier, St Martin of Tours, and sirnilar works) resulted in
they are now seen to hare a precious sarour, though in the glorious days of the full Romanesque development rhey must have seemed
R o m a n e s q u e .I t s s y n t h e s i si n t h e R h 6 n e V a l l c l the Carolingian Romanesque basilican st1'le of the west of France (the style of the
underlies Gothic architecture.
z(rl. Skellig \Iiehael. monastic clustcr, ,. ft2-l I Thc usual girdlc lvall is replaced in large part b1'the cliffancl the precipicc cliff
s
ir<
1 1 1:'
IRELAND o
15M
o
50 Fl
sophistication as rounded apses. It is known that the royal hall atTart was basilican. Buildings of any pretensionat all were built with timber framing, m7re Scottorum as the Venerable Bede say's (73r) of a Lindislarne c h u r c h o f r . 6 5 5 . I t i s p o s s i b l et h a r s u c h s t r u c tures affected Scandinavian building; for the raiders (795 ff.) became settlers afrer 834 without losing contact with the mother country. 'Cogitosus', about 8oo, tells of St Brigid's church at Kildare, which'occupied a wide area, and was raised to a towering height'. Commonplace buildings, many churches among them,
s m a l l , c r u d e , ' h o m e - m a d e , a n d o l d - f ' a s h i o n e d . had the shape of simple cottages with steep For this reason they have been replaced at all r o o l ' s . I n t h e m o n a s t e r i e sa n d a t s e c u l a r s i t e s of the important sites, and we are left with these were often multiplied into 'church cluscasual representatives no one of which excited ters' instead of being replaced by larger strucspecial wonderment in the ase in which it was tures; the con!iregations would gather within built. These examples shoiv, hower.er. hou and around such church buildings. At monastne tnvading Romanesque i n h e r i t e d s o m e t h i n g teries the various conventual structures would from the earlier styles, and thus developed local b e a r r a n g e dr a t h e r c a s u a l l y ,w i t h i n a g i r d l e w a l l . varieties. A number of buildings in permanent material
t h e m a t u r e p h a s eo f F r e n c h R o m a n e s q u ea r c h i tecture - the dJ'namic group of stvles rvhich
)\\,
L6rins and the Egyptian desert, Ireland quite naturally had an unassuming church architecture. Many of the early structures were undoubtedly of wattle work or palisading, with steep root-sas required bv thatch, and no such
Ireland was the first of' the pre-Romanesque areasto become creative. Its intellectual impor_ tance and ecclesiasticalinfluence, international ..o-p. from abour ll 5so, are r.r.ellknor+.n. Re_ ttoT Imperialcentres and led b1 an ascetic lt'^o_t_. stergy whose spirirual roors reached back to
Preclplce
L-
h a v es u r v i v e d f r o m C a r o l i n g i a n t i m e s , b u t s i n c e their analysis more properly belongs in the volume of the Pelican Histor.y oJ' Art which is d e v o t e d t o t h e a r t o f t h e B r i t i s h I s l e s , ro n l y b r i e f mention is made of them here. 'I'hc island of Skellig Nlichael [26.r] providcs : r s p e c t a c u l a rs i t e f b r a g r o u p o f s m a l l s t o n e - b u i l t m o n a s t i cb u i l d i n g s , ' c l o c h a i n s ' ,o l ' d r y - w a l l c o n struction with flat corbelled beehive domes.
70
P R E - R O M A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E I N T H E N O R T H , O U T S I D E T H E E M P I R L
PRE-ROMANESQUEAND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES
28. Glendalough,St Kevin's Kitchen and round towct, r. rooo
22. GallarusOrator]', ncar Dingle, seventhcenturYor later 'St
its scriptorium, has
larly placed on a shelf I 8o feet long and roo f'eet wide, ofold reached by 67o steps along the lace
elegantly tall in proportion. In section the roof is rather like an A. The outer part is of corbelled construction in stone, with a small pointed
was re-established after Vikine raids.'I'he monks lefi it for the mainland at some
by stands the relatively large ruined cathedral of St N{ary, formerly roofed in wood. It is stylistically classified as Primitixe becauseofits great
Columba's House', a shrine-house dating fiom 8o4, or perhaps afier gr8.r The church is rectangular in plan, and
more oriental in character (as we should expect -fhe in monastic work) than is usual in Ireland. simple church and the austere cells are irregu-
of the rock, which forms a precipice 7oo f'eet high. The group has had its present character since 823, or rather, perhaps,since 86o when it
?]
simplicity. Associated with it there is a characteristic round tower, classified,as Transitional (to Romanesque) in stvle, ro3 feet in height, r6 feet in diameter at the base. The round torver tall, delicately tapering, smartly capped by a conical stone roof is the
chamber at the apex. The space below this (represented bv the area under the cross-bar of the A) is the tunnel vault over the main walls of the 'St Kevin's Kitchen' at Glendalough, chulch. realll'an oratory, is a similar building, of ninth-
most poetic of the Celtic architectural creations. No towers are more graceful than these upwardpointing stone fingers of lreland. There is no better example of the bravura of basically Northern design. It is likely that the beginnings
aftcr ro6-1[u6.r]. 'I'he GallarusOratory near Dingle lzTl ts an century style [28]. It became a nave-and-chaneleganttranslationinto corbelledstone of'the cel church through the addition of a shed-like cruck house('all roof, no wall'). It has been sanctuary, now destroyed. A sacristy at the east variouslydatedfrom the seventhcenturyto the and a small finger-shaped tower on the ridge eleventh.Kells, a well-known site, famousfor w e r e o t h e r e a r l y a d d i t i o n s ( a b o u t I o o o ) . N e a r
8o back to Carolingian date. Watch-towers ancl refuges were needed when the Norse raids be-
L.
gan in 795. The tall tower identified the church site liom a distance; it marked the cemetery, a n d s e r r , e da s a b e l l r y a n d l a n t e r n o f t h e d e a d . Yet it was constructed as a practical refuge; the door was set well above the ground and reached by a ladder, and, moreover, a port made it possible to overturn the ladder ofan attacker. Spiral stairs and floors of wood occupied the interior, a n d l o o p h o l e sm a d e i t p o s s i b l et o t h r o w m i s s i l e s from every side. Of one hundred and eighteen such towers which are reported, thirteen still exist in fairly perfect condition - the tallest, rzo feet high, on Scattery Island. Note should be taken also of the Irish high c r o s s e so, f w h i c h n e a r l y t h r e e h u n d r e d m e d i e v a l examples have been traced, and of very remark-
72
PRE-ROMANESQU E C H I T E C T U RrEN T H E N O R T H . O U T S T D T AR EH E E M P T R E 7 3
STYLF'S PRE-ROMANESQUEAND PROTO'ROMANT]SQUE
able cult oblectsin metal' It was through such worksthat the simplelittle churcheswerewarmed and embellished:in Prior and Gardner's 'the crafi ofdecorationin Byzantineand phrase, Carolingianbuildings was the setting of precious objects against a backgroundof structure'.r The old Irish churches are indeed widowed now without their furnishings. Norman influencesplay upon this architecture in the twelfth century (asat CormacMacCarthy'sChapelon the Rock ofCashel, c. rr2134 L2gl,which is in the tradition of St Kevin's at Glendalough)but the Cistercianinfluence, beginningat MellifontAbbeyin I I.+2,wasmore effective.Although suchchurch buildingswere more imposing, they were severe,and earlier Irish austerityof designlives on in them.
11 zq. Cashelofthe Kings. Buildings now roofless except round towcr and CormacMcCarthl''s Chapel,of t. ttz4-11
originally of late antique date, was augmented by a series of small elements built of stone, with
NINTH- AND TENTH-CENTURY A R C H I T E C T U RIEN S A X O NE N G L A N D
wooden roofing: a nave and plrticus about 7oo, and a narthex, chancel, and lateral porticus be-
Here again, because ofextended analysis in the volume deloted to medieval architecture in
fore goo. Further, about g5o St Dunstan added twolaterrl porticus and a tower at the east ofthe
Britain,a only limited mention is given to the architectural works in question. It was a much-
church, as well as a free-standing tower-chapel xt the west. This brought the length of the
divided country'rvhich struggled towards unity through the labours of Egbert of Wessex (829 39, the first to bear the title of King of England), Alfred the Great (87 r 9oo), Athelstan (924-4o), Edgar (9-59-75),and the great Danish sovereign Cnut (ror6 45), who wrought well as an
These monuments, on a llirly grand scale, have all been destroved. Hence we must fbrm our ideas on the basis of secondarl' monuments, of which about two hundred survive in whole or
had been abbot o1' Glastonbury, became Primate (96o), and his companion monk, Ethelwold, Bishop of Winchester (963). Both men were artists and loved the arts, and both were well placed to further the cause ofthe fine arts
the fabulous pilgrimage shrine of Glastonburv' Excavations show that the letusta Ecclesia,5
ing, including Canterbury, which was rebuilt 'double-ender' with two lateral plrticus.
cloisonni, and it exemplified the old scheme of two axial towers, which became popular in English pre-Romanesque, Romanesque, and Gothic
Dunstan, the refbrm of'the Benedictines made salutary progress in England. St Dunstan, who
8o), which had thirty altars, survived in smaller buildings. Such a plan existed, Ibr example, at
We knorv from terts that there was in this period a considerable amount ofcathedral buildas a
Continental relations were strong in the time of King Edgar (959 75), under whom, with St
nave-and-chancel plan was widely used both in wood and in stone. The compartmented plan, clearly that of Wil(rid's cathedral at York (767
and the Winchester school of illumination is iustiy renowned in the historl of manuscripts.
group to about 25o feet. The plan was thus
architecture.
English king. In the church architecture ofthe period there are many reminiscences of older forms. The
[ 3 3 4 ] w a s r e b u i l t b y E t h e l w o l d , a b o u t g i 3 o ,w i t h a lireat five-stage wooden tower. The organ at Winchester has its place in the history of music
by precept and example. Winchester Cathedral
part. From the viewpoint of this volume the following ought to be mentioned: Elmham Cathedral," Deerhurst,t Wing,n Worth," Breamore,1'' Barton-on-Humber,rl Earls Bartcln (originallv an excellent example of the Saxon 'tower-nave' church),1r and Bradford-onAvon.r3 Parenthetically,Pembridge should be mentioned for its fourteenth-century belfrytower, rvhich closelv approximates r Carolingian rtrrritus aqes [3o).
jo. Pembridge,bclfi r' torrcr, lburtccnth ccnturr (traditionallbrm)
,.#',]
" "'" Wfrffi" yw&
L-_
vPRE-ROMANESQUE AND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYL ES
.lr. Worth, church, tenth cenfur\(?), looking east qz. I3rcamore, chrrrch, tenth
to\\'er
Elmham- a ruin, has a slcnder T-plan, plus an a p s ea n d t h e t t , v o c o m p a r t m e n t s w h i c h f l a n k t h e nave just 'ries t of the transept. Dcerhurst is fb I its staunch western tower, its lateral compartments (three on each side, with the usual rnarrow doors of access), its characinteresting
teristic narrorv chancel arch, and its exceptional (destrol'ed) s.=vcn-sided apse. Worth has a round apse, aL so erceptional [3r]. Breamore is
33. Earls Barton, church, tower, tcnth centurv( ?) L,h..nru..
?%
Tth roth
i n t e r e s t i n g f b r i t s s t a g e dc r o s s i n gt o r , ' e r[ 3 2 ] a n d the remains , tf' a Saxon carved rood panel. has its substantial towcr, Barton-on-Ht-mbcr ample, squarc, and tall, with bluff cut-stone quoining and
strips of cut stone in the wall-
work, which
give a dccorative suggestion of' tower lbrmed the middle part of
fiaming. This the Saxon ctsrurch; it was augmentcd bv a smaller cornp;-rtment on thc cast, and a similar
one on the rvsst. The paired lvindorvs, archcd or mitred, arc charactcristicalll' divided b1.iolly 'mid-rvall s haf'ts' with rings. Earls Barton tower ', and is indeed a lavourite Saxon i s g r a n d e r 13 3 m o n u m e n t . I r r a l l o f t h e s et h e m a s o n r f i s r a t h e r
33A. Winchestcr, Saxon cathedral, gg.l rogr lexcavations and studi bv Nlartin Biddle)
L-
N
98o 99.t
/////////t
70
p R E - R O M A N E S Q U E A N D p R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U ES T y L E S
ARCH ITECTURE IN TIIE NORTH, OUTSIDE TIIE EIlTPIRE PRE-RON/tANESQUE
and 35. Bradlbrd-on--{r'on, .1.1 S t L a w r e n c er,. 9 7 5 ( ? )
Saxon relieli
some of considerable interest
w i t h e a r l y R o m a n e s q u e w o r k i nL a n g u e d o c , B u r gundy, and Fleury (Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire).15
S C A N DN I A VI A T h e f o r a y so f e a r l l ' m e d i e v a l S c a n d i n a v i l n t i ' e e booters are well known, and several of the beautiful ships rvhich were their instrument so lithe in form, so beautilul in decoration have been given back to us bt' archaeological excavationand stud]'. What is not so llidelv k n o w n i s t h e h i s t o r ] ' o f t h e w i d e s p r e a dc o l o n i z a tion and trade which follorved the piratical raicls. In the ninth and tenth centuries S*edish dynasts organized the oriental trade bv rva\. ofthe Russian rivers and built the state which became C h r i s t i a n R u s s i a i n 9 8 9 . 1 6I n t h e W e s t t h e i r
rough and
'liee-hand',
but artractive.
'I'he
ordin a r l ' w a l l s a r e a b o u t z l l e e t t h i c k ; s p e c i a lw a l l s ma1'be much thickcr.
been shown that the lower part of the church probabll'dates back to Aldhelm (c. 7oo); it was reworked lvhen the parts above the belt course
Among the eristing church buildings, St Lalrre'nce at Bradlbrd-on-Aron is perhaps the most satisfactorv. It is a nave-and-chancel
s e r e a d d e d . F o r t h i s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n ,o n a c c o u n t
b u i l d i n g , $ e l l c o n s t r u c t e do f c u t s t o n e . I t h a s a charactcristically' narrow chancel arch with interesting rcliels ofangcls (pcrhaps tiom a rood) set in the wrrll above it [34]. There are narrow
date of'973, in St Dunstan's time.l+ Sir Altied Clapham, in summing up this art, rightlv savs that it 'was a direct offshoot ofthe Carolingian stem, guarding the salient characteristics of its parent stock' but with a sort of bumbling localism. In the mid eleventh cen-
doorwal's on thc other three sidcs of its minuscule nale (25 (eet long, rj feet 8 inches wide, and verv high - just over 25 leer).The windows
impulse which camefrom Normandy to Edward
a r e , a s u s u a l , f ew , s m a l l , a n d p l a c e d h i g h i n t h e 'I'he wall. lateral doors opened inlo plrticus, of
the Conf'essor's Westminster Abbey. Enigmatic still is the relationship of the Saxon
which thc southern onc has been destroyed. Apart fiom this the exterior is verl perfect; it is beautifulll proportioned and decorated with
carvings to the sculptural art of Germanl. and
elegant shallorv arcading IrSl. Recentlv it has
turv it was much in need of the vigorous ne*
France. The influence of the Winchester illuminations on French sculpture is admitted, but we do not have sufficient links to connect the
L-_
the interior is strikinglv handsome Ir, 36,11. Halls of this sort had been built lbr hundreds of 1'earsbelbre the latest date about rooo which can be assigned to Lojsta. At Onbacken in Sweden there are remains of a double-aisled 'guild h a l l ' . L i k e I - o j s t at h i s b u i l d i n g h a d f r a m e s ' r t i n t e r v a l s t o s u p p o r t t h e r o o f s t l ' u c t u r e .H o w ever, the posts were lbur in numbcr in each fiame. Instead of' drvarf'walls Onbacken had wooden palisaded walls, r'ertical or slightlv inclined, at some distance outsidc the lrames [ 3 6 n 1 .S i m p l c r s t r u c t u r e s , s i m i l a r i n p r i n c i p l e , were grouped in the farm establishments. 'l'he remains of p:rgan temples in the earlv periocl inclicate structures ol-square plan. At G a m l a U p p s a l a , w h i c h r v a sp r o b a b l l ' t h e g r e a t est pagan cult ccntre of'the region, the mcdieval church was built largely'on the site ofthe chief temple. Excirvation has yielded a part of' the
colonization of Iceland (847) and Greenland ( 9 8r ) w a s e n d u r i n g , b u t t h e i r c o n t a c t w i t h m a i n land America (q86 ti.) pror,ed ephemeral, likc
stones which supported its timber-work, and the
their hold on considerable territories in the British Isles. -{ll Scandinavian architectural work of this earliest period is lost, and is to be
timbers or cr z f'eetin diameter and a smaller post
deduced only from foundations, fragmentan. remains of superstructure, and the trad;tional
ol' its accomplished character, we prefer thc
77
pattern of its plan [3{rc, 348]. In this case there was a square central compartrnent, with corncr between on each side. Whether the central compartment was free-standing in a peribolos meas-
leatures of conservarive later buildings.
uring about 75 by 85 feet, or surrounded by' aisles reaching to the enclosing wall, is a mattcr
Swedenand Gotland provide remains u'hich indicate the character of the earlv palaces xnd
fbr debatc. In anl'case the outcr wirll was supported bv light posts,and relativelv low, while
d w e l l i n g s ; a t L o i s t a o n G o t l a n d a p a l a c eo f s o m e s i z eh a s b e e n r e b u i l r o n i t s o r i E i n a l f b u n d a r i o n s .
the large corner timbers indicate a tower-like proportion lbr the ccntral square. \\'c postulate aisles, r'ith a gabled entrance. T'hus the tcmplc
I t t a k e st h e l b r m o l a l o n g r e c t a n g u l a r h a l l $ i r h dwarf walls of earth and stones i the entrance is
was distinguishcd fiom the residcntial and guild
at one end, and the hearth is near the middle. At intervals there are pairs of posts resting on
halls prer,iouslv referred to by its r all construct i o n a n d i t s c e n t r a l i z e dp l a n ; i t w a s , h o u e v e r , a
stonesin the earthen lloor, dir,iding the intcrior l n t o a n a v e a n d t r v o a i s l e s .E a c h p a i r o t p o s t s supports a trans\erse liame lbr the roof' of'
relatively late building, not long anterior to its
thatch, which sweeps in an unbroken slope on each side from the dwarf wall to the ridge. A smoke-hole opens over the hearth. The timbcrs
e d s t a t u e so f ' T h o r , O d i n , a n d l i r e y a . ' ; w a s a l r e a d yu e l l a d v a n c e di n S c a n d i n a v i a .F r o m
are,rough in the reconstruction. rather than c a r v e da n d p a i n t c d a s r h e v d o u b t l c s sw e r e i n t h e o r t g i n a l ,b u t t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a ll i n e s i r r ef i n e . a n d
b e t r a c e d o r s u s p e c t e d ,b u t t h e N o r s e c h u r c h r v a ss e t r , r pl r o m B r i t a i n , a n d i t s a r c h i t e c t u r l l h i s -
descliption by Adam of'Bremen (about roTo). H e c a l l si t a t r i c l i n i u m , a n d n o t e st h a t i t c o n t a i n At the datc mentioned, Christian building ncighbouring Germanv some influences mar
P R E - R O M A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E I N T I I E N O R T H , O U T S I D ET H E E M P I R E
c Srrpporrs Jorposts a
o' ,!
(H"l,potheticaL) WoLLs ----------
o
Roof Hips -----" Ritlges
a
tory probably begins there. By the year goo the 5sxldinavian population was probablv Chris-
tory. In Iceland and Greenland there are representatives of pioneer and archaic forms. The old
tian in the British areas controlled by the Norse , the Earldom ofthe Orkneys, including parts ol' Scotland; the Kingdoms of the Hebrides, of
t h e i r e a r l y b u i l d i n g s , b u t r u s t i c s i t e ss t i l l p o s s e s s
Dublin, of Northunlbria, and ofEast Anglia;together with the Five Boroughs. Christianization ofthe North rvas tardier, but it was well begun by g5o, and it was established by law fbr Nor-
Shoft of Tower ---
way, Iceland, and Greenland in the vear rooo. Inevitably one is led to suppose that many early
t
ffi\
O
o !r-! l_
lBr-1!t,
oro
D
n
tl F
'i
5
Christian buildings on the Scandinavian peninsula were simpie wooden versions of the naveand-chancel type ofchurch which was common
15 .l\{ r
l l_
5() r'T
i"'j
o. Brattahlid,'l'hjodhild's church, r. root s. Lund, St N'larr N,linor, r. tooo .5o
than thatch. Churches werc built in this rvav, even recentlv (Fhigumyri, about 1875, and -Ihe \i 6imyri, r 8zz [371. St6ri-Nripur church in Arnessysla [38], with aisles,recalls the palace at Loista even more strongly. Groups of old barns and houses olten seem but little changed in general appearance lrom the prehistoric lirm
plan, like a temple, and a woodcn fagade. Thc "J H
banks and roofinp; were ofsod. Excavation has revealed the plan of a more ambitious church in Sweden. This is St Mary Minor at Lund, dated afier rooo (b,-vro5oi) [36E]. Its rvall-work was like that of Greenstead church in Esser [z] - built, that is, ofvertical logs f l a t t e n e do n r h r e e s i d e s a n d i o i n e d b 1 ' s p l i n e s .
.i6. Plans o[ errll Scandinavinn buildings
e. Onbacken,'Guild Hall' c. Gamla Uppsala, temple fbundations
houses with banked lateral walls and interior 'fhe framing, like a simplified Lojsta. faqades a r e o 1 ' w o o d ,a n d t h e r o o f c o v e r i n g i s s o d r a t h e r
at Brattahlid near Gardar [36o and 3gB], resembled Lojsta, except that it had a squarish
I
A. Loista, palace, r. rooo
Icelandic sees of Skdlholt and H6lar have lost
in England and Ireland at the time, or threenavedhalls of'the Lojsta or Brenz tvpe Ir,4aj. Thfodhild's tiny church (r. roor), crcavrted
F:1
tl tt l--
79
The chancel, z5 feet square, was offset from the nave, which was about 33 feet wide lrom wall to wall. Aisles were marked offin the nave by posts which (two by'two) carried the transverse frami n g o f t h e r o o f s t r u c t u r e . T h e s a n c t u a r y ,o p e n -
r,. Holtilcn, church, eleventhcenturv c . U r n e s ,c h u r c h ,r . r r z 5 u. l,omen, church, r. i tllo t . N o r c , c h u r c h .r . r r g o J ( belur) . Garrisonhall, Danish reconstructiDn
ing from the nave, had a similar roof construction, except that the posts were carried around at the eastend to form a sort ofnarrow ambulatorv. T . h u sS t I l a r y M i n o r , t h o u g h r e s e m b l i n g a b a stllca,was a curious conllation ofthe basilica, the nave-and-chancel church, and the pagan hall. Unfortunately it is not possible to follow the sub_ sequent historv ofthe tlmber church in Swcden. Although about zoo were built, not one is extanti only fragments in museums remain. On the other hand, Norway and Insular Scan,. dinavia have p..r..""d the elements for this his-
L--
.i7. Vibimyri, Skagafjdrbur,vicw ol'church, rlizz 38. St6ri-Nipur, Arnessysla,model of'framing, r876
P R E - R O M{ N E S Q L L , q R C H I T h C T U R E I N T H E N O R T H , O U T S I D E T H E E M P I R E
establishmentsof Gotland and elsewhere.Somewhat the same story is told in Greenland, which was evangelized through a mission entrusted to Leif Ericson, shortly before his journey to America (roo3). There were ultimately seventeen churches serving about two hundred and eighty households, a monastery, and a nunnery. The White Church (stuccoed), at Kakortok, a perfectly simple little stone-walled building, mentioned in r3o6, still survives, roofless; but the cathedral of Gardar (Igaliko), founded in trz4, has been destroyed. Excavations show that it was a small cruciform stone building with a wooden f'agade and roof construction [3ge]. Other buildings in the cathedral group, serving
ig\ ( abor'eand hclon,) . Gardar, cathedral group, twelfth centurv
ll
N.-
EI
Excavations (Trelleborg, Aggersborg, Fyrkat, in Denmark) show that the grear Viking military camps were very different from these settlements. Within an encompassing earthwork (circular at Trelleborg [3gcl), impressive garrison halls resembling the guild hall at Onbacken [36n] were arranged in fours, lbrming square courts, and these courts were reduplicated, with passages (each in a quadrant at Trelleborg). The walls were palisaded. Bowed out in plan and supporting big roofi, they softened the strict geometrical s)'stem [36JJ. Churches built entirely oItimber represenred an advance on ordinary wooden structures. In r8g3 L. Dietrichson had traced three hundred
as residences, were built like the traditional Icelandic houses just mentioned. A related group, much simpler, has been identified and
and thirtv-two
excavated at L'Anse aux Meadows, on the tip of Newfoundland. It represents the eleventh-
996) is reported in the reign ofOlafTryggvason, under whom the country became officially
century Norse colonization in Vinland.r8
Christian, and archaeological remains go back
timber churches in all Scandinavia, of which trventy-fbur werc extant, all in Norway. An important church (Trondheim,
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39c. Trelleborg, camp,
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39u.Brattahlid.Thjodhild's church, r. r oor (rcstorcd)
oJo
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u2
P R E . R O M A N E S Q L I EA R C H I T E C T U R E
P R E - R O M A N E S Q U EA N D P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U D S T Y I , F , S
to the reign of St Ola{'(roI5 3o), the church in question being that of Garmo (destrovedr88z; c l e m e n t sa t L i l l e h a m m e r ) l t n a s a n a r e - a n d chancel church in wood, an example of the oldest, most persistent, and most numerous t]'pe ofchurch.1" Holtilen church (r. lo-5o I looi norv in the Trondhcim Muscum) [36r] is the oldestertant e s a m p l e .I t h a s t h e t r p i c a l s t o u t p o s t sa t t h e s i r
struction. About ro6o a church of similar form r v a sb u i l t a t U r n e s . S u p e r b e x a m p l e so f N o r s e carving survive on the wall planks and doorwav of this church - wonderful interlaced animal lbrms, exultantly' r'ivacious, subtly modelled in
timber church. The shallow oblong; sanctuarr has two corner posts as usual, and two interior' p o s t s a l t h e e a s t ,r c c a l l i n g t h e e r r a n g e m c n t a t S I \lar1' \'Iinor in Lund. The nave at Urnes II.
angles of the nave-and-chancel plan, with rebated sills sustaining an ingenious t o n g u e - a n d - g r o o l e p a l i s a d eo l ' s t a v e ' w a l l c o n -
masted structure was invented to distin-
hunran figures were introduced The doors antl doorwats ot timber churches uere olien prtserved, on account of their beaut,v, when the c h u r c h e s t h e m s e l v e sw e r e d e s t r o y e d , a n d t h i s
sllient
church about r rz5 [36c]. T h i s c h u r c h . U r n e s I I , m a r k s a d e c i s i v es t e l r t o w a r d t h e c l a s s i ct y p e o f f u l l l ' d e v e l o p e d N o r s c
flat and bolcl relief classic examples of'tameless r,igour and beaut-v[4o]. Such work must be dependent ultimately, in part, on Irish illumi-
somewhat larger than usual, has walls supported b,v the customarr'lbur posts at the outcr corners. But $'ithin there are sixteen tall frecs t e n . l i n g m a s t - l i L es u p p o r t s ' m a r L i n g o l l ' l a t c r r r l
,1o.L.rncs.carrings on flank ot'church' r. ro(ro,re-uscd
aisles and a returned aisle at both east and \\'csl The masts rest on stones and a chassis; thcl alt bracccl all round at mid-height, whcre tl'reir
I'-1
' On tall wasunderconstruction whilesucha church the churches bv emphatic vertical emthey extendedup into and sup- euish groupsI for the lorpf.tion aswellasrheir p h a s i s f r o m t h e p a l a c e si n s u c h upperstructure hori-olrrio tr,.."'ite predominantly and larger palaceswould be the aisle roof'and the bracesrvhich Ii"r. of scale small the b1' too, struck, is One "f to the aisle walls' Despite its oblong zontal. "..i.nra '.ilp. would look like they churches; mast early the carvings' ,na the Romanesque-looking enlarged lersions of that of the tower-like iewel boxes indeed, like essence in is ,t.".ft.m. lbrm ol'reliquary) (a popular church models GamlaUPPsala' t..Plt prgrn later churches are ' Only'the "t palaces. the beside at Fiedal Th. r"-. p.riod (aboutr r25)shows in scale. generous chttrch' in the Valdres a nave-and-chancel of Such then is the background ofthe church is augmentedby an rtpse' o,haratha sanctuar-Y in studied be may which of by an extenor Borgund, the details and the whole is circumscribed the A trusses' ingenious The diagram [421. porch on the axis' the ambulatorywith a proiecting ---These t-vpesof bridging, bracing, and gussets architecturalmotifs, combined with various the basic Urnes Ii' re- are well worth attention' as is also rhemastedschemeof the naveof supporting of Pairs building. the Norse tirnber chassis of sult in the classiclbrm of the the masts the oldest beams cross at right angles, (#), and Borgund, at represented best church, The exrectangle' harmo- are raised about the central extantexample(about r r5o) [4r]' The the brace powerfully beams the parts is tended parts of niousefect of the many subtly related and aisles the support and structure masted no lessremarkablethan the skilled craftstnanporches. Such a chassis or skid would be supshipby which it is achievedNaveand sanctuary it in conabove ported on stones; there is nothing like leachwith its pinnacle)rise confidentlY Borgund At construction' tentional basilican the arcadedexterior porch' their graceful silwith a number' in twelve are masts main the houettebreakinginto gables,Iinials and spireo n each h a l f m a s t ' and an upper lets. The delicatescaleand small memb':ring w i d e i n t e r r a [ , (ernphasized by cut shingles- now for saf'ety flank ofthe nave' Grinaker (r. r r6o), Lomen [3(rH]' and other oftenreplacedby tile) are remarkablyeffective rr8o or c h u r c h e si n t h e \ a l d r e s r e g i o n d a t c d s' in thenaturalsettingofrough uplandvallel strucupper the masts carrying Neither Urnes nor Borgund is an irnportant later have four nave-and-chancel a otherwise is ecclesiastical place,and onenaturallylookselse- ture in what added These naves are not where for the genesisof so accomplishedand church rvith an apse II and very much smaller than those of Urnes perfecta scheme.One thinks inevitablyof King larger' is scale the SigurdMagnusson'sChurch of the Holy ('ross Borgund, and consequently thirthe of scale ampler still the in Kungahilla which wasbuilt in r r 27,after the forecasting that pubelicved Strzvgowski century. tecnth King's return from a spectacularpilgrirnage tvpc to the Holy Land. It wasaccounteda wo:tder, r a t i t e e a r h ' e r a m p l e s o f t h e f o u r - m a s r e d s t r u c l u r e ' but o f m t r s t c d but no detaileddescriptionoi it has surrived, g e n e r a t e dt h e t r a d i t i o n four-mastcd Free-standing elidence. and it wasdestroyedin r I36. Another possible without prototlpeis the churchwhich wasconstrllcted structures were developed for the belfries ofthe masts alongwith a palacelbr King Sigurd's brother churches; that of Borgund, with the t1'pical is bells, ofthe swing Eystenin Bergen,rrr7. The structureof the slanted against the Nore church (r. r rgo) [36 tl presents a square Palacehallsmust haveresembledthat of simple churchesin manv respects.Perhapsindeedthe nave with a post at each corner, and the whole
nrtion. but the earlier Norse panels, unlike tht Irish rvorks. contain little except animal fbrrns: it wos later that scrolls of leaf'age,ribbons, antl
is the case at Urnes, rvhere the door and f'agaclc c a r v i n g so f t h e n a v e - a n d - c h a n c ecl h u r c h o f r o ( r o rvere built into the north side ofa more elaborate
TN THE NORTH' OUTSIDE'THE EMPIRE
nunrber is augmentedbl two on the axis (omittcd belolr to make the intcrior more spaciou:' \ b o r e t h e a r s l c st h e m a s l s c a r r \ a c l e r e s l o l \ rvall,and at the top the]'are ioined togcther all r o u n d b 1 ' a p l a t e , w h i c h c a r r i e st h e t r u s s e d r o o l and a helliv pinnacle. There are suegestiotr t h a t t h e d c s i g n e r s h a d b : r s i l i c a nc h u r c h e s t ' i stonc in mind. The mitsts, (br instance, hrr' Romanesque capitals at mid-height uncler app l r e n t a r c h e s( u h i eh a r e i n f r c t er r c hm ' l d e u p ' ' tlvo adioining lvooden gusset braces) Th! t b r i d g i n g l b o r e t h u a p p a r e n t a r c h e ss u g g e s t s r e n t s a b o r ' ' r o u n d tritbrium. and the small ( ' W i n d a u g e n ' ) s u g g e s tc l e r c s t o r vw i n d o w s ' H o l r c r e r m u c h t h c c h u r c h r c s e m h l c sa b a : l l i c a , t h e m a s t e d s t r u c t u r e i s e s s e n t i a l l yd i f f - e r e n i ()l a s t r u c t u r e o f ' t h e c c n t r a l t - v p e 'l i k e a g r o u p circumlerentialll together all bound flag-poles I t m u s t h a v e b e c n q u i t e s t r i k i n g t o s e et h e m ' r s t '
b-
)
tt4
pRE-ROMANESQUE AND pROTO-ROMANESQUE STyLES
Borgund' r' r I 5o; classic examplc aJ ar,d 42. e g i a n ' s t a r e - c h u r c h ' , e x t e t i o t I ttl t f ' ttst t ( I Jf the Nort secttsn s1d analYttcal
L-
86
pnE-nonaANr-seuE AND pRoro-RoMANEseuE sryLEs
middle part of the construction carried on a s i n g l e m a s t . S h a l l o w t r : r n s e p t a lr e c e s s e sa n d a s q u a r e s a n c t u i r r va l l h a v e a p o s t a t e a c h c o r n e r ,
cousins of'the Norse werc alreldv at work on the cathedrals of Norrvich a n d E l 1 ' ; S t a v a n g e rC a t h e d r a l w a s b e i n g b u i l t .
making seventeenfor the whole church. Fli (r. rzoo) and Nes (i. rz4o) have the nave-andchancel plan, plus a rounded apse and a central
from about rrz3 onward, in a reflected Rom a n e s q u es t y l e .
mast. The whole structure is arranged and braced in stagesaround this mast, and therefbre comes to rcsemble thc central mast of'a Carol i n g i a n c h u r c h s p i r e ) o r t h e w o o d c n s t e e p l eo f 'I'his an American Colonial church. n'pe flourishes alongside the navc-and-chancel, the 'l'orpu, q u a s i - b a s i l i c a n( L o n r , ,. r rgo: .\rdal, r'. rzoo), and the Borgund ty'pe(Fantoft, from Fortun. r. r r 6o 8o ; Gol, now at B1'gdor-,Oslo, . . r 2 o o ; H e g g e ,r ' . r z r o ; R i n g e b u , r . r z - i o ; H e d dal or Hitterdalen in Telemark, near Hiarrdal.
went on, the mast churches became unsatisfact o r v n o t o n l v b e c a u s eo f t h e i r m a r e r i a l , b u t a l s o because ol' their small scale and their limited
It sounds like a plelsantr]- to say that Roman that is to architecture is proto-Romanesque say, a Romanesque architecture coming befbre
capacity (eren with the people standing at services, as rvas usual in the N{iddle Ages). T'hc
the authoritative and constituted medieval style. But there is a kernel of truth in it. The methods
congregations became larger, and the ceremonies more elaborate, involving !reater numbers of clergt than in earlv times. Recent atten)pts to build mast churches on a moder.n
r. rz5o). In the interiors which have bestsurvived the centuries the wood has largely been lefi unp a i n t e d . T h e r e s u l t i n g r i c h t o b a c c ob r o w n u i t h
while the cutting away of masts, and other changes in medier-al buildings, fbr the samt p u r p o s c ,h l v e b c e nm o s t u n l b r t u n a t e .
d e e p v e l v e t v s h a d o u s i s t e r r ' f i n e , a n d i t s e t so f f the glint of metalwork in the lurnishings and
\t'hen the stone-built Romanesque came ro Scandinaria, it took on, as in the church ol G a m l a U p p s a l a t " 1 3 4 7 , 3 4 8 ] ,s i m p l e a n d a u s t e r e Northern forms which make their aesthetic point through the bold and elegant expression
tumes appear to great adr,antage in this warm rtmosphere. The intcrior carvingsof thc chursimple, but thel' happill,'
a c c e n t u a t et h e s t r u c t u r a l m e m b e l i n g , a n d g i v e a certain movenent in the half light. The con-
works seem unwelcome and intrusive. f'he earlier buildings in masonrl' were rather primi-
trast between the sercnity of the Norse church interiors, and the extraordinary r,err,e of their
tir,e in construction, and thus carry an odtl flavour of the First Romanesque which is r,err appealing. Ilven the vitalitv ofthe timber church
ertcriors. is not the least remarkable ol'their mi-tnvartistic Yirtues. B e c a u s et h e m a t e r i a l u a s p e r i s h a b l e ,w o o d en churches began to give wav to stone structures as early as ro5o. Norman England, u'ith its characteristic heavy masonrv construction, began to influence Scandinar,ia er,en in the reign of'Sigurd Nlagnusson (rro3 3o). At that time
\,Iartel in 732 in the fbmous battle fought between Tours and Poitiers. The new state was not well organized until the middle of the tenth
this future development. It is only rr habit of thought which prevents our calling it simplv Romanesque. That tcrnr calls up a group o('
centur!'. and the Nloorish borders receded, but the \loslems continued to alllict southern lirance b1' (bra-vs, and b1' their' fierce, long-
styles of somewhat later date, somewhat more
continucd piracl, in the \lediterranean.'Iher d r o r e o u t t h e m o n k s o f ' X ' l o n t e c a s s i n oi n 8 f i . i
might simply be called Romanesque il'our habit ofthought were different. Two ofthem are so close to both styles as to merir the name ot proto-Romanesque. 'l'he architecture of Asturias, Galicia, and neighbouring Portugal in the ninth and tenth cenruries was like a hboratory experiment in Romanesque, perlbrmed in a remote region lnd not absorbed into the main current of architectural der,elooment. In the Byzantine Exarchate and Lombardl a similar 'l:irst d e v e l o p m e n tl a i d r h e sroundwork tbi rhe Romanesque' ,tr-.I., *ii.h carried on the living s t r e a mo f R o m a n lrchitecture, and contributed s o m e t h i n gt o a l l t h e m a t u r e R o m a n e s q u es t y l e s .
work or suitable for an1' kind of superficirl imitation.
L-
Gibraltar is named. The ineffectual Visigothic kingdom crumbled before them, and they em-
architecture should be possible. We have seen that Carolingian Romanesque architecture intellectuallv marked out
Similarly, the st1'les of' southern Europe w h i c h c o m e b e t r v e e nR o m a n a n d R o m a n e s q u e
architects considered the fbrms of the woodcn b u i l d i n g s a sa n a t u r a l r e s u l t o f t h e i r e n g i n e e r i n g t1'pe, and fhus not applicable in stone-buiit
Thc \loors came first to Spain in 7r r as a small interventionist fbrce under Tarik. lor whonr
barkcd on a serious work of conquest which brought them across the P1'reneesinto France '-['hey w e l e o n l l ' h a l t e d b y C h a r l es in 7r 8.
embellishment, but not essentially different in conception.
tradition had little effect on buildings designecl fbr stone, lnd it is indeed pr
T H E A S T L T R I ASNT Y L E
of commonplace Roman building were continued with little change during the Dark Ages in the southern and more settled parts of the Empire area, awaiting the time when a grander
mature structural character, more importantly characterized by vaulting, and richer in plastic
of bulk
so much so that modern imitations of French and Italian Romanesque and Gothic
ches are relativell
p R O T O - R O \ { A N ES q U E - { RC H I T E C l U R E I N S O U T H E R N t r U R O P E
T h e S c a n d i n a v i a n sd i d n o t a d o p t t h e I r i s h idea of church clusters, and therefore, as timc
scale, so as to provide space fbr sizable gatherings seatedin pews, have been aesthetic f'ailures.
l i t u r g i c a l g e a r .T h e b r i g h t c o l o u r s o f v e s t m e n t s , the gal hues and sober black of peasant cos-
5flAPTER {
the Anglo-Norman
and desolatcd the monastery; they captured r \ ' I a y e u l ,a b b o t o f ' C l u n y , i n 9 7 z , a n d h e l d h i m fbr ransom; their devastations are reported from Switzerhncl in g4o and from northern Spain in 997 8. During the initial period of relative Moorish w e a k n e s s ,S e p t i m a n i a w a s r c c o n q u e r e d ( 7 6 o 8 ) by Pepin III, alter which the Spanish March of Charlernagne (Catalonia and Navarre) was lib'l'he a c t i o n a t R o n c e s v a l l e s ,c e l e erated (777). brated in the Song of'Roland, occurred in 778. B i r r c e l o n aw a s c a p t u r e d i n E o r . In the north-western corner ofthe peninsula, where the old mountainous Asturian realm of t h e S u c v i ( o n l y s u b d u e d b 1 - ' t h eV i s i g o t h s a b o u t 6zo) had not been o\rerrun b1' the Moors, the Spanish Christian state was reconstituted jurid i c a l l f i n 7 I 3 b y t h r : l i n t a s t i c b a n d o 1 'c l e r i c a l , m i l i t a r l , a n d l a y r e l u g e e sw h o h a d b e e n d r i v e n
P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E I N S O U T H E R N E U R O P E
d9
Oviedo,San Julidn de los Prados,r
there by the invading Moors. Under Alfonso the Catholic (Z3q 5Z), the new Kingdom of the
The oldest remains go back to about 78o, and there are well-preserved examples covering the
Asturias or of Galicia began to expand southward, and to plant Christian colonies in the border zone which had been desolated by the
whole span of the ninth and tenth centuries. Among the chief monuments was the cathedral
constant raids from both sides. Legend has it that the Apostle St James the Greater aided the
of Oviedo, founded in 8oz, which was an interesting group of buildings by a designernamerl 'I'ioda. A reliquary chapel, the I'amous Cdmara
Galicians in battle, whence he acquired his name of Nlatamoros, his rank (maintained even
Santa, still survives [58]. Another maior monr'rment, now destroyed, was the double cathedral
in the twentieth century) of Colonel in the Spanish army, and his association with cockle
at Santiago de Compostela (8lg-rt6), which has been excavated in part, and is known to hare resembled other Galician basilicas (Santullano.
shells. His supposed tomb, identilied as such in 8r3, became a national shrine almost immediately, and led to the foundation of a Benedictine monastery, Antealtares, in the reign of 'fhis king made Alfonso the Chaste (7gt-842). Oviedo his capital, from which the kingdom was ruled until gr4. A metropolitanate was e s t a b l i s h e dt h e r e i n 8 I r . r By the end of the eighth century the architects had constituted a national pre-Romanescue stvle of considerable technical interest.
l o s P r a d o s ,o r ' S a n t u l l a n o ' [ + 1 , + + ] . T h e n o r t h transept was elidently contiguous to the palace, for the king's tribune opened into it. The transept is relatively wide, roofed in wood, and higher than the rest of the church. The remainder of the building is composed around the transepr in the lamiliar agglomerative Germanic fashion.'I'here is a plrticus at the south
Lourosa l54cl), though the cast end, with thc shrine of St James, was rather more open and elaborate. Yet satisfactory represcntatives of the \sturian st1'le of archirecture. painting, antl sculpture survive; they are being maintainecl and cherished. At somotime between 8rz and 842 (perhaps about 83o) Tioda built for Alfbnso the Chaste' adjoining his suburban palace in the fields neat' Oviedo, the basilican church of'San Juliin dc
L-
ence (it is thought) to the thirty-eight Councils which had thus lirr been held in the Spanish Church. These paintings are among the most interesting of their kind. Yet this court chapel gives only a hint of the richness ol Alfbnso the 'everything', says C h a s t e ' sb u i l d i n g s a t O v i e d o : 'the King adorned the Monk of Albelda (883),
end of the transept; the sanctuary and chapels are oblong tunnel-vaulted compartmentsr of
diligentll' with arches and columns of marble, with gold and silver, and so with the royal p a l a c e ,w h i c h h e d e c o r a t e dw i t h d i v e r s p i c t u r e s ,
which the central one, only, is brought to the eaveslevel ofthe transept b1'an upper chamber (perhaps a refuge). The ample nave, likewise
all in the [Visilgothic wa\', as they were at 'I'oledo in church and palacc alike'. There were a governmental building and a thermal
wooden-roofed, also reaches merely to the transePteaves. It is providcd with aisles, a western Porch' and a wall belfiy' or espadaia. The recent restoration has uncol.ered the rather rough, but Bood and substantial masonrv of the church. and its astonishins interior decorations. These guite unexpectedly turned out to be a symbolic 'fhirrycSmposition in the pompeian sr1le. ct8ht baldacchino motifs are fiqured, in refcr-
establishment in Oviedo also in these great da1's. O n e o f t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n gA s t u r i a n c h u r c h e s d a t e s l r o m t h e r e i g n o 1 ' R a m i r o I ( 8 4 3 - 5 o ) .I I e , incidentally', contended successlully with the Norse raiders of whom wc have heard in previous chapters; they did not get a lbothold in Spain as they did in England, Ireland, France, a n d t h e ' I ' r v o S i c i l i e s .R a m i r o ' s c h u r c h a d i o i n e d
9o
P R E _ R O N l A N E S Q U EA N D P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U E S ' T ' Y I , E S
SantaMaria de Naranco,consecrated tl48 45 rnd 46.
t h e p a l a c ea n d b a t h s a t N a r a n c o , a p l e a s a n th i l l -
Similarll', the populace gathered on the slofc
s i d e p l a c c n e a r O v i e d o . I t w a s d e d i c a t e di n 8 4 8
ncar thc inrperial palacc hall at Goslar [,.t+,]rS lbllowed thc proccedingsthrough openings rn
to Santa N{aria, and has come down to us in a perf-ectstate, except for the loss of a two-storcy
N a r a n c o o c c u p i e st h e p o s i t i o n l b r S p a i n w h i c h
l+S, +61. The architectural lbrm of the upper p a r t s h o w s t h a t i t w a s b u i l t a s a b e h , e d e r e ;v e t
Germignv-des-Prds has in France, Aachen in 'St Germanv, and Columba's House' in Ireland.
the structure was certainly used fbr sacred cerc-
The masonrv work is somewhat rough, but ol excellent quality, having ashlar, used with ad-
as fbr
instance when he departed fbr war. The cxisting old parts ofthe church have no
mirable skill, to strcngthcn it in logical place'. 'l he mein block ol rhc building hasa crlpt ,,1
suitable location fbr an altar. since the ends of the hall were doorways opening on unglazed 'I'he cxterior porches. best solution of the difii-
three compartments, the central onc covercLl ( o n d u a r l u a l l s ) h r a h e a r r a n d s l r o n gt u n n ( l r a u l t w i t h t r a n s \ e r s ea r c h e s o l a s h l a r . 6 n 1 , , r
cultf is to suppose that the altar stood in the
t h e f i r s t o f i t s k i n d i n t h e m e d i e r a lc h u r c h a r t h i -
destroyed compartment opposite the existing
tecture of the West. The end compartmcnt\
entrance porch. The altar would then occupl,'
(ol'rrhich onc \\as a bath) are ceiledin uor,.l.
the thronc-place of a layout resembling a Ger'l'he long hall itself would be
Each of the cr1'pt compartments sustains a conr-
manic palacc hall.
versearches, and an extra arch is placed in the middle over the widest arcade arches (fbr the size of these is graduated). Under the other transverse arches there is a decorative strap-
the f'aqadeof the hall. In point of development Santa N{aria cle
compartment on one of thc long sides; opposite the entrance, and balancing the entrance porch
monial in connexion with the king
which thins and stiffens the wall, so rhar it is logically designed to take the thrusts of the tunnel vault above it. The vault again has trans-
a sort of'transept lbr magnatcs, and thc pcople,
partment of the superstructure, taller in pr,,portion, lighter and more sophisticated rn
gathered outside the church, would hcar the
construction. Pairsol atrachcdcolumns car..,l
liturgl' through the open end compartments.
in fine barharicsttle carrl an interior arcrt.lc
t o h a v e b e e n p l a c e d( i n 8 4 8 ) ,I b r t h e m a r e t o t h i s compartment still exists on the opposite side, with its approach stairwaysand vaulting complete, applicd, or'apposed', to the main cham-
and-medallion inset which srrengthens the wall. Though ir was rauntetl u, ,urporring unl. thing in Hispania (Moslem Spain) therc is n e v e r t h e l e sas h a u n t i n g s e n s et h a t t h e u h o l e b u i l d i n gi s s o m e h o w in debr to onental motles or construction, probablv through \risigothic and Moslem ,..hi,..,u."1 works as much as e l s e . Y e r t h e G e r m a n r c a s p e c t so t t h e lnl Li"* must nor be tbrgotten. tts palacehall llttd]nt the effector'making ir into a .rransepr :lit lid t o , u r 1p e w h i c h i s o r h e r w i s e k n o u n i n ;tlufn' A b d i n i n V e s o p o r a m i a ) ,b u t r h c c o m Ill.it.
their supports and sink at the crown. In Naranco we have an appropriate solution (on a small scale to be sure) of the problem of vaulted
forms. The flanksare divided into 'ctt D?YS by slender ashlar spur huttresscs.
church architccture which pror.ed to be obstinateh' difficult throughout the Romanesque period. It is also rvorthl of'note that the spur buttresses are proportioncd like developcd
iJ^tittlll] modear Narancois Cermanic;tbr isanagglomeratron oraspiring and 'll,t-l-t',0j"* xrtrsecting
L-
There is no doubt as to the position and shape of the missing two-storey compartment, in the upper part of which we ma\ supposethe altar
ber in Germanic l'ashion. In fact, the building was composed, basicalll., in the manner ofthe Saxonchurch ofBradfbrdon-Avon [:+, :Sl, exccptthar rhe Asturian work 'l'he is vaulted with admirable soliditl'. cntrance porch and its mate come in iust where thev are structurallv needed to abut the main tunnel vaults lbr such vaults, when ther. ha.r'c anv c o n s i d e r a b l el e n g t h , i n v a r i a b l v t e n d t o p u s h o u t
w P R O T O - R O M A N L S Q U EA R C H T T E C T U R Ft_N S O L i T H E R NE t r R O p E
93
(oltposite and belon). Santa Cristina 47 and 48 de Lena, .. 9o5 Io 49
Romanesque buttresses and logicalll' disposed. The embellishment of Santa Maria de Naranco, while not Romanesque, nevertheless uses deg e n e r a t ec l a s s i cm o t i f s , n o r e l c o m b i n a t i o n s ,a n d even minuscule figure sculpture (in the medallions), and therefore we may say that it too gives a hint of future Romanesque fbrms. The church of San \liguel de Linio, near Naranco, lbunded in 848, is a curious and ingenious r.aulted building, now incomplete. It rvaslaid out as a columnar basilica with a tunnelv a u l t e d n a r e a n d a n g u l a r s a n c t u a r i e s .T h e f b u r terminal bavs ofthe aisles had transverse tunnel vaults at a high ler,el to abut the nave, and large transennae in these transept-like bays (ofwhich t r v o s t i l l e x i s t ) g a r , ea g o o d l i g h t t o t h e w h o l e interior. San Nliguel has remains of paintings and a brave attempt at architectural sculpture.
-lrl
There are interesting capitals and medallions. a s a t N a r a n c o ; t h e c o l u m n b a s e sh a v e c a r v i n g s , and an ivorv book cover was reproduced, enlarged, in flat barbaric str,le on each iamb of thc main portal. There is an odd suggesrion of Earh Gothic tracerv, even, in the interesting transennae or pierced stone lvindow screens of San \Iiguel. Entirclv raulted, like Sanra N1ariade Naranco, the charming little church of Sanr,r (,ristina de Lena [+2, +8] must be included as shorving an interestingl development ol'the Nirranco thcme. Santa Cristina has an entrance compartment with a tribune lrom which onc looks up a longitudinal tunnel-vaulted nave to ir platform and sanctuarv compartment, markcd off b1' a verv interesting and fastidiously carvecl barbaric chancel parapet and arcade. The main
( risht ) . Santa \{aria de \'Ielquc, r. 9oo
vault is abutted b1' chapelJike compartmenrs 'apposed' to the flanks ofthe nave. All the vaults are tunnel vaults, and all, except that of the tiny entrance way, have trans\rerse arches. All the walls are stiffened b1' spur buttresses. This church was probablv built shortly after go5, or at any rate in the reign of Alfonso III, the Great (866-9ro). There remains to be mentioned the engaging _ little tunnel-vaulted basilican church ol Val de d.dicuted in 893. ft has \loslem-looking Pios, h o r s e s h o ea r c h e si n t h " e, a n c t u a r r a n d t h e c l e r . e s t o r y .a n d t r a n s e n n a e b u t a l s oa n a d d e d l a t e r a l porch with prophetic, Romrrnesque-looking g r o u p e dp i e r s c a r r l . i n ga t u n n e l r a u l t . d a r c d i n rne tenth centur\. On a tinl rcirle, it offers a Eood solution ro tlifficult problems. and. lil,r: santa Maria de Naranco. has endured.
THE
\IOZARAtsIC
NORTHERN
STYLE
IN
SPAINZ
Little if anl.thing survives to represent Earlv Christian basilican architccturc as developed b1' the Visigoths except San Juan Bautista at Baios de Cerrato (66r), rvith its horseshoe a r c h e s , i t s d e g e n e r a t eR o m a n c a r v i n g s , a n d i t s s q u a r e - e n d e c ls a n c t u a r ) ' ( o n e o f t h r e e , w i d e l l ' s p a c e d ,w h i c h l b r n e r h , l o o k e d i n t o a w i d e t r a n sept). Vaulted architecture is represented by the church of Quintanilla de las \''iias, whcre construction appearsto have been interrupted h r r h e C o n q u e s r .s h o r t l r a l i e r '7 r r . What this Late Roman church st.vle beclme under strong N{oorish influence we may infer liom the interesting raulted church of'Santa Maria de N{elque. dated about 9oo [49]. It is
9;+
PRE-ROMANESQUE AND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES
solidly built ofashlar stone on a cruciform plan,
tecture, representing the end ofan old tradition.
and vaulted, with an efl'ectivc use of horseshoc
It undoubtedlv contributed a certain spice an(
a r c h e si n t h c i n t e r i o rd e s i g n .
oriental suavitv to Spanish Romanesque. Lobetl rosettes, prominent eaves-brackets of oriental
Simpler lvorks resembling San Juan de Baios and N{elque were built by-refugeeswho were drir,en out of the \'Ioslem dominions by a rec r u d e s c e n c eo f i n t o l e r a n c e a t t h e e n d o f ' t h e ninth centur.v. This episode was a catastrophe
plan, three in line rvithin a fiorseshoe-shapedin blocky mass of masonrt' at the east end of the
mitted to Romanesque by the Mozarabic st1,le. Its influence is probablv to be traced in beauti-
church. Each apsc opens through a horscshoe a r c h . T h e e a s t b a v o f e a c h a i s l ei s v a u l t e d , a n d a
full1' modelled leafage cut en lltargne or ett riserxe that is, rounded back from the ashlar'
tecture; fine churches were destrol.ed in the \loslem dominions, and the similar buildings
sunk background.
tenth centur)-. The Christian kingdom, which was centred at Le6n alier gr4, settled man!' of the rellgees, who were called \{ozarabs. Mozarabic architecture under the circumstances $.as reallv a local variation on Late Roman archi-
5o. San Nliguel de la Escalada, near Le6n, c. gtz
95
manaeiement of'space and light are all scale,the 'I'he church is basilican and very lastidious. wooden-rool'ed except for the apses, which are
character. and horseshoe arches were trans-
for the Visigothic style, which was a citv archi-
in Christian territories to the north suffered in the great raids of'Almanzor at the end of the
P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U E A R C T TI ' I ' L C ' I ' U R [ ,I N S O U l ' I I L R N L U R O P E
1: chancel screen of elegant horscshoe arches carriesthe line across the nave. Graceful horseshoearches divide the nave fiom the aisles, and
thce in N{oorish or Saracenic fashion. asainst ir
the tin-vclerestorl.windorvs have the same prett\' shape, which was once more used lr'hcn a finc
The church of San Miguel de la Escalada. near Le6n [5o], is the finest and most accessiblc of the N{ozarabic works. It was part of a monasterv built for refugee monks from C6rdoba in gr2-r3. The visitor linds himself in an austere
side porch was added about 9.1o; adioining, there is a heavv tower, with a chapel, of still later constructlon. S a n t i a g od e P e n a l b a f 5 r l , f o u n d e d i n g r g , i s
but surprisinglv sophisticated ensemble. Thc architectural membering, the proportions, thc
a good, but a more rustic building. It is an odd c o m p o s i t i o n o 1 - p a i r s a n a v e o 1 - t r v ob a v s , o n e
curl' brackets. In the interior of Lebcia therc
5r. Santiagode Pcialba, lbunded grg
; 3 . C b r a r r u b i a s , ' l ' o u eor l l ) o n a L r r i r c a ,r . t 1 - 5 o
r3
ai -:-'. t
4
o f t h e m c o r e r e c lb v a l o b c c ld o m e ; a l o b e d v a u l t over each of the tlro apscs (onc of them of n o r s e s h o ep l a n , b o t h o f t h e m i n a n g u l a r b l o c k s of masonrv); a pair of'lateral compartments, torming a sort of transept. at each sidc ol'thc domed bar,. S a n t aM a r i a c l c l . e b e i a , n c a r S a n r a n d e r 1521, was built in gz4, under Asturian influence; it resemblesSan \,Iiguel de Linio, rvhich rvasthen
L-
newll constructed. Likc thc Asturian buildings, it has a somer,hat Romanesquelook, but 'chiselt h e c o r n i c e h a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i cN l o o r i s h
90
PRE-ROMANESQUEAND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES
P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E r N S O U T I I E R N E U R O P E
are square piers with addossed columns which look r,erv Romanesque, and suggest that Peninsular skill may har,e been drawn on in the tenthcentury revival of vaulting f'arther north. However, the bold horseshoe arches give Santa Maria an unmistakably N,Ioorish atmosphere.
up rather prettily in stages. \'Iiss King said 'the Spanish remper, like the
tellingll of it that
Br.zantine, craved the myster],- of enclosed s p a c e sw , h e r e l i g h t f ' a l l s s t i l l 1 . . . a. n d . . . c u r v e d surlaccs bound the r,ision, and brood'. A rare example of civic architecture of the period is the Tower of Doia Urraca at Covarr u b i a s , sd a t e d a b o u t 9 5 o [ 5 3 ] . I t i s h e a v i l y b u i l t of Nloorish-looking ashlar, with a strongly battered prolile , and is empty to half-height, where it is tunnel-r'aulted. The upper part (nolr denatured through rebuilding) is cntered through a horseshoe-shaped arch at this ler.el. In Cata-
from this time. fluence is traceable in Catalonia Cuxa actually represents the reorientation of Cttalonta, towards France and Italy, and the
east) has long been known. The ruins of'the main storev, with its polyfbil nucleus, have re-
emergenceof a Catalan nationality in the time of' quite fiir the great Abbot Oliba of Ripoll. It is
was an upper level as well. The marble cloister
cently been uncovered; and it may be that there of Cuxa, dated about ro28, is well known. It h a s b e e n p a r t l ) r e b u i l t i n t h e r e c e n t r e s t o r a ri o n ,
to state that a national architectural style was adumbrated ifnot rcalized in the churches built
The tunnel r,aults have a diaphragm in the nave to permit a clereslorl. Thev are lransrerse in 'I'his the aisles,and parallel over the sanctuaries. good arrangement is r,ery statically, and it builds
as has the nave ofthe church. Oliba's fbmily was connected with the con-
under the auspices of Oliba and his family. In Oliba's rebuilding at Cuxa (roog 4o), influenceslrom abroad are fused with the abiding
.L
struction
of San Pere de Roda,6 a castle-
monastery which stands up splendidly above
t
W u
F-4trdl
mPi
5p (npposite)and e. San \{ichel de Cuxa, 955-74and eleventhcentur)', planand southelevationof church
ru
ru rEl
a
iitil I
g?
totl cr,.r't'nr
lonia, the intcresting horseshoc-arched portico of San Feliri de Guixols has been preserved.
O
Catalonia entered upon a flourishing epoch at this time, under the Counts of Barcelona,
O
who held it staunchll- against the -N{oors, but
of Conflent and Cerdagne. Within a centurv ol
were nevertheless in contact, as septimania had been, with Peninsular cir,ilization and the N,Ios-
these beginnings the abbe]'rvas powerful antl had built an important church (955 71) [51]
lems. -N1uch history centres in the abbe,v of Ripoll, which became the dynastic pantheon;
Parts of this structure which still survive shol
in 977 a vaulted church with fir'c apses was consecrated there. Surviving decorativc elements 01'this building have unmisrakable Ntloz-
Moorish tradition. Investigations at the church show, for instance, that some of the N{ozarabic horseshoearches were modified in Oliba's rebuilding. Two large rowcrs of Lombardic character were added. East of the old sanctuarv an angular ambulatory with three eastern chapels
that it was sty'listically \'Iozarabic, like contemporarv Ripoll. It had a plain, long, stoutly con-
was built; clearlv there is a relationship to French examples in the tradition of SaintPhiliberrde-Grandlieu. West of the church o1' Cuxa, where there had been a stairu.al.and platIormt the quatrefoil chapel ol rhe Trinitr uas built on the axis. l e a r i n e a n a t r i u m r n i r hl a r e r a l
structed wooden-roof'ed nave and two shortc:' aisles all opening on an extendcd transept. \
arabic character, though it was not built b1. r e f u g e e s[ 7 r ] .
a r c h e si n t o e a c ht r a n s c p t a r m , a n d a d e e p o b l o n g
Another abbel ofimportance, San Nlichel de Cura,+ was founded in 878. Its 'fiftv monks,
s a n c t u a r v e x t e n d e d e a s t r v a r do n t h e m a i n a x i s . In this period Count Oliba (-abrcto made rt
twentv servants, extensive lands, thirtv-volume
long risit to Itall', with a y-earat Nlontecassino.
librarl', hle hundred shcep, fifiy- mares, lbrty pigs, tlro horses, Iire donkevs, twent\ oxen,
Returning, he multiplicd Benedictine mon-
and onc hundrcd other large horned animals' were put under the protection ofNIiron, Count
t h e C a t a l a nh o r i z o n . ' iA C l u n i a c a b b o t , G u a r i n .
pair of absidioles opened through horscshoc
:ntrances (as at Parcnzo, or at an Ottonian sitc) rn tront of'the 'l'rinitv main cloors. Thc was a v a u l t e dc h u r c h o l ' r h c c e n r r a lr r p e w i t h I i a n k i n g of which rhe cireular crlpr (also $irh l'l:.' tlanking a i s l e s ,a n d a r a u l t e d c \ t e n s i o n r o t h e
a s t e r i c si n h i s d o m i n i o n s . a n d m u e h c n l a r g t , l was installed at Cuxa in 962, and Cluniac in-
L--
s to
IO A1 30FT
the coast near Gerona. As at Cuxa, there was later building strongly influenced from Lombardl--,but the temper of the whole church goes backto Oliba's time, and, like Cuxa, it hasgrand scale and marked local feeling. A text ascribes the interesting chevet to Tassi, who relbrmed t h c m o n a s t e r yo f S a n P e r e d e R o d a [ 5 5 , 5 6 ] , a n d obtained ro]'al French and papal diplomas for it before his death in 958. A consecration is rep o r t e d i n r o z z . I t h a s b e c n e s t a b l i s h e db y S e i o r Gudiol Ricart that the building took its general character at this time. The oldest work is a crypt with an ambulatory, above which is an apse with an ambulator]'. The ambulatory has an upper gallery with windows which light the apsc,and altars were installed in it; one thinks of Chartres (858), Charlieu (r. 95o), Abbot
P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E I N S O U T H E R N E U R O p E
Dijon (roor euarin(962),and Saint-B6nigne, stone was ashlar used for the Excellent lorT). 4chitecturalmembering.The appliedcolumns, the shapeof the voussoirs,and the horseshoe alchesin an odd way recallGermigny-des-Pr6s, whichwasbuilt by Theodulph, who camefrom this region' SanPerede Roda hasa trapezoidalsanctuary bay,a transeptwith absidioles,and a capacious nave with striking T-shaped piers; the latter haveapplied shaftswith a varietJ'of beautiful half-Moorishcapitalsrelatedto thoseof MozarabicCuxa. Quadrant vaults with transverse archescoverthe tall narrow aisles;the naveand transeptare coveredwith tunnel vaulting,with an arch spanning betweeneach opposite pair of piers.This higher and more elaboratenave is believedto be the result of a changeof plan in the eleventhcentury. The resulting design probablyinfluencedthe nave of the eleventhcentury church of Saint-Andr6-de-Sorddein
S 4 t : .L o u r o s a , p a r i s h c h u r c h , g r z a n d l a t e r
French Catalonia - an examole noted for its earlv sculpluls 1156. \\ihile we have followed the convention in calling this Catalan work Mozarabic and Lombard, Sefror Gudiol Ricart is nearer the truth in classifying it as a voung national style, like the Asturian.T Further study of the monuments and svstematic presentation would help greatly. One final Mozarabic monument, in Castile, mav be introduced. As a kind of swan song of the style in the eleventh century we have the extraordinary hermitage of San Baudelio de Berlanga, near Burgos [57]. The plan is like that of a Norse single-masted church with an oblong sanctuary, but the superstructure, all vaulted, is very different. Its very blockl'and austere exterior conceals an interior of fantastic architectonic richness. A central cylindrical pier rises to sustain a set ofeight radiating horseshoe diaphragm arches, which carry a domical vault with a very ingenious little shrine arranged in 57 ( helon).San Baudeliode Berlanga, r aintitrgs c l r v e n t he e n t u r \ ' u . ith tuclfrh-centurp
,W<--1 1.tr-. ,
n
LrY',-,,,,,
;l
.8
;.
55 and 56 ( abue und right ). san Pere de Roda, near Gcrona, consecratcd rozz, finishcd latcr
L-
gg
IOO
PRE-ROMANESQUEAND PROTO-ROMANESQUI STYLES
the masonrv above the pier. A raised choir, really an oratory, is sustained prettily on a forest of slender shafts placed in quadrille (oriental f'ashion); horseshoe arches carry the platform. Formerly
the interior was decorated by an extraordinary series of frescoes, dated about rr5o, which symbolize the reorientation of the area, toward France, for the style is quite Romanesque.d
Conversely, however, knowledge of Moorish architecture increased greatly, from the year rooo onward, among lay folk, technicians, ancl
$ (oplosite)and 6o. Cividale,SantaMaria in Valle, the "Iempictto', c.762 76(?)
churchmen who had contacts with Spain. Such knowledge was widespread in areas where Romanesque architecture was being formed ar the time. Saracenic elements are, in consequence, a component of the mature Roman_ esquestvle.
The strong tide of influence lrom the Moorish South of Spain in the tenth century, which we have been considering, also prevented the expansion and further development of the Asturian proto-Romanesque style. When, with the
,/'
progress of reconquest, the capital was moved to Le6n, the kingdom was much more open to outside influences than distant Asturias and Galicia had been. As the eleventh century progressed, irresistible artistic influences came from France with political reorientation and the reform of the church which was effected bv C l u n i a c m o n a s l i c c l e r g _ vf r o m F r a n c e . T h e twellth-century rebuilding of the Cdmara Santa in Oviedo [58] shows this clearly.
T H E L O M B A R DK I N G D O M The strange Tempietto of Santa Maria in Vallc at Cividale'r [59, 6o] is perhaps most easily explicable as a proto-Romanesque work Roman architecture surviving in a local variation under Saracenic influence, like the Asturian and Moz-
.O
arabic churches. Santa Maria is traditionalh idenrified with a building built by peltru.la Q6z 76) atwhich time the Lombards had south Italian connexions. The building has a groin-
58. OviedoCathedral,Cirnara Santa,r. goz. The nalc somcwharrebuilt, and embellishedwith sculpturein the twellih ccnturt
vaulted nave and a sanctuary with three parallel tunnel vaults carried in an unstructural fashion upon columns. As is the case with San Baudelio t
de Berlanga, the exrerior is very plain and the interior is very rich; possibly Moslem influence lrom south Italy is responsible for this. There
o
are no horseshoe arches at Cividale. and we
ilrl
tl
ffia!-
L-
I
, l
5,{
IO2
P R O T O _ R O M A N E S Q T J EA R C H I T E C T U R E I N S O U T H t r R N E U R O P E
PRE-ROMANESQUEAND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES
they spread only after being assimilated into
should not expect them here at this time; lbr
charter of 643 ref'ers to the builders as magistri commacini or comacini, and on this basis it has
the Nloorish art of Spain.
been supposed that there was a guild at Como
There is clearly some outside influence in the
which created and spread Lombardic architec-
decorative stucco mouldings and bands of the
ture. If the Comacine rdgime was observed ovcr
interior of Santa Maria. Stucco work was prac-
a wide area, comacini may have come to mean
tised with rare art by the Saracens and Byzan-
simply builders, as lambardos came to mean
tines; also more often than we are likely to
masons, even in Spain. That there was a guild
remember, by pre-Romanesque and Roman-
organization of some sort, involving establishcd
esque sculptors in both France and Germany. What is most remarkable at Cividale is the per-
ideas of responsibility, training, and compensa-
fect preservation of a frieze ol six beautiful standing figures in stucco, gracefully posed, and b o l d l y m o d e l l c d l i k e f i n e R o m a n e s q u ec a r v i n g s .
bardic architecture to the creative work of thesc guildsmen. On the other hand comacini is an
They were applied as integral plaques to the wall. Perhaps a refugee from the Byzantine iconoclastic controversy was the artist; even the
tion of wide importance. The word comacinr
of the near-by Exarchate and
Venice would
explain the character of the
had so august a lineage. As Ravenna paled in turn, the Ravennate style was simplified until it could successfully be put at the service of the struggling barbarian kingdoms. Thus, without a break, it became a proto-Romanesque style. Its roots and its stem are Roman; its branches are authentically the First Romanesque style,
dropped out of use in the early Middle Ages. Because pryX,avi in Greek, machina in Latin, and rnacina in Italian may mean a frame or'
The Lombards, aggressorsagainst Rome and Montecassino, are generally thought of as
scaffold, magistri comacini has been interpreted ,naster-clmpanions of the sco.ffold.Because the
destroyers. However, they had a fairly well
tradition of architecture was better maintained
organized state, with administrative cadres at
in the Greek Exarchate than in Lombardy, thc
Pavia, their capital. After the conquest (774) the Franks utilized these cadres, and thev aided in
name may be connected with some obscure Greek word - or e\en p4xayrrd6, which mean:
the task of setting up Charlemagne's empire.
contriver or designing architect.lr Whatever the
the Lombards a place in the history of proto-
continuation of Late Roman architecture and an active outpost of the newly-constituted Byzantine style.lr No other early medieval stvle
to have had a central'masonic' guild organiza-
sculptures.
Yet there are two established facts which give
pho gave it to the Roman pontiffs (7-5.16). The Byzantine Exarchate, with its continued Eastern connexions, maintained an architecture which was at one and the same time a living
tion does not admit of doubt, and we owe Lom-
obscure word, and it cannot be shown to have a connexion with Como, nor can Como be shown
Byzantinism
the Exarchate. This latter iurisdicRome and up by the East-Roman Emperor set was tion ylaurice about 6oo' was conquered by the Lombecause they threatened the bards in 7<2, and, pope,it was freed from their rule by Pepin III,
6r. Ravenna,Tomb of Galla Placidia,r. 45o
meaning, the comacini wrought well in preparing the architectural revival in Lombardy.
Romanesque architecture. Rotharis, the first of their kings to issue laws in his own name, registered the privileges of the builders in 643,
T H E B Y Z A N T I N EE X A R C H A T E
and thus had something to do with the organi-
After Rome's glorious period, the centre of ad-
zation and revival of architecture in the region.
ministration fbr Italy was moved to Milan (in Diocletian's time) and then to Ravenna (4oz),
Again, about 7 r 4, King Liutprand issued a diplomr with respect to a price scale for architectural and structural work.lo Milan, the metropolis of Lombardy, had been a great centre in classical times, and came to be so again, especially after the conquest of Lombardy by the Franks under Charlemagne (774\. One would expect an architectural revival to begin there, and indeed this occurred in the ninth century. I{owever, King Rotharis's
but the life of the Empire at that time was most vivid in the East. Yet Milan was flourishing in the period, which is that of St Ambrose, its grett bishop (374-97), who baptized St Augusttne there in 384. The abounding fertility of the l)o V a l l e y k e p t M i l a n p r o s p e r o u se v e n d u r i n g t h c unhappy rule of the Lombards, and when thrt was terminated (774), the region cam!into el en closer relationships with its neighbours, papal
b-
r03
aptly so named by Josep Puig i Cadafalch, who first clearly discerned the significance of this fact. Outside the Exarchate, the style was first used and spread by the Lombards, which iustifies its older name, Lombardic. In the end it made an architectural reconquest ofa large part of the area of the West-Roman empire, and for that reason the French have called the style tmperi,tl, or Ju Bas-EnPire. The Erarchate has several important Byzantine monuments, which our exposition takes up merely in their proto-Romanesque aspect. Galla Placidia's 1'amous tomb 16rl, built in the decade or two before 45o, looks towards Romanesque architecture through its perfectly straightlbrward brick exterior, with simple corbels and decorative arcading of the sort which becomes the most ('amiliar adornment of the First Romanesquestyle.
r04
PRE-ROMANESQUE ANDpROTO_ROMANESQUE STyLES
P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E I N S O U T H E R N E U R O P E
(Fr6mista). and a group ol Soanish church in and near Rarennai but the round liut.h.t plays a distinctly minor role in church tower the engaging idea ofa chapel at the design. Even tower' recordedin the plan ofSt r o u n d top ofa represented as far as we know in never was Gall, The square belfry tower, an actual building. Lorenzo in Milan (t. Zlil, at San adumbrated added in 754 started supposedly with the one rapidlv to the east front ofOld St Peter's, spread and thencc, through the First became almost universal. style, Romanesque
to Lombardy
A bell large enough to be heard at a distance could not properly and decorously be rung from the crossing space ofa church becluse ofits verv the exterior belfr5' $eat inertia. Thus inevitabl.v wall (bell-cote or wall belfrl') and, for grcater height, the belfry tower, were developed, the nrme campanile being doubtfully connected withCampania. ra The Benedictines. centred at \Iontecassino, which is in Canrpania, carll' adoptcd bclls Nothing certain remains at \'lontecassino, vet Benedictines built some of the carliest known belfry towers, in l'act square belfries veritable Roman ,arra.s, built up integrally from the ground at Ravenna. Earliest is that of San
62. Ravenna,San Vitale, .52647 San Vitale (Sz6-+l) [62] has a number ofinteresting f-eatures.Its plan suggested that ofthe Palatine Chapel at Aachen, where the columnar screens are simplifications of its pierced apses. 'I'he entrance-tower-and-reliquary chapel at Aachen with its stairwavs is, though difi'erentlv proportioned, partly dependent on the narthex of San Vitale. This is true of the westwork of Saint-Riquier also. The exterior of San Vitale has decorative arcading and pilaster strips which are bolder and more medier.al in 1brm than thoseof the mausoleum of Galla placidia and are hencc to be counted in the prehistory ol'thc First Romanesquc style. Flanking the apse at San Vitale there are two pylons somewhat resembling those of'the con_
Giovanni (Benedictine in 89J); San Pier NIaggiore has a contemporary square belfr-v, according to Corrado Ricci. A sign of'carly date in the various belfiies ofRavenna, he observes, is the
temporar\, Svrian architecture. In I'act, San Vitale has three types oftower the pylons ju:r mentioned, a round stair tower attached to the narthex, and its mate, carried up to form .l cylindrical belfrv aftcr the Benedictines took o v e r t h e c h u r c h i n g r o .L 3
fact that thel,are not s]'stematic in their location with regard to rhechurches.l: Most important is thc fact that the squirre belfry was adoptccl early in Lombardy', and spread thence to Burgundl', where it appcared oetore the end of tho renth centurv. 'l'hrough Abbot Odo of Clunv and his successors, wh
P y l o n s , t h o u g h t h e l ' a r e o c c a s i o n a l l y . s e e ni n the early church architccture ol'the West, clid not have a long history there. -I'he round stair tower continued in use, usually on a small scalc. 'l'here were exceptions like the Irish round
IO5
the west f'agade, flanking the main door. At Cluny the crossing beltry, instead of being a wooden turritus uqet, was built as an oblong 'I'his tower of somewhat Lombard character' living process is a perl'ect case of a Roman idea on in the Exarchate, taking medieval form there, and, after being systematized by monastic practice, being spread to Lombardy and thence to great areasof Western Christendom. S a n t ' A p o l l i n a r e i n C l a s s e( S : : + 9 ) , t h o u g h a fine basilica ol'the ancient type, is also important lrom the point of view of incipient medi'l'he evalism. apse and thc lateral chapels at the east end build up in boldly articulated forms which lbrecast the vigorous handling of masses -I'he bold west front in medieval architecture. h a s a n a r c a d e da x i a l p o r c h ; t h e a d i o i n i n g d w a r f tower with its mate (now destroyed) made a ' ant'Apollinarc p a i r o f ' p y l o n s l t t h e f b g a d e . r tS also has an archaic example of the ambulatorv crvpt like that ot Olcl St Peter's. It is sometimes dated as earll as 8oo; at anl rate it is an addition, and probablv ol'the ninth centurl'. Also interesting fbr our purpose is the upper part ofthe Baptistery'ofNeon in ltavenna, possessingan undlted but earll' example of the pilaster strip with arched corbel-table between, which is to be the hallmark of the First Romane s q u e s t 1 ' l c ,r v h e r e r - e ri t i s l b u n d , i n I t a l y , D a l matia, France, Spain, Switzerland, and Ger'I'his part of the Baptisterv wall is olien many. ascribed to the eighth centurv, but it ma1'be carlier. The same applies to the fiontispiece of the s o - c a l l e d P a l a c eo f t h c E x a r c h s r t [ 6 j 1 . H e r e w e h a v e a b u i l d i n g w h i c h i s c x t r a o r d i n a r i l . vl i k e t h e maturc Romanesque of Lombardl l'et in f unction like thc gu:rrd quarters of'thc (-halki at thc
x n e w L o m b a r d l w e l l , t h c s q u : r r eb e l fr v b e c a m e m a i n e n t r a n c c o f t h e S a c r c d P a l a c ei n C , o n s t a n tamiliarin n o r t h e r n E u r o D e .B o t h t h e n a r t h c x o l ' t i n o p l e . T h e p o r c h , g u a r d r o o m r v i t h d o r m i t o r ' 1 . Saint-Philibert at 'I'ournus (rlatcd about t.;<.1o courtl'ard, and chapcl of the Sar iour, are orgatotg) and nized in Blzantine fashion,and were probablv that of the second church ar Clunr. built betwecn with the protcctive palace wall, when the built, 9 4 8 o r q 5 5 a n d t 1 8 r .r u r . l . . o - ptete by Lomblrtls bt'gln to c\lend thcir poucr. alter the 1,car rooo, had a pair of beltiies on
towers, the flanking stair towers ol' SainrB 6 n i g n e ,D i j o n ( r e a l l y L o m b a r d F i r s t R o m a n c s q u e ) , m i n o r t o w e r s o f c e r t a i n G e r m a n c h u r c h es (like Trier Cathedral), the belfrv of Pisa Carhedral (the famous leaning tower), one importanr
L-
IOO
PRE.ROMANESQUE AND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES
PARI
TWO
STYLES THE EARLIER ROMANE,SQUE
CHAPTER 5
THE.FIRST ROMANESqUE'
LOMBARDY year 8oo in LomThe style created about the intern:rttonirl bardy became the first reallv were earllramifications Rornan..qn. style. Its and France southern to Dalmatia, spread to countrv' Catalonia, to Burgundy, to the Rhine work' and even to Hungary' Late Carolingian s a t i s f i ctor]' a s t r o n g ' f o r m e d as we shall see, with and consistent style in the west of'France' imposing monuments (now lost) to its credit' It had an excellent s-vstemof lvall constructlon developed by the Gallic masons' but no tradi-
which calted lbr the scrvicesofhighl!'instructed never prol'essionalmen, but there rvas probably a timc ruhen such nren rvere unavailable' -l'he was man who drew the plan of St Gall tor an namc Greek the p4XatrroElike a Greek '.rrchitect W4avi being the worcl for an intrl-. ot cate device ol some sort' The d'p4rccrctav indesomewh'rt the Greeks rvas a responsible, 'clerk of the works''1 William of Volpendent was both o i a n o . a b b o t o f ' S a i n t - B 6 n i g n e, D i i o n , u s abhas e nd c.r r e'trov rx 6; and' itppr trc "' tion for vaulting on a large scaleor at high ler els' 1*1Xav tbctond0 rtpus ' tnsuipsum et mugistrttscondttcentlo In the other regions named, the incoming Lomtlttstrut e n t p l u n t c u l t u i t l i i ' i n o t l i g n u n tlautes bardic style pushed local building methods into the patron x e r u n t ' . 2U n d e r m e d i e r a l c o n d i t i o n s discard; western France maintained its own his manage to delegate a 'First Romanwould generally have traditions unaffected by the inmight which opcration' sirle of ihe builtling esque'. Leo of 'style' in the literary sense clucle supply and transport o1'materials' It was no mere rebuilding Ostia. u'ho carefullv described the which was transmitted from the Exarchate to was proDesidenus' Abbot b1. Lombardy, but a living and efrfrcaciouss-Ystem of \[ontecassino builder' master l'he dclegate' abbot's bably the of building, with a particular skill in vaulting' would direct the dpVtircrrr;t'' Greek ihe like In this we recognize Rome's ancient skill in comaster masons and work ordination. T'he practical, working s-vstcms r,arious groups of on a gangs. Gangs would hale their forcmen which produce a building are more important come as actuall-v would somc and proje.t, iarg, than literary-minded critics suspect' and can o n l y b e a p p r e c i a t c d t o t h e f u l l b y p e r s o n a l t e a m st o t h c s i t e. conThe magistri in charge ol thc practtcal participation in the intricate teamwork b1'which e v e n it. b u i l d i n g ' r c r l a h u i l c l struction lould successful building operations are conducted 'idea man' gar'e them only a or the l1ryXavffi6E This aspect of the art can be traced tiom Ra-
63. Ravenna,Palaceofthe Exarchs,after7rz 7r2. All was surely built befbre the f'all of the Exarchate in 752, and is described as old by Agnello, writing befbre 85o. Yet the wall-work
[3or] in the porch and campanile built in thc eler,enth century by Abbot Guido ol'Ravenna
ofbig bricks, the paired openings, the decorarivc
a r e o f R a v e n n a t e o r i g i n . O t h e r f ' c a t u r e so f t h c citv's architecture were also widely known ancl
arcading, the vlulting, and the buttressing ale practicall]- identical with Lombard Roman-
c o p i e d . T h e o b a l d , b i s h o p o f A r e z z o , s p e a k s0 1 'Nlaginardo arte architectonica optime erudit,i
esque work produced in the four following
whom he sent to study in Ravenna in the vear Ioz6. Nlaginardo moved on a rvell-trarellerl
centuries. Corrado Ricci believed that Romanesque terracotta insets
as lbr example at Pomposa
into venna to the comacine masters' and thence ure' t h e c u r r e n t o f R o m a n c s q u r ;a r c h i t e c t building In the Dark Ages there was littlc
road. to a I'amous source of architectural knowledge.lT
L-
IOI'
THE.FIRS'TROMANESQUE
E A R I - I E RR O M A N E S Q U S ETYLES
linear diagram with the chief' dimensions as g u i d e , b e c a u s ee x p e r i e n c e , i n t h a t a g e o f c o n -
the abbey of F6camp in Normandy, wh116 William ruled, he received the plea: 'In 16.
vcntional and even habitual procedurcs, dic-
mattcr o{'the craftsmen sf our buildings whiqS we arc commencing, we beseech that you \ill
tated the sizc and matcrial of the walls. as well as thc spans and the intcrior proportions. T'hat is how the plan of St Gall could satisiyan early
hastcn to send them to us, fbr we reall-v nce4 them Q,alde nnbis necessarii sunt)' - in a regiol
medieval master.'I'he dimensioneddescription o 1 ' t h c a b b c - vo f C l u n v o f 1 o , 1 3w a s m a d c f r o m a similar linear diagram, as we know from the
which was slowly recovering from the devasrrtions and (afier g r o) the new immigration of the Norsemen.5
obserrcd fact that many-of the dimensions include a room or corridor width plus one wall. With incrcasing size and complication in
For a considerable area this process o{'crlli dilfusion started in Lombardv. Lomhardus bccame the word for mason at an early pcriod. Clearlr, the more-than-half-Latin Lombard
buildings, a more numerous group o(' proii'ssional desig;ncrsand clerks of the works came into being the magistri par excellence. Evidcncc lbr thern in the earll' period is shadowl', but in Gothic timcs their function is far too well recognizcd ancl too spccialized to be of recent 'l'he creation. myth o1'thc dc\'oted f'aithful spont a n e o u s l vr a i s i n g m c d i c v a l s h r i n e si s d i s s o l r . i n g , n o w t h a t r e i e r l n t d o c u m e n t a r v e v i d e n c cl b r t h e buildings has bcen discorercd and studied.' U n t i l t h e t o r v n s a n d t h e m o n a s t e r i e sb e c a m c large, the masons neccssarilv worked as travelling bands. It was the samewith bell-fbunders, g l a s s - m a k e r s ,s t u c c o w o r k e r s , l r e s c o p a i n t e r s , and mosaicists, fbr a longer period. Bernardo, who had l French name, and fiIn' master
builders were onlv doing for the revir,ed Empir.r what their forebears had done for the Romrn Empire.
medieval Paris, was no better oll. When his grclt church rvasundertaken (about rr1.5) he r v a so b l i g e d , a s h e s a \ s , t o c a l l c r a f i s m e n f r o m v a r i o u s r c g i o n s a n d c o n s i d e r a b l ec l i s t a n c e s . a
Romanesque stvle, e\.en where conditions wer( p r i m i t i v e . T h e v a d o p t c d t h e B 1 ' z a n t i n et y p c 0 l
:l'l^:,. ^_.r i.o^ninr rsrr
by the tntt was doubtlesssuggested iio.r. and worl' or herringbone spt(d.tu.tn ,ii.n, rO,' Romrnesqut F irst the irliounat in buildingsof a great 'l centering or f-alse-work u'hich provided the elevcnth.centurr" he hearting h eld in b o a r d s l i t t l e lrtn Short "",,t n o t p u d d l e di n s u p p o r t i ; g m o u l d . ^ j . o r . o f a s t o n ew a l l u a s bed the poles formed and poritio., bl trusses and lbrm' but \4asrather 'So-.tim., iroro, inriat t facing earth was heaped on the tbrms lnd with somecare' a roughrubble laid where the Sieometrvof the vault was "'inJun.i.", credit is giventhesemen lbr their moulded, thc fbrm' roughll-' shapcd stones materialsfor therrmor- difficult. On skillin findingexcellent and the haunches ol the mortar' good qualitv' wcre laid in *nl.ft is almostinvariablyof with hearting work ln up brought were endur- vault "t, *h"r"u., found. It makesthe wall-work of r llr4 33, liom the south-east eleventhccnturv' in tradition of church 64.Milan, San Vincenzoin PrJto'
again in the Renaissance, made another anrl more lamiliar architectural reconquest.
to look at, which lvas pracrical and proved irs t u s cuf l n e s so v e r t h e r v h o l e l v i c l ea r e ao 1 ' t h e F i r s r
The walls ing, anclthe vaults solid and stlong was occawere ofien covcred \\ ith stucco, which represent to sionallv ruled with tblse ioints has a ashlar. Ilut stucco, properly applied' stripped b e e n o f t e n t o o h a s I t o w n . i t s o l beauty in {iom interiors; on the exteriors it vanishcs about two hunclred vears' \-aults werc huik, like Romln raults' orcr
,;,1',thorizontalcourses fi I*"::Tl':: II:."Tf,'l,Tll"-",1: ot [*;;;'into :ilt'l.t ll:
implcmented the first stages of the pontific..il conqucst of Europe which Gregory VII and Bonilhce VIII achieved. Rome. revir.ed once
c a t h e d r a lo f S a n t i a g o d e C o m p o s t e h . Y c t A b b o r Suger lt Saint-Denis, onlv a f'erv miles from
barclr.a , n d i t i s b e l i e v e dt h a t t h e i ' w o r k e d o n h i s abbel church in Dijon, begun in roor. From
iik. bri.k"':'9i'i1
from the earll"tenth century onwards becanre i n c r e a s i n g l vt h e i n s t r u m e n t o f p a p a l p o l i c v a n d
The magistri nmacini1 had more than thc a n c i e n t r ep u t a t i o n o f ' I t a l i a n b u i l d c r s t o r e c o m 'l'hey mend them. had a new type of wall construction, r'hvthmically decorated and pleasanr
m e n c o u l c l h e s e n t e l s e r v h e r e .W i l l i a m o { ' V o l piano brought crafismen lrom his native Lom-
t!"i"iiio'" ke.sh a-brick-ri lt': ::1.I ilL .lll]
One might call the First Romanesquestrlc the st.vleofthis Italian architectural reconqucsr. It is worth noting also that a large portion of the work was clone lbr the monasteries. q'hich
masons, manv of thcm indubitablv French. were crrlled b1' bishop Diego Pcldez to work (trom ro7-q onwards) at thc rcmore Galician
A,n atelier thus assembled might become rooted; it would gir.e training to local talent, and in time become a centre lrom rvhich crafts-
stones ,,,.,,- The masonsmerely split small [rtut""".^ ^ h"iclr-like shaoe. and used them toub'"J s or rounded rircr
I09
oblong brick (rvhich, because of thc mapistrr. has come dorvn to us) and built whole walls ol it as we do. without fbrm work. instcaclof maki n g p u d d l c d c o n c r e t ew a l l s l a c e d w i t h t r i a n g u l a r t a i l i n g b r i c k h e l d b - vf-b- r m s , a s t h e R o m a n s d i d Such comacine walls wcre called opus ronra'fhc rrrrs,'. ancient Romans had used facing stoncs also, but the First Romanesque wallwork which der.eloped from this was called zrpr.ri
L-_
\ IIO
EARLIER
tHn'nlnst
ROJ\TANESQUE STYLES
the First Romanesque style, p5roinvaults were f r e e l y u s e d ; a p s e sw e r e r e g u l a r l y v a u l t e d , a n d
Milan, the Lombard capital, has lost its Carqr lingian and First Romanesque buildings. These
tunnel vaults were also common. In lvork which
have, however, a good representative in the simple columnar basilica of San Vincenzo in Prato [64], a brick structure so conser\.ativel\ rebuilt in the eleventh century that it was ac-
can surelv be traced to Lombards, tunnel vaulting is little, and r,erv cautiouslv, used at high levels. For crossing r,aultsthe Lombards used a derivative ol'the Roman domical or octagonal cloister vault, rather than the Byzantine dome. The Lombardic crypts, groin-vaulted or,er a
columns' with a \ault , i s l e s ,c a r r i e d o n r e - u s e d a n d a p s e sa ( t h c h e a d o f h l v s s a n c l u a r \ ^*r rtta b u i l dcrs did nol rentttre l ' h e ile composirion under the tunnel raulting ol the i'.I...r,or. b a 1s ' b u t t h e a p s e sw e r e p i c r c c d u i r h lrn.r,,ur, lbr the thrust ol a semidomc r nindo*t s usual' of tunnel or groin vaultthat than less i, mu.tt plattbrm is raised at San sanctuarv fh. lg. there is a spacious groin-\'aulted pi-atro, ""a entrances under this plat(brm' lirteral crypt *ith level ol' the church as at pavement the at San Pietro at Agliate Sant'Apollinare in Classe' wall-work' but attractive ofcrude is stone-built. p a r t s with the t h e o l d e s t o f c o m p a r i s o n and a how easil-v twelfth-centurY campanile will show gre\l' oLlt theaccomplished mature Romanesque p a s sing' the l n s t v l e p r i m i t i v e of the more baptistery should be mentioned as a companlon
cepted (except certain details) as the church of r. 8r4 j3.i Its only vaulting is in the thrct parallel apses, henceforth characteristic of this type ofbuilding. 1'his part ofSan Vincenzo has
quadrille ofcolumns, are characteristic, and are widelv used within the areaof the style. By the tenth centurv architectural member-
the tell-tale First Romanesque pilaster srrips and arched corbel tables, with typical arched
ing of ashlar was again in use. Second-hand c o l u m n a r c a p i t a l sa n d s h a f t s w e r e b 1 t h i s t i m e
recessesunder the ea.r'esof the main apse. San Pietro at Agliate, near Milan, rhough
almost unobtainable. The practice ofmaking big blocks especiallv for their places brought about a p r o g r e s s i re i m p r o \ e m c n t i n t h e m a s o n r r ' .
now assigned to the eleventh century, well rcpr e s e n t sw o r k o f t h e d a t e f o r m e r l t ' a t t r i b u t e d r o i t , , . 8 7 5 [ 6 S ' ] .I t h a s a b a s i l i c a n n a v e a n d r u o
example of a building of the central n'pe (about goo). Santo Stefano in Verona. rebuilt about 99o, has a cr1'pt and an apse,each of'which is supplied with an ambulatorv, the upper one open-
65. Agliate,San Pietro,chevet,style ofr. 87s
ing on the main apse through an arched colonnade. Ivrea Cathcdral (be(bre rooz) has the w r e c ko f a s i m i l a r c o n s t r u c l i o n . ' B e f o r e l e a l i n g t h e s ee a r l v b u i l d i n g s . m e n t i o n should be made ol screral interesting monuments which show continuing Brzantine influence in Lombardl'. San Satiro at \Iilan (ti76) is, except for Renaissance additions, a perlect Byzantine four-column church. Its tower, dated a b o u t r o 4 3 , i s o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s to f t h e c h a r a c 'lhe apse of teristic Lombartl square toners. Sant'Ambrogio has mosaics dating from about 94o, when the present svstem of cr1.pt, choir apse,and flanking sanctuaries was built' Three monuments near the borders of Lombardy show the First Romanesque stvle on the threshold of maturity, lacking onh' the greater finish of execution and perhaps the sculptural embellishment which are lbund in the Sccond Romanesque style. 'lhe lirst of these buildings is the bantisterv of Biella, near Norara, a cen-
^L--
RoMANESQUF.
tralized edifice clated about to4o, with sophistic a t e d u s e o f s q u i n c h e s a n d b u t t r e s s e s ,t h o u g h rough in construction. Nlore conventional is the stone-built basilica of San Paregorio at Noli," {est of Genoa in Liguria. Its exterior is u'ell composed lnd gracclulll' dccorated lvith pilaster strips and arched corbel tables. f'he apses' the cr\pt, and the aisles are vaulted. Substantitl p i e r s o f ' l o g i c a l l y 'g r o u p e d e l e m e n t s s u s t a i n t h c 'l'his was r,aulting and the high clerestorv wall' a ler-v acccptablc tYPeof building xt the time' about rozo 4o. The third monument, San Pietro at Civate, near Como and Lecco, is dated irbout ro4o. It is a double-ender' uith the entrance passageflanked prettill.b-v two absidiolcs {bcing east lvithin the mass of the western apse' 'l'hese three elements open upon a woodenroof'ed nave through three arches beneath a tvmpanum fiescoed rvith the Victorl o'r'erElil' 'fhe altar of San Pietro hls a rcmarkable old baldacchinoresembling that of Sant'Ambrogio in NIilan.
D A L M A TI A The f urther spread of the Lombard st1--le'and in the round church tvpc, are both exemplificd b u i lt Y u g o s l a v i a , ( Z a r a ) , Z a d ^ r N D o n a t o San - or during thc Frankish occupation (8tz'76) i') at latest befbre 9,19, when it was describccl of This building has an interestinganticipation the ambulatory with radiating chapels An annular aisle surrounds the central space' irnd exo p e n s o n i t t h r o u g h a r c h e s ,w h i c h a r e s i n g l e arches three are there rvhere east, cept at the rusting on columns. Opposire lhese t-rprnings a r e t h e t h r e e a p s e s .C o n t i n u i n g f r o m t h e a p s e s ( t o e a c h s i d e ) t h e e n c l o s i n g w a l l h : r s a s e r i c so f niche recesses.
C A T A L O N I AA N D A N D O R R A Westwarclexpansion of the First Romanesque Lombardv stvle across thc south of Frirnce fiom
THE.FIRST ROMANI]SQUE
II2
rl3
E A R L I E RR O M A N E S Q USET Y L E S
i s c e r t a i n b u t n o t w e l l m a r k e d b y e a r l y .m o n u m e n t s , t h o u g h w o r k o f F i r s t R o m a n e s q u ec h a r -
tem, came into a region which built successlirl tunnel vaults related to Roman, \Ioslern, ,r111 'l'he resultrnq
acter survives in the cathedral of Vence. Thc stvle sureh camc to (,atalonia bv land and by'.
p e r h a p s P r o v e n q a l ex a m p l e s .
s e a . I ' h e C a t a l a n s ,t h e n a s n o w l i v i n g o n b o t h slopes of' the Pr,renees in Rousillon and the
Lombardo-Catalan Iiirst Romanesque. -fhe interest ofthe stvle residcsin its ex|111
eastern part of the Sprnish N{arch of Charlemagne, werc in a lbrtunate period, rvhen the
v a u l t i n g a t a n e a r l ) ' d a t e ,t h o u g h w o o d e n - r o o l i d churches were also built. Senvor Puig i (.atlrr-
tunnel-\.rulted work is more properlt callrcl
Countl' of'Barcelona was flourishing;. The new
l h l c h b e l i e v e st h a t r a u l t e d c o n s t r u c t i o nt a n l r q
modc at first coalesccd with and then supplanted a stronglv Nlozarabic architectural st\1e. N { a n v g o o c le x a m p l e s x e r e b u i l t , a n d s t i l l s u r -
traccd back to the middle ol the tenth cenrur\, He datcs thc church ol' L'Ecluse (La Clu:rr1.
vir,e almost unchanged in back-countrv places lvhich have cscapcd thc der'.rstating effccts of' later prosperity. The result is that the Irirst R o m a n e s q u es t y l e i s b e t t e r r e p r c s e n t e di n C a t a lonia than anywhere elsc.rl It must be noted that the stvle, rvith its characteristic masonrv rvork and decorative sys-
norv in French Catalonia (aisled, with thlee p a r a l l e lt u n n e l v a u l t s ) , a b o u t 9 5 o ; s o a l s o S a n t a \{arir
at Amer, dedicated in 949; and Sanra Cccilia de Montserrat [66] an interestinq church, perhaps the one dedicated in 957. In that 1'ear St Stephen at Baiiolas rvas rebuilt in t h e s a m ew a v a f t er b e i n g b u r n e d b v N o r s e m e n . 'I'hese buildings had thcir slopinpt stone roots
filling abore the web ol 61i directly .' .tlbblt in southernbut practical is ^iiif,. r.rut,. uhich oprnlon Conserrartre climales lnt tiiatin not,h.tn dates particular) in Gudiol.Ricart of Senor somewhatlater' Low and unas)iJ.nur.tttt are ver] happilyrelated l"r;"t, the structures look of naturalobiects a with setting. ,]il buildings' rather '*"Tur,than the year rooo a notableexampleof "fr.t Lonbardo-Catalirnstvlc was built this vaulted spur of the hugc mounsn 1 pi.tut..que Canigou,r: above Prades the callecl ,ri" rn"* Long-continued neglect Catalonia' Fr.n.h in about sixt-v-five nccessar-v ,..,orrtion trda " was well and lovingly work the but ,.rr, "go, a witness' ion. ,o that the building standsirs to the setting' completein its inspiring original ('haracagc remotc [67-q]' architectrr. of that to St teristicallyit is a monasterl-(dedicated
lrom
W,W
l[[lilq
i'i
\
I
66. \Iontserrat, SantaCecilia,giT or latcr, fiom the east
i
5 n
6r rnd 68. Saint-\'lartin-du-(-anigou,roor z0 (rrstorccl),intcrior and analltical perspcctire
>--
I o o r 2 ( )( r c s t o r c d ) . 6 9 .S a i n t - . \ 4 a r t i n - d u - C a n i g o u . the south from view
Martin) with the austere, solidly built church and conventual quarters arranged about a small cloister. The rooms command lovely views.
columnar shafts with simply-can'ed capitals, separated bl two grouped piers supporting arches which greatly strengthen the middle part
Awinding approach road leads to and through a splendid big tower, strategically placed and crowned with Moorish stepped battlements which break its substantial mass against the skv
of the building, where a tunnel vault is most likely to collapse. The tower, the lateral recesses (including a chapel with a quadrant vault), and
as happily as the characteristic pilaster strips and arched corbel tables model its ample surfaces. This tower composes beautifully with the rocky masses and with the building group; it is contiguous to the church on the north-east. The church is on two levels. Its crypt has tunnel vaulting with transverse arches carried on two frlesofgrouped piers, except at the head, where there are two oblong piers and two columns carrying a set of nine groin vaults iust in front ofthe three apses.Beyond the west end ofthe church crypr there is another, which supports a platform in front ofthe church proper. The latter is as long as the two crypts together, ilnd consequently the three church apsesextend beyond the crypt rpr.r, to*r.ds the east. For its period, the superstructure of the church is a remarkable achier,ement. The three long tunnel vaults which cover the nave have only ten interior two sets of four supports
the monastery buildings abut the high vault so well that only a fraction of it collapsed during a century's neglect of the rooling surface after the secularization and abandonment of the site in r785. The church interior is lighted only from the ends, which might seem to be a defect in the building - but, in f-act, many of the monastic services take place at night. Also, it was usual for the monks to know large parts of their liturgy by-heart, and therefore natural light was not so important. Clearly, Saint-Martin-du-Canigou is an excellent piece of architecture: the more so because it is of earl-v date - roor to roog (for a preliminary consecration) and Ioz6. The monk Sclua, who superintended the building, became t h e f i r s t a b b o t i n r o I 4 , a p p a r e n t l y - a f t e ra p r e liminary regime under Oliba, abbot of Ripoll and Cuxa, later bishop of Vich (Ausona)' whom we have already mentioned.rr
I16
E A R L I D R R O M A N E S Q U ES T Y L E S
f'he architecture of the period came to a high point at the monastery of Ripoll under Oliba. A spacious cruciform church with double aisles,
coes, a iewelled altar, and a mosaic pavemenr with animals and sea monsters. The chief strr_ viving embellishment of the building is a carlg6
transept, and seven apses was begun about rozo (possiblv incorporating some older work), and
doorway ofthe twelfth century, connected iconr ographically wirh manuscripts created in thr
dedicated to the Virgin on r January ro3z)l [7o-3]. Afier many vicissitudes the building was restored (imperf'ectly, romantically, and
scriptorium which flourished from about g5o. Ripoll was one of the lights of its age. ft had
too radically), between r886 and r893. Its magnificent plan was unmistakably inspired by Old St Peter's in Rome, and the vaulting as unmistakabll.by Roman imperial works. The nave vault is modern, but parts ofthe transept vault are old. Santa Maria de Ripoll was without doubt one of the grandest works in the First Romanesque sty.le. The rough stone, which is usual in the stvle, and the heavy, obstructile piers (which made the modern tunnel vault possible) give a sombre character, but it must be remembered that the church had extensive fres-
Santa\4aria' r ' ro2o-.12(restored rz and73 -Ripoll. lrom thc south-cast ui"* and ilan
a large library (246 volumes in ro46), and it5 school was illustrious for works of historr,, poetry, astronomv, music, and mathematics.L; T h e r a n g e o f O l i b a ' s o w n a c t i v i r i e si s i n d i c a t c d by his personal friendships with Pope Beneclict VIII, with Gaucelin, the great abbot of Fleurv, and (it is said) with Hugh of Semur who became abbot of Cluny shortly after Oliba's death. 'I'he stone sculpture at Saint-Martin-cluCanigou, Cuxa, and Vich is not remarkablcl but at Ripoll there are still in existence a lcrv interesting pieces which show the influence of fine Moorish workmanshipr(, [7r]. With good
7o and 7r. Ripoll, Santa\'Iaria, r. rozo 3z (restolerl r 8 8 6 g 3 ) ,i n t e r i o r( n a r ev a u l tm o d e r n ) ,a n d capitalin N{crorish stvle.tenth or clerenrh centurr
L
THF-
IItJ
(FIRST
ROMAN[,SQUE'
II9
ETYI-ES E A R L I E RR O M A N E S Q U S
stonc-carvers becoming available in Catalonia, and because the milieu was intellectual, it may
by half-Moslem San Pere de Roda, as Serior Gudiol Ricart says) has a similar lintel, more 61
be supposed that some members of Oliba's circle suggested the serious, doctrinal use of figure sculpture on church exteriors - a noveltJ' in
l e m o r i g i n . O n t h e f a g a d eo f t h e c h u r c h o f A r l c s sur-Tech, Iater a Cluniac prior.r, is a cr,rsr.
Western Christendom. In f'act,thc use of apocalyptic themes carved in relief on church portals was initiated in early eleventh-century Catalonia, and with it one of the most brilliant episodes in the historv of sculpture. Concurrently, the use of ligural decoration on the arcades of cloisters inaugurated one of its most poetic cpisodes.tT Such enlarged use ofrrpocah'ptic iconography was the more natural in view of thc special interest which northern Spain and southern
less contemporary, but showing details of Nlrs-
datable to ro46, with Christ in glory and the s 1m b o l s o f t h e l b u r e v a n g e l i s t s . r s The marble employed is local. It has bccn used since antiquity. Well-carved altars wcre made of it and exported; late examples turn up 'l'his in Clun1, (rog5) and Toulouse (ro96).r'q same marble was also used for cloister capitals, lbr example at Cuxa in French Catalonia and at Toulouse. The intellectual
and
art-loving
""i.r".,., i n . \ n d o r r a ' t h i c h i s ( i n a w a ) ) b u t (oloma' "t lrei ,' c o" un .t i n u a t i o n o f C a t a l o n i a S a n t a of tower round .nnaorrr, has a handsome produced Catalonia Later ,*.tf,fr-i.ntu.1. style' works in the maturer many beautif'ully finished much cherished' was turn its in *fti.ft ,ryt., signed in contract of the f'frri ls tt . explanation b c t r v e e nt h e p c r i o d ) G o t h i c t h e l r 7 5 ( r e a l l yi n Raimundus and Urgel de Seo the of Chapter the catheLambardus, who engaged to work on The lanbudtts' on dral with four compani ofthc example excellent an is built they church mature Lombard Romanesquc st-vle[233']' when This old st-vlewas not cntirely givcn up the Gothic eventuall,v reached Catalonia' Verv often the sun-baked sober brown bulk of a
Cluniac
France had in the subject, resulting lrom imaginatively illustrated and widely circulated manu-
monks, who used Resurrection iconographl in their liturgical processions, had priories at Saint-Beat, Saint-Pons-de-Thomidres (ro13o).
scripts of the Commentary on the Apocalypse 'Ihe church of. bv Beatus of Li6bana (78o). Saint-Genis-des-Fontaines has the oldest pre-
and Arles-sur-Tech; it is certain that thel- cr;ll a b o r a t e d i n t h e s p r e a da n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h i s sculpture for cloisters and portals. Of this more
served architectural example, a marble lintel dated rozo-r, with Christ in gloly, two angels, a n d s i x o f ' t h e a p o s t l e s .T h e f i g u r e c a r v i n g i s
will be said later. In the architectural constructions of the earlier period there are man) scrltered examples of sculptural ernbellishment. 'l'het'occur b e t w e e n9 7 5 a n d r o 8 o i n B u r g u n t l l , Saxon England, German.v, and Byzantium, btrt
obviously archaic, and hardlt glyptic in style: it looks like a cop-v of stucco-lvork or metal repouss6 [74]. Saint-Andr6-de-Sordde (inspired
a sysrem so conr incing and purposeful n t ef idirnt i . t je l "c, u dctelopment as can lhese doctlina] and French Catalonia' Languedoc' llrir ", BurgundJ lrter 'momcnt to Catalonia' R.turning for another influences lntroforeign thc that *a try t"t about rhe \car looo ,".aa inro thc architccture m a r urc Romanesquc to the ]u"ntutltl brought m e a n w h i le mant tardr exh u t ,fr.i t.gi"n' F i r s t R o m a n e s q t r ew e r e s l i l l p r o r n . o f ,*0f., apse: and. tower: gire much i'o'JJ. rn.i, to the countrvsidc This is particu-
'l'ournus
and the regions around Clun.v and Diion (whither the st-vlewas brought about 9tl7 follow it to or roor by William o{'Volpiano), we in gz9' Cluniac becamc which Romainm6tier,rr and later For the existing church, the date 996 ofthe i s a c c e p t a b l e ,b e c a u s eo f t h e r e s e m b l a n c e church second thc to olclestparts ofthe building Io5;' at Clunv (948 or r. 955 8I) [ro4'
GERNIANY radiating abSt M:rry, the circular chapel with Wiirzburg' sidioleson the Feste Nlarienburg, at but tts has been claimed as a monument of 7o6, Lombardic its and certain not identification is There was featurcs appear to be of later date'12 b-v Italian a continuing penetration of Germany onrvards' t i m e inllucncc from Charlemagne's Romanesque' with'First examples but eristing less like the f'eatures look to the practiscd e1'e than lrorks of Italian architectural missionarics in the trained o('Germatrs likc the achicvements rvilling to tradition of Carolingian building, vet to adopt improve their vaulting technique and
,u.h f-.",u.., as Lombarcl pilaster strips':rrched German c o r b e l t a b l e s ,a n d b l o c k c a p i t a l s ' G o o c l ashlar' r,r'allconstruction, f'accd with ercellent Romanesquc was superior to Lombard First o o o r k .a n d t h e g r a n d t r a d i t i o n o f C a r o l i n g i a n thirteenth-centur-y cathcdral or a fburtccnththan an]'monumentllitv was more imposing centurv tower will be esscntiallv Romanesque' t o t l - r eN o r t h l a n d b r i n g c o u l d l t a l i a n s t h c t h i n g The church paintings long retained a Roman'I'he at th(j tlme. esque imprint.io beautiful museum at buildings One ot the oldest conspicuous Barcelonaincludes rc-mounted ficscoes, baldaLombardic t h e o f t e r s i o n G e r m a n a sholving cchinos, altar lrontals, and many other obiects be St 'I'here pilastcr strips and arcading appears to is no place rvhere associaterlwith the culr. the Otto under (begun Pantaleon in Colognc a better contact with ccrtain spiritu:rl aspects ol This in q66, [77l cledicated 98o) Great. ;rlier Romanesque art ma]' be attained. through its church hatl manv outside cont:rcts Lombardic vcr-r {hmous atelicr o|enamcllers T H EK I N G D o M o t ' A R r . l r s W i m p f ' e n (szq q8)' i n .l.toil upp."., carlv rlso C o b l e n z' as oi the C a s t o r , S t i s \Iore doubtful We have alreaclvsccn the expirnsion of the LomA s t r i k i n g example c e n t u r l t e n t h t h e o f cnd b a r d F i r s t R o m a n r s q u es l \ l c i n l o L i g u r i r : i t the church at o f t e n c i t e d i s t h e f a q a d et o r v e r o f moved up the Rh6nc Valle-v to Switzcrland and htrt this Germanv in the tenth centurv. Leaving asidc -\littclzcll on lhe lsle of Rcichenau'
the-ycannot (at an-vrate for the present) be con-
churclr,lintel, ro-:.oI 7-1.Saint-Genis-des-Fontaines,
L-
I2O
STYLES E A R L T E RR O M A N E S Q U E
once integrated into German architecture, were
Adriatic. I'he imprint of Lombardv was strong at first in Yugoslavia - at Studenitsa (r. rrt1.;y. Zhicha (rzoz-zo), and Visoki Dechani (r.i:7
spread far and wide, and easily reached neighbouring Hungary and Moravia. Thev also much
35); a reminiscence surlived the change ei orientation which made Serbia a Bvzantinr
later reached Russia in a modified form, pro-
state, and counts for something in the beautl o1 churches like that of Manasija. contemporirr\
work, according to recent studies, must be assigned to ro482rIzo]. The Lombardic themes,
bably from Germany, and contributed superficially to the elegant beauty of the twelfthcentury churches in and about Vladimir. Rascia (naissant Yugoslavia) borrowed Lombardic
ARCHITECTUREIN GERNIANY ROMANESqUE (936-1125) S A X O N A N D F R A N C O N I A NE N { P E R O R S U N D E RT H E
with the Turkish conquest. Thus the rhythm of the Late Roman pilaster strips and the ripplc ot
queathed to us by the Early Romanesque flownotable conever, the renewal brought about 'Ihere was' tor struction over a wide area' militart o f general derelopment st-'-'lewhich we have i n s t a n c e , a graced The First Romanesque a r e w h i c h s i t e s o f t h e manl to Old Russiacameas a r c h i t e c t u r e ; nearfollowedfrom Ravenna numbering (ultimately castles some technicalimprove- by German ,n .pi.oa., bringing this time' Yet the at ibrtified were ro.ooo) lv an attractivedecorativesystemto the *nL architec".ra of Germany near the end of the heart of the people was in the church ,rahit."tur. p r eserved' a r e c h u r c h e s t h e w h e r e (936 73)' The inde- t u r e , a n d ,.ign of Otto I, the Great of the Chrisunity massive the breathe theystill and greatpowerof Germanarchitecpendence in Gerthe tian Imperial communitl. Traditionally of sign external an themselves ,ura ,ra still)' England (as in -any, u.r<'lin Byzantium grandeurof the secondimperial Renaissance' aspect spiritual as the cherished was the Church calledOttonian. power of the communitl- under the sheltering had country the age Carolingian Sincethe Popes' the with the of an anointecl ruler. Conflict sufferedterribly from wars with the Slavs' international who were developing an eftbctive dynasttc from as well Vikings,the Magyars,as iniured the greatly goYernment' internecine feuds' The Saxon ecclesiastical
1flE OTTONIANSI RoN'tANESQUE THE OTTONIAN
their connecting arches lived on to appear in
motifs from early Dalmatian work, and perhaps
the architecture of the medieval empires, Ger-
also from Norman-Apulian
man and Slavonic.:l
buildings acrossthe
o CflAPTEn
*.rkn... and Empire. ilynastywas inauguratedby King Henrv I' the but desDuring the confusion which had all began He Fowler,who reignedfrom 9rg to 936 fell to Papacy the Empire, Western the the long processof putting the governmentln troyecl came to the which monasticism was It nadir. order - assuringthe frontier, and refusing to its The great monks he is r e s c u eo f t h e R o m a n C h u r c h buy off the barbarians.Characteristically u e r e accustomedto P a p a c l the remembereclin architectural historv for works u h o r e f o r m e d an abbot.rewhich obedience of fortification,especiallvat Merseburg,Werla the unqualified this conceptlon' and monastery, his in ceives (nearGoslar),and Quedlinburg.whereimporwith
in schism applied to the Papacv, resulted developed't tanturbancentressubsequently and a fbtal loss rz45) (ro54, are'in the ti. Ett.t.rn Church Whilethe Orlonianchurchdesigns the Western of gol'ernment the bv Carolingiantra
\-
I22
E A R L I E RR O M A N E S Q USET Y L E S
a t t r i h u t i o n s ,a l o n g l r i t h c o p i o u sl . c s { ) u r c e s an(l c o n s i d e r a b l ep o l v e r . U n d e r t h e s ec i r c u m s t a n c e s the construction of a number of'r,erv imposing; c a t h e d r a lb u i l d i n g s i n O t t o n i a n a n d I i r a n c o n i a n times needsno f urther explanation.Grouns of b u i l d i n g s l r e a s s o c i a r e twl i r h c c r t a i n h i s h o n s . a n d r e l l e c r r h e i r ( a s l e , i n a l l c a s e sm a r k e d b r c l e m c n r a ls t r e n F l hr n d s u p e r b g r l n t l c u r . Otto the Great (9j6 Z3), who rcnewed rhe Imperial office in 96z, developecl Magcleburg as G e r m l n r ' s g r e a t b a s t i o na g a i n s rr h e S l a r s . H c f b u n d e c la c h u r c h h e r c , s e r r , e db v B e n e d i c t i n c s 'l'rier from (955), which in 967 became the c a t h c d r a l . T h e b u i l d i n g r v a ss o m e u h a t s m a l l e r than the cxisting Gothic structure, which in_ corporates columns of porphr,r.v, granite, ancl marble brought fiom Italv fbr the original build_ i n g . \ l a n _ vt l c t a i l sa r . t . u n c l e a r . - r e ri t i s c c . t a i n that the layout resembledthat o1'thecarheclral o l ' P a r e n z o ,w i t h a n a t r i u m a n d b a p r i s r e r l . a t the
f,r
\ O'TTONIANROMANESQUE
I23
w es t ; t h c n a \ . e w a s a v a s t w o o d e n _ r o o f t d bastlic a n s t r u c t u r e v r , i t hc o l u m n a r s u p p o r t s i t i s crr_ ; t a i n a l s o t h a t r h e e a s t e r na p \ c \ a s f l a n k c t l 6, t w o r o w e r s , a n c lt h a t t h e c a t h c d r a l w a s t b r t i f i c , i -l'hc c h r r r c h i n a u g u r a t e d a s e r . i e so t , . 1 r , , . , i b u i l d i n g s t h e c a t h e d r a l so f N { a i n z , A u g s b L r r s . . en(l \ orms among rhem. bur r.ebuilding 1,,r, d e p r i v e d u s o f t h e s e e x a m p l e sa l s o .
ofcolumns undcr arches with substantial ladon piers.2The crossing is stronglv narked' mrsonry proportions, here, nt the east end, are the and y94ical. The exterior is a graceful interpretation though without the lanterns. of Saint-Riquier, the Empress Theophano (d. qqt) t h a t s a i d i s Jt qrve funds to complete the work, which is a
lines of the verr ellborate existing cathcclral
Yet Otto thc Great's period is well repr.csenlcd in middle Cernrrnr br rhe lbrnrcr. .1,,r,_ r , e nt c h u r c h o f S t C v r i a k u s a t G e r n r o d e h S,I r,l, founded in 96r b1' l{arerave Gero. ,/c/i,,,,,,,,
f,ne exampl. of bold Ottonian agglomerative comPosition' S t P a n t a l e o ni n C o l o g n e , a l r e a d l m e n t i o n e d , should be recalled here as a work of the reigns
u e r e l a r g e l . vd e t c r m i n c d b y W i l l i g i s ' s b u i l d i n g .
of Otto the Great and Otto II, built with a sLrbsidy from the bishop, Bruno, who was Otto the Great's son. Of thc work bcglrn afier 966, finished and dedicated in g8o, onlv the wcst-
lorv shelf above the Rhinc close to the con'Ihis latter riler llows flucnce of' the N{:rin.
7 r , r / r i , r r a g a i nrshre S l a r s . I r i s a b o u r h a l l r h e r r z , . o l \ I a g d e b u r g ' so l d c a r h e c l r a C l . c r r r r , r . l ei , , . , , u e l l c o n s t r u c t e di n c r c e l l e n t u s h l a r m a s o r r r . r Except lirr the atldctl \restcrn ,1,r., ,,.un..,,,.,1 g a l l e r i e sa. n d e x t c r i o ra r c a d i n ga b o r e t h e rirl.r. C e r o ' s c h u r c h , r r c c n t l - rr e s t ( ) r e ds. t i l l e x i s t , . r l most unchangcd. It is handsomclv austerc in t h c i n t er i o r . w h r : r er h e r e i s , r t i n e r h r t h m i c l r . a r_
. t C l r i a k u s ,q 6 r a n d l a r c r . 7 . 5a n d 7 ( r .G e r n r o d e S r i c n l i o m t h c s o u l h - r r c s,lr n di n r t . r i u r
work with
three towers retains its original
In the reign of Otto II (97j 8t) the major church enterprise was the ncw and greatcr crrthedral of \'Iainz, begun under Archbishop \\rilligis in 97tl.r (-arolingian influence,and influence from Old St Peter's in Romc, were strong in the design, and thc grand scalcol'the building is perceptible to-da]', fbr thc majcstic
Its red sandstone bulk is sharplv cletached against a long woodcd ridge, and it stands on a
directh' toward the cathedral, which is thus risible for many' miles down the vallel'. The cxisrinqcalhcdrxl hus rcrerse oricnlation.in-
character[771
herited perhaps lrom Willigis's building, and c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e r e v e r s eo r i e n t a t i o n o l ' O l d
77.Cologne,St Pantaleon,966-8o; porch modcrn
St Peter's.It was fbrmerll'approachcd, like the latter building, through a propi,-laeum-chapel of St N1arl' and an atrium. At \'lainz, each of these featurcs would scem to have occupied a square about r2o f'ect on a side, ancl the nar,e, r v i t h t r v o a i s l e s ,t l v o m o r e . I t i s s u p p o s e d t h a t there rvas alreadv in Willigis's time a western transept about 6o f'eet rvide and zoo I'eet long rvith a single apsc, and that a church of the central t]'pe. perhaps thc Constantinian cathedral, lav bevond. Herc there would be an analogv lvith St John f.:rtcran, thc crrthedral of Rome. \ \ i l l i g i s ' s c a t h e d r a l r v a sb u r n t o n i t s d c d i c a t i o n d i r v i n r o o r - ; ,a n d w a s r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n s i m i l a r f b r m ( t h o u g h p e r h a p sw i t h a t r c l b i l w e s t s a n c t u a r yr v h i c h i n c r e a s e dt h e c o m p o s i t e l e n g t h to about 6oo fcet) bv Archbishop Llardo. \ new 'I'he new east tledication took place in roj6. f a g a d co f \ I a i n z C a t h e d r a l h i r d a c c n t r a l a p s e , 'doubleand the building \ras consequentlv a r o u nd stair T h e f l a n k i n g l i k e F u l d r r . ender' t u r r e t s o f ' t h e c a s t l h g a d e ,a n d s o m e r v a l l - r v o r k , are now ascribed to Bardo's roconstruction. 'I'hrough t h i s a n d n r o r e o \ ' o rt h r o u g h m a n l s u b sequent building episodes
,1
l-
notablv in to6o
r24 o r T O N t A N R O N t4 N L s Q r E
li;l3iff ,:iififfI ffi,:i: ",o i:t,1iti1:il.t", G
n Il
iit
IE
[fl
on the scale of' the eristinp; large and in 994 building. It had a pair of' square inportant towers set flanking the aisles, at thc east or en_ $snce faQade,which, as in the other Ottonian c e t h e d r a l sm e n t i o n e d , h a s a n a p s e o n t h c a x i s . j The tower arrangement is handsome, and came to be widell used. Italian and French eramDles o f t h e d i s p o s i r i o na r e w e l l k n o u . n 1p a r m a ( . a i h e dral [3o8, 3o9] and Roucn Cathedral), but a connexion cannot be traced; howeler, Augs_ burg Cathedral is probablr in thc linerec of s u c ht o w e r - p a i r s i n n e a r - b l H u n g a l , i r n d t h u s it was an influential dcsig;n. T h e s u c c e s s o ro f O t t o I I I s . a sh i s c o u s i n . t h e saintedEmperor Henry Il (rooz 24) of happ,v memory. Characteristicallr. a great deal of.
il
lt I
Carolingiancacherhas beenmain_ .ti:2,.,t" SharedberweenOtto tarned[78,3j.31. II and Otto III is thc original church of Wimpf.en age is recalledin the i, Tri (9;9 _,Charlemagne's Ruhr 9;; a hexagonaibuildine countr).b-t'the western ba choir and ,"*.;;;; I'Iinstcr at Essen,which b.rcxcararion), rhelaqaderaareator..* ,1"^t"_*u (.s,_const ructlon.programme otto III (e83rooz).a and still existi n,-lr A .u.tou.i"ri. rs srmpler i::i]f' with n".r1go1 rhan that of Aachen.Th" galleries,resembling d"o;*.;., ;; a {iaction in a dcep o1 rccess,thc bold arch Palatine.Chapel. was built hcre as a a gallcrr ^the westcrn ", ".n;:;r;,., choir. Abor.eit sr ; at rhe cornersrlse two simple oct;ra squarefagade gonal rower set between,l.o totyers-. ,rrtLtlt brillianceof.rheEmperor anct '.,-t:...t:lr.jt ine nrs napnsr.. ruror Gerbert r-r.asis rhecaselr parenzo of Aurillac. frr., l"p.'i fCrrr,.l..il" I r a 1 1 , . a n du, j r h r a r . i a r i o n s . It.(.igs-roo3), and their interestin an'rii n t h e O r r o n i a n .lllll.. qurt]-atrheopening of i,tagdebursand .\{ainz. of the newmillennium,rhc Suchatria Li;l:U..ts; Ort: III (983-rooz)i, -:.. rhan merelv enrrance not *,.il ,.p."_ wa_r.s;it is sented _l:isn:f )_.^.-: known in architecture. rhat thel.had a spccial i_pu.iun.. in N{entionshould be processional Iitureies. made, however,of.thc ncw cathedralof'Ar-rgsburg, which ras startctl
it r',, jl; ::-?l:" "ri"ii'.:il:'":A;''::
rowers was unu.iu--.iol'JatH".i'; i'..ffl;
Pa,a tin"e d;;;i';; T#::1 ;I..|;:';;,X,[j
monumental church construction u,ent forward during his reign, and the remains which har,e come down to us nobly exemplif'v the tempcr o f t h e t i m e . H e c r e a t e da n e N c c n t r c o l . i m o c r i e l p o w e r a lB a m b e r gi n t h e e a s r ,w h c r t , a carhedral and residence were built in the r.ears roo2 12. Henry II was interested in church relbrm: hc grouped a congregation often abbeys about thc
7 9 .S t r a s s b u rCga t h e d r a lr,c s t o r n l r o rnr r r t l r o l t a g a d ea,s i n l o r 5 fl. (Kaurzschl
old monasterv of St X.,Iaximinin 1-rier, and rva. fiiendll. to the Cluniac monks. Henrr, me: .{bbor Odilo ol Clunr ar Ronte in ror+. rh, c o r o n a t i u n . r e r r , p r e s e n t c dh i m n i r h thc, im. perial crown and orb, and is said to have visiter tllalUcf in companl, with Meinwerk, bishoy ofPaderborn, in ror5. Undcr Henrr II, abour ror5, a start $,a. made r_rna great Earl\ Romanescluc cathedral a. S t r a s s b u r g .E x c a r a t c c l f b u n d a t i o n s s e e m to in_ dicatc thar this building u,as planncd ro har, n o b l e s q u a r e r o w e r s a t t h c t b g a d e ,w i t h p o r c : a h e t $ c c n . s c ( d i r . e c t l ri.n l i o n t o l t h c a i s l c sa n . na|e respecti\ ell IZq]. In \.ieu, of the f]ct tha. a s i m i l a r n a r t h e x f a q a d eu , a s n c w l v f i n i s h c c l a: C l u n r . i n r o r 5 . m a v w e s u s p e c td i r e c t i n f l u e n c e, T h c p a i r c d \ y e s t e r nt o u . e r so f s t r a s s b u r g . bcini a t t a c h e dt l i r c c t l r t o t h e e h t r r c hp r n p a r . p..fierr. the t1'pical carhedral frontispiece, lvhich er,er:_ tuallv prer-ailedover rhc triparrite Saint_Riq uie: t h e m c .S t r l s s b u r g i s i m p o n a n r t o o , s i r h Reicl( j n a u ,a s t h c t r a i n i n g g r o u n d of Benno ofOsn:b r i i c k ( r . r o z 8 8 - 1 ) ,r v h o u a s i n c h a r s c of tl. o f i i c co l r r o r l s f b r H e n r r l l l a r r . lH e n n I\.: l:. b u i l t c a r r l e s{ o r t h c I a t t e r . , 'fhc S t r a s s b u r g t a g a c l es c h e m e w l s a c l o n t e _ in a lair numhr.ro . f b u i l t l i n g si n n c a r _ b r a r e r . \ l l s e r c b a s i l i c a ni n t b r m . i r i t h c l e r u s r o r i r . : ar:nooden roofing, simple in plan :rnd austere r: their architectural lines. The list incluclcs th, cathedrals of Basel (ror9), ancl (.onstanc. ( t o ( r 9 8 9 ) ; t h e a b b e l s o f E i n s i e d c l n( r o r r o, S c h : r Hh l u s t . n ( r o . 5 o r ) + ) . S r \ t r r c l i u s . Hirs,:. ( l o r t i 7 r ) , a n c ' I , \ ' l a r m o r . r t i e (r , \ I a r r r s m i r n s t c r . t h e l a t r e r f a q a d e ,c l a t i n g f i o m t h e t w e l f t h cer_ t u r t , h a s ( ) c t a l l o n a lc o r n e r t u r r e t s . u . i t h a t;.. a n d g e n e r o u s l l p r o p o r t i o n e d s q u a r ea x i a l bell-, tolver behinclrhem.. N c r v c o n s t r u c t i o n r v a si n i t i a t e c lu n d e r Hen. II at \\iorms (,athedral, t,hich has largclr pr,-
scrrccl its olcl character throughout long_co:_ t i n u e c lr e b r r i l d i n g . H c n r v I I ' s g r c a t c t . r u n . s e l l c , . Burchard, bishop ol \\iornrs, rvas responsib: for this work.
I'
I2O
E A R L I E RR O M A N E S Q USET Y L E S
Henrv
II and Bishop \4einrverk, together with Odilo of Cluny, arranged the penetration of-Cluniac monks into Germanv, fbr the bishop refounded .{bdinghof'at paderborn as a Cluniac priory in ror6.', f'he church, cledicateclin ro36 and partly replaced in ro58 78 aftcr a fire, is interesting as rhc firsr example in north Ger_ man\'ro be built on Cluniac lincs. Beginning in roor; Bishop \Ieinu,erk also built a cathedral in Paclerborn with the western c h o i r i n a t r e m e n c l o u ss q u a r e t o w e r , \ . e r v u n _ mistakablv Germanic in fceling, er,cn without thc tall steep spire, which is of larer date Igol.
oTT0\1.{N
RO\r{NLS()t E
r27
'l'his
imposing louer and ils accompxn1ln,, s t a i r r u r r e r sr e c a l l ,i n s e r . e r ca n d p o r , e r t u lt rrlinian fbrm, the chapel of the Sar.ioura . t Sr;,,tRiquier. 'I'he cclectic spirit of' Meinwerk is fr,rrthe, p r o r c d b r t h c c o n s t r r r c t i o n .i n , o r 7 , , , t 11.,. chapeI of'St Bartholomew near the cathedrrl t1i 'Greek' workmen.r0 'I'he aisled irrt.rio., nrri. rupof domed compartments carried on two ljles o f ' c o l u m n s ,h a s a M o s l e m c a s t t o i t w h i c h m a l e c u s s u s p c c tt h a t t h e G r e e k s c a m e l r o m t h c s o u l l of ltalv. f'he columns har.e quite exceptional carved capitals, remarkable for their plasril
an itgclrhen fhe sfonec:l[\ er \\Js \ er\' v i g o u ri n t h e b . r o n z cc a s t e r ' t h e i r o r r c a r r c r ' fr, Uaf,ina r e P o u s s cw o r k e r I d I l ' 3pdthe is the connerion with Italv of' Important too b u i l d e r b i s h o p Bernward ol' Hildesheim. the p eninsula in C)tto III's srritc t h e t o who went ' in roor This subject inevitablr calls up anothcr north-
s t n t c t i o n o l \ \ i i l l i g i s ' s h r r g ec a t h e d r a lt h e r e , a n d he served as bishop of Hildeshcim lrom gg3 t<.r
Bishop Bcrnu-ard's cherishcd German church H i l d c s h e i m " [ 8 2 - + 1 .T h e b u i l d a t St Michael I ooI, had a detlicationof thc a b o u t b e g u n ing,
original arrangemcnt, lvhich in some \r'al.s rvas
crypt in IoI5, lvhich is alsothe date ofits celebratedbronze doors, now installed in the cathed-
r o z u . S o m e G e r m a n i r r t h i s t o r i a n sa r e i n c l i n e d to bclicve that Willigis's church of 978 roog underlies St Nlichael, though the latter church showed considerablevariations on the theme. Its compositionis tvpical, bold, and skillul. St Nlichael now shows everv indication of its unusual. The westcrn part has a transept terminatetl at each end b1-galleries and a slc'nder ext e r i o r s t a i r t o $ e r I b r c o m m u n i c a l i o n ,c o m l ) o s ing handsomell. with a square lantern at the
8o. PaderbornCathcdral,tirgade, r.tpto corniceof torvcr roog 8 r . P a d c r b o r nC, h a p e lo f s t B a r t h o l o m e wr,o r T
8z Hildesheim, St N{ichael,roor .1.1,r r6:, navebefirrcreconstruction ral; by Io33 St N{ichael was complete. Reconstruction ofthc church after screre war damapJe has given us back the original clesign, rvhich is qedibly ascribed ro Bcrnrvarcl himself. IIc hacl oeen at Mainz as subdeacon during the con-
L
'I'herc crossir.rg. are irlso a spacious silnctuar\' b a 1 ' a n d a n i r p s e ,b e n e a t h w h i c h l i e s t h e c r 1 ' p to f 'l'he rorS. crlpt is reached by a semi-subterr a n c r n p a s s a g eb u i l t o u t s i c l et h c s a n c t u a n a n d cnclosing it. Thc eastcrn part of the building
I2d
E A R I , I E R R O M A N E S Q U ES T Y L E S
o I toNtAN
RoMANF.SQUI
r29
83and8.1.Hildesheim,St llichael, roor 33, r r(rz, aislebefbrereconstruction andsketchrestorationas in roor I i
has never had a crvpt, and its sanctuarr bav lvas s h o r t e r , b u f o t h c r u i s c t h c t l c s i c n r r . t st h e s u n t c as thar of'thc westcrn part_Betwecn thcsc t\\o nearh' s\.mmetrical terminations strctches the b a s i l i c a n n a v e * i t h i t s : r i s l e s .' l ' h c s o u t h a i s l e servcd as a sort of intcrior narthex, since the t w o m a l n e n t r a n c c sa r e t h e r e . V i s i t o r s t h e r e l b r c c n t e r e t l t h c c h u r c h ' b r o a d r v i s e ' ,a s I h c m o n k s 'l'his did. curious contrldiction of' the basic b a s i l i c r r np l a n w a s l o g i c a l i n a m o n a s r i c c h u r c h w h i c h f i r l l o r v c dt h e t h e m c o f ' S a i n t _ R i q u i c r a n d S t G a l l , a n t l i s r e c h n i c a l l , rr e n i n t e r e s t i n g . 'I'he ercr-memorablc bronzc doors in the cathcdrrrl \,vercreirllv madc fbr the latcral main c n t r a n c e so f S t \ l i c h a e l l l l q l . A s a l r c a t l v r c _ p o r t e d . t s i s h o p f l e r . n , w a r dr i s i t e c lR o m c i n r o o r rvith Otto III, and he lived fbr a tinre in the
\oung cmperor's palaceon the Aventinc. nclr 'I'his .SantaSabina. latter church still posscssesI pair of' fifth-ccnturt carr-cd rvooden (loors r v h i c h p e r h a p s s u g i s e s t e dt h e n o r k s a t I l i l d e s heim.
B a s e la n d n o r . i n t h c C l u n y N { u s e u m i n P a r i s , p o s e sp r o b l e m s r l s o . I t i s d a t e d a b o u t r o z o , a n c l
figure sculpturc in stone hr ahsorbing nrost ol' the 6ne talent available firr g'ork ol'that scale
obviouslv represents a cliflerent stream of'artis_ tic development as well as a difl'ercnt method (repouss6)and a tlill-ercnt material. The loss of'
and charactcr. Sculpture in stone rcceired an occasional
It was a flourishing pcriod lbr church art ol t h i s s o r t . C ) n cr c c a l l s t h e b r o n z e E a s t e r c o l u l n n
monuments of rhis kind through fire, pillage, l e v i g 5x, n f l r c m e l r i n gi s o n l r t o o u e l l a t t c s t e dh 1
madc fbr Bishop Bernrvard bcfbre ro2z, no\\ in Hildesheim Cathedral, ancl .\bbot Gaucelin's
d o c u m e n l sB . ut liom the rigour ol rhc Hildesheim doors antl thc pcrtlition ot' rhe Bascl rrontal a conviction emsrses that these cannot b e c a s u a lo r s p o r a d i c *ork.. St ch untlerstandIng and skill as thcse monumenrs show presupposea tradition ofbasic cralismanship transmitted from gencralion ro gcnerirlio;. lr is Q u l t ep o s s i b l e t h a t t h e r o g r . r eo f - p r e c i o u s a l t a r trontals ancl other ecclesirstical Iurniture rvith ngure sculpture clclavcd the rcnaissance of
bronze tnu/rt11llr at Saint-Benoit-sur-Loirc (about roz6) also thc altar of'thc ])alirtine C h a p c l i n - { : r c h e n ,g i r c n b l O r t o I I I ( q 8 - i -r o o , :) . and the splcndid pulpitthere gilen bvI{enn | [, h i s s u c c e s s o ra, n a d m i r a b l c a c h i c r - e m e n itn c l ec t l . d l t e d b et u e e n r o o 2 i r n c lr o . z + . 'I'hc g ^ o r p ; c o ugst r l d e n a l t a r f i o n t a l p r e s c n t c c l br the Emperor I lenrr ll ro thc crrhcdral,,1
\
i m p u l s e , p e r h a p s .f i o m m c n * h o w e r c a l s o a b l c to work in somc othcr mcdium. and werc callcd upon to producc ligure sculpture for special positions rvherc onlr stone rvor.rldbe suitablc. This situation u'ould account equalll' for the carvings on the (destroved) sarcophagus of' Abbot Hincmar of Reims (d 8zz)rr and the f i g u r c ss e t o r e r t h c o u t e r d o o r s o f ' t h e g r e a t a b b e v church of st Ilmmcram at Rcgensburg shortllafter ro4g. NIetal-shcathed statuarl' and relicf'.s 'I'hc had firrmcd cores of wood or mastic. bronze-uorkcr's sensc of bulk and his wax model. rhe reDoussdworker's hammer and drill,
FRANCONIAN
GERMANY
I.]I
worker's chisel and fini:hing proccss' 1 6 ei v o r y t h e d e s i g n sw e r e p a i n t e di n c l c r a t i o n a n d( s i n c e b l o cks belbre being ctrt. and tinted on the even the manuscript and fiesco aft.rwttd) gcneral p a i n t e r s ' c r a f tw c r e a p r e p a r a t i o nf o r t h e p t i n s t o n e . s c u l u r e renewao l f figure
in its monumental, fastidious austeritl', and grand dimensions,oler a bold and simple plan. -I'he church is a ruin, like that of Hersf'eld (fiom
(Ioz4 39)' the Under Conrad II, the Salian and a forward, went Strassburg of cathedral church magnificent abbe-v the building, related of Limburg an der Haardt (roz5-45), was
much rebuilt, it has presened, better than thel have done, the simple and assured grandeur which marks the finest buildings of the German E a r l r R o m a n e s q u e1 8 7 q r l .
a b o u t r o j 7 , o n a n o l d e r s c h e m e )[ 8 5 , 8 6 ] ; b o t h r e a c hi n t o t h e r e i g n o f H e n r l - I I I ( r o 3 9 5 6 ) . 1 r M o r e i m p o r t a n t , h o w e r e r , i s t h e c a t h e d r a lo f '
Speyer. It was the d,vnastic pantheon of the Franconian house, and though like the othcr F R A N C O N I A NE N I P E R O R S T H E S A L I . { NO R it has been Kaisardome - Mainz and Worms
ti.5and 86. Hersfeld, abbel.church, ,. I037, un an older scheme
begun.13The reforming Abbot Poppo of Stablo, under Cluniac influence, had it built near the Stammburg of the Franconians' It inspired many other such structures. Cluniac influence
\ \ o r k u a s s t a r t e do n t h e e r i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e uncler Conrad II abor'rt ro-3o, and the remarkable crypt [87] dates liom the initial period. 'l'he whole area under the transept was marked
is perhapsultimatell'responsible fbr the western tower pair and the tower at the crossing, but the
o f f b y p i e r s i n t o t h r e e s p a c i o u sc o m p a r t m e n t s ' each with four stout columns, to carrv connccting arches and nine bays ofheavy groin vaulting.
temper of the building is unmistakabll'German
87.SpeyerCathedral,cr)pt, ,. Io3o antl later
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of the crypt forms, of'course, the The vault the transcpt and sanctuar\ of thc o f nlatform 'Ihese mcmbers are cnptop.t [88[ ihur.h by a massire precipiceof wall. with rall
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" l o s etdo * . t t i u s t w e s t o f t h e a p s c . W e s t w a r d ,tri, ertends the hr'rgenave, with from the crossing aisle on each side. The groin-vaulted r spacious thick; it includes a zo f'eet is about wall western
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portal and two spiral stirirdeepdouble-splayed waysin this enormous thickness. The stairwal's detachthemselves as flanking towers at an upper
#'' f
level,and to the west of them a large open porch (with tribune and a great octagonal tower) was laid out. This brought the total lcngth to about is almost exactly that of Chartrcs 435 feet, which Cathedral. Comparison of thc two uill strik-
<)
**{ffr*-t 88. SpeverCathedral, r. loqo-nincteenthcenturr',plan
N i n e s i m i l a r u n i t s c o m p o s et h e r , a u l to f a n a r e a under the sanctuarv bav of the church, cont i n u i n g e a s t w a r d i n t o a s e r i e so f s i x m o r e , f i t t e d i n t o t h e a p s i t l a lh e m i o c l e ; t h u s t h e c r 1 , p tu n d e r t h e s a n c t u a r va r m o f t h e c h u r c h i s l a i d o u t w i t h two files of lbur columns each.-\ll the columns 'cubical' har.e (or block) capitals of'rvhich the
ingly show the overrvhelming stout simplicin' ofthe German design [891. The nave at Spever has a span ol about 45
origin is Byzantine or Lombard, but a peculi,rr weightiness here makes them seem Germrnl indeed, the form was widely used, with intere :t_ ine lariations, in German Romanesquearclri'I'he tccture. simplc and ample powcr ol rhe m a t u r e G e r m a n R o m a n e s q u ei s a l r e a d v p a t c n t l v t o b e s e e ni n t h i s c r y p t .
feet, which is close to that of thc cathedral of Beauvais,widest of the High Gothic churches. Its height is approximateh' twics this dimension. The length of the nave proper, about 235 feet,is about fir'e times its width, and ranks with the grandest and largest achicvements of both Romanesqueand Gothic. The walls o1'the nave bearan obvious resemblance in design and scale to a Roman aqueduct, though the model was probably nearer the exterior elevation of the Basilicaat Trier. 'f he nave piers at Speyer measure about 6 by 8 feet plus engaged shafis, which,on the nave side,continue upward as the s u p p o r t so f a t a l l b l a n k a r c a d em e a s u r i n g a b o u t
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85 feet to the soffits. This arcade cncloses the aisle and a series of large clerestorl' windorvs, and it provided support originalll-, at a level over ninety feet from the pa\emcnt, fbr a rast
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timber roof
[go]. Construction wcnt forward on the nave from about ro4o, under I{enry' III (Io39-56), and t h e r e r v a sa d e d i c a t i o n i n r o ( r r , perhaps when the great church in its woodcnroofed phase had been brought morc or less to completion.
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ll9. SpeverC.athedral, rcstorationstud,rofnorth flank as in ro6r (K.I.C.)
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A new period of construction (rollz rro6) starting under Flcnrl I\' finally sru the nave r,aulted, as was probablv intendcd liom the 'l'he u l t i m a t e r e s u l t , a c h i ev c c l u n t l c r bcginning. I-othair II (rr37). is verl impressivc, but on account of the olerwhelming scaleit must be visited to be apprcciated [9r1. .\lternatc piers of'the original nare werc strengthened with s h a f t s a n d c l o s s e r e t ss. o t h a t t h e ] ' n o w m c a s u r e nearly' tcn f'eet across, in order to sustain six i m m e n s c d o u b l e b a 1 ' so f ' d o m e d - u p , u n r i b b e d g r o i n v a u l t i n g s c p a r i r t e db v t r a n s v e r s e a r c h c s . 'l'he c r o w n s a r c a b o u t r o 7 f ' e e t( . 3 : ' 6 r m e t r e s ) from thc pavcment, higher than an]' other Romanesque navc lault; thc basic mcastlte-
FRANCONIAN GERMANY
r a t h c d r r l 'i n l c r i r r ro l n a r c ' l r r o l ' i n gw c s t ' - q n e v eC 9i,''rljo-o'and ^rcltth eenturr t'cet (-14 was prohahlr roo Carolingiiln ment u ndclerl $ o h e t u c e n l c s s ) l i t t l e a .attar oa r a u l t hall'as h a s a c r o s s i n g 1 ' h e poln,t.. ,in.a ' thc loliiest Romancsquc rault in ii*f, rgtin torrer carried on squinches' ,-!r.ri o.,rgonal u o s ta g e so f a r c h e d w i n d o u s ' t w i t h , . , " ap i . t . . d elcment, though not televertical powert"t it is Saint-Riquier' as indecd does r e c a l l s scopic, stairtowers near thearrangcmeno r f lso slendcr towers' octagonal great eachofthe vaults Gothic Beauvais and Milan havc nave pavement' reaching to about I-58 feet lrom thc tower at and the highest tault ol thc crussing palement' from the fcet about was 44o Beauvais But these Gothic designs werc built in a st-vle which was engineered specilicallv to permit 'l'he lair combreath-taking eft'ects of'height. parisonsfor Spel'er are with Romanesque Clun,Y III (ro88-rr3o), whcre the nave was 98 f'eet or, high and the maior crossing about r19 better still, with the Basilica Nova of Nlaxentius clear and Constantine in Rome (e.o. 3ro ff. span83 feet, height rzo I'eet) fbr Spever is aftcr all basicallrand solidlv Roman in conceptron. Speyer has something of that serene largencss which is the common possession of all things well inspired f rom Rome. The late eler,enth- and tll'elfih-centurl' altcrationsat SpeJrerwerc carried out in a stvle which ts very close to thc maturs Lombard Romanes9ue - the eavesgallerl', upper clcrestorl', decorative arcading, pilastcr strips, corbel tablcs, arc all close to Lombard originals. In fbct, Germany and Lombardv, brought close bf impcrial politics, coalesced, logicalll. cnough, in their architecture at this timc. Nlorev believcs that, ,.ulptorc ol rhe da1 uorking in Lomlint. b a r d yh a v e s i g n e d C e r m a n n a m e s .t h c a r t i s t i c oevelopments of Germanv in the eleventh century were actuallr transmitred to Italr and oroughtabouta r e n a i s s a n c e uslc u l p l u r e r h e r c . I '
L
I35
At Spe.ver afier the ruin of 1689 there was much Baroque re building at the west end of the cathedral (r772 8),tt'but further rebuilding in the Romanesque revival period (r. r8zo and later) gave it back its original scheme, though the new work is dry. Speyer is not subtle, but anyone who understands masonry will love the tremendous clifl--like massesof its walls and the heav-vover-arching testudo ofits vaulting. M a i n z 1 3 3 3 ,3 3 4 1a n d W o r m s [ 3 3 r ] t h e o t h e r Kaiserdome were likewise the object of considerable works during this period. So also was 'lrier the cathedral of [33o],tt a Roman monument translbrmed into a German cathedral af ter r o r q , i n t h r e e s t a g e s ;t h e y e a r s r o 3 9 6 b s a w a handsome west lront built, and an eastward ex'I'he f'amous church tension was built still later. of trefoil plan, St Mary in Capitol, Cologne, was huilr in its first form beginningabout ro4o [.335' Laach, a per3371. The abbel' church of Maria RomanGcrman mature the of example f'ect esque, was, to be sure, founded in ro93, but the building was built slowly, in a st1'le quite unaltected by Gothic impulses, though the dedic a t i o n t o o k P l a c ei n I r 5 6 . gz. \'Iaria Laach,abbcl'church, lbunded Io93, dcdicatedrI56, interior (bcfore modern additionsand embellishments)
r30
E A R L T E RR O M A N E S Q U E
STYLES
1. t\laria Lairch,abbc1.church, 93 (oppostte foundedro9-3,dcdicatcdr r 56, I iov fiom thc norrh_wesr 94.Goslar,the Pl'alz,rcstorationstudl,as in r.. rollo; se.ealso.1z7,3zg
x{aria Laach Isz' glr is beautifulry set in verdure near the Laacher See, and Or.ran,r-, quite lovely picture of ther'e,-dc'elopcd Germanmedievarmonastery;forth"g.oup..rp..,s traditional planning The aspect e'en of fhe late buildings harmonizes with the order work,
:Jjrfi..fi:|;3;;:::,,
dominates ,h;;;l
buirding among rhese earrier work,- of Gernr,rn *r_rnarqu.. It oughi ro be mentionecl at this point thrrt the pfhlz at Goslar [g4, jzgl rs beriercd to ^rrc been built in somewhat it, p....nt torm rr\ Henrl' III, whose livourite residence ir '.r..
on^,,, Resia wastui,"u,,, ro.5o which c,r_
a court in the fornr o1'an extendcd lozengc. $.ith a r c h i t c c r u r ea r o n c c ; l ' o r t h e s p l e n d i d c l u s r e r of. a t r i a p s i t l a lo p r . n - n a \c c h a p e l a r rh e h c a . l o t .i r I Romanesquemonuments ot twelfih_ and thira quatrefbil chapel occupied each of the lateral teenth-centurl' Germant. represents thc full potnts of the lozenge. 'I'his scheme was tn poser of'the Enpire, and it is rhe culmination tmagrnative autr;mentation of'the court bevond of the great renewal of architecture within thc t h e a p s eo t t h e L a r e r a n B a s i l i c r ; n n n - " 1_ - U j I r r ' i d el a n d s o f c e n t r a l E u r o p e . l l o w e l e r , b u i ld_ and it is a pitv that it had ro bc demolishecl to ings of grear interest were built, especiallv in t*: * r t f o r l , r r g e rn r c d i e r a l c o n s r r u c r i o n s . F r a n c e . w h i l e t h c R u m a n e s q r r co f G e r m a n r t n e m a fu r e r C c r m a n R o m r n e ) q u ( s l \ l e c o n _ . * u s b c i n g c r e a t r . r ,l r ) ( l d c r c l o p e d . - l h c r e l o r e , to i" use.rhough nor exclusireh. i . r sl a ( c a s a v o i d t o o g r e a t a d e p a r t u r e f i o m :t n l "et : 1 c h r o n o l o g i c al t h i r r c e n t hc c n t u r \ . . I t i s c a r r t o l . o r g i r et h e s e q u e n c e ,o u r p l a n o f c x p o s i t i o n n o w c a l l s f b r \rermans thcir a c o n s c r r a t i s r n , r , r h e no n c h a s a d _ s t u d r of the Frcnch works which, asthe Roman_ rnired and understood thcse splcndicl monu_ e s q u e s t y l c d e v e l o p e d ,a c l u m b r a t c d t h c G o t h i c rnentsofa g l o r i o u s h i s t o r i c a lp e r i o t l . l n d c e c l rhe s t r . l em o r e a n d m o r e , w i t h o u t a c h i c r . i n gi t . T h e n a t t t s t i cl e m p e r of the Cermans uas so wcll i r u i1l bc lppropriarc to r isir rhe manl and etpressed i n t h i s R o m l n r s q u c s t r . l er h i r r ;rlllarer \ d r i o u s r e F i o n so l r h e E m p i r c , w i r h t h c i r ' ( . v r e so l tirsci_ a r c h i t e c r u r ei n C c r m a n _ v hare shoun nating local stvles which remaincd Roman_ some.influence o l i r s b o l t l n e s s ,d i g n i r r . r n d esque, bcfbre considering the Romanesque ol' austeritv \ormandv lnd rhc il.-.1.-1,.rn... rhc arcls one poinr ot vieq ir woulcl bc logicnl ro where the stvle was actrrallv transfbrnred into u o n t l n u e "^llo* our analrsis ol German Romanesuut. Gothic.
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H'desheim. -{ smallat,iumriesberow the
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Lombard_influencedversion of St Mi.t r"i .i
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have givcn a rwelfih_ccnrrrrr
is sturdily_ tru II.b";, ,;;,.*U,n. l,::,Oi* 9oi."a oi uitte.rbot_ortr,.,i"r.
(.apella Rccirr
fllHT",:i.l cathedrar) ri",",',re u.rs 't:r,. ",?:llti::11^i1r-'o.ba-v.a*orko|Hen'v tIi. whole un group ,rrr was s.;.q;;'#::t'J ;ifi':ij 1,0.. "r,r*. expressionof the power which rhe sanctuary has a similar
Luy a.,.t a semidome. architectu.ol tbrm, or the intcrior arc austele,quitein.onr.n.,ro,h..,.,..,"..r"O"., decorationsand rurniture have somewhatdiminished the serenityof this fine a..;gn. i'h;. serenitfis the essentialreason fbr placingthe 'I'he
,,u.tll:"t and the Empire posscssed in Hen.'s ,",.tuttt ttlilo,n..
group, little known bccause so r.ecentll. excaiatJ,' ;r- ;;;;';; Alrerheirigen,rr i.innnrur.n in switzerrand, aateds[6111ylrrtb.. ,oag.,, Bevondthe apse ofthe churchl,rl.
CHAPTER7
F R A N C E :9 0 0 1 0 5 0
T H EA M B U L A T O R Y We have iust passed in revicw the relatively conservativeEarly Romanesque st)'les of Lombardy and Germanv. In this architecturc we seehow an attractil'e, fairly uniform stt'le resulted when the builders turned to ancient Roman monuments fbr inspiration, revived the Roman manner of planning, and l-elt the fbrce ofa living stream of influence from Antiquity as the Lombardic First Romanesque spread. The buildings are ordinarily cogent and practical; often competent rather than inspired. In France it was different. Delivered at last from the'Norman fury' in gr r, when the treaty gs. Tours, ,St Nlartin, renth, eleventh, and thirreenth centuries. exca\ations of'chcr.ct
of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte laid the foundations ol' the great Norman duchy, France could rebuild. Before long there were signs ofan intellectual, spiritual, and architectural revival in the northw e s t ,i n A q u i t a i n e , a n d i n B u r g u n d y . T h a t t r a d itional inventive flair, that active skill in composition which had created the silhouette of Saint-Riquier, turned for a centurv to the morc difficult problems of plan and articulation in the maior churches. 'I'hen during half a centurl it absorbed the lessons of the First Romancsque style into this more highly er.olved pattern of church buildins. and ar the micldle of thc eleventhcentury stood ready for its great age. As already indicated in a prcvior.rschaptcr, it was actuallv durine the last effective Caro-
q-5e.chartres cathcdral, plan 01'crvpr (H. H. Hilberrl'). The apsc, amhulatorv, and rrtliating chapcls of8-58 are encbsed trithin the cheiet ol the cathcdral lbundations ol rozo 1o, rvhich arc in turn encbsc,i bl the Gothic fbundations of r r94 li. (not shown)
l i n g i a nr e i g n ( t h a r o i ( , h a r l e s I I I . 8 9 . ; 9 2 . 3 )r h a r tlt n.* architectural e p o c h r . r ' a su s h e r c d i n h v the reconsrruction ol st Martin at Tours lq5l. -t lte church was dedicated in 9 r 8 u ith a ner.rly built annular aisle or corridor cnclosins thc sanquar), and so arrangetlas to gire Jcces\fo the tomb of Sr Nlartiri ('Sr 1\l:rlrin's Rcsr'),
located at the head of thc apsc, ancl also to a scries of round chapels attached to the peripheral wall ol'the corridor'. This was the first with radiating chapels irrranged in what was basicallv the dcfinitive fbrm, and it brought to fruition the dcvelopment already-
ambulatorl
ref'erred to in our chapter on Carolingian archit e c t u r e i n F r a n c e . B e c a u s e< r f ' t h ec h i c a n d s k i l l
96. Chartresf,athedral,apscand ambulatorvol' crvpt, [i-5llwith superincumbentlatcr construction
r40
EARLTER OMANE.SQU SE TYLES
FR.{\CE: goo r o-5o
of'this solution it may be considered the beein_ ning ol specifically French derelonmenr; in R o m a n e s q u e a r c h i l e c t u r e .I What existed(most probably by 9rg, admit_ tedll' by ror4) was like the crypr and ambula_ torv built at Charrrcs after g5g [95.r, 96], plus r a d i a t i n g a b s i d i o l e s .B u t a t T o u r s , a s D r C a r l Hersel-, a carelirl student of'the problem. has obserred, rhe high lelel of the ground water prevented this arrangement lrom beine a crypt: 'St Nlartin's Resr' was only slightly below the pavement level. The ambulatory and radiatine c h a p c l s t h e r e f o r c b e c a m ep c r f o r c e a b o l d l v a r t i _ c u l a t e d e x t e r i o r a d j u n c t t o t h e a p s e ,a n d a r c h e s like those of Chartres, pierced in the aose at S t \ l a r r i n , u n i t e d b o r h r h e a m b u l a r o r va n d t h e absidiolesvisually with rhe sanctuarl. 1he generous size of thc absidioles attache
'St
Martin's Rest', and perhaps elsewherc x. w e l l . ' l h e r em a y h a v e b e e nw i n d o * s i n t h e an:. but possibll ir was dark. resemblingth. ,pr.,,t Vignory (dated about ro5o) [97]., T'he ambulatory and radiating chapels of St Martin nq rebuilr after the fire of gg7, and dedicared in ror4, were undoubtedly of mature form and proporrions, with the apse wall carried on , light columnar arcade. This very b.rurirul architectural disposition, so acceptable from the point of view both of symbolism and ol.enui_ neering s(ructure. was a capital conlribution Lr, the art of religious building r r r I 3( )]. O t h e r t r a c e so f a n e a r l y s t a g ei n t h e d e v c l o n _ ment of the ambulatory and radiating chaptl, exist in the excavations ofthe cathedral o1-C_lcr_ mont-Ferrand,
where masonrv of a building d e d i c a t e d i n 9 4 6 5 u 1 1 - i y s s i,n t h e f o r m o t a vaulted rectangular crypt enclosed by a half._ oval corridor with four angular radiating chapels attached to its periphery.3 Each of the chapcls was arranged as a crypt-shrine or conftssio. While the form of the superstructure is not certain, critics follow Louis Br6hier in suppos_ i n g t h a t t h e a m b u l a t o r y w a s o n t w o l e v e l s ,a r r d that each of the attached elements was in eflect a little oblong church two storeys high, pr.o_ vided, like the main sanctuary, with an altlr a b o v e i t s c r y p t . T h u s i t w a s m o r e e l a b o r a t et h , r n the apse of' St Martin of 9o3- r 8 perhaps it r as ; better integrated and more open. The work rirs greatly praised for its beauty, and the name ol its
I i
author is known Al6aume (Adelelmus). .r cleric who was also skilled in the arts of soi(ls m i t h i n g u n d s c u l p r u r e .H e m a d e a o r e c i , , r , . reliquarv s(atue of rhe Virgin ro be ;er ,,n r column behind the high altar, and seen wirh wonderment fiom the ambulatorv. Obviousir' thc upperambulatorr.openeo dn lhe sanctrr,,t.,. Worth noring is rhe fact that at St Nlarrrn only the apsesof Saint-Germain, Auxerre, wcr! reproduced; at Clermont-Ferrand, onlv the oblong bars, omitting rhe rotunda. This exnlairn (he cven number of radiatingchapels, an urr-
r+l
which passedto other Auvergnat \ / e l o p m e n t . rA l l w e r e u n d e r r v a vw h e n t h e H u n usualfeature garians visited the region with fire and sword in shurches' g37 and 955 and stirred the Burgundians to the conthat ambulatorl characteristic is It in increasingly'sophisticated undertake fireproof' vaulted construction. Thc be used, to tinued connexion with more and more r e s u l t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s i n p l a n a n d s t r u c t u r e form, and in vaulted churches. At Clermont- make the Burgundian churches of'the time r,erv completely Romanesqueambu- important fbr the historv of medier,al archifully developed a Ferrand htory replacedAliaume's design,and a bcauti- tecture. At St Philibert's Abbcf in'I'ournus a derivaful Gothic chevetreplacedthat in turn. B U R G U N DAI I . .D E V E L O P N 4 E N T . S ProgTesswas early made towards the Romanesqueideal in Burgundy because ofthe unique coniunction there: easy contact by wav of the Loire with the active school of western France; early contacts by way of the Rh6ne with the Lombard First Romanesque st)'le; strong contact by way of the Sa6ne with the Empirc. In addition there was a cult of rclics, and, more important, there was an active monastic de-
tive of Aldaume's ambulatorl' still exists [98 rozJ. In g4g this abbel was at the end of the l o n g p e r i p a t e t i c so f t h e m o n k s o f N o i r m o u t i e r , who, drir,en in 836 from that island to thcir mainland priory of D6as or Saint-Philibert-deGrandlicu, as alreadl noted, were once more d r i v e n o u t i n 8 5 8 a n d u l t i m a t e l y - c : t m ew i t h t h e rclics of St Philibert to Tournus in 875. The m o n a s t e r vs u l l e r e d f r o m t h e H u n g a r i a n s i n 9 3 7 . D u r i n g a s c h i s m i n t h e m o n a s t e r v ,t h e P h i l i b e r tine monks went (q45 g) to Saint-Pourgain-surSioule in Auvergnc, when the ambulator,v of
98.Tournus,Saint-Philibert,.. g5o r I 20 and latcr, air r icw f rom the south-wcst
I42
E A R L I E R R O M A N E S Q U ES T Y L E S
gg ( t,porite1'I'ournus,
Saint-Philibert'fiom the south-east \ m b L r l a t o r r( ) ; ( r r o r { ) .l o \ \ ( r r l 2 0
Saint-Philibert,narthex' roo.Tournus'
&j
;:
$ i-i ;1-
t
r' rooo
FRA\CE:9oo lo5o
ol'Clermont-Ferrandwas still a thecathedral ''l'he new church new structure lo-nrpi.uoutty q5o' was raulted in l]'ioutnu., begun about of the elercnthcentur) and linished in..outt. ,tro. l( containsir crlpt underthc high "iour relicsol Sr Philibert and a plirceolii^, fr, the t h e c e n t r a lr a d i a t i n gc h a p e lo f ' a n i n tonour fbr the tomb of St .n.foting ambulatory in the monastery honoured Val6rien,who was the PhilibertinescameIrozl' before atTournus
1.1.5
nave, with intercsting parallel transverse tunnel vaults on diaphragm arches, after ro66. Thc Chapel of St Michael above the narthex, with primitive sculptures, hirs interesting quadrant vaults in the aisles, while the nave has a clercstory above with a tunnel vault with transverse arches, and the tie-beams still in position (about ro2o, or perhaps later). There is a strong imprint of the west of Francc on the plan and structure, except in the Chapel of St Michael,
fi.,'.r'
iirii:i!i
J:,",',,ii:
ror lnd ro2. Tournus, Saint-Philibert, analvtical pcrspectivc and ( appositt) cross section ancl longitudinal section, r. 9io I r 20
This plan, wirh irs fir'e radiating chapcls of' oblong plan, was repeated at the levcl of'the main church. 'I'he crvot was cledicated in 979, and there is tenth-century work abo\e it, extending past the transept to the massive threebay narthex.'Ihe vaults, howevcr, arc latcr in tht uppe. ambulatory, alier a fire of roo7 or Ioo8 (dedication r o r g ) ; i n t h e s a n c t u a r ya n d a t the crossing, about r r 20; the high vault o1'the
where the Lombard characterlstlcs are strong' Pilaster strips and arched corbel tables decoratc thc exterior therel the original bclfrics (now augmentcd br a twelfih-cenlury to\1er iIt thc north) are Lombard First Romanesque in st1'le The quadrant vaults of the Chapel of St Michael may be related to those of the trilbrium galler-v of Saint-B6nigne' Diion, whcre Lombards were a t w o r k l i o m l o o l , a s u ' e s h a l ls e cp r e s c n t l y '
I4O
EARLIER ROMANESQUE STYLES
The memory which goes deepest at Tournus is that ofthe monks working tenaciously through a c e n t u r y a n d a h a l f t o b u i l d a n a d v : r n c e dt y p e of church while conditions were still primitive. T h e s o p h i s t i c a t i o no f ' l a t e r b u i l d e r s l o s t s o m e thing of the simple nobility which is always evident in sincere early works of architecture. In passinpl,reference should be made to in'lhe teresting work in the ambient of Cluny. priorv church of Charlieu (fbunded 872) ap' pears to have been rebuilt about seventy years later as a vaulted building with an ambulatorY arcade and eastern absidiole, perhaps at the suggestion of Abbot Odo of Cluny, who came 'I'hc (iom St Martin at Tours. tunnel vault of the nave doubtless improved the acoustics fbr
(K r r ' n v . t h e m o n a s t e r \a si n I o 5 o J ' C ) ro5'"'*-'
chanting, which was Abbot Odo's special lbr'11, An interestingcrypt ambulatorv with radiatiln chapels at Saint-Pierrc-le-Vit, Sens. il;1s,.1 about g2o 4o, has also been connected with 5, Nlartin thro ugh Odo's having'reformed' S',ri n1-
Chape
I
Pierre-le-Vif in 938.b At (,lunv; itself new problems of plan rrs1s u n d e r t a k e n i n a r e b u i l d i n g w h i c h s t r e t c h e do r e r
SOUTH.EA5T YARD
nearlv a centurv after 955, perhaps alter a lilse start on a round ambulator-v corridor in 94S. lt may be said briefly (fbr we shall return to the Cluniacs) that the Frankish vilia wherc the monks installed themselves in qro, and theil church (Cluny I, dedicated in gz7), provecl insufficient within a generation. Construction {rfr larger church was undertaken about 955 by F
CHEF
il
i?oF
ro3. Cluny, secondabbel church, longitudinalsection a s i n r . t o r o ( K . J . C .; p a r t l vh v p o t h c t i c a l )
i
Lilabfr
COURT
1i i
.-.._,,-,.
. '..&J,
_t.t ,
fr:gt*&
,*
-3
;*q;^-
...::
ro,g. Clunl', rcstoration studl of the monastcr\ liom the east, rs in ro43 (K J-C.)
L
FRANCE:gOo I48
Mayeul, coadtutor (abbot 963 94) - and a systematic rebuilding of the monastery began when the new church (Cluny II) had been dedicated (98 r ), extended by a narthex, and finally tunnelvaulted (about roro) [to: 5]. Typical Romanesque roofing, with vaults of stone, remarkably enhances the beauty oImusical ellects in particular, the musical effects of the linear Gregorian chant and the massive organum. The Cluniacs pref'erred tunnel vaulting, which gives most felicitous acoustical results, and the fundamental irnportance ofchant-
r49
sized her cult.8 The Cluny plan also difleq,1 from St Gall in placing the novitiate soLr15 " t h e r e f e c t o r v .T h e b u i l d i n g s w e r e w e l l b t ' i l r 1 1 j 'l'1.,.. had a certain warm austerity of design. were roofed in wood. Recurrence ofeven dins.. s i o n s m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t t h e r e c o n s f r u c t i o l l1 0 1 . lowed a consistent plan to accommodate a66u, roo monks, finally achieved about ro45 lvhsn, poetic cloister with marble columns was finished by Abbot Odilo (q94-ro48). Abbot Odilo built extensively throughout the Cluniac group of monasteries, and it is impor-
ing in the services made it worth while to build
tant to know something about his accomplish-
tunnel r auhing in spite ofthe grare engineering problems which were encountered. Paul Henry 'It Ling writes: was this music which embodied
ment. Attentive study of a dimensional descripnary' of Far('a, near Rome, which
the Romanesque religious ideal, without which
Cluniac customs, together with excavations at
the art of these centuries presents mere samples
Cluny by the Mediaeval Academy of America, have made it possible to reconstitute the plan
of architecture, sculpture, or literature.' The chevet ofCluny II was based on the apse 6chelon scheme; it had, however, a square sanctuary with flanking corridors for processions.
tion (ro43) of a monastery in the Consuetudifolbwed
of tenth- and eleventh-century Clunr' Iro5], 'l'his is important because, in principlc. all the architecture ofthe mother house was knoun. and presumably admired, throughout thc u hole
level). while at the head ol'each corridor there
group of associatedhouses.
rlas a horseshoe-shaped chapel, with thc half-
At Clun-v some ranges of the buildings, z; f eet
or,al main apse between, accessible from both corridors, and provided with three altals side
in width, were laid out inside the basic aoo-Ibot s q u a r e ,a n d s o m e o u t s i d e . s o t h a t j 2 5 - l b o l J n d
bv side which were used in sequence for the receive the Sunday procession, which passed
35o-(bot dimensions occur. The ancillarv buildings prorided 3z places for sick and rttired '' m o n k s . 3 o o r m o r e f o r n o r i c e s .r z l b r t h e a h h c r
round the cloister;it paused fbr a Galilee station 'l'here were two before returning to the church.
pauleri or poor pensioners, about roo for Jutllillt forming the devoted service corps of the ntrtn-
belfries above the fagade of the narthex, and
astery; 40 places were provided for men ancl 30 l b r w o m e n g u e s t si n t h e g u e s th o u s e ; t h e h o * f i c c
morrow mass. f'he narthex was arranged to
anothcr, ol tall proportions, over the crossing. rrrrangement, no$' so common, \las a
novelty in the tenth century. 1'he monastery layout was based on a square 3oo feet (of 34o millimctres) on a side. It differs lrom the St Gall plan in having a chapter-house (an important novelty) with a Lady Chapel beyond, frequently visited in liturgical proces'I'his probably resulted from Abbot Odo's sion. having vowed himself'to the Virgin and empha-
SanGil' carvcdcapital ro6.Luna(Zarag'ozal' ions'tt tltth cent urv ii""i"g *.yr"*is' accomnrodat
Cluniac monks were professed at Clunl-; thus
Each ofthe corridors was flanked by a so-called ' c r 1 p t '( r e a l l l v a u l ( e d a s e c r e t a r i u m a pt a v e m e n l
This
ro5o
EARLIER ROMANESQUE STYLES
to Clunv in lege, received him' ancl took him
armarium he northwalk of the cloister'with the The q8;. After a term as pnor at Saint-Saturnin for the library closeto the transeptdoor' of monasterl' historic the re{brm to or.r, large it"., .t librrry at Cluny contained a relatively with.a eft-ectivell. Saint-B6nigne, which he did numberof volumes- 57oin the twelith century' and rn group of chosen monks from Clunv' and at a time when Durham reported 546 Abbot WilMontecassino 7o. The most spectacularof the Burgundtanaccomplishments in the Earll'Romanesquestyte' a veryinstructireexampleuhich summedup theprogressofchurch architecturein the tenth century,wasSaint-B6nignein Dijon lt wasthe p..to*i achievementof Willian-roi Volpiano (nearIvrcaand N or ara).rn He is a goode'tample ofthe nobleecclesiastic; for his godmotherwas. the Emoress Adelaide, rvife successivelyof Lothairil I andOtto thc Creati he uasa relatire of variouserandccsof the Empire, with influentialcoin."ion, in ltalv, Burgundy, Lorraine,and Normandl. William uas a monk at San Michele de Loceclia' near Vcrcelli' but AbbotMayeul,exercisingCluny'sspecialprivi-
could take in about roo wayfarers, accolllmodated perhaps as the delightful capital frttrn S a n G i l a l L u n a ( T , a r a g o z ai\n d i c a t e sl r o o j : r h c g r o u p s h e l t e r e da b o u t 4 o o i n a l l . Small, but worthy of notice, is the elemcnr " i n d i c a t e d a sa g o l d s m i t h s ' a n d e n a m e l l e r 5 ' s h o p J I t i s n o t c e r t a i n t h a t a s p e c i a lr o o m r . r ' apsr o r i , l e fbr the scriptorium in early eleventh-centtrrJ. Cluny. Space for it was availabie in or near the
L
with Cluniac customs i..u..l"n.. still turther' li"a ,pr.u,l thcse Cluniac customs in personal him bl to ott *, monasterics held (pertraps houses monastic union. He reformed Norincluding area, wicle a over ioo ,.u...ty) influthis foundations -rna,n. F.o- Nor-"n into England' where Clunv itselt' ,,.."-.d "r,.. (at Lewes) from to77 w a s r e p r e s e n t e dd i r c c t l l influence ma-v be Cluniac of A thread or,*ura. work' ir"..A i" Abbot William's architectural tn action his for important but he is much more Romanesque First Lombardic launching the pcrsonal abilities as ,t1-1. in durg.,ndy' He had be certain that he . .I.rig.,.., and it seems to perhaps also carand brought Italian masons, wolk' tcchnicalll the of some but r,ers.to Diion ;
FRANCE:9OO-rO5O r5t
r e p r e s c n t sl o c a l m a s o n s B e t w c e n Burgundian' produced an entirclv r aulted church , t . V ]r.t l o n g . .b c g i n n i n g , i n t h e f i r s t l e a r o l . t h e aoi f.., oor ) | ro7-o l Raoul Claber lli, m;tl.nniu- 1r a t the time. and this building t h e r e *rr r to"f 'uhite mantle ol churchcs' of the p r . t r ir, tn his lamous phrase' the world then " i t . no,n . f n . c h u r c h h a d a n o t a b l e p i l g r i m a g e t o ou, u n c i e n t a p o s t l co f B u r g u n d r ' . b u t l , t o m b o i rh . for much more than its size and iapo.,"n, *r, and the lact rhat twu kinds ol oi.rur.rqu.n.tt' I t uas a rcal architectural epii t . b u i l t masons had thus fbr been created what of tofite,^silmmi roor tll, ro7to rog. Dijon, Saint-Bdnigne, (K ( . i v p t ( t e b u i h r 8 5 d ) ': k c t c hr e s l o r i r l i o n J ) ' .estor.dplan ( \' S. \\ crhci ' K J C ) "nt
in church architecture. We cannot be in error if we attribute its design to the favoured, alert, brilliant. and widely travelled abbot himself' 'zl diximus, et praesto est Raoul Glaber writes cernere, totius Galliae basilicismirabiliorem atque propria. positione incomparabilem perfcere disprtnchal'.\'
'l'he main What elements appeared here? church, dcdicated in Ior6 or IorT' was a highly elaborated basilica; the eastward portion, dedicated in ror8, was a highll' elaborated rotunda; so that, in essence,the scheme was that of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and consequently a bequest from Early Christian times' The intermediate monument appears to have been Saint-Pierre, Geneva, as built (a funerary basilica) about the year 6oo. Saint-B6nigne was o o
z5\!
5
80 IrT
20
r s::t'lliHi'ifl:i,:l:: ;1, n LJ
Knosn rhr,,uglrttudits ht t9+6' Dr \1i.. SLrn,l.rlanJ \\crhtt. rvirh rerisitns b1 K.J C ' 1965 ( lb some extent h!pothetical and depcndent on analo8r)
Trans\erse scctnn ol nr\r looking east
s Ll
\l,,nrrnt
building\. n"$ r mu\tunr ro:n lt't
ilhbcHrlinrrJ.
I i
.fi,> r"ifJfi
Plan at principrl
loel
Longituclinrl sccri{)n
L.
_
rzthcenturJ Romanesque additions
r52
FRANCE:gOO rOSO
E A R L I [ , RR O j \ l A N E S Q USET Y L E S
vaulted, which is Roman; it had nine towers and turrets, which is Carolingian. Work continued on the church and adjacent monastic buildings, and there was a gencral declication in r ro7. A Gothic reconstruction and Revolutionarv vandalism have destroved the building almost complerely. 'l'he rorunda was well studied by Dom Plancher and presented in his Histoire glndrale et lalticuliire de la Bourgogne (r739); but we owe much ofour detailed knowledge of the building to a more recenr investigation which makes it possible to describe t h e b u i l d i n g a si f i t s t i l l e x i s t e d . r 2 The entrancewav at the west of the basilican church was a porch with flanking stair towers, a Germanic motif . The nave was double-aisled, like the greatesr Early Christian basilicas, but it was built like a Roman stadium or circus; the nave arcadesresembled aqueducts. On cach side
with a wall passage.Between the clerestorl, q 111. a tunnel vault was turned, reaching a height 0i t b r t y - s i x f e e t .a n d w e l l : r h u t t e d b y r h e s r a t l i r r r x like construction stepping upward towards j1. s p r i n g . I n s p i t e o f r o u n c l p i e r s ,e r t r a s h a f t s i n 1 6 . gallery,different stonework,and wooden rxq11_ ing, the nave of Southwell Minster [rrol rrsembles that which existed at Dijon. 'Ihe rri_ lbrium piers at Southwell somewhat rccall thosr at Saint-B6nigne, which were designed Moslem f'ashion with columnar shafts at the corncr5, tluadrangulatim stutute, joincd bv a ,kind of crown'(the upper vaulting?). A tower rosc xp the crossing. For access to the tomb of Sr Bdnigne there was a dcscending stairwav, nelr the main west door, ancla vast columnar crrpt extended under the navc, thc transept, and lhe sanctuary just beyond.
passage of thc nalc comThe clerestory wirh rhc rool b1 t$o stair turrcls nunicated apsc. thus bringing the number ot'fhe n rt ,f,. ot turrets on thc-basilica to 6re ,o'*.r, into the rottrnda' and raas Jrsrrg. .ontinued t h e r e l i o n r t h c t w o s u b s t a n t i a lr o t r n d l....riUt. which tbrmed the communication lri, ,o*... part ol thc design. A touer r'ras s v s t e mo f t h a t thc (as1 ol thc rotunda' but t o oiann.d iutr a s a littlc church with a towcr b u i l t oltim.t.ly thc apse' Later ofits own perched illogicalll'on tower svstem) in thc changes other there were out the original makc to is diflrcult it so thxt prominent censcheme but, ifone counts the tralwell ofthe rotunda, there were nlne towers on the church. It had a remarkably strong and bold silhouette, rather riotous; but all the same, here was an entirelv vaulted building rising to the challenge of mcdievrl fbrm in church archi-
the inner ofthe two vaulted aisles stepped up to a virulted gallery, and that to a clerestory wall
fhe transept was vaultcd, and the clcreslorr passagecontinued round it into two remarkable. well-buttressed quadrant-r'aulted chambers lt
l Io. Southwell NIinstcr, nave, r. r rto
the gallery level, flanking rhc sanctuarv brrr. The aisles flanking thc sanctuarv had gr.,rin
tecture as conceived br the designcrs of SaintRiquier. Of this strange and wonderlul ensemble onlv the nethermost parts of the eastern half have
v a u l t s , t h e a p s ea t t h e c a s t h a d a r c a d i n g ,a n n u l a r p a s s a g e sa, n d a g r o u p o f ' c h a p e l sb e 1 . o n d .I n t h r s
survived. The apse 6chelon of thc basilica, the ruined tomb in the apsidal space, a lbrest of
very intcresting part of the work we havc the germ of thc great churches of the Pilgrinrrrgc Roads, that wondcrful inter-regional group of
stubby columns (some with extraordinarily energetic Early Romanesquc capitals) and the
d e s i g n sw h i c h i s t h e f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a lm a n i f c s r a t i o n o f t h e m a t u r e R o m a n e s q u e .S a i n t - B 6 n i g n c thus makes the connexion between the Lonrbardo-Burgundian international Ifirst Romrnesque stylc and grcat later projccts which trrr s u r p a s si t . The systcm of apses at Saint-Bdnigne wit5 , remarkable combination of the 6chelon, thc anrb u l a t o r v , a n d t h e r o t u n d a , o n t h r c e l e v e l s .' l ' h c ambulatorv was rcduccd to a curving arcacletl corridor ol' gracelul proportions; the centr;rl absidiole was represcntedby the rotunda (ll:0 on threc ler,els) and the rotunda itself'hacl rrn apse echclon in the shape of a central squareended projecting chapel rvirh a small apsc ,rt each side of'the entrancc,ar the principal lercl.
easternchapel were cleirred and restored in the nineteenthcentury. It is possible to obtain onll a hint of how curious thc rotuncla was, with its t w o s t a g e so f d o u b l e a n n u l a r a i s l e ss u p p o l t e d o n a forest of columns, and its dome arrangied rbout a phenomenal arcaded cy'lindrical well opento the sky through an oculus. Basicalll', the rotunda went back to the Pantheon in Rome; Its stairways connectcd it with Saint-Riquicr; the architectural cletail lvas mostl)- Lombardic, out the uppcr cornicc ol the rotunda had (though peri,.ps nol in rorS) \4oorish lobcrl soffitpanels and chisel-curl brackets. The openwork arcaded well ocldly recalled thc telescopic oPen-work spires of Saint-Riquicr. The small vaulted bavs on cvlindrical columns of the lower stages of ih. ,oiu.r.lo recallcd f'amiliar Lom-
I5-l
bardic crypts and Moslem vaulted constructions. The quadrant or cove vaulting of the upper stage came to bc most important in Romanesque architecture ?rs its dcvelopment continued. Clearly then Abbot William had his rvish; he made the church of Saint-B6nigne nirubiliorent basilicistotius Galliae. But the building was not a mature design, and, above all, the basilica was impossibly ponderous. There were twentv-fbur piers about sir bv six feet or largcr in thc basilican part of thc church, which thus u:rs nrlde fireprool br r,rulting et the cost ols er i o u s l - vb l o c k i n g u p a l a r g c p a r t o f t h e i n t c r i o r 'lhe thirty.-trvo sltpports ofnave and aisles area. occupicd about one-tellth of the floor area west an intolerable proportion llhich was apparentl]' not remedied b1. a Romanesque reconstruction o1-thetwelfth ccntury : h t e r a G o t h i c c h u r c h r c p l a c e dA b b o t W i l l i a m ' s of the crossing
basilica. Saint-B6nigne produced a f'erl architectural echoes, though not of the first importance. W u l f r i c ' s C ) c t a g o no f r o 5 o , i o i n i n g t w o m u c h older Saxon buildings at the venerable abbev of St Augustine in Canterbury, was inspired b1. Crown' at the rotunda at Diion.r|Becket's a Gothic is essentiallv C-anterbury Cathedral rotunda, ultimately inspired from Scns and Diion; the same mav be said of the rotunda o[' Trondheim Cathedralin Norway. Nearer home. and in the Romanesquestyle, is the church of' Charroux. more obviouslv derived from Willianr of Dijon's dcsign. However, only the structural a d r a n c es i g n a l i z e db l S , r i n t - B d n i g n cw a st ' f g e n archileclttrt. c r a l s i g n i f ci a n c ei n R , r m l t t e s q u e , t . H [ ,S P A C I O L I S WOODEN-ROOFF-T) BASILICAS 'lhe
high and ample nirve of Saint-Philibcrt at Tournus wasfor a timc (about Ior9-66) covered 'l'here were other elaborate by a wooden roof. French churchcs of the time which also had
r5+
wooden roofing, but all ofthem have now been destroyed; indeed it is diflicult to present a clear idea of these important
designs, which
were influential in their period. For the north of France, the church of NIontier-en-Derr{ (q6o gz) deserves mention fbr its tall nave with a high clerestory, carried on a
took what was intended to be the largest churclr in Gaul a vast basilica originally planned 16 have double aisles, a transept, and an apss 6chclon. Collapse due to enlbrced neglect, u hile the church was near the fiont line in the f"irst World War, hls cost us most of the originnl
handsome arcaded false triforium, ruined in the
navc, an interesting construction with bundltd piers decorated in stucco, and a pretty gallcrl
Second World
enriched by arches paired under a serics <-rt'cn-
War, but norv restored. The sanctuar) rvas replaced by'a finc Gothic chevet in the Middle.l,ges. , Saint-Remi at Reims had as its titular the
ancient churchman who brrptized Clovis the
closing arches,somewhat as in the PilgrimLrgc churches. The tall clerestory wall above tire 'l gallery had semicircular exterior buttresses. he 'I'hc transept had returned aisles. early Ronrirn-
F r a n k i s h k i n g . T h r o u g h t h i s a s s o c i a t i o nt h e
esque building, somewhat curtailed from tl.re
cafhedral of Reims became the French corona-
s c h e m eo f r o o 5 , w a s d e d i c a t e d i n r o 4 g b y l ) o p c
tion church. while St Remi was honoured in an
Leo IX.r5 In later times a Gothic vault \\as
abbey near by. In roo5 thc monastery undcr-
built over the navc [rrr]. A handsome [arh Gothic apse, ambulatory. and radiating chaIels
r r r . Reims,Saint-Remi,I oo5 "+9;Gothic shaliing, upper arcade,and i'ault (prc-19r7 photograph)
il
FRA\CL: 9Oo
E A R L T E R O M A N E S Q USET Y L E S
the present Gothic cathedraloi structuresof 'rrg4-r 260' much th. ,nrin church ol lo2o was not lt had a cathedral existing thc than emaller ridgebelfrl lts length *..t*ort"nd probablya the clearnare span 6f j45 teeron thc axis.and for size'rnd il was ir notable of i+ f..t' made 'Ihe nave and aisles constructed' nrty Uofafy interior supports eighteen only had toglthet measuringabout ,U-out7 t""t squarein an area occupiedabout supports The ,r"by "o5l'eet.of this area,whereasat Salnttwenty-fifth one of the area B6nigne,as we havc seen'one-tenth Saint-B6nigne but wesgiven up to suppot'ts
roof'ed basilica was Bishop Fulbert's cathcdral o f C h a r t r e s ,b e g u n i n r o z o [ 9 5 e ] .1 !T h e t r a d i t i o n at Chartres was basilican. The church of 7-1.ireplaced an older building which had a woo(len lool'; a hre of'858 in the church of 74i ncccssitated the Carolingian reconstruction ag.rin r,rhich has been mentiorr.d llooden-rooled previously. The latter building was burnt in rozo, and was replaced b1' Fulbert's church' also a wooden-roofed structurc. but unusuallJ imposing and spacious. It so happens that tte know the architect's name - B6ranger, whonr the cathedral chapter ref'erred to as arIda,r hurttrt whcn he died (ro5o). In thc new ([x1111. rrl ro2o Bdranger took the theme of apse, an.rbul a t o r r . a n d r a d i a r i n gc h a p e l sn e u l l e x e m p l i l r e J 'l'ours ( g g 7 r o r 4 1 ,a n d a p p l i e di t h a n d s o n r u l l it o n t h e c h u r c h l e v e l , a n d a l s o i n t h e c r y p t , * h e te 'l i t e n v e l o p e d t h e o l d a m b u l a t o r y o 1 '8 5 8 . h e t h r c c c r y p l c h a p e l so f r o z o s t i l l e x i s t u i r h t l r e i r a m b u l a t o r y a n d a l o n g c o r r i d o r o f a c c e s s{ ) n each side [96], Ibr they were built into the strh'
r5\
the dedication of Fulbert's cathedral until repairs were completed in Io37;moreover, Fulbert's church sufi-ered again from iire in I r37, a n d t h e w h o l e o l ' t h e s u p e r s t r u c f u r eu a s r u i n e d 'wondcrful and in a memorable disaster' the miserable fire' of r rg-1' !-r'en the stone-\'aulted n e w G o t h i c c a t h e d r a ll o s t i t s o u l e r u o o d e n r o o f in r836. Clearlv, in more than a thousand 1'ears its of successive fires, the wooden roof, fbr all C h a r t r e s' a t a d v a n t a g e s ,h a s b e c n d i s c r e d i t e d At many other sitcs - St Martin at'fours among them - the wooden-rool'ed basilica has had an equally sinister historv. The issue ti'om the situation presented bv cumSaint-B6nigne (fireproof' but impossibly bersome) ancl Chartres (seemly' but vulnerable
in Diion was fireProol" to Chartres.with its woodenroof, continued to lire) was fbund ab
which have survived, now terminate the building on the east, and the nave has been ucll restored. 'fhe nert reallv conspicuous great woodcn-
t O5o
r r z . A u x e r r eC a t h c d r a lc. r r P t "
ro3o
r56
E A R L T E RR O N T A N E S Q U S ETYLES
m a s o n r t ' t c c h n i q u e t h e i n c r e a s e du s e o f a s h l a r stonc, better stcreotomi-, berter fbunclltions. bctter understanding o1'stresses,and better handling of vaulting problems. f'he first half
man1,fine churches and conventual establisfiments on the Pilgrimage Road. In ro4g onc n{ the great builders of all time, Abbot Hugn ii C l u n v , t o o k o v e r t h e d e s t i n i e so f t h e g r e a t Ilu"o f t h e e l e v e n t hc e n t u r v s a w t h e l e v e l o 1 ' t e c h n i c a l g u n d i a n monasterv at a time when it was gy_ a c c o m p l i s h m e n tr i s e t h e c r v p t o l ' t h e c a r h e d r a l panding activelv and needed to rene\\ its o1' Auxerre (aboLrt ro3o) [r rz] shows this buildings everywhere. 'l'he and bv the middlc of the centurv the French ertraordinarv result achieved uithin b u i l d e r s w s r e a s f u l l v s o p h i s t i c a t e da n d c o m _ t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n si s o u r b e s t w i t n e s s t r , 16, pctent as their colleagues of the K(iserdoilte on excellence o1'the preparatory labours of tftg the Rhine. Increasing prosperitv and better Early Romanesque. Paul Henry Ldng expr.esscs cir,il order made greater resources ar.ailable,for it verv well: 'Wherever we look we behold thrt c a t h e d r a l sa n d m o n a s t e r i e sa l i k e. T h e d e r . e l o n _ g r a L ^ i t d sa , legacv from Rome's most glorious ing pilgrimage ro.santirgo prrrricledrhr oc(.;rimes, which lends this period a trulr. arisro_ slon and the resources fbr the construction of cratic majcsty . . . equalled bl an inner forcc . . .,
PART
THREE
THE MATURE,ROMANESqUE AS INTER-REGIONAL A N D I N T E R N A T I O N A L A R C HI T E C T U R E
CHAPTER 8
THE GREAT CHURCHES OF
.I'HE
PI I-GRIX,IAGE RO {DS
G E N E R AC L ONSIDERATIONS Thanlongen Jblh to gottoil pilerinurs And Tulnars.fitrIo sttkrnstraunli strotld(s
Lacarra, Jrran Uria Riu, Jesfs Calro Garcia hale u'rittcn about its poetrv. its cnchanting legend, its abounding life, and its beautilul -I'he thought makes one envy architecture.r Chaucer's squire, en route, of' course, to Canterburl
Piety and the open road wrought well lbr architecture in the second half of the eleventh ccntury. There were many collections of relics in western Europe by that time, and manl' \.cnerated burial places in the length and breadth of thoselands. But Jerusalem, Rome, and Santiago de Compostela drew tides of devotecl pilgrims trom far and wide, so much so rhat pror,ision came to be made in hosoices and monastcries along the road most particularlv along the road to Santiago, wherc the palmers were so numerous that a sense ol fellowship der eloped. The pilgrimages indeed appear ro us as an attracti\e social phenomenon ol the time. \m.ty Picaud. Fidel Fita. Joscph Bcdier. r'reorgiana Goddard King, \rrhur Kingsler' torter' Luis \ azqucz de Parga. Jose Maria
S r n g - - r n ghce w r s , o L f l o l t ) n g e .a l r h c t h r I I c w i r sr s f i e s s h ei r si s t h c m o n e t ho 1\ l r r . 'Ilre
h e a r t l c a p s r e s p o n s i v e l y t' o w h a t K i n g s l e r ' 'those long, but tlclicious kilo'the m)riad human metres' in f'ellowship with beings who trudgcd unending leagues to la1' Porter called
t h c i r g r a t i t u d e a n d t h c ' i t 'r c m o r s c , t h e i r w e a l t h a n d t h e i r s i n s a t t h e f ' e e to f t h e - { p o s t l c ' . W i t h 'the real insight hc recognized and expressed inncr vitalitv, whether postic or spiritual I know nor, but still lbrcefulll living at Santiago,and unquenchably bcautiful there'.r The ancicnt monument which was recognized in 8 r -j (on what basis, we do not know) as t h c t o m b o f ' S t J a m es t h t ' s o n o f Z e b e d e c s o o n attracted ir local pilgrimage, rvhich is heard of :ts
I58
INTER-REGIoNALAND
INTERNATIoNAL
earlv as 8++. Bf'' that time a Benedictine monaster]' alread]'existed at Compostela. 81' 86o the festival of Santiago, z5 Julv, was listed in the martvrologv of the cathedral of Mctz.3 This is a most rmportant f'act, because ecclesiasticscame fiom all over the Empire and from England to Metz in order to studv at the great school of' Roman chant which had been established there. 'I'hus an intcrnational pilgrimage to Santiago soon beg;anto develop. As earlv as 8g3 provision lbr a hospice is reported. In g5r Godescalc, bishop o1'Le Puy', made thc pilgrimage from France, accompanied by nearlv zoo monks. At this time the little Kingdom of Le6n as_ pired to empire, and the bishop of Santiago, as e a r l y ' a sg 7 9 , w a s s t v l e d ' B i s h o p o f t h e A p o s t o l i c See', though not in actual competition with Rome. In 9g7 Sanriago was the object of an lmportant
and damaging raid by the great Moorish warrior Almanzor. -fhe pilgrimage persisted and grew in spite of such dangers lrom
l
the south; despite local war in the Christian lands, and piratical raids on the coast bv Moslems and Northmen alike. I'hcre
is a thrill in seeing and handling the classic manuscript of thc pilgrimage, the twelfih-centur1. pseudo-Callistine codex. containing Avmerv Picaud's Pilgrim's Guide (Book V) fbllowing a scries of books on the Offices of the church at Compostela, the Miracles of'St James (attributed to Pope Calixtus II), the Chronicle of the Lif'e and Translation of St James, and the Chronicle of the Expedition of Charlemagne to Spain (attributed bishop'furpin).
to Arch_
The attributions are f'alse,of course, as is the statement that it was first ,received' in Rome; but it mav, as the colophon says, have been 'written in various places Rome, Jerusalem, Gaul, Italv, Germany', Frisia, and especiallv at C l u n r ' . l t c o n t a i n sf i a u d u l e n rl e r r e r s o lC a l i x t u s II and one of Innocent II which datesit r r rg. 'l h e a u r h o r . u h o s a r s h i m s e l fl b o o k r , c h . x r r r ; 'all that kinds of iniquitl,' and fraud abound in
T H E G R E A T C H U R C H E SO F T H E P I L G R I M A G E R O A D S
ARcHITEcTURE
the road of the saints', borrowed great names to gir,e a show of authenticity to his work. Unfortunatelv the colophon has led to rhs quite general supposition that the pilgrimass was dereloped b1 rhe abbel of Clunr. tbr ii, own profit, and lovers of the old Burgundral monasterv will be glad to learn that it is nori, 'lhere relier.ed ofthis onus. is a phrase in Chap_ ter xrrr of Book rv to the effect that in x comparison between regular clergy, ,black, monks and abbots and 'white' canons regular. the last-named melioremsnnctlrum sectemtcil(,nl - that is, imputing superiority to the canons over Cluniac and other Benedictine monks. 'l'he phrase cannot have been written at Cluny. 'fhe Cluniacs were touch)' at this time; Ibr it ras not manv vears since St Bernard,s disobliging Apologia to William of Saint-Thierry had stig_ matized the monks of Clunv ( r r z4) ; moreor cr, in r r 3z Abbot Perer the Venerable had rectifiecl Cluniac obserr,ances.l The roads of pilgrimage were necessarilv thc grand routes of communication, and would in any case have had monasteries and hosoices on t h e m . A 1 m e r 1 P i c a u di n d i c a r e so r h e r e s r a b l i s h ments in a number of placeswhere Clunv had priories; Cluny itself was not located on an1one of the Roads, and the houses described as Cluniac in Spain were for the most part mercll associated with the Burgundian abbey through foundation, refbrm, customs, or ecclesiasticel personages.Yet Clunv unquestionably favoured the Pilgrimage, and even more the Spanish crusade for the reconquest of the peninsuh. Cluny had influential fiiends in Spain chicf' among them King Alfonso VI, one of whose q u e e n s( C o n s t a n c e )w a s a n i e c e o f A b b o t H u g h . Clunv supplied great churchmen for the refornr and cxpansion of the Church in Spain, as the Christian statesoriented themselves towards rhe Latin centrcs ofcivilization while pushing their b o u n d a r i e ss o u t h w a r d . M u c h B u r g u n d i a n c h i r alry took part in this reconquest Portugal both.
in Spain anrl
,r?. Comparali\e
T'|.
plans ot thc firc grcat ehurchcs
tt Rc ii"1hePilgrtmas' (HerseY) - fours, St Martin (Roussirc) Sainr-Martial l' t,lrog.t. ot S:intc-l i. conqu"t' ] Toulouse,salnt-5ernrn ComPostela(K J C ) l. S.nritgode role in the Pilgrimage With the Cluniac it to be said that the remains befferunderstood, M' Elie Lambert't have shown of researches other than the Cluniac very well that Orders numbers of priories on the haj considerable 'l'he whole ensembleof estabPilgrimageRoads. was rationall--v hospitalit.v ofering lishments setalong the routes, at intervals of some twenty
l['I . -+ 'lr'i/
individual doers of good.
:l
r*::::::::: Er+++++++
.<) .+ tr +r
flr
ttnestofthe group at the goal ofthe pilgrimage, rn Santiago itself. The buildings embody an accomplished formula fbr ample, spacious churches of firenroof construction suitable for southern lighring and climare.'fhe1 all show askill in a . . i g n u i a a n a s s u r a n c ei n c o m p o s i t i o n
o'....r\
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+..."'{' +f1r\" .\ +(
+...\
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+r..t 14aara
f . +
..'+r o r.al...
e +
t.,...taa
roor
I
..,.:'.;' rrtrr
; "....+ +ttl+tt
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aa '
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architectural form. These churches transcend the localism of their period Irr3, showing all fivel.
P6rigueux road, Sainte-Foi at Conques on the L e P u y - M o i s s a cr o a d . a n d S a i n t - S e r n i n a t T o u louse on the Arles Jaca road, each r.rasa great church of the peculiar Pilgrimage t1''pc,with the
ilrt.,
r . | . . . . I ri
In that devoted age, each of the Pilgrimage Roadswould naturally have developed a shrine of some importance. The international and inter-regional character of the Pilgrimage is emphasized by the f'act that the most notable shrines one on each road - had vert similar
St Martin at Tours on the Paris-Bordeaux road, Saint-Martial at Limoges on the V6zela-v
o\
{r
fFt:::::::
a comfbrtable day's iourneying' miles apart an instinctivc or tacit undersupposes One standing regarding this matter, such as there is to-day among the principal suppliers of the roadsidecommodities of our own times. There was sufficient place fbr evervone - Cluniacs, Augustinians, Hospitallers, conf raternities, and
r59
I
ror
'
t"r
i
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o
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frr*{
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IOO
ROADS THE GREAT CHURCHESOF TH[' PILGRIMAGE
INTER-REGIONALAND INTERNATIONAL ARCIIITECTURE
which rvould have becn impossible previous to 'l'he ro5o for structurcs of this classification. statical problcms were well understood, and the embellishment, particularly with
r el i e f
sculpture, was increasingly Iine in quality and charactcr.
'l'1picall1'
the
'Pilgrimage
church' is g'ran,1
in scale. It has a long nare rvith aislesan1 , gallerv, a widc transept, and a spacioussanltuarv arm, all covcred b!.tunnel vaulting carris6 in the caseof'Santiago. 'I'hcsc vaults harc rr1n.r s i x t y - e i g h t f ' e e tI r r 4 ] . to a unifbrm height
sustained' 1\pically' on '19 1tt v e r s ea r c h c s ittached shafts' onc of l o u r rvith ]"urr. pi.rt o l lhe nare wall to currr l a ( c t h e u p Jinn ttt.t the ground floor two olo n a r c h Ll,.rnru..tt c a r r ) l h e i r s h a r c o f t h c a r c h c sw h i c h A.o,tt.tt aisle bals' and rhe lburth frrr. ,tt. rrdioining b e t u q cn thc groin raults ol the a r c h .rrri.r rtt. c o r r e s ponding shali in thc galT h e fttt. "irf. a diaphragm arch which separates l.ry.rrri.. quadrant vaulting so placed as to ,*o Uryr of of'the high vault' In principle thrust absorbth" galleries surround the entire and aisles the ambulatory about the building. This means an above it, beneath the gallerv small aose,and a apse Elsewhcre therc ofthe windows .l.r..,ory the openis no clerestory. To enrich the design, ings between the piers of the gallery were typically divided by pairccl archcs resting. in the middle, on slender columns, and at the sides on the lateral shafts of the piers, under an enclosingarch which corresponds to the aisle arch - a very prett!'arrangement. Light reaches the nave,transept, and apsc directly lrom windows in the end walls and r lantern lower o\er lhe c r o s s i n g ;i t a l s o f i l t c r s i n t i o m t h c w i n d o w s o l ' the aislesand galleries. Since the churches were for canons or fbr monastic purposes' the naves were blocked at the head by the choir fbr thc clergy.By the eleventh or twelfth century it was customary to enclose thesc choirs with walls which obstructed the view liom the lower part
r r-1. Santiirgo de Compostcla, .. r o7-5 r 2 r r , anahticll isomctric pcrspcctirc (Braunwald)
ofthe nave to the altar. The wide transepts were designedto compensare for this, in view of the pilgrim thrones. For rhe chant the acoustics of' thesechurches are unexceDtionable. T h e g e n e r o u s l i n e s a n d c o n s i d e r a b l eh e i g h t of these buildings, emphasized b1' their bold towers and turrets, gave them a finc silhouette 'l'hose and a handsome which remain presence. are, after eight hundred years, still among thc n o b l e s tc h u r c h e s o[ l;r,rnceand Spain, and the qestruction of rhe others (Sainr-\4arrial at Llhoges and Sr Martin ar Tours) is grcatty regretted.
IOI
'fours, forward-looking as St Martin at ' p i l o t ' d e s i g n ,t h o u g h u s u a l .b u i l t t h e l e a d i n g o r through later rebuilding it departcd from the type which it had helped to crcate. SaintMartial nt Limoges had not so spaclous a transept as thc others. Beautifullv sct' Sainte-Foi at Conques is the smallest and most rustic Ir r[l]' Saint-Sernin at Toulouse is exceptional among the group in being partly brick-built. SaintScrnin was nevcr quitc linishecl, and it has sufiercd both fionr mcdieval additions and modern restorations; moreover, it has lost its suburban sctting and its group of conventual structures. Santiago has lost its canons' choir, and thr original Romanesquc exterior was masked between 1658 and r75o by Baroquc (though without spoiling the
construction building).
Santilgo has the most commanding situation ; S a i n t e - l r o ih a s t h e m o s t p i c t u r e s q u cs u r r o u n d ings. Santiagoand Saint-Martial were built of g r a n i t e : S : r n t i a g oa n d S a i n t - S e r n i n w e r c l b r t i fied; Santiago, Saint-Sernin, and Sainte-Foi have notable ligure sculpture. Santiago alone has a fully developed circuit o('aislesand galleries about the building. Santiago alone rvas planned tbr the full complement o('nine towers, rcalizing the Carolingian ideal (three wcre large, two werc of mcdium size, and four were corncr turrets). St Nlartin was planned with five towers' all large; Saint-Nlartial was planned with two Iarge touers and two or more turretsi SainlcIroi was planned with a large crossing towcr and a snraller stair tower, on the transept. On the practical side, for comparison with thc church of Saint-B6nigne at Diion, we should note that the nave proper of the cathedral of Santiago and its aisles, fulll-' vaulted, measure about 64 feet in rvidth and r43 feet in length, with zo interior supports in the lbrm of piers, each melsuring about l5 squxrc feet in rrea' This relationship would hold, roughly, for all of thc typical buildings. The nave of Saint86nigne, though dift'erently shaped, had almost
r62
INTER-REGIONALAND INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE
T H E G R E A T C H U R C H E SO F T H E P I L G R I M A G E R O A D S
r63
"Lai!:5'* 30 FT
at Saint-\lartial was enriched fiom velopment and by the impulse which came from tG -cG e rablel n of Aurillac' later Pope Sllvester II, have seen at Ripoll in near-by Catawe shorn - also in one way or another by the mullonia of the Pilgrimage Road. Io fple contacts Saint-Martial had become Cluniac at the career (between 936 and closeof Abbot Odo's g4z) but had seceded from the Congregation.
I
After the abbey had suffered from a disastrous firein ro53, it was sold (in ro6z) bv the Count of Limoges, who did not own it, to Cluny, and it
l
I r r5.
'I'ours,
St \,Iartin, rcstorationstudv oftransept as rebuilr .. ro-5oIl. (Hcrsev)
the same area as that of Santiago ; 3z piers aggrc_ gating 8ro square feet were needed to sustain the r.ault. Two gcnerations of'technical progress account fbr the difference: thc piers ofthe nave of Santiago occupy onlr. 3oo square fect, littlc more than one-third of the area which was re_ quired at Saint-B6nigne.
ST MARTINAT TOUR56
I
l i l
The early tenth-century church of St Martin which we have discussed was consumed bv fire 'fhe in gg7. new construction afrerwartls hacl thc ideal Pilgrimage plan a long nave, a capa_ cious rransept.and ths first typically arrangcd apse, ambularorl,, and radiating chapels but it was wooden-roofed. About ro5o, when the
Pilgrimage vaulting system might havc bcen extended to the nave, but plans werc changetl af'ter a Iire of rtz3.1 The reconstructcd transept of St Martin rr:rs built according to the Pilgrimagc formula, bur without the inncr paired arches o1'the gallcri bays Irr5l. Heavy tower porches were builr at the transept ends (in the trrrdition of'the Lrgrrlc tower of' 466 7o at St Martin); a lantern *ls built at the crossing, and eventually A monumental pair of towers at the lvest encl. 'Ihe ,rnrbulatory of'g97 ror4, which we would so ghdll s c e ,w a s r e p l a c e db y a n E a r l y G o t h i c a m b u l r r r o r J after a fire ol' rzoz, but that tbllowcd thc orhcrs in the ruin and demolition *hi.h nr"r,onk ,h. b u i l d i n g l a t e i n t h e e i g h t e e n t hc e n r u r v . N
transept was rebuilt, groin vaulting was usedin the aislcs and quadrant vaulting in the gallcries,
S - 4I N ? ' - A , { A R T I AA LT L I N T O G E S ' )
as had becn done, a little differentlv. at Saint_ B e n i g n e .D i j o n . i n r o o t r 7 . A r t h e h i g h c s rl e v e l there was a ribbed tunnel vault. This tvoical
{ t S : r i n t - M a r r i a li n L i m o g e s , i r w a s t h t . r r r .,r, 1 music rvhich rvas most ellectirch, cultir rrred O n c m a 1 f a i r l _ vs u r n r i s et h a r r h e m u s i e r l J c -
but opinion is unanimous that the church must have been finished about rrjo. The tall proportions do not indicate tardy date, but the bellry'over the crossing is clearly ofthe twellih c e n t u r y , a n d t h e b o l d n e s so f c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e apse - both internal and external - belongs to a design of the period about ro8o. The unfortunate western towers date from the nineteenth century. Before that time a plain front terminating in a double slope (like a Lombardic fagade) served as a backgJroundfor the entrance portalIrr6].
thus became Cluniac again under Abbot Hugh. When the new monks came, the old communitv resisted,and the Cluniacs were obliged to resort
This west portal at Conques, dated about r rz4,rr is a most remarliable carr,ing, which still (owing to the characteristic arched hood) retains
to force before they could establish themselves (ro63).tt In happier years which lbllowed, Cluny gave the monks of Saint-Martial a new
traces of its medieval polychromy, a circumstance which gives us the rare privilege ofseeing
church of the Pilgrimage type; for Cluny was not arbitrary or conformist in architecture. The newchurch was nearing completion when it was dedicatedin rog5, though the nave, evidently still covered at least in part by wood, suffered from fire in 1167 and evenrually had a Gothic vault.
S A I N T E - F o lA T c o N e u E s r l T h e c h a n tt r a n s p o r t su s s p i r i r u a l l r t o t h e M i d d l e A g e s .A t C n n q u e r , i n a n d abour Sainre-Foi, we are taken back visually Ir r6 r8]. Sainte-Foi is very happily situated on a rugged slope in a remote valley with a p r * r y r . i l l a g e n e a r . .w h i c h t o o k sm u c h asir did in olden times.The presenr church,small, elegant in Iinc, and beautifullv proportioned, *u, buit, slouly and progres," replaceolder construction, according )t o : Y- r b e a u t i f u lp l a n p u r into erecution bv Abbot - - * u r r r ca b o u t l o 5 o . T h e n a v e . w h i c h a p p e a r st o uc-the oldest parl. has bold proportions ( r :zj) 'orresponding t o t h o s e i n t h e r r a n s e p t( r . r o 5 o ) "'*rarhn ar Tours (* " i - j I 0 7 ) l r r j ( 3 ) 1 .. \ b b o t B 6 g o n b u i h r h e c l o i s r e r ,a n d h i s r o m b i s wt against certain older portions of the church,
this composition of the Last Judgement as the
r r 6 . C o n q u e sS , a i n t e - F o ir,. r o 5 o ( ? )r . r r 3 o , facadebefbrcrcstoration
T H E G R E A T C I I U R C H E SO F T H E P I I , G R I M A G [ , R O A D S
IITand
I r t l ( o p p r t s i t )e ( i o n q u e s , s a i n t c - l i o i , r .
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r o - 5 o ( ? )r . r r j o , i n r c r i o r l o o k i n g c a s t a n c l v i e w f r o m r h r e l l l
Middle Ages saw it, alive and warm with vivacious movement. The influence of'the pilgrimage throngs may be felt in the choice and trcatment of the subject more picturesque, and much more popular in appeal rhun rhe apocallptic vtstonwhich was evoked f'or the morr intellectual devotion of the monks of Clunv. SainteF o i a t C o n qu e s n e r e r h a d c l o s cc o n n e r i o n s w i t h Cluny.
sAtNT-sERNrN AT TouLorrsr. A N DP I L c R I M A c E scLrLpruRE Saint-Sernin at Toulouser+ is by filr the most ta&iliar and the most ofien visited of the Pil-
grimage group of churches. It rightll'' stands fbr a great moment in thc civilization ol'Languedoc, rvhich had its capital in Toulouse. Except fbr a short intcrludc, it was an Augustinian houselrhen the church was being built. At the t i m e i t l a 1 ' o n t h e o u t s k i r t s o l t h c c i t l ' , a n d h a c la considerable group of conventual structures, arranged about a cloister, on thc northern ( s h a d e d )s i d c . B e f b r e t h e d a t e o f t h e r e b u i l d i n g of Conques was suspectcd,the beginnings of Saint-Sernin wcre ascribedto the ro6os. Conservatire opinion now preftrs ro77, whcn the chapter of canons regular was institutcd, or ro8z-3, when Bishop Isarne of Toulouse tnstalledCluniac monks at Saint-Sernin, because
166
INTER-REGIoNAL AND INTERNATIoNAL
ARcHITEcTURE
-,tto *i.,u*f
the canons, claiming exemption, refused him obedience. The chevet of Saint-sernin [rrg zr], of tvpical fbrm, was complete when the later archi_ tect of the building, Raymond Gayrard, took over about rog8. Meanwhile the high altar had been consecratedon z4 N4ay r og6 by the Cluniac pope Urban II in the presence offifteen French and Spanish bishops. A gift fbr rhe nave is reported in ro95, which means that the transeDt uas well adrancedbr rhen, and in r r r8 when Raymond Gayrard died, the splendid doubleaisled western arm of the church had been carried up to include the height ofthe windows o f t h e g a l l e r y ,b u t n o t v a u l t e d . p o p e C a l i x t u s I I , putative aurhor of the famous pilgrim codex, dedicated an alrar (or perhaps the uncompleted building) on rg July r r rg. The west front has been finished off simph., and remains an awk-
ward bulk, bringing the exterior length of'the church to a total of 359 feet. In order to support the staged belfry (largely of Gothic date) abor,e the lantern, the four crossing piers have been much enlarged, with resulting strangulation of the interior perspectives, but the exciting exterior silhouette, as seen lrom the east, is a partial compensation. The picturesque medielal fortifications and the old patina ol'the building were lost in a restoration, otherrvise unfbrtunate also,dating from r855 and the lbllowing r.eers. While Saint-Sernin is most importanr as an accomplished example of Pilgrimage archirecture, its carvings figure prominently in the hist o r y o f R o m a n e s q u e s c u l p t u r e . l s A s e r i e s0 f m a r b l e p l a q u e si n a h e a v y s t y l e h a v e b e e n b u i l t 'I'hel' into the ambulatory wall of Saint-Sernin. are datable to ro96 or earlier [rzr]. At the crossing there is a marble altar slab bordercd b!'
(restored in the nineteenth centttr-v), r2r. Toulousc, Saint-Sernin, cheret (with later additions)' and ambulatorv (looking west)' c' Iofio
exquisite small ligures which is believed to be the high altar slab dedicated by Pope Urban II i n r o 9 6 .T h e p l a q u e s a n d t h e a l t a r , w h i c h a r e i n Pyrenean marble, make it easy ro trace the sculptural development from French Catalonia (Saint-Genis-des-Fontaines, rozo r; Arlessur-Tech, ro46) bv wa1 of the ambulatory figuresand altar ( r oo6) to the Ascension on rhc P o r t ed e M i d g e v i l l e a t S a i n t - S e r n i n( c . r r r o ) a n d so to Cluny (c. trrz) and to the wonderful P o r t a lo f M o i s s a c( r . r r r s).rn C o n s e r v x t i v eF r e n c h i v r i t e r s claim a primacy . lor Toulouse i n l h e r e - c r e a t i o no l m o n u m e n r a l sculptute in stone. \'et the precious wreckage of o l t l e rs c u l p t u r e s sho* s that monumenfal sculpt u r ei n s t o n ed i d n o r r e a l l v c e a s ew i r h A n t i q u i t v . r^heAnglian ancl Irish ..orr.r, lare Saxon rer r c l si n England, figure sculprure dated abour roo5 at St Emmiram, Regensburg; ar sr
Martin, Tours; and at the Pante6n de los Reyes ofSan Isidoro, Le6n, still exist ; other important e n s e m b l e s( t h e t o m b o f S t F r o n t , P 6 r i g u e u x , ro77, a,nd the carvings of San Facundo, Sahagrin, ro8o 96) have been lost. A re-study ofthe material will show that Cluniac spirituality and love ofthe arts did a great deal to give increasing cogency to the sculptural themes in the late eleventh century.
S A N T I A G OD E C O M P O S T E L A , G O A LO F T H E P I L G R I M A G E '-lhe
modern pilgrim
may come up the Via
Francigena ('Frenchmen's WaJ'') to Santiago de Compostela as his predecessorshave done for a thousand years and more. He will find a charning city of rain-washed granite which has changed very little since the eighteenth century'
T H E G R E A T C H U R C H E SO F T H E P I L G R I M A G T R O A D S
r69
dc ('omqoltel,a' r23.SantiaFo , stud-\u1ol lillnll s(ncmc' r!storaaion , tOj5.
t. I Ioo' etc
ll!.J-L-
)
buttrcsscsut rPsc SmallflYing r(l(l(d:lllcr I I | 7 4 r db a t t l e m c n t s
becausethe provincial government was long agoinstalled at busv La Coruia, and indifl'erent communications have tliscouraged modern developmentsat Santiago. Lt
rzz. Santiago de Conrpostela, pucrta tle las platcrias, rozg and later
The splendid old cathedralr* frr3(.5), rr.1, tzz-61 still dominates the whole ofthe city, as it h a sf r o m t h e v e r l b e e i n n i n e . I t w a s n o t e n t i r e l v finishedrrntil rhe cnj ot the eighteenr h ..n, rr.,1. by which rime i t s m e t l i e r a l l b r m s h . . r db e e n disguisedon the exterior and partlv on rhe int e r i o r .f o r harmonv wirh rhe grrn,lilr. :pirir ot' 'fh. that gorgeous western faqacle (of the 'obradoiro,) "g". f l r n t . d u 1 .t h e p r r l r r c eo f t h e l r c h _ b i s h o po n the north nn.l ,h. cloisler cdihce on tlt .outh, is a magnifcent design in Churrigueresque. \{'ith tvpical Spanish rrr, rhe uanking s t r u c r u r e sn r . k . p , r c l a t i r e l r s i m p l e i n order to give full tulue to the extraordinarilv
e l a b o r a t ef r o n t i s p i c c e o f t h e c h u r c h . T h e l v h o l e great f'agade, 524 feet in width, gains greatl.v from the fact that the supposed tomb of' St James, the nucleus of all Santiago, is located within the building about twentv-five feet above thc levcl of the plaza, so that a high basement storcv was necessarv bencath the western raneie of buildings. The unfinished to$ers ol- the fbqade were carried up in masterly. Churrigueresquc
one for the bells, the other lbr the to a height ofzjz feet;
carlacaor Easterrattle
also. a hcar'-v tower of defence adioining the transept $'as augmented in a similar wav, and provided with a clock. A Renaissance stairwav and platform give acccss to the church from the western plaza. Once past the door, the r,isitor is surrounded by Romanesque w'ork, and engulfbd in an atnro-
17r r70
t N T l - R - R E ( ; l O N A t ,A N D I N T E R N A I l O N A L A R C l t l r E c T r - i R E
s p h e r ef u l l o f ' w a r m t h a n d d i g n i t r ' . T h e w e s t e n d has an interesting crypt, which sustains the main vestibule ancl uith it the triple P6rtico de l a G l o r i a , r i c h l l ' e m b e l l i s h e d b y ' c a r v i n g s .I t i s a late and beautilul florvcring of I']ilgrimage sculpture, in arrangement, though not in subject, lieely inspired fiom the EircatCluniac poltal at V6zelay Ir24, r631. It was carved and installcd (rr68 tlS) b1,a master namcd Xlatthcw, shown in prayer on the base of thc mediln iamb. Formerll' the outer archrvay-srvcre open, and the thrce great cloorwavs,erch with iamb figures, the sculptured great tympanum, and archivolts all touched with colour, were seen trom the plazain the cavernous shadow ofthe vestibule. T h e v a u l t i n g o f t h c r e s t i b r . r l es u p p o r t s a t r i b u n e which is carried up as thc central motif of the laqrde. Thercfbre at Santiago we have essentially the old Carolingian rvestwork augmcnted b1 the portal sculpfures, and bJ the monumental tower pair. 'I'he original scheme for the front called lbr thesc same elements. but the carvings of the portal were on the exterior wall, and there were two archcs corresponding to the nave. 1'he s p a n d r e l so f t h e s e a r c h e sh a d a ' l - r a n s l i g u r a t i o n s h o w i n g S t J a m e s o f ' c o u r s e c a r v e d i n r e l i e f. This old scheme has been presclved at the transept portals, and that ilt thc south now contains carvings from the west portal and the north
r r rz. and it was finished soon after. All of this work, and thc sanctuary too, is marked b1 cusped and mitrcd archcs which savour of' Moorish influence. The scheme for the new cathedral was workcrl out shortlv aftcr roTr by Diego Pcliez, bishop of Santiago; preliminary work had bccn donc by rc77, when the propcrtv lines involved at tirc cast end of the church were scttled. On the Puerta de las Platerias the ceremonial beginning or the juridical fbundation of the church is lccallcd bv a bold inscription of unusual form, giving thc date V Ides ofJuly, Era r r r6 ( r r Jtrlr ro78), but a good deal of the cxisting rvork on the portal is later. Many carvings have the -I'here general character ofsculptures of r ogo- 5. i s a b e a u t i l u l s t a t u eo 1 ' S tJ a m es w h i c h w a s g i r c n b y A l f b n s o V I ( d . r r o g ) t o e i e t h e rw i t h a t l e r s t 'I'ransfiguration Port;rl. one fine relief liom the The fricze and jamb reliefs are somewhat disordcred, and it is certain that the portal has bccn once probably after a serious tonn
rebuilt
insurrection and cathedral fire of rr17, alrtl latcr, when the west ancl north portals $crc remade.
Aymery Picaud, where they are appreciatively d e s c r i b e d .T h e n o r t h l a g a d eo f ' t h e t r a n s e p t w r s entirel]' rebuilt between ry57 and r77o, but (as r e m a r k e c i )i t s t i l l h a s i t s p a i r e d e n t r a n c e d o o r wa1's and prcserves its medieval name, the
o\rer as administrator (rog3), bishop (rtoo' r ror), and archbishop(r rzo). Repairing,vault-
Puerta Francigena; the adfoining Plaza de la Azabacheria still recalls the pilgrim souvenirs of jet (a:ahacha) which used to be sold there.
ing, and fortifying
The south fiagadeis still largely mediev:rl, and it is named after the silversmiths' sltops(platerias) which are even now in the old location near bv.
I
teriors. Its altars (in chapels at the east), togethcr with thosc of the ambulatory, were dedic a t e d i n r r o 5 ; o l d w o r k w a s c l e a r e do u t o l ' i t 1 1
Bishop Diego Pelfez was deposed in ro8S. accused of complicity in a plot to invite Williant 'n lhe disturlrcJ ol \ormandl's intervenlion politics ol'the Kingdom. Diego Gelmirez tt,,,L
portal, as we know from the Pilgrim's Guide by
ll
to 2qg f'eet, with a clear interior length of' u r.i I'eet one of the finest of all Romanesque in-
the magnificent Bctween these I-agades.stretches z4o-(bot transept, lengthened b-vthe clock tower
the existing parts of thc
cathedral involved a considerable eflbrt for hinr a f t e r t r r 7 . N c v e r t h e l e s s ,i n r t z 4 o r r t z 8 , t h c 'greater part' of the church having then becn built, Archbishop Gelmircz recommcnded thc cons(ruclion of,r cloister. It was douhtlcss 'rl thc usual Romanesque tvpe, rather small irt scale,and so it was rcplaced tn ,n. tt*,..nt"
Iz4. Santiagode ComPostela, resiorationitudyol lagadeas rernodelledr r6ll rzI t ; north tower finished later (K.J C )
century. Works were still in progress at the west end of the church when Aymery Picaud v i s i t e di t i n r r 3 r ( o r r r z o ? ) ; i t p r o m i s e d t o b c very handsome, as he says. The visitor entering the nave lrom Master Matthew's \estibule through the P6rtico dc la Gloria seesthe entire length ofthe nave' crossing, and sanctuary without interruption - an open axial vista of 25o feet, the total extcrior length of the cathedral, including the present approach stairway, being 365 feet. It is a ereat moment for the lover of the Middle Ag;s, when he finds himself within thc soft light and shadou of that harmonious nare, gazing towards the high altar which has been -l'he the focus of pilgrim devotion for so long' altar and its surroundings have been enriched
by Baroque httings, and the vista is liamed b1' two splendid Baroque organs at the head ofthe nave, all bright with gilding, silver, and colour; nevertheless the interior is dominated by the old Romanesque work in brown granitc the e l e g a n tprot h e even rhythm ofthe nave bays, the sophistication arches, the aisle portions of of the gallery arches with thcir rounded tympana and slencler paired shafis' A flood oflight marks the crossing tower. An enormous censcr' insidc the Botafumeiro, is swung tiom a support of great clouds emitting time, testival at this x r o m a r i c s m o k c a s i t d e s c r i b e sa l s o - f o o l a r c is but above the hea
T H E G R E A T C } J U R C H E SO F T H E P I L G R T M A G L R O A D S
173
possessgreat interest - the of the festival also fireworks, the proccssion with giganfiesta, the which do a darice in the cathedral of two t,fles,
1'he Romanesque ambulatorl, and radiating c h a p e l st o o k o v e r t h e s i t e o f t h e n i n t h - c e n t u r y Benedictine church, as agreed in the negotia-
great high mass of St James's sanctuary after the day, and the general outpouring of devotion all are sweet with time and rnd spirits
tions of ro77. The charming and verv exceptional central chapel has the inscription Regnante Adelimso tempore Didaci
in the time of Bishop Diego
memories. From the early twelfth century'until quitc 'coro' at the east recently there was a walled-in
Peldez(who undertook the building) and Alfbnso VI the King (who was gcnerous to Santiago
end of the nave IIz5]. This monastic feature was introduced by Diego Gelmirez, who organized the canons, to the number ofsercntv-two
but even more so towards Clunv, to whose prayers he believed he owed his life during the preceding murderous dynastic struggle).
(including seven with the privileged title of cardinals) as a community under the Augustinian regime. Santiago was apparently the first
It was he who, under Cluniac influence (ro7z), outlawed the N{ozarabic liturgv in Spain; under him, as the Kingdom advanced southward, man-v Burgundian knights and Cluniac ecclesiasticsaided in settling and organiz-
cathedral to have such a coro, and set the fashion in Spain. The opening up of the nave at Santiago has permitted excavations which are re-
ing new territories. As a thank-olfering for the capture of the old Visigothic capital o1'the 'foledo peninsula, (25 iv'lay ro85), he gave im-
vealing the old church of 879 96 built by Alfonso III in the Asturian style, of which the church of Lourosa in Portugal is perhaps the
mense subsidies which paid fbr about one-hall' of the abbel'' church of Clun)', as-$'c shall later see. "I'his conjuncture, however, was unfortu-
best existing representative [54c].tt' The raised area in the sanctuary rests in part on the foundations of the tomb which the hermit
nate fbr Santiago. Archbishop Diego Gelmirez in the heroic agle wished to make the see pri-
Pelayo brought to notice in 8ri.
riL-^.Jl
l;
ul t25 Qert).Santiago de Compostela, n a v ef r o m t h e u c s r , . . l o 7 5 | r 5 o .s h o u i n gr h c traditionalmonastic .o.o, io* tlesrrorcd
r z - 5 , tS. a i n t e sS, a i n t - E u t r o p cr,o 8 r 9 6 . R a i s c d choir fbr monasticscrviceslr38l. Pilgrim crypt Irjgl openedrvideon nale steppedfor visibiliti' (destrolcd r8oz)
I74
INTER-REGIONALAND INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE
matial; he was a personal friend of Calixtus II. and ir looked as if he might be successful, hut the Cluniac Bernardo, archbishop of Toledo rrlier the recapture, kepr the ancient primarial c l i g n i r l l b r t h e o l d c a p i t a lc i r y . Within the present extensive residence of the archbishop of Santiago, north of rhe cathedral. there are remains of the palace which DieEo Gelmirez built./u Irs plan is in rhc shape of ai with the cross-bar a west rangiecontinuing the l i n e o t t h e c a r h e d r a l l a g a d e .T h e g u a r d hall and school were towards the plaza de la Azaba_ cheria. An interesting old liitchen and stairs connect with two handsome halls in the u,est range. The lower one has two lines of groin
vaulting supported by a median range ofslenql., and eleglnt piers; the upper room i, spl.n,i; o p e n f e s t i r a l h a l l , i t s l a t e m e d i e r . a lu r u" t t . p r ; n o _ ing from corbels ornamented by r.ulptrr.s i; the musicians and the instruments which r,s[ to be heard there Irz6]. T.he uppermost panl of the palace have been rebuilt, Uut trn,,no ".. to hat'e been fortified, and connected by a bridg; with the upper works of the cathedrrl, nhiii also bristled with crenellations, added in .,,nsequenceof the dramatic town uprising in r r r 7. When the magnificent old battler of a bishop died, in rr3g or rr4o, after fbrty_odd y.un o'f command at Compostela, his palace ancl the cloister were probablv complete, and the carhe_
rz6' Santiagode compostera..{rchbishop'sparacc Festi'ar
Ha,, rargell.lburteenrhcenrurr
THE GREAT CHURCHESOF T}IE PILGRIMAGE ROADS
complete enough bv Ir5z for thc surdral was certain contingent revenucs; bllt at of rclder the P6rtico de la Gloria, the upper time that t h e w c s t e r n f o w e t ' s .a n d t w o g r i m b u t o 6 f i . so l tbrtified towers on thc east sidc ol' hand.o*. remained to be constructed. transept the Through all these and subsequent changes, thc beauty of the original building, the vitality of the spirit which created it, and thc enchantmenr of the Pilgrimage continue to be felt. Before leaving the Pilgrimage, it ought to be remarkedthat the great churches which we have seen served as sources for the design of many churcheson a smaller scale. No other buildings presented the full Pilgrimage formula, bur excerpts from that formula. r'arying from region to region and from building to building, are seenin much interesting twellth-century work. Several conspicuous Aulergnat
Romanesque churchesso much resemble the Pilgrimage ty-pe that older historians, not aware ofthe significant role of Saint-Bdnigne at Diion and St \Iartin
at
t75
'l'ours,
supposed that the Pilgrimagc rype originated in Auvergne. Actualll, the Pilgrimage Roads ran through the area of six or seven regional schools of architecture to which we shall ref'cr in much more detail. Nlention should also be made of the accommodations rvhich were provided lbr pilgrims.rr Abbeys and priories on thc road normallv received pilgrims in their hospices or their guesr houscs according ro the travellers' condition; there were also, from an early period, hospices which were built with the pilgrims especially in mind. The earliest hospice certainlv mentioned i s t h a t o f O r e n s e , n e a r S a n t i a g o ,8 8 6 ; o t h e r s a r e mentioned in go5 (Tufron), roro (Antoiana), r o5z (Nijera), and afie r this the1. become numerous. In general large opcn halls wcre p r o v i d e c lf o r s l e e p i n g I r o 6 ] , s p e c i a lc h a p e l sh a d divine serlice, and special charities took care of the needs o1'sickness,destitution, and death rvhen the pilgrims encountered those misfbrtunes in their pious journcvrng.
CHAPTER
9
F R o \ { T H F ' ,P I L G R I X { A G E REFLEX
ot the fire grcat churchcs olThe architecture R o ads uas intcr-regional' inter,h. Pilg.itug. and concerned with a great st1'le, in nation"l Spain' Nlention has alreadl-' towards rou"a.n, chapter of archipreceding thc been macle in the wa1' which arc dealong designs tectural pendeno t n t h c P i l g r i m a g ct \ p c o f c h u r c h ' a n d and of ,h. fr.t that French master masons buildings' Spanish man.\ on worked sculptors But it most not bc fbrgotten that most of the pilgrims and artisans rcturned home; if there was a genuine florl' of'Pilgrimage architccture and sculpture, a counterflow should also be discoverable.' Emile Mile was discerning in the matter. He sensedthat a veritable tide of influence fiom from thc mosque of C6rdoba flowed along the Pilgrimage Roadsinto Francc, and added spice to numberless Romanesque designs on or near these
Moslem Spain in particular
routes.2 Le Puy presents a special case. It was continuously an important citv, and it has a long recordofsignificant contacts with more southcrly regions, including Nloslem Spain. Coins of Moslem tenor minted at Le Pu1' and lbund in the peninsula are proof.s of a livell' and continuing exchange. Le Puv was earlv awarc of Santiago de Compostela; Bishop Godescalc o1' Le Puy brought rhc first large rccordccl group of pilgrims there, nearly'zoo monks, in 95r, as we have seen. One of the two southern PilgrimaBe Roads ran through Le Puy and N{oissac. Moslem influen..,.o.rf'..r.d by' striking cusped t|ttt in arches and doorwavs, appears in both Places. rz7. Lc Puv Clathcdral, cloister and tower, liom above; largch twelfih ccnturl
T h e c a t h e c l r a lo f L c P u y ' [r27, rz8l is thc rnost notable French monumcnt in which
r z 8 . L e l ) u i ( - a t h c d r a lf,a g a d c , twelfth ccntur\' (rcstored)
Moorish influence is strong. It is the noblest building in the Auvergnat district of Velay, w h i c h b e i n g r o l c a n i ch a s p r o r i d c d a s p e c t a c u l a r situation lbr the cathedral, and a fine but rathcr grim granite,black and red, ofwhich to build it' 'l'he church, begun in the eleventh centurv, has a rather simplc crucitbrm plan. \t the headof t h e a x i s s t a n d s a h a n d s o m e s t a g e dt o w e r o f t h e
I7U
I N T E R - R E G I O N A I -A N D I \ T E R N A T I O N A I ,
ARCIIITECTURE
Limousin
type, with arches, setbacks, and gables like those at Saint-Nlartial in Limoges
the chapel of'Saint-\,Iichel de I'Aiguilhc. 1n,1 d o u b t l e s s i t s s u c c e s s l u lu s e a t L c P u v e n c l 1 -
and other churches ofthe region. The sanctuarv a n d t r a n s e p t so f L e P u v a r e c o m p a r a t i v e l v p l a i n ,
r a g c d i m i t a t i o n e l s c w h e i e .C . l u n i a cd c s i g n c r . lsr g _ came intcrestcd in these motif'.salso; the cus1.r.d
though the crossing has a lantern with octagonal vaulting. The old part of the nar,e consists of two plain bays, with octagonal domical r,aults
arches o1' the trifbrium of the great chLr1.111 ( t o 8 8 l t . ) a n d o f ' t h e m a i n p o r t a l ( r r o ( r r ^ :r x 1
on squinches. It is reached bv stairs from the ascending slope below the church. In the twelfth century the nave was extended out over the slope, forming an imposing opcn porch a which presents three cavernous
sort of crypt
portals beneath the end wall of'thc nave and a i s l e so f ' t h e c h u r c h . T h i s i s a v e r v h a n d s o m e design, whether seen from a distance or at the
C,lunt' are wcll knorvn. The portal hacl tlli _ s, b o r d e r c d s p a n d r e l p a n e l sl i k e a N , I o o r i s hm i h 1 1 6 o r c i t 1 .g a t e . A s u r p r i s i n g n u m b e r o f c h u r . c h e s in the vicinitv of'Le Puy-, the Pilgrimage Ro;rtls. a n d C l u n y , h a v e c u s p e d a r c h e sa t t h e p o r t r l : L a S o u t e r r a i n e ,N , I o i s s a cM, o n t b r o n , a n d ( i r n z g o b i c b e i n g i m p o r t a n t C l u n i a c e x a m p l c s .r [ ) o l r . foil windows and trilbrium arches had rhrir Saint-Etienne at Nevcrs, (.lLru.
r,ogue also
head of the stcep slope as one approachcs from the west. The crvpt porch, gable, and wall belfries recall Santiago, but the detail has manv
I t S + , r 5 5 1 ,a n d S a i n t e - C r o i x a t L a C h a r i t d - s u r L o i r c b e i n g C l u n i a c e x a m p l e s .T h e z e b r a - s o r k appears in the transr,erse arches o1' \'-dzelav
Moorish features, like zebra stripings in the coursed ashlar and the voussoirs, pattern-work masonrv panels, pointed arches, decorative
I r 4 o ] . L o b e d s o l l i t p a n e l sl i k e m i n i a t u r e _ \ l r o r ish lobed domes appear, togerhcr with chi:clcurl eaves brackets, at Notre-Damc-du-l)ort in
cusped archcs, and flatlv-carved wooden doors 'l'his lagade is clearlv a twelfth-century conception likc the wesr parts -I'he ofthe nave. nave bays are stubbv oblongs in plan, and divided from one another bt diaphragm arches. There are corbel tables on the
Clermont-l'errand, and were seen formcrlr in S a i n t - B 6 n i g n ea t D i j o n . I n g e n e r a ls u c h f ' e a t u r e s gave warmth and spice to thc stvle whererrr thel, rvere used. By contrast thc rather rough
with Cufic inscriptions.
flank at the ler,el of these arches; abor,e, an intermediate stage has columns, arches, and nichc-head squinches which graccfully make the transition to an octagon, on which an octagonal domical vault is set. There are unmistakable N{oslem rcminiscences hcre. This is also true of thc south porch of the church, and to a lesser degree of the cloister, whcre partic o l o u r e d m a s o n r v a p p e a r sa l s o . I n a l l t h e r e a r e nearll- a hundred carved capitals of'Nloslem 'I'he type at Le Puv. granitic hardness o1'the material has gaincd suavity lrom its Romancsque and oricntal ambient without losing the r,igour of'fbrm appropriate to a carhcdral design on such a picturesque sitc. 'l'hc decorative cusped arches and zebra work are represcnted in Le Puv itself at thc portal of
basilicas of the north seem \:crv Germanic. .rr.rd t h e t r , p i c a lc h u r c h e s o f B u r g u n d r - a n d P r o r e n c c vcrv Romln. Thc transfbrmation of' Saint-Philibcrt ;rt Tournus Iror, rozl into a fireproof buiJtling broug;ht about the construction of transrrrsc tunnel vaults which ma1' ha'r,e a \Ioslcnr or A s t u r i a n c o n n e x i o n , a n d a n e l e p l a n td o m c o r e r niche-head squinches rescmbling those ot [.c Itur, earlr in the tuellih centur\. l so .tr.h domes were built at about the samc timc ncrtr the entranceofSaint-Front at Pdrigucur l::il \ c o r r e s p o n d i n gp r o c c s su l t r l n s l o r r r r r t l i l l ) procluced an cvcn more remarkable conslrllc'l he tion at Saint-Hilaire, Poitiersr Irzg, rrol. . t t o m b o f ' S t H i l a i r e , t e a c h e ro f S t \ { a r t i n . l t t t c t e c la p i l g r i m a g e , a n d a b o u t r o z 5 a v a s t c h L r f c h . was undertaken, in which Queen Emnrrr.ol England, Waltcr Coorland the Norman llci.rr-
I29. Poitiers, Sainr-Hilaire, nave .. ro2-5 ;lg, r'aulted later (twelfih and nineteenth centurics)
r60
r3o. Poiticrs,Saint-IIilaire, aisle, . . I O 2 54 9 , vaultedlater (twclfih and nincteenthccnturics)
tect, and perhaps Bishop Fulbert of Chartrrr were concerned. Although the new nave ancl aisles in their first state had only recently brcn bcgun on an enlar.qed scheme which incr,rporated the fine old free-standing tower, rhe building. wooden-roof'ed, was dedicated in thq ) e a r r o + 9 . I t s c o l o s s a lo p e n i n t e r i o r s p a c c ,r \ ' f minating in a hemicvcle about the altar, lrrs quite Roman in its ample grandeur. About rr3o 68 the church was rebuilt antl v a u l t e d i n a s t r a n g ew a y ; t w o f i l e s o f p i e r s u e r c contrived to divide the nave longitudinalll inro three parts, of'equal height, leaving the midtllt bays square in plan, and the lateral bays icn narrow. The nave piers, strengthened by charniing intcrior
buttresses in the fbrm of littlc
arched bridges, were kept very slender ancl unobstructive, yet strong enough to sustain a series ofoctagonal domical r aults on diaphragm archcs a n d s q u i n c h e sw h i c h c o v e r e d t h e c e n t r a l p a r l o f the nave. Hele, as at Le Puv, the schemehas oriental even afier a nineteenth-centurr rebuilding necessitated b-v a partial demolition undertones
in the Revolutionary era. Oriental undertoncs are f'elt in the aisles also, lor these are ofdoublc width, and vaulted, bay by bay, with a pecr.rlirr compound groin vault supported, some$'lut like the vault of San Baudelio de Berlanga in Spain [57|, by a tree-like central column and trumpet^ The
efl'ect, thor.rgh achieved $ith
Romanesque detail, has a strange Moorislt clchct, and reminds onc oi the groping soltttir-rnsof the Mozarabic architects two centurits earlier. . { t t h c h e a do l t h e n a r c i u s t d e s c r i b c dt h c r t r . a spacious transept, also vaulted after it t'r,ts f i r s t b u i l t . a n d b e l o n d t h a l a h a n d s o m ed , r r l ' a p s e w i t h a m b u l a t o r y a n d r a d i a t i n g c h a p e l s ,r t l l o l -t u e l f t h - c e n t u r ) c o n s t r u c t i o ni. 'l h c l \ l o s l e m t l p e o f r a u l t w h i c h a p p e a r ' >i r r perfectcd fbrm at the mihrab of the mosqrtcoi C 6 r d o b a ( 9 6 r ) [ r 3 r ] , h a s e x e r c i s e dm u c h 1 , t ' -
I3I. Mihrab of the mosque of C6rdoba' Moslem rihbed and lobed rirult' c16t
cinltion. It uas imitared in Snanish G,rrhic
L
R E F I - E xF R o M T H E p t L G n t r u r a c r
,' r, -O- * .i
'#., ,'i*j
comes into the reflex architecture vaults, and it The odd destroved church Pilgrimrge. the of of Saint-Pi-de-Bigorre" had such a vault in a tall stagedtorver decorated rvith cusped arches; the church of L'H6pital-Saint-Blaise near bv a l s oh a s s u c h a r a u l t u h i c h s r i l l e x i s r s ,a n t l a
rgl
esque work. N{oorish_looking interlaccd ribs a n d l o b e d v a u l t i n g s e r . e r i e sc o n t i n u e to appear cvcn in Earh. Gothic times, but not in monu_ ments of importance.
O r i e n t a l c o n n e x i o n s t h r o r . r g hS p a i n by way ol'thc Pilgrimage are, howevcr. onlv a Dart of erample is perfecf to be found in Nar.arre, 6ore thc stor\.. North -{lrica and Sicily had their in the conventional but handsome octaRonal e l l e c t o n R o m a n e s q u c architecturc also; the church ol'thc Hol.r Sepulchre in Torrc* .l"l poinred arch and thc approxinrate catenrr\ RioT[r32, tY]. shapr for tunncl raulting clmc liom rhc \.ar I t i s a n o p e n q u e s t i o n a l s o w h e t h e r t h e s q u a r e F,ast.Being structLrral - rathcr than decorative, d o m i c a l v a u l t s o t t o w e r s l i k e t h e R o m a n e s u u e like almost all the refler architecture of. the belfryo[the cathedral of Or iedo (abour r roo). Pilgrinrrrgc rhesc Ncar Eastern morif , por,rcr_ the transcptal lower ol sr Marrin at Tours fullr transfbrmed Romanesque architecture, as [rr5J, and one of'the lagadc rowers ofBaveux we shall see in Burgundv, Normandy, nn,t ih. ( a b o u tr o T o )d o n o r r e p r e s e n ta r , j t l c x o f \ l o s l e n r Ile-de-France. T'he tide of structural influcnce engineering; fbr the ribs support the middle of Ncar Easr is a part ol'the prehistory of IrT lh. the vaulting panels in the \,Ioorish f'ashion, not Gothic architecture, ancl as such will be ana_ t h e a n g l e s ,a s i n R o m a n a r r d r r . p i c a l R o m a n _ lysed in a later chapter.
r , 3 z ( u p f t ^ i t ( )a n d r 3 . 3 .I o r r c s d e l R i o , r h . H r , l _Sr c p r r l c h r nc c. l l i h c c n r u r r , :\ltlul lt_t . h , , f a n dc \ t c r l o r
\:
e
CFAPTER
I O
THE ROLEOF CLUNY IN THE Hrs1'oR\-oli Ro\IANESQUE ARCHITEC-r'URE
T H E E A R L YA B B O T S ; (6coLECLUNISI[.NNE' THE Clunyl lies in southern Burgundv, nearlv due w e s tf r o m G e n e r a a n d a b o u t s i x n n r i l e s n o r t h of Lyon, in a region which was relativeh less disturbed during the invasions and local wars than most of France. Fronr the time of Cloris onward it tendcd to graritate to$'ards lirancc, but for a long time it was on the borders ol'the Empire, and maintained close lelationships
quarters rcquired br, the agricultural exploitation, which continuetl under thc new iuspices uith servants, peasants, anct serf-s, irs befbrc. L i t t l c c h a n g c r v a s m a d e i n t h c i r e x i s t e n c c ,e x c c p l l h a l t h e i r l r t u n ( l ( r a m o n i l s l i cr e g i n r ew a s probablv morc fbrtunate than under lar controlA rcmarkable fbundation charter had been i s s u e d i n s o l e m n c o n c l a l e a t B o u r g i e s ,t h e e c c l c s i a s t i c am l etropolis of Aquitaine, on r r September gro) rvhich in laving the groundrvork lbr the new institution placed it under tlitrute to
there. It had eas1. communications in both
the Holv Sce. The Pope might intcrrene if'the
directions.
housc becamc p;rarelv disordered, br,rtother'erempt' rviscit uas l i ' o m a n r e c c l c s i a s t i c aol r
Clzniacun, said to be a Rom:tn station, was a villa under the Franks, and a possessionof the family of Charlemagne. ,\t the beginning of the t e n t hc e n t u r y i t w a s t h c l l r o u r i t c h u n t i n g l o d g c of William Duke of Aquitaine and \'Iarquis of Gothia, lying near the north-eastcrn extrcmit\.' o f h i s d o m i n i o n s .. { r r h c r n d o l a , i g o r r , , r . u n quiet life, he gave the domain to the noble Berno, abbot of Baume ancl Gienr. in the F r a n c h e - C o m t ed e B o u r g o g n e , i n o r i c , r h a r a retormed monasterv misht be established. When the -onk, .u-" to Clunv thev fbund a rural villa of the Romrrn trpe u.hich haclpcrsistedin the region, and can be recognizecl er.en to-day. In the tenth cenrur\, the countrr.sicle was dotted, rhough spitrsch. u.ith such cstabr l s h m e n t s ,t r a d i r i o n a l l l p o s s c s s i n ga c o u r t u i t h a master!s dwelling, its immediate dependencies,and a chapei. This part of the r.illa uas temporarily used as the monastcrv, and soon 19r5-27?)the first monastic church. Clunv I. w a sb u i l t j u s t ro thr norrhol ir.'l hcrewcrc rrlso, ot course, the various barns, shops, ancl living
lar interf'erence. The chartcr was conlirmed with this provision future
most important fbr the 'l'he monas-
b r , P o p e - J o h nX ( q r - + z 8 ) .
t c r v a c q u i r e d t h e r i g h t o f ' s a n c t u a r yi n 9 9 4 , a n d its prir,ileges were further supplemented bv Gregorl \' (997or ggii)and bv John XI\ ( ro.z4): I t s o h a p p e n e dt h a t C l u n 1 . ' sf i r s t a b b o t , B e r n o (gro z7), was at the sametimc abbot of-scveral o t h e r m o n a s t e r i c s ,e a c h o n e i n d e p c n d e n t . B u t h i s s u c c e s s o rO d o ( g z Z , + 2 ) ,b ] ' v i r t u e o 1 ' ap a p a l privilege issued bl John XI in g3I, began to bring monasterics under thc rule of the abbot ol Clun1.a.r .vrri. This was a noveltv among the B e n e d i c t i n c s ,s i n c e t h e R u l c e n v i s a g c ds e p a r a t e and independent houses. Becauseof it, howo c r , C l u n v w a s e n a b l e d t o b e c o m e b 1 ' 'f i r t h e most important of the carlier excmpt monas'l'he terics. d i s a d v l n t a g e so f t h c C l u n i a c s v s t e m lav in understandable local jealousy of, and r e s i s t a n c et o , t h e e v c r - i n c r e a s i n ge x e m p t i n s t i tution, and in the perennial faults o1'large-scalc c e n t r a l i z e da d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
I86
I N T E R _ R E G I O N A LA I ' D I N l ' E R N A T I O N A L A R C H I T E C T U R F
Odo's abbacy was decisive in this matter. Hc was a saintly man, open-hearted, and of great warmth and personal charm. He left his position as prccentor for the canons of St lVlartin at T o u r s t o s c e k a m o r c a u s t e r el i l c a t B a u m e . a n d came with a group of'serious monks to Clunv,
elchitectural hisrorr. wcrc not \.cr und(.t.\t(,rr{l s t r r c d h i s b e l i c lt h a r t h e C l u n i a cm o n l , l i l , rl,. Cistercians wcre sent out with pazrrl.i .,,pi., that is, of master plans which could not 6,i m o d i f i c t l .C l u n i a c p r a c l i c c * a s o f c u u r . . , , , , , . i n r o r c l i b e r a l . e s p e c i a l l r w i t h r e g : r r . Jt o c h r r r t . l r t r
whcrc he became novice master. As a poet, musician, and prcceptor in music he was a lovcr of the arts. Under him the abiding spiritual li1-e of (,luny was so greirtlv cnriched that it became
I r a p p e a r sr h a r t h c r e u a s a n a r c h i r r o l p l . r , r , nj C l u n 1 , u s c l u l . e s p e c i a l h .l b r t h e l a r o u r , r t p y , o r i e s . V i o l l e t - l e - D u c w a s a c c u s e do f i n r c n r i n E 'l'he an eittle clunisienne.l phrase was ill_1irrcl.
possible to send colonies of Cluniac monks to reform other monasteries, some of' which be-
b c c a u s el a t c r F r e n c h a r t h i s t o r i a n s h a r e c o r n g to use the term ltole fbr such groups as tarh C i s t e r c i a nm o n a s t i ca r c h i r e c t u r e .w h i c h h , r . l a remarkable inter-regional unity during the lirst c e n t u r y o f t h a t O r d e r ' s e x i s t e n c e .B v t h e i r c o n _ s t a n t r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e s t a t e m e n tt h a t t h c r t , j s n o
came depcndent on Clunv, and the group was lirrther extendcd b1' the fbundation of new 'I-he Cluniac priories. wonderful Cluniac chant went with them evcrvwhere. In principle, all monks were prof'essedat (,luny.itself . This process continuod, and so produced a spreading nctwork of monasterics which is propcrly called the Congregation of Clunv, under the rule of Aymard (942 c. 96j), Mayeul (t. gb| 94, and Odilo (994 ro.18).rThere was an increasinp;group-consciousncss. resembling t h a t o f a n ' O r d e r ' i n t h e m o d e r n s e n s c .S t H u g h (ro49 rrog) had a strong centralizing policv which preparcd the way' for strictll.-organized i n s t i t u t i o n s l i k e t h e C i s t e r c i a na n d l a t e r O r d e r s . At its zenith Cluny controllecl about r45o houses,of which about 2oo had some importance. There can be no doubt that the Congregation and Order of Clunv constituted a cultural unit within thc bountlaricsof Wcstern churchmanship. It would be easicrto recognizc this if its art had not not becn scattered, fbrgottcn, lost. The distinguished career of thc Cluniacs as
tltole clunisienne,these writers have obscuretl thc lact that unified groups do exist among,^rhe buildings which were constructed bv the (.lun i a e sd u r i n g t h e t w o R o m a n e s q u ec e n tu r i e s The situation has been clarified b1' thc dcvoted labours of'DrJoan Evans.Over thc reers s h e h r s c a r e l u l l l i d e n r i f i e d ,i n r . . , . . u n , , . , . , visited, Cluniac works ofarchitecture, antl has p u b l i s h e d t h e m a s s u c h . 5I t w a s a m a t t e r o l s u r priseeven to her that aficr all that hashappcncd i n 8 o o r - e a r ss i n c e t h c f u l l f l o w e r i n g o f ( . l u n i , t h c r e a r e s t i l l r e r n a i n s( g r c a t e r o r l e s s i n c r r c n t ) o l . 1 , 2 5C l u n i a c e s t a b l i s h m e n t s .r e p r e s e n r i r r e nearlv a quarter of the whole number, ancl all the areaswhere the Order did its work. 'l'o avoid confusion, we lbllow rhe Frcnch alrthors, and rel'er to these builclings as .grotrps', livc in number. First of all rhere was a widclv diliused group based on the church called Clunv II (r..q;5
b u i l d e r s h a s b e e n o b s c u r e db y t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e (rnore than two centuries) or.er which their m e d i e v a l b u i l c t i n g c a m p a i g n s c x t e n c l e d ,a n d b y .
. . r o o o ) a n d t h e a d j o i n i n g m o n a s t e r . v( r . 9 9 5 Io4.5)[ro3-5], which har.e becn relirrcd to in our chaptcr orr BurgundranDerclopmcnr. in
the f-actthat their achievements camc into architectural history without being recognized as Cluniac.
l-rancc betwcen 9oo and ro5o. Thesc constrLrctions, with the great cxpansion of thc Clunirc
\iiollet-le-Duc,
rvriting more than a centurv a g o , a t a t i m e w h e n m a n , l . e x a c tr e l a t i o n s h i p si n
m o n a s t e r i c s ( s u b j c c t a n d a s s o c i a t e d ) .b e c a n r c , so to speak, paradignrs somerimes closel), s o n r c l i n r e sl o o s e l vl i r l l o n e d . ' l ' h e . l i m c , r r i , , ' , . J
C L U N \ ' I N T H E H I S T O R Y O F R O M A N E S Q U EA R C I I I T E C T U R E
o l r h e m o n a s t e r ya t C l u n y p r e s e r r e d description Con suetudinarr of r o43 wit nesses ,'.irir'f "tft the actual form ol'the monl" tftir f..,, as does SS' Peterand Paular Hirsau' ,'-i t . t y o f ro3o t second'grotrp'of Cluniac iho.tly tft.t churches o1'subbegan to appear church"t generous use ol' $ i t h . a irnrirt .ontrructionwere planncd with aisled nares' T h e y ashlar. transepts' ambulatories with iid., to*.t.d (or apse 6chelonsl in less amradiating chapels three apses), substantial bitious examples' grouped piers, capitals carved rvith leafage ancl vaults with transverse Lo,arquat, stout tunnel groin vaults over the level, highest irch", at the c l e r e stor\' sometimes a l o w a u s u a l l y aisles, gallery; often portal carvings of some interest, and decorative arcading. The examples witll a p s e6 c h e l o n i n c l u d e C h a r l i e u I I ( r . t o 3 o 9 4 ) (r' ro4o r roo) lt$, t+4. 164, r651,Palerne Ir35], and various parish churches near Clun,v, a f t e r r o 4 o ; t h e e x a m p l e sw i t h a p s e ,a m b u l a t o r v , 'l'here u'ere and radiating chapels come later. various reductions of this general t.vpe also some without clerestor-vin the naYe, some with quadrant vaults over the aisles. 'groups' just menIn addition to the two t i o n e d ,t h e r e a r e , d u r i n g t h e a b b a c v o f H u g h o f Semur and later, three other groups which ma1' be distinguished.. The third group is relatcd to Sainte-Madeleine, V6zelay, the Jb ur t h to thc new chapel of St Ntary near the Infirmarv at Clun]., and thell/l to rhe great church there. The Cluniacs were more zealous fbr uniformity in customs, discipline , and liturgy than tn architecture. 'I'hereforc in addition to the 'series designs' noted above thcre are other specialgroups representati\re of'the local architecture, which varied from region to region. In the conventual structures which the monks built for their own habitation. local variation was lcss likely to occur. Such structures among the Cluniacs of the Romanesque period were woodenroofed and almost uniformlr- simple and una s s u m i n g t, h o u g h w e l l - b u i l t . T ' h e 1 ' h a da n a t u r a l
Id7
tendenc]. to unitv bccausc of thc unifbrmitl' ot' the Customs; and wherever the)'are preserved, thel.breathe the same warm but austere spirit. In thc churches,built fbr divine worship, the p r e d i s p o s i t i o no l ' t h e C l u n i a c s w a s , b 1 ' c o n t r a s t , f b r m a g n i l i c e n c e .T h e l ' h a d a c o m m o n i d c a l o f h a n d s o m ep h n n i n g , s o l i d , e n d u r i n g f a b r i c , a n d 'l'his unitl'transcends to a of masonry vaulting. large degree the variations in gcneral form, silhouette, lighting, colour, and decoration. It necds to be reiteratcd that the f.luniac psalmodl', admired and imitated throughout westcrn Europe, was most beautiful whcn sung in r , a u l t e d . e s p e c i a l l vt u n n e l - \ ' a u l t e d c h u r c h e s . Thence, a generrl stimulus fbr vaulting
A B B O ' TH U G H O F S E N l U R Abbot Hugh was onc ofthe great buildcrs ofall time. He had an earlv and deep location to the monastic life, rvhich led him to Cluny in ro4r, r g e d s e r e n t e e n .o r p e l h a p s i n r o . 1 3 .I n r o - 1 8 ,a t the death ot Abbot Odilo, he was alread.vgrand prior of the mother housc; early in ro49 hc was elected abbot, at the age of twentl.-fir'e. He ruled a constantlv expanding Congregation and O r d e r o f C l u n r l b r s i x t l 1 e a t . .u n i i l h i s d e a t hi n r rog. His triendll' dignitl' gained the affection of the people, ecclesiastics,ancl princes alike. M o n a s t i cc h r o n i c l e r s ,w i t h r h ei r a c c o u n l so l ' puerile miracles, hardl-v help us to judge Hugh's true abilitiesand accomplishment'What he did r v a st o b u i l d a r e a l m o n a s t i c e m p i r e w h i c h f i t t e d admirablf into the f'eudal p:rttern of-the age a consolidated, centralized intelnationalmonastic 'exempt' houscs organism, ideally made up of like Cluny itst:lf-.Houses of the Ordcr multiplied l i t h i n i t s o l d a r e a si n t h e r e g i o n o f t h e S a 6 n e , Loire, Garonne, and their tributaries; cxpansion took place in the regions of the Seine, the Somme. and in thc Germanic lands, and to a lesserextent in England, Itall', and Spain. Hugh's famc' as a builder echocs in the Cluniac antiphon lbr z9 April, his annirersary and
IIITI
INTER-REGIoNAL AND INTERNATIoNAL
f'estilal dav
Quomodo umplifitt'tttusillum, qui in diehus sttisuedifitai:it domum e/ t.r'altu,-itteilti)lunl sdttilunt D"nin,t, uhich was srrng in m:rnr maiestic nar.es which hc himself had built. During three-score vears ofiourneving on r,isit_ a t i o n s , h e m u s t h a \ , e s e e nn e a r l v a l l t h e l a m o u s structures some of them Roman tlren exist_ ing in wesrern Europc. Abbor llugh himsclf nust ha\e approt,cd (personallv or bv direc_ t i r e s ) t h e p l a n s l b r s o m e r h o u s a n c l so t ' i n c l i v i c l u a l b u i l d i n g s . 1 ' h e i r h i g h q u a l i n ' c a n l e a rc n o d o u b r ttrat -{bbot Hugh had an intclligent inrerest in building, and lar.oured good building. This lact rn turn had a fivourable ef1'ecton the buildine i n d r r s t r r i n g e n e r a lo r e r a l a r g e a r e a o f r . c s t e r n Europe, where monastic architecture still ranked highest in ordcr ofimportancc. Even wherc the (,luniac monks rcformcd a monrsterr. rvhich
r . i . 1C . . h a p a i z ceh, u r c h( n o t C . l u n i a c ) , . . r o - 5 o i r n tdu c j l i h c c n t u r t , f r o m f h e c l s t
ARCHITECTURE
reteined or regaincd its indepenclenc,.. n^,. b u i l d i n g sw e r e l i k e l r . r ob e b u i l t a r r h . b " - i , n;"1 o l - t h en c w r e g i m c , w h e n C l u n i a c i n l l , , . n , , ,,,,l s t r o n g e s ti i n a d d i t i o n l a r g c n u m b e r s ...1.u"t tstical works (some ol' them parish clrrrr..hn. o w n e d b r t h c O r d e r ) w o u l d b e a f f e c t e . lr , , ,,,1",. e x t e n r b v n o r a b l e C l u n i a c d e s i g n sb u i l t i n their vicinitv. C h u r c h d c s i g n sb a s e do n C l u n y I I c o n r i n u c d to mulripll'uncler -{bbot Hugh. Of'smrrllqIxrches around Clunr-a st]'le related to (_lunr.ll a p p e a r sm o d e s t l r .a t t h e f o r m e r p r i o r l . o f ' l l l a n o t (r. ro5o) or more importantly at Chapaizc, (r. Io5o and later) [r34]. Among the relatcd buildings of consequencc a t a d i s t a n c ef i o m C l u n y a r e G i g n v ( l a t cc l c r en t h centurv) and Baume (probably twelfth ccntLrn.) f r o m w h i c h m o n a s r e r i e sB e r n o a n d h i s f b l l o w e r s
r-j-5.l)avcrne,priorr. church. . . l O - l O/ . I I O O . n a \ C
ER C H I T E C T U R I C L U N Y I \ ] T H E I I I S T O R Y O F R O N , I A N E S Q UA
to colonizeCltrnr in qlo' Cign\ r o d q o n ef b r t h "*ittti" the Order when the handsome new 1.".1 came in latcr' {t La *tt ir,urrtt 9 " i 1 t ' l " l , T test da u ght cr ol' Cl u n 1 Ii-rrire-tut-l-oire''eld b u i l t ' ' r o 5 q t r o 7" ' i.iur.rtofsimilarplan,nas near La Charit6' thc choel, li-chrrpuou*. r o 6 o ' c l o s e l l , r e c a l l sC l u n - r I I ' irrra.Uor, Otlilo strrrA t P a y e r n ei n S w i t z e r l a n d ; I r 1 5 ]
but the church as wc nos' have it ted to rebuild, r e s t o r e d 'a n d s u r e l v t h c f i n c s t R o n r i t n ( v e r yw e l t S w i t z e r l l n d ) t l a t e st i o m a h o u t i n c h u r c h esque is. almost cnlirel\ from thc r o + ot o r l o o , t h a t H u g h. It is tunnel-raultcd, as time of Abbot Cluny II came to be Romainmirtier near bv, a good example of the First Rom:lnesque str.lc on a plan resembling that of Clrtnl' II, was carried forward with tunnel vaulting r. ro8o.t This period saw considerable influence in Switzerland of the sister Congregation of Hirsau,where the life and the liturgv rvere closely m o d e l l e do n t h a t o f C l u n y ; a n d t h i s l a c t m a v be traced to a certain extent in architecture.
cast,like the
'cr!'pts'
at Cluny II.
'I'he
rttg
atrium,
the paired towers, and the basilican narthex appear also, in somcwhat Cluniac form. Apparently, fbr examplc, thc old church of St Aurclius at Hirsau (ro5g 7r) was made over about r r zo. somcwhirt increasing its rcsemblancc in plan to Clunv II. Bv that time the important abbev church of SS. Peter and Paul at Hirsau had been built by' Abbot William. It was closcr to the pattern of Clunl II, though much later in date (ro8z gr), more finished in its t'abric, and larger in scale, the axial length being 3zo feet over all. Excavations indicate three recessesin the cast wall o1the sanctuar-vfbr the thrce matutinal altars of the Cluniac use which stood side by side, as in t h e r o u n d a p s e o f C l u n y I I . U n l i k e C l u n 1 , ' ,t h e church had two such recesses in cach of the
r36. Schaflhusen \'linster (.{llcrhciligen), r o T l la n d l l t c r
Abbot Wiltiam of Hirsau is cloubtless responsible for certain resemblances bcnveen Cluny I I and Allerheiligen (ro78 I{.) [r-i6] at Schaffhausen, for example, and Ulrich of Zcll for those at Rueggisberg and elseuhere. Ulrich, formerly Abbot Hugh's secretarv, had transmitted the customs to Hirsau. Buildings of the Hirsau Congregation have a certain unity ofcharacter, and rightlv or rvrongly they go by the name of 'Hirsar.rer Schulc'." T h e r e i s a l w a y sa m a r k e d G e r m a n c a c h e t e v e n at Hirsau itsell. where the olan is closer to that of Cluny II than orr. ,nould expect from the mere fact of similar Customs. Substantial masonry' heavy mouldings, and (ordinarill) simplo ornament characterize their buildings. Columnar shafts of slightly conical rather than cylindrlcal form and block capitals are used. The rool-.s, a so r i g i n a l t yi n t h e n a r c o f C l u n 1 I I . a r e w o o d e ni the corridors flanking thc sanctuurr, though opening inward t h r o u g h a r c a d e s ,r s i r l ( . l u n \ Il' arclrequentlv br a llat wall at t he t.r-iirr..l
I
IOO
INTER-REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE
lateral conrpartments; the latter opened on the sanctuary through three arches and this was as at Cluny. The atrium was built and rebuilt b e t r v e e n r o g - 5a n d r r z o , b y - w h i c h t i m e i t h a d been covercd or,er to form a narthex fronted bJ' two western towers with doorways between, likc that ofClunv Il. The church and monastery were ruined in r69z, leaving little beyond one o f t h e w e s t e r n t o r v c r s( t h e E u l c n t u r m ) a n d l i n e s of old wall-work to represent the Romanesque
associated with,
rather than submitte d ,n Clun-r-.It is impossible now to study the crpni sion of Cluniac architecture in Spain bccaq5o the major abbev churches hare been derrr,,,,1j - O f r a ( r o 3 3 ) , N d j e r a ( r o 5 6 ) , S a h a g i r n( r . . rogo_ qq). anclCarrion de los Condes (ro7b. rs,,-1. I l o u e r e r . S a n S a l ra d o r a t L c y r e r e m a i n . . a ; d it is a Spanish version of the Lady Chape I ngn,. the infirmarl', finished in ro85, at Clunl I r371. San Pons de Corbeira also remains, a hanclsomg
cra.
building in the Lombardo-Catalan
A s u g g e s t i o no f ' C l u n y - I I i s a l s o f o u n d a t S a n Juan cle l:r Peia, thc national pantheon of
m a n e s q u es t v l e ( t h o u g h d a t e d a b o u t r o 8 o ) .
Aragon, where the monastcry was relbrmed by C l u n v a s e x r l y a s r o r 4 ( o r r o . z . z ) t, h e c h u r c h being dedicated in rog.1.r" Celtain other mona s t er i e s f b l l o w e d t h e C l u n i a c r u l e . b u t t h e S p a n iards were then, as nolv, jealous of their indepenclence, and most of such monasteries were
Firsr Ro'fhe
prettv niches in the interior ofits apse mar have b e e n s u g g e s t e df r o m S o u v i g n v , n !x r C l u n r . r r W c m u s t s u p p o s et h a t t h e C l u n i a c a r c l i i r e c ture of Lombardy was local in type.lr Sixtythree possessionsin north Italy were confirmed to Clunv by Pope Ulban II in rog5, at thc rime when the Lombard rib-vaulting was being rlcleloped. Obviouslv the Cluniac order musl have
r37. Levre, San Sallador,dedicatcdro57; t h e n a r ev a u l tG o t h i c .n o t ( - l u r r r a c
had something to do with the spread ol ribvrrulting westrvard from Italy, for deriirttive lbrms appear in the remarkable crypt at SaintGilles (after rrlo) [1891, and perhaps in the e\en more remarkable west tower, with upper chamber, of Moissac, dated about rr3o Ir6ll]. But, most unlbrtunately, reconstructions he\e all but obliterated the Cluniac buildings in Lombardv. This is true e\en at the prineipal house, San Benedetto Po, where we would be h a p p y t o s e et h e b u i l d i n g s r a i s e d b y i t s i a m o u s patroness the Countess Matilda
friend t() l)ope
Gregorr \'l l. to AbborHugh and to the ahlrot's godson, Emperor Henry IV. She was hostess to them all when thev met, as historv recorrls.lt C a n o s s ai n r o 7 7 . In France, as in Spain and Italy, the phcnomenon ol locaiism appears in Cluniac archit e c t u r e S a i n t - E u r r o p ea t S a i n t e s ( r o 8 r , 1 6 ) l r . z . ; t . r - ; l { .r 3 9 l a n d I l o n t i e r n e u f , n e a r P o i l i ( r ' : ( r o 7 6 9 6 ) , b e i n g r e d o l e n t o f t h e P i l g r i m a g ea n d of the west of France, Chitel-N{ontagne (, rroo) of the Auvergne, Layr'ac (ro7z.8-5) ;rrrc1 Nloirar (i. rogo) of the south of France.
Saint-L'utrope'upper part ofchoir' r38and r39. S',rintes,
ro96' and cr1'pt' rotlr q6
CLUNY IN THE HISTORY O F R O N T A N E S Q U EA R C H I ^ u n r r Ll L' E t LCl K T tLrI R E
I93
Norable fbr its local Burgundian character is ccnrur\. or'rheCluniac priorv pilgrimage church of'the N{adeleinc lll.:1.'.:,1: the famous cnurctrol Charlieuor lronr that ol .l,nz1Je_ * y t z e l a y f r 4 o , r 4 r , r 5 8 , r 6 z , r 6 r J , I o c a t e da t Duc, dependenron Saint_lIartin, Autun. For._ pdrigueux the head of the Limoges road to Burgundian .half-_Gorhic,, It was builr during "t ll:.1":rl an cphemeral :::::. Compostela. tne.na\.e of V6zelar.is r,er.1, handsome,.mural; (luniac regime ( I o96- r r j7). An altar was conrn character.Thereis no triforium ; thegenerous secratedin a new east end (r ro_1).,{bout r r I q a clerestorl.windowscorne underrampinglateral . W e s t e r ne x t e n s i o n \ i l s s t a r t c d : t h e n t h c oltl n e n e t r a l . i o inns t h e g r o i n . r a u l to { .t h e n a r e ., Carolingian church burned out, betwccn (r r zo), r_nearchrtectur.al Iine ol.tlcscenllrom \.t:zclat rnd was replaced before thc dedication (t,32;., i u l t i m a r e llre a < Jt .srh ei n r c r n a r i o n a l G; h;;r;;l; The church wirs the lirst one built on u g.n.rou, . ich o f r h e( . i s r e r c i a n us h U..on,ii.rJ'in scalein France where the nar.e and aisles ";ff arc a laterchapter. covered by groin r.aults dir.ided ba-v b_v bal. -{s hisroricalstucliesaccumulate, _ the role of with transverse archcs. The design ma-v ilerire Cluny' in the creation of the mature ,,rlf. from the o.lder portions, clatctl near the end of. Romanesque
archire*urc becumes.1.;;;;. "i ;
r4oand r4r. tr,izcla1,Sainte_\Iadeleine, intcrior o f n a v er, . t r o l 3 2 ,a n d a i t . r i e l r
C L U N Y I N T H E H I S T O R Y O F R O M A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E
r.+2. Clunl', the monasterv plan in r r57 (K.J.C.)
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COU RT
cLorsrER
which Abbot Hugh undoubveriousproiects of conceptionand I.argeness dear. iedly held characterizetheseworks' scale of nobility The differencebetweenearly Romanesque Romanesquescaleis at once apand mature Hugh's enlargementof the Abbot in Darent lateron in Clunv at monkr'quttt".s Clunv.and monastery all III, the definitivechurch ofthe plan Ir4z]' general impressive an to according professed seventy about were there ro4z ln but fairlv usual number, a Cluny, at monks underAbbot Hugh the number had increased to 2ooby ro85, and there wasa further increase to about 3oo in rrog, at the death of Abbot Hugh. Vast new constructionswere therefore needed,not only in the monks'own part ofthe convent,but in accessorybuildings fbr agricultural exploitation, for storage,for menial and especiallyin thosefor visitors.ls services, A part of the hospicebuilt by Abbot Hugh, in the great forecourt of the monastery' still survives.The upper storeyofit is largeenough to serveas the municipal theatre of modern Cluny. Originally it was 49 feet wide and ryg feet long, substantially but plainly built, in ro77-g;it had a stableat leastroo feetlong; the dormitory above it had an impressiveunobstructedinterior space3r feet high from the floorto the eaves,or 48 feetto the ridge.Another indicationof grand scaleat Cluny comesabout the year ro8o, when the refector]'ofthe monks wastrebled in size and decoratedwith an imrnensefrescopainting of the Last Judgement; furthermore,under Abbot Hugh the monks' dormitory was extendedby one-third in area. It remaineda plain room. When further augmentedby Abbot Peter the Venerablein the twelfthcentury,it measured 34by zzo f'eet,and z6 feet in height to the eaves.The capacious l f r o 8 i 5 - r j o f e e tl o n g lt* Ltdy Chapeo nas been mentioned;the infirmarl was also considerablv enlarqed.(Dimensionsherearein English6easure.t
I95
Church designs for the priories of SaintFortunat at Charlieu, Saint-Pierre at Souvigny, and Saint-Etienne at Nevers also show the increasing scale of Cluniac architecture. At Charlieu.l6 the little tenth-century church was replaced after ro3o more or less on the lines of Cluny- II. Hower,er, it surpassed its prototype, being substantially built with generous use ofashlar stone, and planned from the beginning for heavy tunnel vaulting over a clerestory. The faqade,under way bv the time of the dedication (rog4), was embellished by a fine portal. To iudge by its handsome lines, elegant proportions, and other similarities, the fagade at Charlieu was designed by one of the architects who worked on the new abbey church begun in ro88 at Clunyl; It+1, t4+l.
r43. Charlieu,Saint-Fortunat,dcdicatedro94, inner portal ofnarthex (main door ofnave), r. Iotl8 9o
Iq6
ROMANESQUE ARCHITF-CTLIRE CLUNY IN THE HISTORY OF
INTER-REGIONAL AND INTERNA'I'IONALARCHITECTURE
r44. Charlieu, Saint-Fortunat, dedicated ro94, section o{-nar e and elevation of original f'agadc(Sunderland) tq5 (bclon,, rgil7. Nelers, Saint-Etienne, largel1.,. Ioll-1 97, nare | + 6 t , , p p , , s i tl .t \ o e r s , S a i n t - F . t i c n n c . largel1r. rofi.397, casl r icw, with the towers rcstorcd according to an old drawing
r9'7
church possesseda double-aisled nave 8o tegl rvide overall, double transepts, and o{'corr15. a p s e ,a m b u l a t o r y , a n d r a d i a t i n g c h a p e l s . r 8 The works at the Cluniac priory o1' Sli11Etienne, Neversl" [r45, 146], are a clear siqn that Romanesque architecture had indeed achieved maturitv. The beautifullv articulated plal
'J
d.
i'
tl
iq
of Saint-Etienne, with apse, ambulatorl'' and radiating chapels, transept, and nave gracclullv disposed, was carried up in a superstructurt of fine ashlar masonry, which made it possible to diminish the bulk of the interior supports and carr]' the naYeto a considerable height, with rrrcmarkable ribbed semicircular tunnel vault trrcr a clerestory. Elegant arcaded screensstrengthen the transept near the crossinpJtower. In plan, the church is a reduction of'the Pilgrimagetr pc,
('
5
roil
ffi---T1..
'l'he
same incrcasing scale is exemplificcl in the succcssile churches at the important prior]' of Souvignv. The old church of'92o, rebuilt
ancl resemblesworks crf near-b]' Aurergnc. tn sectionalso the nave is like that ofa Pilgrirrrge t h u r c h i n t h i r tt h c g a l l e r i e sh i r r cq u a t l r l n t i r t L t l t -
a b o u t r o 3 4 , w a s I 2 0 f e e t l o n g a n d z o f ' e e tr v i d e . Thc new one, dcdicated complete in lo6-i, was 27o f'eetlong j and f rom I oqo onu ard this was in-
ing, but the galler.r arches do not hat, tl'' p r e t l ] p a i r c d c o l u m n s w h i c h g r a c et h c l ' i l r : r r m l g e c h u r c l r g a l l c r i e s .O n r h e o t h e r h a n . l t " '
crcased to about 3 ro f-ect;the imposing definitivc
P i l g r i m a g e - t 1 ' p en a v e s , i m p o s i n g a s t h e v \ r e r t '
did not venture a clerestory'under the high vault. At the Revolution the three handsome towersofsaint-Etienne, disposedafter the patternof Cluny II, weredemolished,lnd thus the churchlost the airy silhouettewhich it had had for 7ooyears.Saint-EtiennebecameCluniacin ro68. After the monasticofliceshad bcen re-
a
ro63 built, the cl^urch was taken in hand about reis it and gifis, large of under the stimulus thc time a l l o w e r s i t s u i t h c o m p l e t e a s ported o f i t s d e d i c a t i o n( r 5 D e c e m b e r I o q T ) ' an Earll' A Roman Imperial architect and this builrespect both would Christian architect which either advantages all the has it Ibr dine.
r98
INTER-REGIONALAND INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE
Roman or Earlv Christian architecture could give to church construction. At the same time the designer showed perfect command of what the Carolingian age had created. He brought all these elements to a new and self-consistent canon of expression and proportion which is lull of energv, confidence, and serenity - a mature new sty'le worthy to take its place on a par with the older styles. There is no trace of archaism here, and no problem posed by the d e s i g n e rr e m a i n s u n s o l v e d .
a t i v e o f t h e c e l e s t i a lJ e r u s a l e m . a p l a c e r r [ s 1 u the dwellers on high would tread, if it coultl b" b e l i e r e d t h a t h u m a n a b i d i n g - p l a c e so t r h i s . , r r r are pleasing to rhem'. When rhe grear ncw church and its monastery were fully shaped 11d walled, after rr8o, the group with its cluster of fifteen towers on and about the church aouallv looked like medieral symbolic drawings ot rhe Holy City. One thinks of Bernard de Morlaas, of Cluny, who gained here his vision of Jcru_ salem the Golden L'rhs Sion il.ureu,pat/ia laclea, ciae decrtra. . .
Though
Saint-Etiennc at Nevers provided a complete 'statement' of mature Romanesque architecture, more was required at Cluny itself, because the church building there had a rraDscendent role to play. To the monks whose devotion centred there, it was an earthly represent-
The Ecclesia N1afor, Cluny III,20 was the hearth of the whole spiritual household ol the Cluniac Order. It made a great sensation when it was built; 'indeed they celebrate as if at Easter every day, because they have merited to go into that Galilee' savs Abbot Hugh's bio-
C L U N Y I N T H E H I S T O R Y O F R O M A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E
monks. Even at a late period one aeoh61r,ofthe f o r . M a b i l l o n r +r i t e s ( I 6 8 2 ) : i..il rt ir "d.it"tion, i 1 6 y o us e ei t s m a j e s t v a h u n d r e d t i m e s ' y o u a r e on each occasion'
the classic
overwhelmed r _ ) + lr 5 5 ' r 5 7 ' r 6 7 l ' R o m a n e s q u lct + 7 5 2 , C l u n y l l l r e p r e s e n t e dt h e m o n a s t i c a c h i e v e better than any other edifice. ment in building have held the entire membercould it Actually of the Cluniac Order. had thc ship, standing, a s s e m b l c d . ' rT h e g r e a t c h u r c h b e e n Orderever in these terms, as a focus understood be must for the devotion of the whole Order, and logical-
'talents' as a thank-ofl'ering for the capture of 'l'oledo on z5 Ntay ro85.22 Preparations for the building of Cluny III probably'began in that year or in ro86. As the monastery had been building almost continuously fbr decades, no new crew had to be fbrmed, nor any new arrangements improvised for rnaterials and transport. One suspects a new direction in the works from about ro75 onward, becausethe 34o-millimetre foot of Abbot Odilo s time was then given up in favour of the zg5millimetre Roman fbot. Influence from Desiderius's N'{ontecassino
ly a more splendid building than any which Abbot Hugh had seen in fbrty years ofiourneying throughout western Europe. It was planned
(ro66-75) is practically certain. The 295-millimetre fbot is basic there, along with unusual
as early as ro85, and its 6rst great patron was Alfonso VI of Spain, whom Abbot Hugh saw in Burgos at Eastertide ro9o. Even before rogo
pointed arches and vaults, a strict mathematical layout, and exceptionally exact setting-out, all of which reappear in Cluny III (see below,
Alfonso had sent Abbot Hugh ten thousand
pp. 302 3).
; r" ^i^
r47. (ilunr'. rcstorationofthe abbel church as in r798, drawn in on a contemporarVair'iew t18 (o|?ositc).(,lunl Abbel', restorationstudr: bird's-eveview from rhe sourh-eastas in rr57 (K.J.C.)
r99
^,:';r
ti'
,,'1
2OO
INTER-REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL
Careful study of the existing remains above and below the surface has revealed a rather strict mathematical layout and a modular system in the design of Cluny III. Relationships of this kind are well known in medieval churches, and has a good deal to say about them,rr but the inlbrmation which we have in
Viollet-le-Duc
respect to Cluny III is unusually clear and convincing becauseofcopious exact measurements taken in the excavations. The architect was a monk of Cluny - Gunzo, a retired abbot of Baume and a musician Qpsalnista ptaecipuus). [Ie probably settled the gen-
ARCHITECTURE
a s s e m b l i e s o f t h eC h a p t e r sG e n e r a l ( r z r z m o n l o in r r3z). Through Lewes Priory after rotyo t[. double transept passed to England, and thr:reafter, with Canterbury (c. rogT ff.), to English Gothic. Construction ofthe church, once begun, n c11 'an admirable 'which plan', as Peter the Venerable savs, distinguishes the church {rom all others on rhe
forward with unusual speed,on
globe'. H6zelon probably managed the building enterprise. The official Jim.datio of the church dates from 3o September ro88. Five altars in t h e c h e v e t w e r e d e d i c a t e do n z q O c t o b e r r o g 5 , when the Cluniac Pope Urban II, a refugee f rom
eral scheme. His gifted collaborator H6zelon (d. r rz3) is reported as a mathematician, and as 'labouring long'to achieve the work. The great
the activities of the antipope Clement III in Rome, was on his way to Le Puy and Clermont-
design exemplilies both the prll)ortio and the
Ferrand to preach the First Crusade. Thc trvo
symmetria of Vitruvius, whose De Architectura
transepts had been finished by 14 March r roo,
was in the Abbey library. Proportio plstulates a principal dimensiouin orderly relotionship nith its
when Pedro de Roda, bishop ofPamplona and
components.At Cluny III the fundamental stem of the church, 53 r feet long, was portioned offin 'perfect numbers', 6 (centre to chord of the apse), r, plus z8 (the sanctuar-v bay), and 496 (the choral and processional part ofthe church, extending to the western foundation bench). Simple fractions of 496 determined the projection of all salient elements in the plan (248,
one ol' the active French reforming clergr in Spain, consecrated the chapel of St Gabriel in the existing stair tower attached to thc great transept. The west front of the main nave f r 57] w a s b u i l t ( r r 0 7 - r 5 ) b e f b r e t h e a d j o i n i n g i n t er i o r bays, but these were complete and vaulted b1 r r zr, according to the original scheme of Abbot Hugh's architects.
6oo-foot length was so divided that the various
N{eanwhile Pope Gelasius II. driven ftom Rome by partisans of the Emperor Henrr' \', hrd taken refuge in Cluny ( r r rg). He died there'
parts made up 4oo, 3oo, 25o, 2oo, r50, roo, 50, and zq-foot sections. Again, the high vault of
and the six cardinals of his suite, still at Clunt, had met and chosen Guy de Bourgogne, arch-
the nave. roo feet to the point, was slstematic-
bishop ofVienne, to be GelasiusII's successor, He took the name of (.alixtus II. \['e hate herltl
t z 4 , 6 2 , 3 r , r 5 j f e e t ) . I n t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r et h e
ally related to the interior impost levels (at 8o, 6 6 ' i , - 1 o ,a n d z 5 f e e t ) . V i t r u v i a n s y m m e r r i ap u s tulates a minor unit, repeated in building up the design. Chny
IIl,
in this sense, had modules
o f 5 , 7 ( s y m b o l i c ) , 8 J , 2 5 , a n d 3 t f e e t . 2 aT o l e r ances never exceed lbur inches. The plan of Cluny III was the first to have full-scale double transepts in the chevet. This arrangement made it possible to transfer the choir (iom Clun-r'' II as early as Io98, and to accommodate, near the high altar, the great
of him before: the Pilgrimage Codex of C:rlirtus was ascribed to him. After an interval he rcturned ro Cluny, where he canonized Abbot Hugh in r rzo. In the great church a partial firll of vaulting in the nave, rI25, was quicklv rcpaired. The gencral dedication ot the churclr a n d t h e v a s t n e w m o n a s t i c g r o u p w ; r sp e r f o r n r e, l by Pope Innocent II on z5 October rr3o.-' 'l'he bold massing of Cluny III ."as ..tt expressive Ir49]. Chapels rnd stepped fornrs
I49 Cluny, third abbcy church, cast view ofnrodel
C L U N Y I N T H E H I S T O R Y O F R O M A N E S Q U TA R C H I T E C T U R E
l i k e a n e n o r _ m o u s l la u g m e n t e d G e r built up, in the minor transept: lour 6igny-des-Pres' four lowers ga\t \ erticalmo\ ement t n a clapatr | These aspiringforms ,orh. gt.t,,t.nsept I 50l p a r t o f the building which i n t h e w e r ec l u s t e r e d 'l'he nare' with thc q , a sd e v o t e d d o p r a l e r . :.. .
i..t
usetl lbr processions' gate a narthex beyond. horizontal to thc comcontrasting remendous up at the massive brought which position,
'r:r .
, ..
'
r."rr :,. :, ,.:: :).:'
.. ,.] .'
I
J.
'I'he
scheme was thus a combi-
nation of the central t-ype, the double-transept t y p c , a n d t h e b a s i l i c a nt v p e o f c h u r c h . I n d e s i g n the building brought together the grandeur of Roman work, thc abounding vigour of Carolingian work, and a dynamic quality which makes it an authentic fbrerunner of Gothic architecture in certain particulars. The masonry walls at Cluny have substantial dimcnsions. Curved and screen walls in various
*'
---l
western towers.
203
parts of the design wcrc ncarly lbur f'eet in
r 5 o ( u p p l s i t cC ) . l u n r ' t h i r d a b h c rc h u r c h ' eiterioo r f e r t a n t s o u t ha r m o l g r e a ll r r n s ( P l ' , . r o g 5 - rI o o
thickness; the outer wall of thc nave aislcs was six f'eet, and the nave clerestory wall (pierced
r 5 r . C l u n y ,t h i r d a b b e l ' c h u r c hr, o f S {rl ' I I z r , restorationstud-vof transversesectionol' nave(K.J.C.).Thc three-archedba.vat the right s t i l le x i s t sa, n d a p p e a r si n i l l u s t r a t i o nr 5 o
by many windows) eight feet Ir5r]. The piers, of which there were sixt1. in the main church, 'l'he measured about eight f'eet on the axis. the cells vaulting, however, was very light
20+
r52. Cllun\, third abbel church, capitals and shafis li'orl the sanctuar\ (as placed in the fbrmer abbel granarr), r. Iotl-5
windowed clerestory, but it is known to harq produced the rvonderful acoustical effects which were dcsired. T h e s i r n c t u a r l 'o f C l u n - v I I I
head, centrq.
w a s t h e b o l d e s t ,m o s t i n t c r e s t i n q , and most beautilul part ofthe church Ir5r, rq2,
focus of all
r 538, r 54]. The apse was tall, and slender in proportion, not quite as high as the main vault. Fir q elcgant r:rdiating chap!ls looked in upon thc a m b u l a t o r y , w h i c h h a d c l e r e s t o r yw i n d o w s o n the outer side to correspond with the tall gracrf u l a r c h e so p e n i n g i n t o t h e s a n c t u a r v .I n t e r c s l ing small sculptures of the Vices and Psrchomachia on the outer wall contrasted with larger motifi on the column capitals, where an allegolr o1'the monastic lif'e, virtues, and divine prarse lbrmed a beautiful semicircle about thc tlrr chief altars. This enclosing arcade had eight tiee-standing columns.zn The ends of the apse arcaderested on tuo capitals which were placed to the left and right, respectivel!', of the two altars in the sanctuilr\. These altars themselves were included lvith thc
being from thirteen to eighteen inclres in thickness, and slightl,-vpinched or pointed in shape, like oriental vaults, as a means of diminishing thcir thrust Ir5r]. This functional application is a step to$irrds Gothic vaulting, as is the ingenious inward corbelling of the walls undcr
capitals in another allegory. The Fall was represented to thc leli. and the Sacrifice of Abrahanr (prefiguring the eucharistic sacrilice) at thc right. Incense rose, s-vmbolicalll, fiom the alt',rrs past the allegorical carvings o[ the arcade to a rast liesco of Christ in glorl with the cclesti,rL c h o i r s o n t h e a p s ev a u l t . T h i s p a i n t i n g , l i k c t h e mosaic figures at Celalir and \lonreale l.:;; . dominated the rvhole nave of the church. rtn
the high vault (mentioned below), which cleverl v i n c r e a s e d t h e r v a l l ' s r e s i s t a n c et o v a u l t i n g
open length of 425 Roman or 4II'3 English I ' e e t .T h e s u b i e c t i n v e s t e d t h e n a v e w i t h a g r r t e d i g n i t l ' w h i c h w e m a y s e n s ei n t h e c o n t e m p o r r l r \
thrusts. Thus it was possible lbr the architect to \enture a nave vault with its crown liom roo to ncarly' r03 Roman feet above the pavement o\er a spanof thirtr -fir c; the proportion is ver.r
I r 53e], where Abbot Hugh loved to go for reposc at the end of his life.r; T h e a p s c w h i c h h a s j u s t b e e n d e s c r i b e ds t t s
closc to the pcrfect Gothic proportion ol the cathedral of Reims, with dimensions about one'l'he tunnel vault rvas inclecd a vensixth less. ture, at this great height, and above a many'-
fresco of the monks' chapel at Berz6-la-\'ille
remarkably light and ingenious in constructtorr. 'I'hc ,td miraculum su.fulta, as Mabillon says. dcsign of the tvpical interior bars oecurteJ s i n g l v i n t h e a d j o i n i n g s a n c t u a r \ ' ,p a i r e d r n t l t e 153('cB ) c r z d - l a - \ ' i l l c . a p s i c l a lf i e s c o . r . r r o o : ( t r ) ( ' l u n r I I I ' a n a l r t i c l l s e c t x ) n . o l n 1 tn 0 l t r t n s c l ) t . (K .l ( shoring altars ot thc sanctuarr rnd all thr tlcrcu rbsidiolus of the eheret
)
CLL'NY IN THE HISTORY OF ROMANESeUE ARCHITECTURE
\1
r\ ll
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I 'i 1
.11",r .I. I *\{*
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the two transepts' and in a noblc choir between bays in the great nave Ir541. nnge of eleven t o i u d g e b y t h e s c v e n t y - f i r ' ee x The capitals. still exist. were almosl all Corinw h i c h amples hardly any figure sculpture t h i a n e s q u e ,w i t h grotesques. Figure sculpture was few rnd very by programme, almost enconfined, obviously tirely to the allegorical ensembles in the apse and at the west Portals. Throughout the church the picrs weregrouped piers, reduced in the upper storey ofthe nave (through ingenious wall corbelling) to a single engaged shaft under the vaulting arch. The aisle bays had pointed arches, here used, it is believed, under oriental influence transmitted through Montecassino, and presenting the pointed arch for the first time in large numbers in a Western church design [r54, r55, 167]. The pointed arch facilitated vault construction in the aisles. Another indication of oriental influence was the decorative use of horseshoe
l-,
1-'
lobes on the arches ofthe triforium Ir55]. The pilasters of the trifbrium and the arcade of the clerestory (resting on pretty paired colonnettes) aided in inching the wall outward to receive the thrusts ofthe vaults. The beautiful efi'ectofthis interior design led to its being reproduced with greater or less fidelity at Parar'-le-Nlonial Ir561 (a 'pocket edition' of Clunv, dated roughly about rrro), Autun Cathedral (rlzo and later) II6r], La Charit6-sur-Loire (about r rz5) [r66], and Beaune (about rr5o). All these inreriors are strictly Romanesquc in its classic phase, but they are alreadv of Gothic proportions, and aPProachthe Gothic aestheric.:"
;.j L,i llt
r-54.Clunl', third abbei'church,strictlv archaeological rcstorationol'navc interior, r. ro$tl i r3o
The conditions which caused Gothic archit e c t u r el o d c r c l o p w e r e a l r e a d y p r e s e n t a 1 t h c closeof Abbor HuEh's career. Rcstriction ol' local war, increasing competence in the aclministrative cadres of the great f'eudal oflicers, the remedying of precarious economic conclitlons' the improvement of communications, were beneficent to all, including the monas-
r 5 5 .C l u n 1 ,t h i r d a b b e l c h u r c h , i n l c r i u ro l ' ( \ l r n l s u u l ha r m u l g r c a tl r J n s c p t . a. ro(,)-5r roo
teries. However, the gencral development of trade, with profitable f'airs, syndicates, and exchanges, togcthcr with the growth in urban population and civic consciousnesseverywhere, the granting o1' civic charters which I'avoured organizt:d urban progrcss, and the transf-er of eflictir,e intellectual activity to the urban centres to cathedral schools and incipient universities tended to leave the abbeys in a backwater wherethcy'could prosper quietly to be sure, but where henccfbrth thcv had only a minor or conservativc role to olav in the creation of the
2O8
INTER-REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL
ARCHITECTURE
209
$6
priorv church, r' r roo, lrom the south-west (upplsite).Paray-le-Monial,
of the main nave,latcr masked,r. r r07 r 5. ... Cluny, third abbeychdrch,restorationstudy of the f'agade ((.Ir06-08 ro)inspiredthegreatworksatVdzelay,Moissac,andAutun
?il"..i"po.,rt
t . , , t l t : r r l l t f , ,! t
later medieval Europe. I'he Europc which dependcd on the monasteries, and had a monastic i d e a l , p a s s e da w a v w i t h i n a g c n c r a t i o n o f A b b o t Hugh.
A B B O TP O N S ,O R P O N T I U S ID E M L L G U E I L T h e s u c c c s s o ro f A b b o t H u g h i n r r o g w a s a flashing young Provengal, Pons de N,Iclgucil, a n e a r r c l a t i v e o f P o p e P a s c h a lI I w i t h o t h e r l i n e connexions, who had attractcd the abbot. and was required to pass only a single day in thc novitiate when hc cntered Cluny monastery. 'l'hough hc was a postulant at rhe old Cluniac house of' Saint-Pons-de-Thomidrcs. and was prior at Saint-I,Iartial, Linoges,
he does not
b e l o n g t o t h e s p i r i t u a l l i n e o f O d o , \ l a r eu l , Odilo, and Hugh; he was forced out b)'relorm s e n t i m e n t i n t h e m o n a s t e r y .Y e t t h e c u m u l . t t i l e achievcment of the older men ga\.e (,lunl a g l i t t e r i n g m o m e n l b e l b r e t h e a h d i c : r t i o r .rr n J disgrace (rrzz), intrusive return to his litnct i o n s , d e f i a n c e ,a n d d c a t h ( l r o m R o m a n l c t c r . excommunicate and in prison, rrz6) of -\bltot Pons. H e c a r r i c d t h e m a g n i f i c e n tp o r l a l s a t ( l t r n r 'l'her st,rttit to completion about r r r3 [r57]. t h r e e i n l i n e . b u t t h c c e n t r a lo n e . l b r t r I c c l $ r ( l r and sixty-two fcet high, was much larger' .r:.tn more imposing than the o,h..r. Thou*h ,,llt sork comcsonll ten rearsalter the alltg,,rreitt capitals o1'the sanctuary, and though rrt lerst
one ofthe sculptors worked in both places, the carving was more mature in character much bolder in composition, with very slen
Between them, the portals of V6zelay 1158, r631, Perrecy-les-Forges, and Bellenaves suggest what the great composition was like. In the thickness of the wall at the top of the Great Portal there was lodged a charming little chapel of St Michael, warder of doors, most cleverly constructed (like the main apse), and its tiny round sanctuary proiected like an oriel into the main nave Ir671. It was the reduction, almost to the dimensions of a delightful architectural tor, of the Chapel of thc Saviour at Saint-Riquier; indccd the deep embrasuring made the portal itself project outward from the f'aqadclike a flat oblong chapcl. Above the chapel were big windows which lighted the nave until the narthex was built, and beyond the lateral
2IO
INTER-REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE
portals wcre buttresses built in rat-tail so that the narthex walls might later be firmly joined. The flowering o1'sculpture was general within the Order ofCluny-under Abbot Pons. It brings us again to one ofthe most beloved and beautiful of the medieval sites
V6zelav, set on its hill above a wonderful panorama of opulent Burgundian countrvside. In design, the church I r 4 o , r 4 r , r 5 8 , r 6 2 , r 6 3 ] r e p r e s e n t sB u r g u n d i a n localism in the time of Abbot Hugh. As already' reported, the church received its nave largely after Pontius's abbacy, being carried forward after a fire of r rzo to completion and dedication in ri3z. The ponderous Romanesque groin r,aults over the new naye were not well built or well abutted, and gar.e much trouble. In con-
t r a s t w i t h C l u n v t h e c a p i t a l si n t h e n a v e o f ' t h e church are enriched br. ligure sculptures.'I'hese are in the stvle of Clunv, and it is consiclered certain that designers and carr,ers wcnt from
Cluny- to V6zelal- when the two major sculpr urnl e n s e m b l e sa t C l u n \ , h a d b e e n f i n i s h e d . A r t h i s time (rrr5 zo) the 'ordo' of Vdzelar.uls 1n c h a r g eo l ' P i e r r e d c \ l o n r b o i s s i c r ,x g r e a l l r r r q l of'the arts, latcr (rrzz) abbot ofClunv. The manv picturesque capitals in the nar c at V6zelal- have a popular appeal which is fitting in a church of pilgrimage. The west portals are more rheological. T'hey are to be dated a litrle befbre the fire of r rzo, and consequenth, cume near the end of Pontius's abbacy. Thrce door_ wavs give entrance lrom the narthex to thc nar e a n d a i s l e s .T h e c e n t r a l p o r t a l I r 5 8 ] i s a d o r n c d w i t h o n e o f t h e g r e a t e s tm a s t e r p i e c e so f m c d i eval relief' sculpture a singularly arresrins conception of the role of the Sar,iour in trans-
mitting his redeeming grace and the er.ang;clttr all the world. St John the Baptist on the mechin jamb and the Apostles set above the lrtcr;rl columns, though perf-ectly Romanesque, girc .t
I 5 8 , qa n d u . \'czelar, Sainte-\latlcleinc. main portal,,. r t tR
CLUNY IN THE HISTORY OF ROMANESQUE ARCHI'I'T,CTURF
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i
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16o-Moissac, priorl'church,flank,wirhportal, ,. rrr5 30andlater
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Saint-l)enis,
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rcstoration
stud'offagade,
with
intended
jamb figureswill assume hint of the role which in Gothic times, beginning at Chartres and Saint-Deniswithin half a gencration. We have alreadv seen,in the P6rtico de la Gloria of Santiagode Compostela(rr68-88) this portal which was infrz4f, a derivtive of (as Cluny and V6zelay were not) to tended participatein the external articulation of the building. The change is adumbrated in the designedfor La Charit6-sur-Loireabout fagade rr3o-5 [166], and it comesin the still half: Romanesqueportals of Saint-Denis built lor A b b o t S u g e r{ r o m a b o u t r r 3 5 t o r r 4 o [ r 5 9 ] . Meanwhilea wholeseriesof the twelveApostles (an 'apostolado') had been created as pier sculptureslbr the chapter-houseofthe cathedralofSaint-Etienne at Toulouse(aboutr r r7). More important still, the memorableportal at the priorv of MoissacIr6o] had beenbuilt.
nortrr tower, r. r r1-5 .1q ((..1.(
zr3
At first (about r rr5 zo?) the inrention was, perhaps, to place it at the front of the olcl nirve built b1' Abbot Hugh (ro63) - a Provensal affiir with three parallel tunnel vaults, now replaced. Almost immediatelv (about rrzo 3o) an interesting rib-\'aulted porch with an upper ch:rpel was built in front of the church an interpretation of the Saint-Riquier motif. At that time the great carvings were located on the flank of the porch with some lateral arcading and minor reliefs added. The work was completed during the abbacy of'Peter the \renerable of Clunr,, before the death of Abbot Roeer of Moissac.
A B B O TP E T E RT H E V E N E R A B L E Pierre de Nlontboissier, the gentle-spirited and beloved successor of the r.rnfortunate Pontius, ruled from rr22 to r156. and he was the last
CLUNY IN THE HISTORY OF ROMANESQUEARCHITECTURE
\\ ith dilicultl he main,reat abbot of Cluny Order against intcrnal disaffcction. , t t . lrin.a competition' and the general shift of Cistercian which diminished the rolc of monastimes the under him the Order vet served ticism. But sculPture well' and architecture Works of great beaut.v wcrc carried out in his France portals at time in middle and southern a bout Irz5 jo), at ( i n C o r r d z e , t h e Beaulieu and (liom cloister), also a (about r r ; 3o Qrennac the imabout rr4o onward), at the lagade of portant church of Saint-Gilles, thc imposing one of the triple portal hnished about rrTo noblest works which the late Romanesque has bequeathed to us [r87, r88]. Other notable works in the Ntidi are series of'capitals at La Daurade in Toulouse, Saint-Pons, and Mozac, and at Ganagobie where there are a portal and considerable conventual remains (r. rrro 5o).
'l'he
ruin which fell in later times on Cluniac architecture may be secn equally at La Daurade, at Saint-Gilles, and at Ganagobie.rn Rich and beautiful work was done in Bur-
gundl' also. l'he cathedral of Autun3' [16I], c 0 n i u n . t Lot f ' C l u n v , w a s r c b u i l t b c g i n n i n g a b o u t r r 20 on a simple plan, but with an interior elevation derived fiom Cluny III. The first dedic a t i o no c c u r r e di n I r 3 o . ' I ' h e b u i l d i n g h a ss c u l p tures of' quite
exceptional importance
and
beautf in the capitals of the nave and the west portal. The latter is by Gislebertus,who can be traced from Clunl' r,ia V6zelav to Autun, and it dates lrom about r r35. The strange exaggerat i o n s a n d p o p u l a r a p p e a lo f t h i s w o r k , a s w e l l a s its dramatic placing above a flight of steps in an open narthex (of r I78 and later), make it a notable example of' Baroque tendencies in the R o m a n e s q u ep c r i o d .
C,hapelof-St Xlichael(narthex),r. rr35(?) fiz.Y6.zelay,Sainte-N{adclcine,
r6r. Autun Cathedral,with apsewindows redrawnin hi'potheticaloriginal fbrm (detailssubjectto rc-studr,and rcvision),r. r r20 3o
215
2It}
INTER-REGIONAL AND INTERNATIoNAL
ARcHITECTURE
C L L ] N Y I N T H E H I S T O R Y O F R O N { A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E
2r7
Turning once more to the monasteries, we find that the main church at Vdzelav was f i n i s h e d ,a n d a n a r r h e x a d d e d r 6 z I rh c r e w a sa I ] dedication in rr3z.i2'Ihe narthex had an ex_ terior portal (replaced by a modern one) [r63],
and two towers were planned, so that, with its bay ofrib-r,aulting, it is an interesting Burgundian contemporary of Saint-Denis, on the verge of
Cothic
ar-chirecture..\t the n.iorv nf Charlieu" also a narrhex was buih in fr,,nr ol Abbot Hugh's church f'aq:rdeand adorned with a remarkable lateral portal dated about r r35 which is unsurpassed as an example of the Baroque spirit in Romanesque art Ir64, r65]. At Saint_ Lazare, Avallon,rl the portal of' about rr.5o (partly rebuilt) even afier much damage to the figure sculpture, still shows the same resrlcss spirit. The highly elaboratc tletail and involved composition here and in other late portals indi_ cate very clearlv that the Burgundian Roman_ csque arr had run througSh:r complete stl.listic cycle from primitive at Saint-B6nigne, Dilon, to
t63 ( uhou,leli). \tzelay , Sainte-Nladeleinc, extcrlorportal (u.ith modern carvings)and intcrior portal (r. I r r8) of'narthex t 6 q ( a h t z ' )e a n d r 6 - 5(.l h a r l i e u ,S a i n r - F o r r u n r r . outer portalof narthcr and narthcx from thc wesa,r. I r.l5
classicat Cluny, and then, b1. r r40 or r r50, ro a style which depended on exaggeration and movement for its effectiveness.The main architectural lines of the narthex at Charlieu show Baroque tendencies in their rathcr wilful asymmetries, and the search fbr piquant patterns of light, half light, and shadow, The great priory of La Charitd-sur-Loire, calledthe eldest daughter ol'Cluny', had a large f i l i a t i o no f p r i o r i e s o f " i r so w n , a n l i c i p a t i n g s o m e of the features of'the Cistcrcian filiations. The lmportance o t t h e p r i o r y l e t l r o a g r a n d i o s ep r o , e c to f r e b u i l d i n g begunabout r rz5.r. with rhe lntention of ttr*tbrl.ing the oldcr church (an enriched version of Cluiv II. as has been rernarked) into a motliFed re.si,,n of Clunv Itl lncorporating the monumental nc* fa,;,r,le
s c h c m eo f p a i r e d t o w e r s a n d r i c h e x t e r i o r s c u l p tured portirls. In consequence the older chevet of 6chelon-type was rebuilt with a handsome a m b u l a t o r y a n d f i v e r a d i a t i n g c h a p e l s ;t h e n : r v e was lengthened,a fine big antcchurch was undertaken. rnd a great f'agadewas begun. If it had been completed it would have had two breathtaking towers, each with a spire, each with two sculptured portals, flanking a largcr portal on t h e a x i s o f t h e c h u r c h . T h i s f ' a q a d es c h e m e w i t h Iive sculpturcd portals in line Ir66] beneath paired torvcrs was the fbrerunner of the huge Gothic f rontispiece of Bourges.r{' However, the Order ol'(,luny wasnorv liltcri n g . O n l l ' o n e o f t h e f ' a g a d et o r v e r sa t L a C h a r i t d was built; most of the irreaof the antechurch remained open, as a sort of atrium, and the
2r8
INTER-REGIONALAND INTERNATIONAL ARCHIT[,CTURE
2r9
n o r t h a i s l eo f t h e a n t e c h u r c h , t h e o n l y o n c t, bu built, servcd as narthex and parish chtryci' Partial ruin in thc re ligious wars and long n"gie,ri have been the lot of this splendid Ur.,ifa;n,tir Vdzelay it was the same rhe west lront of the church was never finished. At Cluny ,rr,, lr.r, ofthc narthex were built, beginning abour r r 22b u t t h e r e s t d r a g g e d o n f o r a c e n t u r y ( t or 2 2 0 5), a n d a n o r h e r c e n t u r y p a s s e db e f o r e t o t h , , t ti,. western towers were completed (between r.i:l+ and r34z); even then one was rcbuilt anJ x painted wooden porch was placeclbetwccn tlrcq a c e n t u r y l a t e r s t i l l ( b e t w e e n r , 1 2 4a n d r 4 ; 7 ) . Abbot Peter the Venerable's work on the great church is interesting as shou.ing carly premonitionsofthe Gothicsty.leIr49, r5r. rfr7]. After the f'all of a part of the navc vault in r ruj. massive picrced buttresses, like very hear r fli. i n g h u t t r e s s e sr.r e r e a d c l e d a t t h . . l . r c r t o r ,1 . , . 1 .
r66 ( lLli) . I-a (lhariri-sur-Loirc, projectctlfrar,.rcle fbr priorv nirrrhcx,c. r r-to-5 (Flilberrl.) t67 ( fulon) . Cllunv,third abbe1.church, re.storltionstudv of longitudinalsectiono1 ucst cntl ol nave,and of narther, e l o c n t h a n d m . r l f t h c c n r u r i c s( K . J . ( , . )
I-r
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it4affi
: r-qr::n
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have occurred as early as r r3o. It is This may t o n o t e t h a t f l 1 i n g b u t t r e s s e sw e r e interesting q u i t eg e n e r a l l yu s e di n a s p e c i a lm a n n e r . o r w h e n
r6li. NIoissac,priorv church, scctionof wcsterntowcr, .. r t-lo
in the vaulting. until about trouble developed the vault of Sens Cathedral was when time rhe built, from t. II55 on. By that time the new Gothic vaulting had shown that it needed butEessing even more than the older and heavier Romanesque vaults. Peter the Venerable, possibly as early as rIjz, built vaults orer two easternbays ofthe narthex, without flying buttresses.The type ofthese vaults rib vaults with high, ramping, scoop-shaped lateral penetrations - was much used in Early Gothic architecture. These ribs made it easier to build neat, well-shaped cells or individual vaulting arcas; they made it possible easily to build a thinner, lighter vault; and they warped the vaulting stressesdown to the wall and spur buttresses between the windows of successive bays. At Cluny the narthex was completed with such vaults about r22o; the thirteenth-century windows were larger and fly'ing buttresses were added, but the effect was still rather Romanesque. Details of the west fiont show rhar rhe architect was aware of the gorgeous new High Gothic which was being createdin rhe ile_de_ France - at the cathedrais ol Chartres, Soissons. Reims, and Amiens but that he pref-erred the relatively early in date, the1.are not progressiye lessevolved local Burgundian version ofGothic. in conception.rT The expansion of Clunv inro the ile-deMoissac had possessions in Spain and was F r a n c e ,w h e r e t h e a d m i r a b l y o r g a n i ca n d a r t i c u well placed lbr conracts with I-ombardy; in the l a t e dG o t h i c s t y l e a r o s e . r r r a sr h e w o r k o l A b b o t porch we find a somcwhat Lombardic-looking nugh. but the interesting buildings datc trom rib vault carried out about r r2o 5 in iine Clut i m . o f P e t e rt h e \ e n e r a b l e . Whar role prcnrac stone masonryt whilc in the chapel above lft c t s e l yC l u n y played in the crcrrion ol the new there is a rather Moorish-looking radiate vault s t Y l ei s d i m c u l r ro decide. built about rr25,3o with trvelve heavy ribs, Th. most famous Cluniac rrb-rauhed conc q u a l l v F ' r e n c hi n i t s f ! b r i c . T h e c r v p t o l ' S a i n t _srructions are in the south. Altcr rhc oddll Gilles-du-Gard (r r r6 7o) has a logical succescrypt of Sainr-Eurrope. Sainres sion o1'heavv groin vaults on substantial ribs 1,r^eyonitorv which mav be related to contemporarl' rib::":j 96) [r3el. rherc lbllow thc ro$er porch , 168] and the crlpr ot saintv aulting in Lombarcl-v.The conclusion is inls, rj ltltoetsr -. d . .u. - GI ra6r o d l r 8 g l . W n i t e a s r a u l r s r h c \ a r e e s c a p a b l et h a t t h e r i b s a t N { o i s s a c a n d S a i n t -
22O
I N T E R - R E ( ; I O N A LA N D I N T E R N A T I O N A L A R C H I T E C T U R E
Gilles were Romanesque in conception - introduced fbr cxtra bulk and strcngth - not, like the
r r 7 o . 3 8O n t h i s E a r l v G o t h i c s e r i e so f ( . l u n i a c buildings the Norman chevron ornamenr otien
convincingly Gothic vaults of the north at the time (r rzo 4o), to lacilitate a light, articulated
appears
constructlon. The vaults at the east end of the narthex at Cluny probablv owe something to a knowledge of Moslem ribbcd and lobed vaulting, but it is not certain that this was transmitted by Cluniac contacts. It is usual in the earlv Gothic works of the ile-dc-France. Among therc rhere are numbered
the churches of several Cluniac priories: Airaines (Somme), about r r zo 35 ; N { a r o l l e s - e n - B r i e ,r r z 5 o r a l i t t l e l a t e r ; S a i n t Martin-des-Champs, Paris, r r3z 4o (nave later) lr69J; No6l-Saint-\,Iartin (a prior.v attached to Saint-Martin-des-Champs), where there was a s e r i e so f c o n s t r u c t i o n s b e t w e e n r r o o a n d r r 5 o ; Saint-Leu-d'Esserent, dated about rr5o r69. Paris,Saint-NIartin-des-Champs, interior, r. r r-124o
to
a clear sign of influence lront the reg;ion which prepared the rib vault lbr thc ile_ de-France. The test probably comes in Saint-N{artin_ des-Champs, Paris, given by Philip I of lir.ance to Cluny in ro7g. Its lovaltl'to Clunr.is shor.n in a curious wa1' b1-the architecture: thc church p l a n ( r r 3 z ) i s a n i n g e n i o u s r e d u c t i o n b a s c t lo n various elements of the church and chapcls at Clunv, which seems to show that the designer'5 heart was at the mother house, and not in the progressive buildings of hrs contemporarics in the Ile-de-France. The
axial absidiole at Saint-N,lartin-desChamps is a trelbil, of which the lateral apscs sug!iesta minor transept. Its vault is a scriesof ramping scoop-shaped cells on ribs, rathcr like t h o s eo f t h e e a s t e r nb a y so f t h e n a r t h e x a t C . l u n r , An ambulatorl'' with radiating chapels leatls ro a projection resembling a second transept, in obr i o u s r e m i n i s c e n c eo l ' t h e m a i o r t r a n s ( t , t x t Clunv. In this part of the building therc arc peaked groin vaults without ribs, like thosc in the aislesat Cluny. Tne ribbed apsc vault at Saint-I,Iartin is normal for the region about thc middle of the centurl', but the nave is opcn, single, and wooden-roofed, like that of \bbot Hugh's Lad.v Chapel, Notre-Dame-tleI'Infirmerie, at Cluny (ro8-5) [r4z]. SrintMartin-des-Champs was under construction at the ver\ same time as Suger's new lvork at S a i n t - D e n i s ,w h i c h w a s c o n c e i r e da s a C u t i r i e building,
and intended to have novcl lirrlts (about r r35 to r r44).3e O n t h e t h c eo f t h i s s h o n i n g ( t o s p e a kn , , u i n general terms) it would appear that the Clun i;rcs h a t l r e a l l r s o l v e dt h c i r o w n a r c h i t e c t u r a p l r',,1'lem b1' the earlv trvellth centur]''. This inr olr cd pushing their developed pattern 01' a q' cttt Romanesque church far towards the gcncrll form which the great Gothic churches \1cre to takc, and consequently' the structural cr-
CLUNY IN THE HISTORY OF ROMANESQU[, ARCHITECTUF.E
made Cothic possible u crc pedients whic.h in Cluniac architecture' ln their use ir.i.or. a t N l o i s s a c .S a i n t - G i l l e s ' a n d i n oflhe rib-tault f o r m s c o n l e s st h e r e g i o n s i t . d . F t " n c e . the ii. c a m e i n t o t h c a r c h i t c c tu r e i d c a t h e i.om *hi.h a l s o . i n t oG o t h i c a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d of ,h. Otd.t. monls did nor dcsireto hurc C l u n i a c t h e But Gothic form, and as fir as we .hur.h.t of novel did an1. Gothic vaulting ofnever know they 'f he-vnever built a building, importance. crucial which except perhaps Saint-Leu-d'Esscrent, new lbr thc cared thev that would really show for some was the Gothic e]'es Cluniac In idea. time merely a local and regional st1''lclike an1' other. If the architect of' Saint-\{artin-desChamps had been reall.r' inte rested in ribvaulting, his building instead o1' Saint-Denis might have been the hrst o1'all recognizablv Gothic churches. Burgundians, partl]' from temperament, had a rooted preference for their grand old monastic Romanesque.The'half'-Gothic' which we have seenin several ofthe Cluniac buildings was also usedelsewhere.It gained bv the aesthetic el{'ccts which were worked out in the ile-dc-Francc without giving up the substantial mural values
221
p l e a s i n gt o t h e B u r g u n d i a n s , a s t o t h e i r R h e n i s h cousins. The Burgundian half--Gothic attrlcted the attcntion of Bernard o1' Clairvaux (himsell' a Burgundian, born within sight of Diion) bec a u s eo f i t s a u s t e r e a n d p r a c t i c a l c h a r a c t e r . H e made a sober version of it the standard archit e c t u r c l b r C i s t e r c i a n m o n a s t e r i e sa l l o v e r E u rope. Citcaux lrTrl and Clairvaux themsclves, the lost major (,istercian churches in Burgundl' vast and noble constructionswhich began to take delinitir c lbrm near the end of'the period . ernard ol (.lairvaux (d. tt5r) dominated b1-B V and Peter the enerablc ol Clunl'(d. tr56) cry' aloud lbr such a studv as hirs bcen possiblc fbr the N{ediaeval Academv o1' America at Clunl'. It will be impossible to do iustice t
Burgundian
another as Beirut, Bellapais, AlcobaEa, Poblet, Fountains, Linkirping, Nlaulbronn, and liossan o v a , w h c r e t h e s u a v eB u r g u n d i a n a r c h i t e c t u r e brought b1' the C-istercians stands, beautifulll' cxemplilied.
CHAPTER
II
T H E C I S ' I ' E R C , I A N SA N D T H E I R A R C H I T E C T U R E
The years which sarv the growth of the Pilgrimage to Santiago and the development of the Order of Clun.v witnessed a general spiritual
the monks to continue. In r r rz or r r r3 Bernard, a ver-vreligiouslv in-
revival in the monastic world. Scvcral other orders of importance werc fbunded at the time Grandmont b.v Etienne de Muret in ro7.1;
thirty companions, including several ol' his r e l a t i v e s .I n r r r 5 h e b e c a m ef b u n d e r a n d a b b o t
Molesme by its first abbot, Robert, in ro7-5I 'I'he Carthusiln both founders were canonized. Order was founded bv St Bruno in Io84, Fontevrault by Robert d'-\rbrissel in ro96, and 'I'he Citeaux by Robert of- Molcsme in ro98. followed rrzo, founded in Premonstratensians by St Norbert, and linketl with the Cistercians. Molesme, though indepenclent, lbllowed the r u l e o f C l u n y . I t h a d m a n l , o u t s i d e c o n t a c t sa n d became the centre of a group of about sixtlpriories, and so lost the other-worldly atmospherewhich its founder abbot desired. Therefore, in rog8, at the age of sevent1., he fared forth with twenty-onc devoted companions. They established themselr es about filteen miles
the part ofthe Burgundian ducal houseenrrbled
clined youth of twentv-two, offered himsell'and
o f C l a i r v a u x , a C i s t e r c i a n d a u g ; h t e rh o u s e a b o u t fiftl'-five miles northcrly from Dijon.
Nlcan-
while other Cisterciirn houses had been tbunded a t L a F e r t 6 ( r r r r ) a n d P o n t i g n y -( r r r 4 ) ; N l o r i mond (rrr5) completed the original group of daughter houses. Pope Calixtus II confirmed the constitution ol' Chnrtu Caritatis Monustcrii C i sterciensis rn t t t 11. Evcn while Abbot Stephen Harding ruled Citeaux. the fclrccful character ot Bernard of' Clairvaux projected thc latter into ecclesiastical and international politics, and greatly aided the growth of the Cistercian Order, which, while it 'against' was not founded Cluny, drew the rnore austerelydcvoted spirits, and thus accelerated
south of Dijon at Citeaux, a rvooded swamp! solitude given by' Renaud, r'iscounr of Beaune.
the decline of the eltler Order. There were -lo Cistercian monasteriesat the death ol {.bbot
In rogg Abbot Robert, though the papal legate had given him permission to leave Molesme, was requested, in terms which he could hardll refuse, to return to Ntolesme. Therc, after re-
Stephen (t t34), l+.1 at the death ot Bernard of Clairvaux (rr53), and 694 by the year r2ool
forming the monastery, hc clie
including many monasteries which associated themselves by accepting utter submission in the n e w O r d e r . T h e t o t a l r e a c h e d7 4 2 a t o n e t i m e . l Undcr Bernard's influence the Cistercian Orcler became unilormitarian. with all details of cxistcncc rigidh prescribed in so far as was p o s s i b l e ; w i t h a t i g h t o r g a n i z a t i o na n d t r e q u e n t inspcctorial visits. Each Cistercian house was dependent on thc onc which founded it, and 'filiations'. This there wcre fbur chicf schcme of control proved superior to the Cluniac system of centring all rcsponsibilitv for the wholo Order'
221
THE CTSTERCTANS AND THETR ARCHITECTURE
INTER-REGIONALAND INTERNATIONAL ARCIIITECTURE
in the one abbot o1' Clunl
itself'. The strong
easv to allow them considerable autonomy, with
out arbitrarilv, but according to the characrrr of'the terrain. I'hese overriding principles r\_ plain irregular orientation in the churches antl
the Chapter Gcneral at Citeaux legislating for the entire Ordcr. Cistercian policl'(again in con-
the lrequent occurrence of' cloistcrs in 111" 'I'he north. b a s i cp a t t e r n o f t h e p l a n w a s t h a r o f
trast to Cluniac) called for harmony. with the local episcopate, and much gootl camc of the cordial relations between the two. 'fhe C i s t e r c i a n m o n a s t e r i e sw e r e s i t u a t e d i n rernote places. They sufl'ered theretbre less than
St Gall and Cluny, but certain details difierrd 'l'he Cistcrcian churchcs (afier r r.1-1 [ry, ryo].
confbrmism of the Cistercian houses made it
uniformly dedicated to thc Virgin) had no crr ptr or towers, and were rather angular in plan, u rth t h e n i g h t s t a i r r o r h c t l o r n r i r o r vs r a r t i n gi n t l r (
t 7 o .l r o n r c n r r \ h b o . r r . i 9 . 1 7
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,it
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f * * fi+ * fi*'* fi *' +' f + *
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to the church, rvhere thev occupied which led of the nave. No pror ision was made end the west in Cistercian church plans. The public the for and children were never adwomen thrt fact enclosures led to the monasterv the mitted to and accommodations fbr chapel a of orovision guests at thc gate. The other for and ,h.11 Cistercians did not relish intrusions in the carlv fbr.r o e r i o d ,t h o u g h v i s i t o r s o f ' m a r k l v e r c c l r e c l The Cistercian monastic groups were otien long under construction' At llrst the monks w o u l d l i r e i n s t r u c t u r e so f t e m p o r a r v c h i r a c t e r , p e r h a p si n t e n d e d l b r m e n i a l u s e l a t e r o n . O u t side builders were emploved, but the monks becameindependent (or nearll'so) of'the outside world at the earliest possible moment. NIuch of' t h e a c t u a l d e s i g n i n g a n d b u i l d i n g r v a sd o n e i n the communitics themselves. The aim rvas to h a v et h e c o m m u n i t ) ' a b l e b 1 ' c r a ft s m a n s h i p a n d husbandry to suppll' all its or.n nee
2:;2tz-tLW
other monastic architecture from Revolutionarv demolitions, and it is still possible to grin a
r:ft,
a . r 1 r R . . ( , J , - \ r , r i ,j , . , ,
adiacent transcpt.
'l'he
g r o u n d s t o r e y ' so f t h c
conventual buildings wcrc reg;ularly vaultctl.
f i i r l v c o m p l e t c i d e a o f w h a t a C i s t e r c i a nm o n a s t c r \ ' $ a s l i k e . r T h e s t . r n d a r d i z e t la n d r e p c t i -
P a v i l i o n - l i k c f b u n t a i n h o u s e sc o v e r e d t h c l a r r r b o s i n t h e c l o i s t e r s .a n d t h e r e f e c t o r i e sl r c r c \ r ' l
t i o u s c h a r a c t e ro f e a r l y C i s t e r c i i r nl r c h i t e c t u r e i s immediately evident evervuhere. Almost all works datcd befbre rzoo may be understood
w i t h t h e a x i s p e r p e n d i c u l a rt o t h a t o f t h e c h r - r l c i r i n s t e a d o i ' p a r a l l e l . N o v i c e s w e r c r e g u l a tl r
liom trvo or thrce ofthc early French cxamples. Cistercian sitcs werc invariablv secluded, well watercd, and so set that the waters could bc impounded above the area chosen lbr the convcntual buildings. 1'hc church uas placed 'I'he on the highest ground. other srructures, though uniform in their workings, wcre not laid
lodged at the end ol the east rangc ofthc cloistcr'. Professed monks were not allowed to entcr thcrt' quarters, which occupied the traditional pl'rc.' 'l'he of the camera. traditional public court ir(ljoining the west rangc of'the cloister buildirr3s was reduccd to a p.rssirge-wa1. (open to thc sk\ ) 'l'heir lbr the lal brcthren ('conversi'). buildtn9 had its traditional place lvcst of the passrtgc.
225
d'Ainail Achardl Gdrard. brother of St Ber'l'hcir nard. orderll planning and their austere interpretation ol' the Burgundian half'-Gothic, unadorned, became, through Bernard's pref'erence. the architecture of the Order. In consequence thc stllc spread radiallv, with the Order, in ererl clircction as f'ar as French into the British Isles, Scandinavia, Poland, ccntrill Europe, Ibcria' Ital1,
lluence reached
a n c l P a l e s t i n e b u t i n a s o m e l v h a ti m m o b i l i z c d fbrm which pcrsistoduntil the High Gothic of' thc ile-dc-Irance was adopted in its stead. In manv regions the international Cistercian half-Gothic prepared the wa1' lbr Gothic architecture somewhat as the pervading Lombardic Irirst Romanesque had done in fbrmer times fbr the Second or Great Romanesque st1.le. -I'he e a r l y .p c r i o t l o f ' C i s t e r c i a n b u i l d i n g w a s i n d e e d s c v e r e .S c u l p t u r i r l e m b e l l i s h m e n t s w e r c lbrbidden in rIz-1, in rvhich l.ear also it was decided to omit illuminltions from the manus c r i p t s . I n d u m e n t i r r i a , s c u l p t u r e s ,a n d l i t u r g i c a l objects came under verv austere regulations'
3oo in large monasteries) were rccruited for larm and shop work. Close contact with the soil madc the Cistercians cxcellent farmers; improved
Bold or an-rbitiousproportions and architectural bravura o1'anv kind were not tolcratcd in the buildings. Stone towers rvere forbiddcn in r r 57
methods were widely'propagatcd through the Order, and thereby accrued to the advantag^e 'I'hey of all western E,uropc. devcloped an
on the churchcs, $hich at most had small functional belfiy-pinnacles.In II8z it was directed t h a t a n ! ' e x i s t i n g u i n d o w s o 1 ' c o l o u r e dg l a s si n
organized s].stem lbr the sale of f)rm produce and animals which aided in the commercial d e v e l o p m e n to 1 ' t h ea g e , b u t a l s o p f t re N { a m m o n
Cistcrcian churchcs should be removed within three y'cars.Ornanrental pavements were fiown-
his opportunitl., so that lr'hen the \lendicant Orders began to drirrv manl of'the most devotional vocations in the thirtccnth centur!, thc Cistercian monastcries came to be verl- much like all the rest. C o n f o r m i t y . w i t h t h e c s t a b l i s h e dn o r m s w a s required in the Cistercian buildings of'the great epoch. A monk f rom anywhere in the C,istercian world would f'eelhimself entirelv at homc within h a l l a n h o u r a t a C i s t e r c i a nh o t - t r . "n,*h.r. e l s e .T h e r e w e r e s e v e r a le x c e l l e n t r r c h i t e c t s i n the Order during its fbrmative pcriod Gcoflroi
e d o n , a n d i n m a n l c t s e sr e m o v e d b y o r d e r . B u t a l l t h e m o n a s t e r i e sl v e r e c r c e l l e n t l y b u i l t , a n d though the cll'ects are rather hea\']., quite gener a l l y t h e l ' h a v e a l i l y - l i k e a t m o s p h e r e o 1 's i m plicitl.which has verv grcat charms. The small original churches were perl-ectly forthright; the later ones(befbre thc High Gothic), even when they. lrcrc of great size, showed their derivation fiom the simple prototypes and did not use an1 dcvices conceivcd fbr picturesque or dramatic appeal. T h e e a r l i c s t c h t t r c l t c s\ \ c r e \ e r \ p l l i n . { t Citeaux a small wooden church was succeedcd
226
T H E C I S T E R C I A N SA N D T H E I R A R C H I T E C ' I ' U R E 2 2 7
INTER-REGIONAL AND INTERN,{TIONAL ARCHITECTURE
in rro6 by a rectangular tunnel-vaulted stone church lbout sixteen feet wide and fift1 f'eet 'fhis long. simple tvpe of plan rvassoon au!imenled b1' angular lateral chapels making a dwarf transept, or b\, a transcpt with such c h a p e l s .C l a i r v a u x , j u s t a f t e r r r r 5 , h a d a s q u a r e church with stone walls divided into nar,e and aisles br, wooden posts supporting a u'ooden roof. I-ater the churches rvere regularly r.aulted,
local tradition has affected manv cletailsof'[q16 p l a n a n d e l c r . i r t i o nw i t h o u t d e s t r o y ' i n gt h e ( . i \ t e r c i a n a i r o l t h e b u i l d i n g s , b e c a u s er h e m a s o n y , ( f i n c a s h i ; r r ) h : r s a n u n m i s t i t L a b l cC i s r t . r i' .t 1 n 'Ihc character. fact that the Cistercians Ibrb111 their masters to work outside the Ordcr tcntlg4 to accentuate this special character.
corner of the transept except at the south-west west front and at th! north end .nd also at the was replaced by 6fthe Eansept, where the aisle porches. The sanctuary was angular. and ils
gave the church a clerestory, a Gothic ribbed
by angular a n g u l a ra m b u l a t o r y w a s s u r r o u n d e d chapels. The church was destroyed at the
polygonal periphery wall. The sanctuary at Pontigny was rebuilt in somewhat similar form about rr85-rzro. Thus Pontigny has a special
Revolution. At Clairvaux the original monasterv was entirely insufficient by Ir33,, and new buildings
and rvooden roofing lvas conlined to the conv e n t u a l s t r u c t u r e s . B o t h r h e a i s l c l e s sa n d r h e aisled plans persisted.The Ourscamp of'rr3,1 (aisleless)had transepts and a round apse. An-
At CiteauxIr7rl and Clairraux'the conrL,1ltual churchcs rverc :r barometer of rhe groltl-1 of the Ortle r. The great church irt Citeaux .nrr5x part of the gencral rebuilding rhere, carrie{ through betwecn rrz5 and rr5o. The church underwent a consecration of somc sort about
gular chapels collected about both of'these lattcr e l e m e n t s i n l a t e r p l a n s , w i t h t h e n e c e s s a r va m 'l'here bulatories. are numerous cases rvlrcre
of immense extent were undertaken near by. The church plan provided a rather shallow angular sanctuary with three shallow rectangular c h a p e l sa t e a c h s i d e , a l l o p e n i n g i n t o a t r a n s e p t .
r r48 and anorher in r rg3, by which time it ri rrs completed with I much enlargedslncruarr. Ir was crucilbrm with an aisle'carried all round.
Five more rectangular chapels and thc bay'devoted to the night stair occupied the other side ofthe transept, with a tunnel-r'aulted nave and
r 7 r . ( , i t e a u r ,m o n a s t c r \ , l i o m a d r a u i n gm r d c b c f o r ed ( s t r u c l i o n
high vault, and a range of flfing buttresses, as well as a polygonal apse and ambulatorv surrounded by angular radiating chapels inside a
claim to be esteemed as the best existing representirtive of the great church at Clairvaux, destro)'ed at the Revolution.s FIowever, the'Bernardian' plan, which stands for St Bernard's own preference, is that which was built at Fontenay6 [r7o] in rr3g 47.1 The church at Fontenay, with the adjoining (and somervhatlater) cloister and monastic buildings, is thc oldest Cistercian ensemble in existence
r7z. FontenayAbbel-, foundedin r t rg, from the air
aisles axially placed. This plan, augmented bv chapels along the ends ofthe transept, rvasuscd
l,!l I Jri f;
a t P o n t i g n ) 1 r y 6 , t 7 7 l i n r r - 1 of f . , b u t t h e l a t t e r church was finished with a rib-r'aulted nave about rr7o. Rebuilding at Clairvaux bctwccn t t 5 3 a n d t h e d e f i n i t i r e c o n s e c r a t i o no f t t 7 1
.l-
Itlz 5]. The site is girdled b1'woodedhills in a l o r e l 1 's e t t i n g , a n d t h e v a r i o u s e d i l i c e sa r e r o o m ilr sct within an cnclosure wall. A bcautilulll proportioned I'agadepresents the church, with a s h l a r s t o n e a n d a n a u s t e r ep o r t a l ; e l s c w h e l c i n t h e c h u r c h a n d c o n v e n t u a l b u i l d i n g s a s h l a rs p u r
228
INTER-REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE
T H E C I S T E R C I A N SA N D T t T E I R A R C H I T I _ C T U R F . 2 2 o
r 7 j a n d l 7 + . I r o n r e n i l ,a b b e r . c h u r c h , r r c r r l r o r r rt h c n o r t h - r c : t r n t l i l t t c r i o r ,r r . i r 1- 1 7
same way. The nal'e continues into the squarcended principal sanctuary. Acousticall.v the
r7S ( |pf asire.).Fontcnal,Abbe1, r i o v l i o m t h c c h a p t c r - h o u si cn t o t h e c l o i s t t r ,r . r r47
was the patron of'Irontenay. Thc chur-ch gains most ol'its lighr liom the faEade rvindows and the corresponding ones at thc crossing and in the sanctuary, since thcre is no clcrestor]'; but lbr-rhe windows at thc ends, thc nave would be like a carern. An admirable pointed tunnel vault with transvcrse arches covers it, irreproachably abuttecl bv pointed transversetunnel Iaults ()\.er the aislcs. .I.he transept is lower and narrower than the nave, and coversd by a pointed tunncl r,ault in the
\
seem r,ery light and
church is remarkable, like a Cluniac church, on accountofits tunnel vault, and in this connec-
open, though the latter are substantially vaulted
tion we note that St Bernard lor,ed music.
s u p p o r t s I r 7 5 ] . T h e r e p e a t i n g s q u a r e b a y ' so f this construction are as ty'pically Cistcrcian as
The stone night stair leads as usual from the south transept of the church to the adjoining monks' dormitory, now blocked up but originally open, under a fine open arched truss roof. The refectory was placed in the customarl
buttresses, with rougher srone wall_work be_ tween, are the rule. Bishop Everard of Norwich
chapter-house, and the camcra (a *'ork room beneath the dormitory)
b1' squrre bays o{ rib-vaulting with columnar
the angularity o('the church plans.These ba1's, m a r k c d b y ' u n i f b r m s p u r b u t t r e s s e so n w a l l a ft e r wall throughout the scheme, have a curious look of being mass-produced. Repetitive bays had of course been used bc-
Cistercian position opposite a fountain house on the south side of the cloister, with its axis perpendicular to that ofthe church. Other parts of'
fore in architecture, but it was a new thing to
the monastic ensemble are arranged in traclitional ways; this is true of the forge building at
i n s i s t e n c ew h i c h w a s l a t e r t o c h a r a c t e r i z eG o t h i c design. But austere ideals and conserr,atism pre-
Fontenay a handsome affair by the rivulet placed to the south-east of the cloister, as it mighr hare been in earlier times. In contrast to the dark and heavv church, the
vented the Cistercian architects from developing thc l-ull potentialitics of thc new n'pe of 'half-Gothic' vault. Their designs are called b e c a u s et h i s t v p e o f v a u l t c o u l d b e s o m u c h
n o b l e r o u n d - a r c h e d , t u n n e l - r ' a u l t e dc l o i s t e r .t h e
morc effectivelr applicd (as intlectl it was with
u s er e p e a t e db a v so f r i b - r ' a u l t i n g w i t h t h e l o g i c a l
23O
INTER-REGIONALAND INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE T H E C I S T E R C I A N SA N D T H E I R A R C H I T E C T U R E
bravura in the full Gothic ofthe ile_de_France) to highly evolved types of plan and elevation. Individual bays were 1reely made square, ob_ long, triangular, or trapezoiclal in shape, tall or short in elevation, as the most elaborate com_ positions required. For example, the Cister_ cians, requiring clear glass in their church windows, did not have reason to make them 'I'he large. Gothic stained_glasswin
came thin membranes, bowed up slightly lor ease in building and extra strength, bet*.ccn over-arching ri bs. Full rrptoitrtiurr :].."d..1 t,r light rib systems, the developmen, of .fr.lf_,f_,i" raulting cells of ashlar, and th. ...rtion ot I t 1 ' r n g b u t t r e s s e st o s u s t a i n r . a u l t s set high un slender piers, pur rhe builders of tn. ii._j.France ahead ol'the Cistercian builders br. r r 75, if not before. The. church of pontigny [176 gl is a good example of the Cistercian use of Gothic betorc, the overwhelming achievements of the Hieh Gothic made the Cistercian style seem ol,l_ tashioned and provincial. Begun about r r40 on a variant of the usual plan, the church rrrs
a dwarf transept and an angular east built with into a verl handsome nave, continucd and end, rn proportion, and lightcd by' generous sirnple, , clerestory ol er lower and narrolver aisles with concealedflying buttresses. Delicate and f'astidious proportioning, deft handling of the grouped piers and simple rib-r,aulting makc the church at once impressive, alive, and serene. The typically Cistercian nave is happilv combined with an austere chevct which rcplaced 'l'here the original one about r r85 rzro. is an with trapezoidal radiating ambulatorv chapels, sosimply laid out that onlv rhc moulding profiles betray its late date. At Pontigny the windows, though moclern.
r76. Pontignv,abbey abbtv church, chrrrch lbunded lhrrn.t-j in ;- -r -r t4 -. r77.Pontignv,abbcl' church, f'ar;ade. r. r r qo
ls..
23t
exemplify' the Cisrercian taste. There are tvoical r n d b e a u t i l u l p a r r c r n si n r h e l e a d i n g .* i i h t h . usual plain glass that is, exccpr tbr a sprinkling of small jewels of colour, which was permissible. 'lhe whole ell-ectof the interior is of extraordin_ ary calm and religious serenity, virginal in sweet_ n e s sa n d p u r i t y . 8 I'he fagade, sparingly adorned with Gothic arcading, is pleasant to look upon. yet no one can fully understand Pontignv and the Cister_ cians without seeing the building liom the o p u l e n r s u r r o u n d i n g f i e l d s a h a n d s o m ew a r m _ h u e d b u l k w h i c h r e a l l y s e e m sr o b e l o n g t o t h e soil; no towered or cathedralshapecould har.e such union u'ith the earth [176, r j /-1.
INTER-REGIONAL AND IN'TERNATIONAL ARCHITEC'I'URF
THF. CISTI.RCIANS
AND
TTIF.IR ARCTUt.ECTURE
2..t1
t h o u g h o f ' r a r h e r m e d i o c r e d e s i g n . r ,p , oblet r111 S a n t a sC r c u s i n C a t a l o n i ah a r . ee r c c l l e n t ( , i s t g . c i a n q u a l i t i c s . . \ t P o b l e t ( f b u n c l e d r r . 5r ) , m r r c h t h e l a r g e r a n t l m o r c p r o s p c r o u s , t h e s eq u a l i t j c 5 continued to influence the gencral design of sur_ c e s s i v el v o r k s u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e \ l i d d l e { s c , 'I'he e a r l v a r c h i t e c t so 1 ' P o b l e th a d g i v e n t h e e r _ amplc fbr this in the main church, uhich urrs built about rr8o 96. 'I'here is a perfccrlr
rl
l-.1 j
'l
d;INE r 7 l l . P o n t i g n r ,a b h e t . c h u r c hi ,n t e r i o r ,r . r r 1 0 r 2 r o
For all its unitt, Cistercian architecture is subtlv difl'erentiatcd region br, region. In rhc south, the heritage ol' Roman largeness com_ bines beautilullv with the Cistercian theme ol simplicitl, fbrthrightncss, and good constructlon. A t S i l v a c a n e , "f b u n d e d i n t t 4 7 , w e I ' c e l t h e s o u t h o f ' F r a n c e . T h e a b b e y b u i l d i n g s s u r v i r . ea s a n e x t r a o r d i n a r i l l . c o m p l e t e a n d i m p r e s s i re g r o u p . T h e s o u t h - F r e n c h l o r c f o r c o u r s e db l o c k masonrl is manifest here, lvherc, in a designof quite Roman amplitude, the ashlaris unusualll. f i n e t h r o u g h o u t . a n d g i r e s c h a r a c f e rt o c r e r r . rista ot the interior.Thc church, begun abour r r 7 o , h a s r h e v e r ) . s a m ed i g n i t y w h i c h o n e f i e l s in the Pont du Gard. It is extraorclinarily fine in a c o u s t i c s ,a s i s u s u a l w h e r e t h e n a v e i s t u n n e l _ vaulted. Las Huelgas, near Burgos in Castile, is an_ othcr good examplc of Cistercian stonework.
R o m r n e s q u el ) o i n t e dl u n n e l r : r u l t u i t h l r r r r r . _ v e r s ca r c h c so r e r t h e n a r . e ,d e s p i t c i t s b c i n g c o r r temporarr wirh the nare of' Notre_Damc in Paris.Nlanv parts of'the monastic huildings irrc i n a v e r v m u c h s i m p l i f i c d a n d s u n b u r n et l G o t h r c . b u t t h c R o m a n e s q u es p i r i t l i r e s o n i n a l n r o s rr t l l 'l'here thc work. is excellent r.aulting in rlrc c h a p t e r - h o u s c . t h e r e f ' e c t o r 1I,r 7 9 1 , t h e l i b n r r , and the ccllar; and rhe grsat dormitories riirh pointed diaphrag;m arches supporring lvooclcn roofing are cxtraordinarily' impressive Irgoi. T h e c s t a b l i s h m e n t w a s l o n g d e s o l a t ea l i e r t h c s o c i a lu p r i s i n g s o f ' r 8 z z j 5 . I t i s v e r l i m p r e s s i r c as now resrored and re-peopled. r'et it satisficd the requirement set lbrth in the epig.ram,name lr that it takcs a rcally' good building to make a fine ruin.rl
r79 and r8o. Poblet,monasterr., ref'cctorr anddormitorv,thirtecnth ccnturr' i s s t a b l c .L a r g e w i n d o w s p l a c e dh i g h i n t h e w a l l s 'I'he piels are grouped, and light these churches.
Alcobagain Portugal has one ol'thc best. as rvell as one ol the most remote. Cisterciirn churches. T'hc building was bey,^r.rn on a grantl
with the ribs branching out :rbovethem, look
s c a l ei n r r 5 8 a n d f i n i s h e d i n r z : - i . I t s i n t e r i o r . s p a c i o u sa n d b e a u t i l u l l v p r o p o r t i o n e d , h a s a r e -
a r e t h e o n h w i n d o w s v i s i b l c i n : r n e a s t w a r dy i e r v . S a n ( i a l g a n o , r i n e a r S i e n a ,m a 1 , b ec i t e d . T h e
l i k e l i n e s u l l r e e s .T h i s a r r a n g e m c n tg i r e s g r e a t prominence to the windolvs in thc apse,lvhich
markable combination of classicserenitv, Cister-
church there is the ruin ofa constructionbegun
cian simplicit\',
in rzrS
Romanesque lbrthrightncss. a n d b u d d i n g G o t h i c r . e r v e .C o m p a r e d r v i t h t h t contemporarl rrork in Paris fbr it is roughlr c o n t e m p o r a r l w i t h N o t r e - D a m e A l c o b a g ar c presents an archaic scheme, the ,threc-narctl' church, ofien called the hall church.I This church type results fiom the use of'the repetitivc rib-\'aulted bay, in sucha \\,a].rhat hc n a v e r . a u l t i s a b u t t e d b l a i s l ev a u l t s o n l v l l i t r l c n a r r o w e r a n c l l o w e r t h a n i t s e l f. T h e a i s l e v a u l t t in thcir turn lre abutted bv spur buttresses. 'l l.rc engineeringproblems arc simple, and the n pe
s t i l l i n t h e B u r g r . r n d i a nh a l f - G o t h i c
stvle at a time when the cathedral design ol' Amiens (the boldestHigh Gothic church which p r o v e d t o b e s t a b l ea s o r i g i n a l l l b u i l t ) w a s o n h two vcars in the future. Fosslnova, another of the Cistercian sitesin Itall'(it is prettill' set near Romc), also suft'ered l r o m a b a n c l o n m e n t( I 8 r 2 ) , b u t i t r v a sr e p o s s c s sedbl monks in rgr5, and is norv happilf in usc a s a n a b b e r . I l i i \ c f \ B u l g t t n t l i : r ni n I e e l i n ga n d d e t a i l . A t t h c c r o s s i n gt h c r e i s a n o c l t l
ilgrin
staged towcr, partl]' of Renaissancc datc, rvhicl.r
234
.JJ
r8r. ChiaravallcN{ilancsc,abbeychurch, dedicatcdin r r g b
$
would seem to represent, in morc permanent fbrm, the lost wooden belfiy turrets which C i s t e r c i a n c h u r c h e s u s u a l l l . p o s s e s s e d .T h e church at Fossanoya dates fiom the vears r r79 t o r z o 8 . rJ In Lombardr,, where brick has been a basic matsrial sincc Anriquitl., thc Cistcrcians o1' Chiaravalle Milanese used brick, like thcir neighbours. Shortly after thc fbundation of' r r q(r
d e d i c a t i o n w h i c h w a s c c l e b r a t e di n r r 9 6 [ r 8 r I . In the nar,ebig domed-up rib-r.aults of Lonrb a r d t y p e w e r e b u i l t , b e g i n n i n g p e r h a p sa s c a r l l as r r6o. Bv this timc Lombard brick architecturc ha(1 reachednorthern Gcrmanv,l +in Prcmonstratensian work (Jerichow, dated perhaps after r r-5o. being thc carliestexample) [r82, r83], perhaps
a church was started, ofwhich the transepts remain, though in altered fbrm. Ultimatelv a huge
under Cistercian influcncc. The rcgion lacks stone, but the clays burn to cxcellent brick of r d e c p r e d o r w i n e c o l o u r . T h e s e r . e r i t yo f l i n c a n d
and unattractivc octagonal lantern and belliy w a s r a i s e da t t h e c r o s s i n g ,p e r h a p se v e n a f t e r t h e
the exccllent workmanship continued as rhc brick style spread (B ack steingoli&), and acquired
'l'he more and more affrrmative local f'eeling. abbey church ofChorin (about rzoo) is a Cistercian example. The church buildings of the earliest Cistcrcian monasterics in German1.15 almost all of them of the filiation of Morimond were often local in t1.pe, although the first (Kamp, ncar Kref'eld, rrzj) appears to hare had the earlv simpleplan used b1'the Order, but N'Iarienthal
r8z and rll3. Jerichow,abbel church, .. r r50, restorcd
Walderbach ( r r 43 7o and later) has a hall c h u r c h ; a n d a l l t h e s e s c h e m e sa r e r e p r e s e n t e d b 1 ' s c r r : r a lo t h c r e x a m p l a s . T ' h e i m p o r t a n t a b b e y 'o f N l a u l b r o n n l ' ' I I 8 . 1 1 markcd a new dcparture in the buildings crccted betwecn r146 and I178, and carried fbrward 'l'he whole group is rerv wcll constructcd in stone, and has giYen a good account later on.
( r r 3 8 - a 6 ) h a s a c o l u m n a r b a s i l i c a .H e i l s b r o n n , foundedin r r32, Cistercianin r r4r,hasachurch
of itself . With the I'ears and progressive rccons t r u c t i o n st h e m o n a s t i c b u i l d i n g s h a r c a c q u i r e d a p t - r n d c r o u sC c r m a n l o o L , b u t t h e o l t l c s t l r o r l
belonging to the School of Hirsau; Georgenthal, dated about rr5o, has an apse 6chelon;
( r r 4 6 7 8 ) i s s t r o n g l y B u r g u n d i a n i n f ' e c l i n g .A G o t h i c e a s tw i n d o w a n d G o t h i c v a u l t i n g s o m e -
23o
rNTER-REGIONALAND INTERNATIONAL ARCHI'IECTURE
T H E C I S T E R C I A N S A N D T } I F , I RA R C I T I T } - C T U R E
s I
,,'f,
t84. \Iaulbronn -{bbc1,lbrecourt,r r46 78 rnd later
I
r85. FountainsAbber',church,r. r r35 50 irncllatcr
w h a t d i l u t e t h e R o m a n e s q u eo f ' t h e c h u r c h , b u t it retainsits old plan with an altar-ofthe Cross in the nar,e.an arched stone choir enclosure,
flair, exploited the Gothic svstem to the ultimate, but fbr a long time few German designcrs or clients really cared fbr the novel effects. 'l hc
s t a l l s ,a n d a n a n g u l a r s a n c u a r r . T h e f a q a d eh a s a m a r k e d B u r g u n d i a n l l a r o u r , a n d l r a sp r e s e r v e d
G c r m a n s , i n t h e i r l o r , e o f s u b s t a n t i a lm a s o n r r , w h i c h w a r m s t h e m a s s i v el v a l l so l ' s p e y e r C a t h e -
a l o w e x t e r i o r p o r c h a c r o s st h e f i o n t , t h i s e l e ment being fairlv common in Cistercianbuildi n g s . 1 7T h e r e a r e t w o t y p i c a l b e l f r v p i n n a c l e s .
dral and the rosy clilt's of the Backstein1ottl, clung to the tradition of the half-Gothic. 'lraccs
Cistcrcian lbrms with a German weightiness in mass and detail are we ll represented bv manv e x a m p l e s .A m o n g t h e m E b e r b a c h ( b v e x c e p t i o n fountled liom (iiteaux) is particularlr.well preservedand imposing. It is dated r. rr.5o 8o. In lear,ing German Cistercian work, it is w o r t h w h i l e t o r e p e a tw h a t h a s b c e n s a i d r e g a r d ing the imprint which the Burgundian half_ Gothic left in the minds of local architects. f'he brarura of'French designers,with wonderfll
fully in it, and transmitted some of-its artracti\,e q u a l i t i e st o t h e s u c c e e d i n gE a r l v E n g l i s h G o t h i c style. Details about it belong to another volume in this series.le It must sufficc here to mention Waverley Abbev, fbunded in rrz8, irs an cxampleof the simplest form of Cistercianplan an aislelessnave and square-ended sanctuary) a short transept, and a simple square-ended
of this lceling are easv to find in their inrc:pretation of the more mature French Gothie.
chapel opening upon the rransept to eithcr side of the sanctuarv Tintern, (bunded in r r j r, as ; an example of the same plan with trvo chapels to e i t h e r s i d e , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l va l o n g e r r r a n s e p ri
which comcs first at the new cathedral ,rr' - N l a g d e b u r gi n r z o g . E n g l i s h c o n n e x i o n sw i t h t h e C i s t e r c i a nO r d e r
a n d F o u n t a i n s a st h e r u i n o f a l a r s c a b b e v o a r t l r ' Norman and partly Burgundianiaff-Cu*lc ln style. -I-he church was built about r r ii ,5o. Its original sanctuarv was replaced bl the lbmous
go back to the beginning.l8 Abbot Stephen Harding of Citeaux and Bishop Everard ol N o r r v i c h , w h o b u i l t F o n t e n a y , h a r ' eb e e n m c n tioned. The Cistercian style appealed to the English, as it did to the Germans; rhe Engli:h h a d a f i n e r f l a i r l b r t h i s a r c h i t e c lu r e . b u i l l b e a u tj -
Chapel of the Nine Altars, rzo.1 47, a pnme example of the Early English Gothic style.
.L-
'l'herc
a r c v e r l e x t e n s i v er e m a i n s , a d j o i n i n g t h e church, of the nronks' quarters, bcautilullr'
m a i n t r i n e d I r 8 . sl . F i n a l l l r $ o r d m u s t b e s a i d about Bucklast Abbe v asrebuilt in tgoT zz, t'or this rebuilding has l.ielded much infbrmation r c g a r d i n g m e d i ev a l c o n d i t i o n s . : \ t B u c k t i r s to n e o r l s o m e n u i t h s i m p l et r a i n i n gi n c o n s l r u c l i o n lbrmed a cre w and ultimatcll'erected an elaborate church on the surliring n)edic\alfbundations. In like manncr a group of mcdier al monks i n t e n d i n g t o b L r i l da n a b b c l - m i g h t b r i n g t o t h e s i t e a p l a n l b r t h e r v h o l c f u t u r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t ;a lew monks *'ith experiencc could trlin a crerv of monks and brethren during the ercction of t h c s i m p l e b u i l d i n g s r e q u i r e d i n t h e b e- c i n n i n g , and then proceed to the more diflicult works, with occasional help fiom sistcr nonasterrcs and trar ellins artisans.
PART FOLIR
THE MATURE ROMANESQUE OF M IDDLI, AND SOUTI]ERN trR.\NCE
CHAPTER I2
il
G E N E R A L C O N SI D E R A l ' I O N S IN REGARD
.l-
'I'O ,IHF,
REGIONAT- SCHOOI,S
T h e R o m a n e s q u e i s a s n l e o f l . a s c i n a t i n gb t 'I'his w a y sa n d l o c a l s c h o o l s . has bccn its charm
mcnts, Northern elements almost inrariirblv
for many lor,ers o1'the arts, and, in conscquence,
ing emphasis.
the historians havc generalh anallsed it as a series of' quasi-independcnt rcgional phcno-
I t i s r r s u r lt o f i n r l i r r c a t h r t g i o n s o m c p r i n c i p a l m o n u m c n t r . h i c h h a sb e e ni m i t a t e d t h r o u g h -
mena. Yet thc great mo\,emcnts and the chief institutions o1' Romanesque timcs with their architecture nere intcr-rcgional, as u,e have
o u t t h c a r c a ,t h u s c r e a t i n ga s o r t o l a r c h i t e c t u r a l lamih and a certrirr regional unitt. Horverer.
appear, in the same i aried tva\.s,and with dilier-
ccrtlin areas hl\.e more thrrn one such source
s e e n ;o u r e x p o s i t i o n h a s i n d c c d b c e n p l a n n e c lt o emphasize this fhct. In monuments of' morc
monunlcnt) and the result is a compound locrl
t h a n r e g i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c ew e h a l e a l r c a d l ' e n countered all, or ncarll all, rhe alchitecturll motifs which we shall find, Iarioush combinctl,
A s \ s t e m o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o nf b r t h e s c h o o l s o f m a t u r e R o n r a n e s q u ea l c h i f e c t u r c n t u s t r e s t o D unitics of rarious sorts. It is genelally true that
in the architectural b1'-wa1's which we now u n d e r t a k et o e x p l o r c . '.fhe larious local 'schools'tliRer liom onc a n o t h e r i n t h e b a s i c b u i l d i n g r n a t e r i a l s ,i n t h c
lvas prcrlominantlr Germanic, the buildings c h u r c h e s a n d a l l c o n t i n u c c lr o b e e r e c f e d u i t h
school.
in thc northern rcgion, where thc population
r el a t i r c l r s i m p l e p l l n s a n d d c c o r a t i o n ,u i t h b o l d
choices which the practical men and decorators m a d e i n h a n d l i n g t h o s c m a t e r i r r l s .a n d i n t h e e m p h a s i sg i r c n t o r h c r a r i o u s a s p e c t so f ' t h c t l e 'I'hese sign. variablcs introduce more difl'erenccs than might, ar hrsr sight, be supposed. For examnle. Roman elements occur in all the regional schc,ol, but thc Roman elements
i n g s , r v i t h a u , i d e r b a c k g ' r o u n di n a r t i s t i c h i s t o r r .
may be structlrral, tunctional, compositionll, decorative. C)riental elements, Bvzantine ele-
In thc Scruth therc rvere manl derelopments a l o n g f u n c t i o n a l l i n c s r v h i c h a r e i n t c r c s t i l . l g r, n d
massing ancl articulation of rclatirclr simple s h a p e s ;i r c t i \ e s i l h o u c t t e b r o k c n b \ t o \ \ e l ' i l n ( l pinnacle lirms; steep loofing (natural tr> rhe North), hcar'\ stclnc rvall-uork, and, lvhcrc it occurs, hcavv vaulting. In thc Romance area the prefi'rencc rvaslbr more sophisticated build-
2 ; I O M I D D L E A N D S O U T H E R NF R A N C T ,
t h c r e r v a sI m a r k e d r c l d i n c s s t o a b s o r b \ l o s l c n r o r B v z i r n t i n ee l e n r c n t s T . his is nrarkedll true in t h e l , ' r e n c l ra n d N o r m a n d o m i n i o n s . 'fhere is llso a ralid dir.ision berween con_ s e n a t i r c ( o r p a s s i re ) , a n d a c t i \ . cs c h o o l s :R o m e and Provence, still Latin in the Romanesque pcriod, acccptecl ittle that was nc\r.tiom out_ side, but built handsomclr in a conscr\arive m a n n e r , u h i l c B u r q u n d v c r c i r t e da n d c x p o r t c d seVeral inrcr.csring t\'pes; thc neighbourine
I
i I
ii
-l
hc lirregoing gct,logit.;rl cla\\ifi(.ilti,,r) :' ) lor'th bcaringin mind: lbr rhe ...tt, ,.. e n g i n c e r sa n d r r t h i t e c t , o l " r . . , a t . ,t..;,,*u urrh a propar regard lbr th"ir.mareri,rl, i*'' h o l d c r d l f l i ' r e n c e \c a l l c d l o r t h b v t r r ; . r l f , ,fi,l lering nuterials, and the nuanccs rvhich .,r,1f w h e r e r h c m a t e r i a l sa r c m o r c s i m i l a r . a c l As r . , , r i , to the intcrcst ol' thc Rornirn"rqu" ,,1 i. .,. 0 u hole.
Gcorraphical, political, dnd chronolorljr.ll c l a s s i f i c a t i o n sa r e g c n c r a l l l , e a s i c r t o g . . r f , fn thc historl ol Romanesqu. ...hit..tur.: ,,nl in fact, thc ccntreof'France has bcen callcd ma] sa,\'that Italr- lr,asimportirnt first, a bec,ruse 'dumping ground' becauseso much was rc_ the basilicirand thc First Romlnc.qu" ,,,1. ccired, withour sinrhesis, from irdjoinine spr(.Jd li{nn rherc. 'l ht. old \cusrr.i.r .,,rrl reE;ions. -{ustr-asia r v e r ei m p o r t a n t n c r t N c u s t r i a l o r . i t s 'fhe m a t e r - i a l sl b r b u i l d i n g a l s o p o i n t o u t a orig;inalitr' ('Iours, Germignr,_des_pr6s, Grrrnil_ signilicant classificarion.J'he Nctherlancls and lieu, Saint-Riquicr, Ciorbic, lleims, antl .Srns thc northern parts of'Germanr,, France, Itirl1,, a r c a l l t h c r c ) a n d A u s t r a s i af b r i t s c r c a t i o n ot rhc a n d S p a i n a l l h a i e a x c e l l e n tb r i c k _ c l a r . so f w h i c h Rhenish stvle (Aachcn and \{ainz, Fulcla rrd the cngineers antl .rrchitects took irclvantagc. Lorsch lrc there; a concurrcnt stlle existccl s Onll Itall ancl Prorence hacl easilr arailable tar east .rs Hung-arv in later tinres). n r a r b l e a s a I u x u r t n r a t e r i a l .E v e n i n t h c b r i c k _ F o l l o r v i n g t h e a c h i e v c n t e n t so l t h e Carolin_ building recions stonc is obtainablc, though s r a n c c n t u r i e s ,B u r g u n d v c a n c f o l i r s t i n r p o r r _ o t t e n w i t h d i f i l c u l f i ' l n c l c x p e n s e ,a n d u s u a l l v i t ancc in architecture. 'l'he rcasonswerc, rs \\c i s l i m c s t o n e. S i l n ( l s l ( , n cl t.. s sl l t r r c l i r u e n . l . l u r _ hare seen,thc dr.namic spread, fiom BurgLrn_ able, less rewlrding to rhe sculptor and the dian centres, of f'ederativc monasticism (chicfl\ a r c h i t c c t , a b o u n c l si n E n g l a n d ( a l o n g u i t h f l i n t s , in thc clercnth and twellth centurics) and rirc chalkl' limestone, and brick-clavs which rvcre Burgundian designersg ' r e a t a b i l i t t .t o s v n t h e s i z c c r p l o i t e c l l a t c r ) . S o u t h c r . nG e r m r n r . a n d R h i n e _ a r c h i t e c t u r a l i c l e a s .T ' h e s e i d c a s c a m e irom thc land lirance hale lairlv good sendstonc. 1.he n e i g h b o u r i n g r e g J i o n so f ' N e u s t r i a , , { u s t r a s i , r . Aulergne antl rhe I-imousin (excc;rtionalll Aquitania, Pror-ence,and Itall-, and ) certdil have granite arrd volcanicstone. Elsewherc in o r i e n t a l i n f l u e n c e sw e r e w c l c o m e d t o o . V a ulting. France there is exccllcnt limestonc (c.g. the m a d t ' p r o q r e s s :s o a l s o i n L l n g u e d o c , uhi,l. Caen stone o1'Normandl' lvhich rvasexportecl tcr f l o r v e r c d a f t er t h c m i d d l e o f t h e e l c r . e n t h ccnE n g l a n d e r e n i n R o m a n c s q u et i m e s ) . b e : r u t i _ tun, and is rcsponsiblc fbr irn i r n p r e s s i re t i r l l v t e x t u r c d : r n c al c l e l i g h t o t h e c a rr c r . s c h is e l : d a u g h t c r -s c h o o l i n S p a i n . I t a l r m c a n w h i l e be_ c r i s p m o r . r i d i n g sa n c lr i c c o r a t i r eu o r k h a r e .I.s been c a m e a n a r c h i t c c t u r a l l i a l e i d o s c o p e .I n the o t h e r c s u l t . ' f h c s c F r e n c h l i m e s t o n e s\ \ . c i t h e r to Sicilies an eclectic school sholved how r . a r i e ri finc bul}, pale brown, and grer. tints. Similar R o m a n e s q u ea r c h i t e c t u r ec o u l d b e u n d c r s t r o n s s t o n e si n l t a l r ' ( n o r t h a n d s o u r h ) t e n d to rvcarher B r z a n t i n e r r n t l V o s l e m i n f l u e n c e ; in fuscan, to decper brouns_'I'his is truc also of.the east_ a n d \ e n e r i : r h o u r i c h ir could he; ccrtain{q_ { d r i a t i c a n d S p a n i s hl i m es t o n e s . North_ rr.esrcrn velopments of vaulting i n L o m b a r c l _ rn . e r c , i r r S p a i n a n d P o r t u g : r l h a rc 6;ranrre. c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h o t h er e l c m e n t s . i n s t r u m e n t a l B e r r r , a l t h o u g h i t c o n t a i n e c lB o u r g e s , t h e c c _ c l c s i a s t i c a lc a p i t a l o f A q u i t a i n e , p r o c l u c e dl i t t l e
l
T I I [ , R E ( ; I O N A L S C H O O I , S :G E N E R A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S
t h c { n e l o - \ o r m a n s c h o o l o n l ) r u fo i' inosr itia. r t i n g tht end ol the a.t.tonnrcnts belbre centurr' 'eleventh -In,h. . , firsrthird ol thc tuellih ccntur\' men ucre draun liom all qtlarlers -.csJtcrnd ideas antl Btrrgundr to thc Ilc-de. i r i t 1 ,N o t r n t n a l brirrq ahout thc creetion ol t o , h . . a i-rana., w h e r e t h c R o l n a t r e s q u ch a d bothic in a rcgion uninspired and unintercstb e e n for a long time more accomplishetl local with regions inq. Other emplov them cll'ectivell. to continued stfles until the Gothic from the Ile-dc-Ifrance ap' oeared in the twelfih or thirteenth centur\ From that time onu'ard. it bccame the firnct i o n o f t h e R o m a n e s q u el o c a l s t 1 ' l e st o i n f l u c n c e and to modulate the incoming Gothic to domesticate it, so to speak, in respect of' mason work, lighting, rooling, and decoration. Whilc the Burgundian half -Gothic of the (-istercians was, like ancient Roman building, applicable everywhere with little change, the fullr chtra c t e r i z e dG o t h i c o f t h c I l e - d e - F l a n c e a c h i c v c d better results abrold when it acccpted something from the heritage of the local st-vlcs. D i v i d i n g R o m a n c s q u ea r c h i t c c t u r e s u m m a r ily on national lines ficlds the lbllorving classification: The Italian stllcs, in spite of'certain norel d e v e l o p m e n t s ,a r e b a c k u a r d - l o o k i n g : i n L o m bardy, to the First Romirnesquc stvlel in the Veneto to the B]'zirntine ; in central Itall to Earlv Christendom: and in the Two Sicilies cclectic - to the Earll' Christian, \'Ioslem, Bvzantinc, Lombard, and Germrn st,ylcs.
2:II
T h e G e r n r a n a n d r e l a t e dm l t r . r l eR o m a n e s q u e s t v l e sa r e c o n s e r v a t i v e ,a n d a l l b c a r t h c o b l i o u s imprint of thc great earlier developments (alr e a d v c o n s i d e r e d )i n t h e R h i n e l a n d . Though not indcpcndent, thc SpanishPortuguese ancl thc English stvles are sufTicienth c h a r a c t c r i z c d ,c l c h i n i l s o r l n w a \ . 1 o n l e r i t national standing. But in the actual development of' Romanesque,France is most f-ecund.B-vlieDeralconscnt thsrc were seven individual regional schools in medieval lirance. The Iirance of the eleventh centurl did not p r o p e r l r i n c l r r d eB l i t t a n r o r a n l i m p o l t i r r t rt e r r i torics be1'ond the Sommc, the \leuse, the S a o n e , ; r n t lt h e R h o n c . ' l ' h e s t r i r c r s \ \ ' e r c a p proximatelv irt the boundaries ol'the Empirc. Carolingian .'\ustrasia remaincd Imperial, and w h a t i s s o m e t i m e s( b e c a u s eo f l a t e r l r r e n c h c u l t u r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l e x p a n s i o n ) c a l l e c lt h e e i g h t h French school that ofthe Rhineland, or of'thc dcvclopedtherc in a German ambicnt. Iior our purposes it will be most convenient to undertake first the studl- of middle and southern l'rirnce. with its schools of- (e) Bur-
East
gundy; (u) Provence; (c) the Loire region and western Francc, under the headings: (r) the Loire Rircr area; (z) Poitou, with Anjou, Saintongc, and thc South-West: (r) Pdrigorcl and t h e d o n r e t lc h u r c h e so f A q u i t a i n c ; ( l ) A u r e r g n c ; 'I'he s c h o o lo f t h c E a s t ( n ) w i l l b e (n)Languedoc. taken up with thc architecture ol-the Empire, Normandl' (c;)and thc school o1'Prris and the North (n), when we approachthe Gothic st1-le.
6HAPTER
I3
THE KINGDON{ OF ARLES, AND BURGUNDY
In the area ofthe old Carolingian Provencr: and Burgundy, technicallv only ducal Burgrndr' was French; the remainder had becorne a loosely-held part of the medier,al Empire bv the 'I'he historical accident of bequest in ro3z.1 Kingdom had an underlving Latinity. I'raditional and easv communications ofl'ered bv the great valleys of the Rhirne and the Sadne p'ile a u n i t y t o t h i s a r e a l s h i c h s h o w si n m a n l ' w a r s i n its architecture. The renaissance of Roman forms was particularlv appropriate and lelici-
ofthe archbishopricof Vienne, which wasin the Empire but bordered on the Rh6ne. The eastern parts of'this archbishopric bordered on Italv a n d s e r v e da s a n a t u r a l a v e n u eo f L o m b a r d i c i n fluence,with \,{ilan onlv a hrrndred-odd miles a w a l . B e s a n g o n .t h e n o r t h c r n a r c h b i s h o p r i c o f the Kingdom of ,{rles, wasopen to Burgunclian influence, especiallf in thc Franche-Comt6, but the eastern parts, actualll- bordeling on the Rhine, were understandablv German in their
tous here. However, there is a strong tincture of Carolingian and Rhenish influence in the north:
architecture.
hence the area produced two great schools of Romanesquearchitecture: (r) in ducal Bur-
Since the building t1'pes in Burgundv are so various, and their components so widelv used
gund)', where the fusion ofnorthern and srruthe r n e l e m e n t si s r e m a r k a b l e ,a n d ( z ) i n P r o l e n c e .
i n R o m a n e s q u ea r c h i t e c t u l e ,i t i s r v o r t h w h i l e t o u n d e r t a k e a n a n a h ' s i so f t h e e l e m e n t s .B u r g u n dian practice is well up to thc best general lcr.el
where the Roman tradition is especialll' strong.
D U C A LB U R G U N D Y In an earlier chapter rue have obsen'ed Burgundy as a crossroads unusually open to ourside i n f l u e n c e s ,a n d u n u s u a l l l g i f t e d w i t h i m a g i n ation for profiting bl them and sy-nthesizing them. Immense resources were available in men and money from outside the region fbr building in Romanesque timcs, and the impcrtant churches represent not one, but ser.eral, great types. Roman influence cane r.rnthe Rh6ne laller. f r o m P r o r e n c c a n dS e p t i m r n i r . O n c I c e l sl l o m e subtly still as far north as Micon, which rvrtstbr a long time just south of the boundarv of ducal Burgundl but within the bortlers ot Rom,rnesque France. Ducal Burgundl' fbrmed a part ot the historic metropolitan archbishopric of' L y o n , w h i c h w a s d i v i d e c lb e t w e e nR o m a n e s q u e
.l--
France and the Empire, but belonged archit e c t u r a l l y t o d u c a l B u r g u n d , v .T h i s w a s t r u e a l s o
in the Romanesque period, and manv o1' the observations which will be made hcrc on structural matters arc applicableclsewhere.
7 ' y p t so f P l u n 'l'he
hasilicanltlun a.nd general arrangemcnr fbr churches har-econtinued in use in Burguntlr' ever since Earlv Christian times without interruption, although stronglr modified b1'medie r.al p l a n f e a t u r e sa n d r , a u l t i n g . 'l'he p r i m i t i v e m e d i e r a l n a v e - a n d - c h a n c e lo r 'barn' trpe of'church, rescmbling St Benedict's C h a p e l a t S a i n t - R i q u i e r [ 5 ] , i s r e p r e s e n t e db - va number ol sm:rller churchcs in Burgunclr. 'I'ournus Saint-Laurent, (built belbre thc lerrr rooo), being the most intercsting preservecl example. The rotunda is not unusual in Burgundl.. Its m a j o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s( a t A u x e r r e , S e n s , C h a r -
2 1 4 . M T D D L F .A N D S O U T H E R NF R A N C t .
lieu, and especialll' Dijon Iro7 9l) har.ealreadl. bcen anall.sed; thcv are regularlv connccted w i t h c r 1 - p t sa n d a m b u l a t o r i e s ,a n d t h u s a r e s a t e l -
THE KINGDOM
OF ARLES, AND BUR(;UNDy
2,1(
to hare a specialaccent on the axial absidiole, which probabh. reprcsentsa reduction o1'the
in its widespread use. was doubtless influential has an excellent example, still pre,{nzy-le-Duc reminiscent of a served, with a small apse, central absidiole. rotunda, opening from the Sanctuary bays wete placed singly in lront of
the region of'Bourges, where thc scheme was an established type) have triapsidal chevets and
l i t e r a t h c r t h a n i n d c p e n d c n t c o n s t r u c t i o n .B u r g u n d i a n R o m a n e s q u ea n d G o t h i c c h u r c h e st e n d
Apses are regularly semicircular, lighted bi three windolvs, and covered bv semi-domes, round-arched or pointed. Thev are as a rulc it little lower than rhe adfoining, typical, r'aultcrl sanctuary bavs. Ordinarilv the churchcs arr transcpt.
triapsidal, with lateral apses attached to thc 'I'his simple arrangement was suffi-
prethe apses of Burgundian churches of anv tension at all. Stalls were regularly placed at the head of'thc naves, in monastic churches, within a low-
spacious, is rather barn-like. 'fhe proportioning of Burgundian
rotunda. The Greek crzssplun and its approximations are rare in Burgundy'. The cemetery chapel at Cluny'(ro6.1; destroy'ed)provided a rather solitarv example of its indcpendenr use.Cluny'III 'lhe was an exceptional building. chevet, including the minor transept, was, in efi'ect,a church of the central t)'pe, so disposed as to gi'r'e extra c a p a c i t v l b r l a r g e a s s e m b l a g c sE. a c h a r m o f ' t h e grcat transept was like the 'tower nave' of a 'I'he 'double Saxon church. transept' at Clur,l. is beliered to have been the lirst; the scheme lvas communicated to England through Lewcs Priorv, and thencero English Gothic. 'I-he'douhle-endar' plan, which was used bv the Earh-Christians of North Aliica, and afierlvards in Germany, is re presented in the cathcdral of Ner,ers on thc Burgundian border. 'l'hc eastern apse has becn replaced in the Gothic stvlc, but the westcrn onc, togerhcr with handsome arcadcd transeptal screens, has been pres e r v e d .T h e d a t e o f r o z g i s g i l e n f b r t h i s w o r k . Saint-Vorles
at Chitillon-sur-Scine (dated about gtio rooo, with a later vault) is triapsidal,
t r a n s e p t e d , p r o v i d e d w i t h n a v e a n d a i s l e s ,a n d has the wreck of a sort o1'westwork which recalls 'fhe Carolingian and German work. impact of the Empire on Burgundian rvork secms in fict surprisinglv small, but it mar. perhaps be f-elt i n t h e d o u b l e t r a n s e p t a n d t h e o c t a g o n a lr o r v e r s o1'St Hugh's Clun1..
I'aotures in Plun All Romanesque features of church planning occur in some fbrm in Burgundian cdifices, typically as enrichments of'the basilican scheme.
cient even for so notable a building as the twelfth-centur]. cathedral of' Autun Ir6r], because, like other early twelfth-centurv cathcdrals, it had not yet become the fbcus of guiltl
walled enclosure. Ordinarily two or three ba-YS sumced for this choir.
acti\,ities and various popular religious deiotions. Gothic lateral chapels were added here. as at Notre-Dame in Paris, fbr such purposes. Cr.1,1tts are important, as we have seen, in thc
Transepts are usual in Burgundian church 'dwarf' transepts plans. Sometimes they are (not as high as the nave), and they are often 'included' (not extended beyond the flank lines
E a r l y R o m a n e s q u eo f B u r g u n d y ( D i j o n I r o 7 ] : 'I'ournus Iroz]; Saint-Savinen, Sens; SaintGermain, Auxerre z6nl). Mention should br
of the plan), in which case they may have pitch roofs like the aisles, as at Chapaize Ir34]. However, the transepts also often proiect and have striking fagades (Paray-le-Monial Ir 561; Autun
made of the handsome and well-built cry'pt of thc cathedralo1'Auxerre (r. roz5-3o) [rrzl
Cathedral). The longer transepts were built to provide additional absidioles.r The' archiepiscopalcrossplan' (with two tran-
which is precocious in its architectural forms. perhaps because of influence from the Loire. The crvpt has beautifullv composed groupccl piers and fine r,aulting, with moulded ashlar
septs east of the nave) apparently originated at Cluny Ir4z], to permit large assembliesin choir. It spread to England (Lewes Prior.v, Canter-
ribs. Ner,ers Cathcdral has a similar crypt dated a b o u t r o z g . B u r i a l c r J . p t sa r e u n u s u a l i n B u r gundr', which did not have manv Earlv Christian
bury, York, and Salisbury Cathedrals). 'fhe crossinginBurgundy, often oblong rather than square, regularly has an octagonal domical (or'cloister') vault on squinches, and the vault
saints besides Germanus (Auxerre), Benignus (Diion), Valerianus (Tournus), Fortunarus (Charlieu), and Savinianus (Sens). The much
is sometimes pierced with small windows. Naoes are aisleless in modest churches.
q u o t e d ' c r y p t a e ' o f C l u n y I I w e r e s e c r e t a r i ao r lateral sacristy chambers, not subterraneani 'crypta' may mean a vaulted chamber abor,c ground.2
Though sometimes roofed in wood, they are typically vaulted in Burgundy - the result of Roman heritage and probably also for reasonsof
The ambulator.y with radiating chapels came early to Burgundy, and was long confined to thc most notable monastic buildings with crypts. It
acoustics. Small tunnel-vaulted churches of Romanesque proportions respond amazingly to the liturgical chant; even a few voices will hll such a building with rich resonances which are
was, however, not much used in Burgundy, evcn in Gothic times, outside the monasteries. One exccptional church, Bois-Sainte-Marie, perhaps
hardly obtainable in a wooden-roofed room. It is obvious that certain of the Burgundian naves were built cheaply for capacity. Saint-
under the influence of early Charlieu, has an ambulatory without radiating chapels. The apse dchelon occrrs in Burgundy, and
Marcel and the later Infirmary Chapel at Cluny (like the near-by church of Beaujeu and many others belonging to the school of the Loire and
C l u n y I I , w i t h t h e e a r l i e s t!c h e l o ni n t h e r e s i o n ,
^\-
transcpts with towers, to which wide woodentrussed naves were added
naves twice as wide,
more or less, as the chancel. The efI'ect,though naves
varies greatly. There is a continuous tradition for Roman sturdiness and amplitude, which runs from the basilicas through Saint-B6nigne and V6zelay to the Cistercians, with a placid rhythm in the division ofbroadly proportioned, individual
bays. 1'here is a tendency, noted
especially' in the parish churches, but also at Ylzelay, and in Cistercian work, to use a twostorey interior elevation. The Cluniac group of Burgundian churches often has emphasis on the verticals. At Cluny III the height ofthe transverse arches was three times their width and the individual bays were about four times as high as they were wide. In the Burgundian nar,es, lighting bv clerestory windows is usual, but in many instanccs of vaulted churches they have been omitted or blocked up for safety's sake. In such buildings, if they are short, the west windows of the nave give a sufficient light. The naves of ordinary parish churches tend, in f'act,to be short, but in monastic buildings the processional liturgies (much developed in Burgundy) caused the construction of very long naves which influenced those of other regions. Aisles arethe rule in buildings of any importance, unless the naves have uncommon width. Exceptionally Saint-Bdnigne at Dijon, Cluny I I I , a n d S o u v i g n y h a d t w o a i s l e sa t e a c h s i d e o f the nave. Aisles are almost inr,ariably covered b1' bays ofgroin vaulting (occasionalll' quadrant vaults) separated by transverse arches which are buttressed b1--pilaster strips or spur buttrcsses.Ordinarily each aisle bay has a window. Torpersand pinnacles are normal on Burgundian churches, and are invariably an attractrve feature of the design. The number of towers
246
IHE KINGDOI\1 OF ARLLS, AND BURGUNDy
M T D D L E A N D S O U T H E R NF R A N C F -
varies !ireatly,and with it the silhouette (always interesting)ofthe buildings. The tower shapes are sober and dignified, and the openings, usually with attractive ornament, are always well disposed. Authentic Romanesque tower roofs had pvramids of low pitch (as a rule less than forty-five degrees, except on pinnacles), until the twelfth century was well advanced. Towers in the tradition of the heavy Roman turris,bnllt up from the ground, are square in plan. Pignacula, olten somewhat too large to be 'pinnacles' called in the modern sense, may start from the roof level, and are frequently octagonal. 'l'all and graceful crossing towers, quadrangular or octagonal in plan, are a constant feature ofthe churches. A belfry in several stages is often set over a lantern with tiny windows at the crossing. Bell cages, where they occur, rest on the crossing vault. The belfry stages were always roofed in wood, sometimes covered in the Middle Ages rvith tile, sometimes with 'laves' (laminae of stone). In Burgundy, paired western towers occur much less liequent[1'than crossingtowers; we mav sa!' that generally paired rvestern towers were associatedwith galilee porches of monastic inspiration. Single western towers are unusual. Stair turrets of varving size enliven the silhouettes of manl.' churches ; thev ma!' be square or round. Saint-B6nigne at Diion was exceptional in having three pairs ofstair turrets, svmmetrically placed. Cluny III had two great square bel(iy towers at the fagade, two square stair turrets, of which one was carried onlv to the clerestory level, together with four pignacula ofgreat size one oblong, and three ofoctagonal shape. Porchas and nart hecesare features of the more ambitious churches, as a rule; more modest buildings rarelv possessthem.
of ashlar work, introduced for zontal bands credit is given to the skill Insufficient ,tr.ngth. masons in linding the proper Burgundian the of exceptionally good mortar' materialsand making plan occur early in the Buroblong of Piers crucifbrm piers. which do as churches' sundian hare three-quarler coln u c l e i S q u a r e iersist. u m n s a d o s s e dt o t h c m i n m a t u r c w o r k . C r u c i and/or form nuclei have three-quarter columns III in Cluny to them flttached pilasters fluted and related buildings. Ashlar is early used' Cylindrical piers of moellln occur early (Saint-
Thel-' have characteristic carved lintels, tympana, and moulded enclosing arches. Onll modest examples, or those under Cistercian influence, were left plain. The proportions are in almost all casesexcellent.
De t a i ls of S uperstr uct ur e The pall-porh of early Romanesque Burgundr'. to be understood, requires a knowledge ot mason work in the Loire region. At first, thc execution, both of walls and of vaulting, was rather rough. Ashlar stone was used, rather ex-
Philibert at Tournus, ChaPaize). Colunnar sfia/is were used lrom earlv times for support; examples occur at Saint-B6nig;ne, Diion, and in the Charlieu chapter-house, as
ceptionally, in the crypt of Saint-Philibcrt. Tournus, before q79, and ashlar spur buttresses occur in the same work. The rough vault, ne.r'er
well as in Cluny III and buildings related to it' Monolithic limestone shatis trp to twentv lcet in length are easily quarried in Burgundy', but difficulties of transport prevented their wide
stuccoed, still shows the marks of the small boards used as centering. Division of vaulting bays by arches of ashlar stone may have lirst come in systematically with the Lombards, about g8o rooo. Ashlar was used more and more from that time onward. Late in the twelfih
21.7
p a s s a g eo f t i m e . I n t h e s e c o n dh a l f o f t h e t w e l f t h centur-y it was verv luxuriant indeed, being carried out with decorative pilastcrs and complicated mouldings. Moslem influence, coming perhaps by way of the Auvergne, brought in cusping. Verv spic-v decorativc effects rvcre achieved by' its use. The Lombard corbcl table survived throughout the various phases of Burgundian Romanesque, and was used effectivell. in the almost Baroque designs of the middle of the twelfth century. 'Ihe sculptural decttration of Burgundian Romanesque buildings was not rich in the early period. The Lombardic work employs simple capitals trimmed down in concave f'ashionat the angles, so that triangles result on the facesofthe capitals instead of semicircles as so much more f r e q u e n t l f i n L o m b a r d y . I n u n p r e t e n t i o u sw o r k these capitals are built up ol'courses. Few grot e s q u e so c c u r . t h o u g h t h e r e a r e s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g
Corinthian,
struction would not adhere properly, and was
but simplified, and Corinthianesqueforms are more usual. Structural columns are not fluted, but decoratir-e columns irnd pilasters often are in the twelfih century rvith
examples; leaf'agepredominates so generally that one and rather unskilful leafage in fact must suppose the importation of highly trained carvers (almost certainly from the marble-
omitted.
quite unconventional detail in the fom ofbevels,
cutting regions of France, and most probably of Italv), when the sophisticated Clutiac atelier was created. Some of the capitals show the influence of medieval manuscript decoration. The
The walls, even early walls, in Burgundr show a high level of craitsmanship. The region
zigztgs, cher,rons, reeding, cymas, and beading. Such details show the influence of imaginative manuscript painters and metal workers. The mouldings in ordinary buildings are
use: the columns. as in classic times, were ordinaril-v built up ol drums' 1'he capitals are sometimes surprisingll' close to the antique
century' walls and vaults both were increasinglv laced with ashlar, which in Gothic work was indispensable. Where ashlar was used, the slrrra which regularlv surl'aced the rougher old con-
is blessed with an abundance of excellent limestone ranging from white to pale buffin colour. which weathers to beautiful toasted browns ancl
simple and far lrom subtle, but the best work has classicizing mouldings of great beaut-r.sThe
soft greys. An exception is the pink stone ol Pr6tr', used at Saint-Philibert, Tournus.l At Cluny III
string courses show beak mouldings derived from the classic cyma; column bases are some-
the typical ashlar blocks arc
times close to the Roman fbrm of the Attic base. The graduai transition to the Gothic derivatives of these profiles can easily be traced in Burgundy.
about three feet high, with verl'narrow mortar ioints ( * of an inch). However, these dimensions are exceptional; the ordinary joints are thicker and the ordinary coursing is narrouer.
Prrtuls ol'embrasured lbrm, in one. t\.\o.or several orders, with nook shafis, are a common
earll' walls show the use of rough stones with
The Burgundians had a great ragt: for decora;tive arcadinS which was unquestionablv of classicalorigin. Simple at lirst, the arcading be-
and attractive f'eature even ofmodest churches.
occasional herringbone work; a few show hori-
came very elaborate and multiplied
Common walls are faced with moellon,relativell small stones trimmed roughly to shape. A l'elr
L.
with the
fine earlier acanthus leafage at Cluny III (so l i k e a n c i e n t a c o n t h u s m o l l i s \ ,a s w e l l a s t h e e x ceptional delicacy and classical character of the earlier moulding profiles at Cluny III, would be accounted fbr, if we might suppose that fine craftsmen came from Montecassino, Pisa, Venice, or possibly Moslem Spain, which has yielded beautiful carvings in an almost Romanesque style. These men surelJ' worked under French direction,however; fbr the sarour ofthe d e s i g n si s u n m i s t a k a b l y F r e n c h . Cistercian architectural asceticism made itself l e l t i n s t r r n t l yi n B u r g u n d y . S i m p l e c o l u m n c a p i tals and austere portals with blank t-Ympana appear on many churches not belonging to the Orcler. Their reserved charicter accords well
2 . + u M I D D L E A N D S O t r lt l E R N F R A N C E
with the sober outlincs which the Burgundian Romanesquechurches generally cxhibit. I/uulting in Burgundl fbllowed Roman models until well into the Gorhic period,though 'hall--Gothic' rib-vaults began to appear sporadically in Burgundy as soon,or almosr as soon! as in
. ND tsURGUND) T T I L ,K I N ( ; D O M O F A R I , F , S A
kcpt both tvpes secure fbr somc time, but thr tunnel \ault was the morc diffrcult to abrir successfulll, and with time almosr all thc rramples have bccomedeformcd or hare actualli l h i l c d . \ u x i l i a r l b u r r r e s s c sn, o t o r i c i n a l l . vp l i r r r n e d , h a v e h e l p e c lt o k c e p s e v e r a lo f t h e i m p o r t a n r
Centering was used in building the Burgun'lhis dian vaults. was supported on hear.ier
T h e t u n n e l l a u l t s o f i e n h a v e t h c r o o l i n p ;o l l u t c s l a i r Jd i l e c t l v o n t h e v a u l t c c l l s , l o a d i n g t h c
timbcring, as mav be seen at Lirbro
h a u n c h e s .H o r v c r , e r ,r o o f i n g o f ' l a v e s o r t i l e o n timber supports o\.er an air-spacc often covcrs tunnel vaulting, as it invariabh'does vaults ol groined or domical fbrm. 'I'he high vaults ol Romanesque Burgundr l b r m a n i n t e r e s t i n g s t u d v i n t h e m s e l r e s .l \ I c n -
in Gotland [S5o,:Sr], where a fburteenth-century vault of Romancsque ty-pe in the church towcr still retains its centering rz .sr/ll. Wooden tie-piecesset irt thc springing, bar. bv bal, were a common means of maintaining the vault saf'ely in position, while the masonry solidified. l'hey were intended to bc remor,ed. The tie-pieces wcre doubtless uselul in supporting a workmen's platfbrm durinp; construction. 'I'imbers lvere apparenrll' embcclded in certain w a l l s t o g i v e l o n g i t u d i n a l s t r e n B t ha t h i g h l r : \ e l s . This occurs in the dormitorr, of the Cluniac priorv ol'Lewes in England. It is not good practice, lbr the buried timbers suffer from dry rot and lose their strength; then rhe wall is weakcr t h a n i t r v o u l c lb e i f i t u e r e c o n s r r u c t e d e n t i r e h . ol stone. T h c t u n n e l v a u l t a n d i t s d e r i v a t i r . e sw e r e a l most exclusively used in Burgundl-, except lbr the apses,which of course ha.r,eround or pointed semi-domes. Since both round and pointed arches arc used in the arcading, wc find roundarchedand pointed tunnel vaulring (commonll used in the naves and transcpts) together with round and pointed groin vaulting (regularlv in the aisles, occasionallv in the naves). The trump e t s q u i n c h e s a n d t h e o c t a g o n a ld o m i c a l v a u l t s w h i c h o c c u r n o r m a l l y a t t h c c r o s s i n g sa r e , l i k e groin vaulting, derired fiom the tunnel r.ault. Exceptional are the niche-head squinchesand 'l'ournus, dome ol'Saint Philibert, built somewhat belbre r rzo.
E n g l a n d .r h e r i l l a g c c h u r c h m i g h t b c medieral ol bricL or stonc in 't scttlc,h. only builtling of the communitr lunctions ol N l a n v ment. takcn over b) ecclesiastical or to-day had been and most ol'the towns m a n o r i a le s t a b l i s h m e n t s , the twelfth centur].' that until small, were so require highlf indivinot did functions their dualized buildings. With the twclfth-centur1.
The groin vaults have on the whole stood trn bettcr than the runncl raults.Srlong mur.r.11
the ile-d.-It.un..The Romanesque vaults are in laminated stone.rough, with thick joints, thick cclls. and stuccoecl solits.
219
raults in place.
r e v i v a lt h i s w a s c h a n g e d . Cluny, which was carlv chartered (about s charming old building ofthe r r o o ) , p o s s e s s ea late Romanesque period which is said mistakenly to havc served a civic purpose as the abbey mint. It has a big-arched grottnd floor, where there wxs 2t fbrlic of some sortl simple apartments occupiod an intermediatc floor; a loft above them provided storapie
t i o n h a s a l r e a d r . b c e nm a d e o f C l u n y ' I I ( r ' a u l t c d about rooo) rrnd Saint-B6nigne (roor r71. 'I'he sober and powerlul r.aults of thc narthcr trr Tournus (about q6o) precede thcm hoth. 'I'hc
A serious conflagration in rI-59 destroyed many houses at Cluny. Surviving still arc several of the more or lcss standardized dwellings which were built to replace them [186]' The
u p p e r s t a g eo ( t h e n a r t h e x , d a t e c lp c r h a p s a b o u r
lots are relatively narrow, and the houses, built with party rvalls, werc placed at the sidewalk
rorg, has quadrant-r'aulted aislcs with dilphragms between the bavs, and a tunnel vaulr
line. Cellars were provided with interior access. Space was allotted fbr a garden plot at the rear.
with transr,crsearchesover a clercstory between. Pilaster strips stiflin the wall on thc cxterior. in
r 86. Clunv. charactcristic house, after r I 59
The characteristic stone lbqadesare handsomel-v proportioned and rvell built, but the intcrior
thc Lombard manner.(, W i t h C l u n l l I I t h c p o i n t e d a r c h r v a sb r o u g h r i n . T h i s p e r m i t t e d a c l e r . e r e ra n d t h i n n e r g r o i n r,ault, more easily built, and it sare a morr 'l'he scicntific profile to the high vault. optimunr profile is a catenar]-, which avoids all deform-
construction wls of rvood, At the ground lloor a generous pointcd arch opens upon a shop, a work room, or a stable,
br the court into tuo or thrce rooms; it woulcl be provided with onc or two hooded fir'eplaces, and would har,e a storagc loft abovc, under a
and beside it a narrow square-headed openinpl gives upon the stairwal' which lcads to the
a t i o n s t r e s si n t h e v a u l t c e l l s . TB u t r v h c r c ,a s a t Clunv, the clcrestorv rvallswere wronglv locatetl
apartments on the floor abor,e. The shop occupies about half the ground-floor arc:r, ertending beyond the stairway to give accessto a corridor
roof'with a dormer opening and broadly overhanging eaves. It is a very attractivc medieval housc tvpe, and alwals appears in gencral ac-
over the piers, the vault had to bc propped up with flying buttrcsses. 'I'his is perhaps the placc to introducc a brief consideration of cidl arckitetzzra,s slight as the
l e a d i n gt o t h e k i t c h e n ( a t t h e b a c k o l t h e h o u s e , 'I'he with a big open lireplace at one end). intervening space betwcen the shop, the corridor, and the kitchen is an open court with a
remains are. In Burgundy thc Roman citics s h r a n k w i t h i n t h e i r w a l l sa n d d e c r c a s e ci ln p o p u -
w e l l i n i t e s s e n t i a l l ! . a no u t d n o r r o o m . In these houscs at Clunl' a charming range of two-light winclows divided bv columns and
lltion, so that lbr I long time nt'u consrruction lor secular purposcs was not on a high level. S t o n e w a s d o u b t l e s s m u c h m o r e r . r s e di n B u r -
set offby small piers givcs light across the whole tront ofthe upper storey. This storef is divided
gundy than f-arther north, where, as in earlJ
.l--
c o u r . t t so f ' F r e n c h m c d i e r a l c l o m e s t i ca r c h i t e c tr.ll'c. (,lun1-', built on two sides of the abbev enclosure, had a very simple street system. Ultimately an outer wall, with three gates, was each gate leading to a small plaza. As far as rve know, the old Romanesquc towns wcre, similarly, quite simple. Sometimcs they built
s e r e l a i d o u l i n r i n g s .l r o u n d a c h u r c h o r c a s t l e ' but on flat ground they were often rectilincar, and the'bastides' later inherited this mode'
25O
THE KIN(;DOM
M I D D L E A N D S O U T H E R NF R A N C E
When a more official architecture developed, it was naturally dependent on monastic architecture to a considerable extent. The abbel's had been building walls, gates, gatehouses, halls of various sorts, garners, and mills. We must infer that municipal constructions of the sort were simple at first, like those of the monks, and that
esque. The medieval revivals of the nineteenth century produced little of interest in Burgunilr., but the country chr,rrcheswerc often carried out in a sort ol'Romanesque or half'-Gothic stvle which blends well, in the smiling opulent lanclscape, with the churches which remain to us liom the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries.
when they came to be embellished, the ornament was what we have seen on the churches. This observation is borne out by the 'Man6canterie' at Lyon, a twelfth-century work which served as a choir-school annexe to the cathedral, but it rnight equally have been built as a municipal hall of some sort. The
countryside
esque Burgundy
architecture of Roman-
must be divined from later
buildings which have obviously kept something of their earlier lbrm. The village of Blanot, near Mricon, looking down on its enchanting little valley, must be more than a little like a Romanesque village. The manors and granges of the region are not Romanesque, but their orientation, their simple arrangement about courtyards oflow barn-like structures is clearly traditional. At Berz!-la-Ville the grange of the Cluniac monks has been rebuilt, but the old court has its original location and the remarkable chapel built in the days of St Hugh still dominates it. At Berzd-le-Chitel near by, the castle has been rebuilt, but gives a hint of older fbrms, as does the Chiteau des Moines at Lourdon, in spite of partial rebuilding and advancing ruin. Rural Burgundy
is still largely Romanesque in its visual eff'ect.
The Romanesque style which we have thus described was cherished by the Burgundians. N'Iuch of its character was bequeathed to the 'hall--Gothic', as one may see at a glance when
PROVENC}'Ihe
essentialLatinity ofProvence is well shorrn in its Romanesque architecture. The region lvas temporarilv
a possession of the Visigoths (a8o tr), Ostrogoths (5ro ff.), Franks (-537and later), Arabs (before 739), and the Empire, with interludes of local independence; it was evcn under Spanish rule, without losing its basicallr Roman character. Arles was a natural choice as capital of the medieval kingdom; for it was thc capital of Roman Gaul in the fifth centurv, and its bishopric was then the primatial see. Important examples of 61th-centurv ecclesiastical architecture still exist in the region; lirr instance, the church ofSaint-Pierre, at Vienne, now a museum, was in f'act a vastly spacior"rs fifth- or sixth-centurv wooden-roofed church. the oidest extant in France. It is erroneoush supposed to have had tlibunes. Interior roof
most interestingof its type, which is one of the plan.It wasbuilt intoa lateanlique in ouatrefoil a church was concemeterialcomplex. and rorz' about it structedover Again,the cathedralofVaisonhasthreeapses plan, ascribedto the Merovingian of horseshoe period;but betweenlolo and to3o, and once morein the thirteenthcentury.the churchwas rebuilt, so that it has the generalcharacterof laterRomanesquebuildings'e The early abbeys are unexpectedlydisappointing. At Saint-Victor at Marseille, which hasan augusthistory going back to its founder wellJohn Cassian(4r4), there is now a stour' good a exterior crenellated built,two-towered, in morestored Romanesque, tardy of example dern times. The upper church is of the thirteenthcentury, incorporatingparts of an older building dedicatedin ro4o. Beneathit thereare fifth-century remains of unarchitecturalcharacter,but one can trace a stubby three-aisled basilicawith a largesquareatrium in front of it a layoutwhich recallsthe churchof SantaMaria Antiqua in Rome. L6rins, near Antibes and Cannes, though charming,is alsodisappointing;for nothing remainsof the Early Christian period, when the monasterywas one of the most important in
supports had to be built in gz4 6, providing^ two lines of tall, slender arches on plain oblong piers, with a Carolingian pierced screen wrll above, providing support for a pitch roof of' 'I'he church was, as we belier,e, an example with the unobstructed interior spacc ordinary form.
which was usual in the Roman Imperial thronc halls, like the'Basilica'('royal house')in Trier T h e s e v e r l ' s p a c i o u s n a v e sa p p e a r a s a R o m a n -
visiting the maiestic thirteenth-century interior
esque church type. Since the reconstruction of' gz4 6 (probably caused bv weakened trusses),
of the cathedral o[ Langres, so splendid and so strong. Even the bener examples ofBurgundian Renaissance and Baroque church architecture
Saint-Pierre has had aisles nearly as high as the nave, which has no clerestory. It is thus rt primitive sort of 'hall church'.
have about them a certain warmth and simple, recollected quality which is akin to the Roman-
served crypt dating lrom thc eighth centur)
Saint-Laurent,
Grenoble, has a well-pre-
r87.Saint-Gilles-du-Gard, priorychurch, planof thechurchbeforedestructton
O F A R L E , S .A N D B U R C L I N D Y
western Europe. On
25I
the Ile-Saint-Honorat
there is a trefoil chapel dedicated to the Trinity, an eleventh-centur,v work, and there arc eleventh- or twelfih-century sections in tlre picturesque but much rebuilt lbrtihcations 01' the island. Records have come down to us regarding tenth- and eleventh-century building at other abbeys and cathedrals, but the remains are slight. -I'he
really flourishing period for Provengal architecture came in the twelfth century, when the cities were acquiring local independence Many older buildings of importance were replaced with maturer works in consequence' The classicizing tendency is unmistakable, increasing rather than diminishing as the twelfth century advanced; it was full and strong at the beginning of the thirteenth century, but lost strength during the ensuing disasters, and because of the general expansion of Gothic art. Some traces of influence fiom neighbouring Burgundy are to be observed, it is believed, in the cathedral of Valence. near \'tienne, where Urban II performed a dedication in rog5.10The cathedral of Saint-Paul-Trois-Chiteaux,ir a mid twellth-centur)' work, has a certain relationship to Paray-le-Monial and Clunl fbrmer
'I'IIE
K I N G D O M O F A R L F , S ,A N D B U R G U N D Y
the aisles are co\rered with quadIII, though and the apse has pretty radiating vaults, rant decorative ribs in the ProvenEal manncr. The plan of Saint-Gilles-du-Gard,1r a grcat f,luniac priorl'' and pilgrimage centrc, had aisles, a transept, and an apse with radiating chapels all features which are exceptional in Provence is conjectured that the vast crypt, at [fi]-S].It level, and exceptionally placed under cloister the the nave, may represent a Cluniac church begun {ter rc77 . In this Urban I I consecrated an altar in ro96. A new start was made c. rr16. Before rr42, ^pp{ently, it was decided to transfbrm the western part ofthis church (then cithcr unfinished, or in ruins) into the existing cr1,'pt, and build an ambitious church at the higher level; an arrangement which occurs at the great pilgrimage churches of Le Puv and Santiago de Compostela. The east end of Saint-Gilles, now ruinous, was probably well along by rrj5, and the west front with its splendid threc west portals, under way by- rr42, was completed a r88. Saint-Gillcs-du-Gard,
priorl'church,
fhgade, r. r r7o; gablc much later
generation or more later, perhaps as latc as rtg5. The rib r,aults of the crypt har-c alreadybeen mentioned; they now sustain the pavement ofa rather piteous church a seventeenthcenturJ reconstruction corcring onlr a part of t h e a r e ao f t h e C l u n i a c c h u r c h . In passing we should note the f'aqade of a spaciousthree-storey house ofthe twelfth century, not far from the abbey'at Saint-Gillcsrr Ir9o]. It is well built ofashlar,and picturesquely' sheltered by a broad overhanging roof. It resembles,on a grander scale,those houses which we have obserr.ed at Cluny, and it is hardly more elaborate in its arrangements. There are three large square-headed openings on the Eround floor. The lintels, and two lines ofpaircd window openings above, are composed within strong horizontal mouldings, like great fiiezes ing across the design. Plain segmental reving archcs take the load offthe lintels ofthe Etound storevi decorative arches arc cut into lintcls of the paired windows above, and
r 89. Saint-Gillcs-du-Gard,priorl' church, r. r r r6 7o, crvpt
rgo. Saint-Gillcs-du-Gard, tlvellih centurt'
f'aqadeof housc,
253
THE KTNGDOM OF ARLES, AND BURGUNDy
enrich the composition. This fagade effectively finest of its kind' the of is one of Because similarity in the sculptures' mencalls to mind the tion of Saint-Gilles inevitably at Arlesra Saint-Trophime of former cathedral o l d m o n a s t e r l e s ,o n e t h e i n a s H e r e , frSr-31. ecclesiLorc n vain lbr evidence of the earl-v astical importance of the site. Tenth-centur.v constructions (c. 95o 7z) at the head o1'the nave were largelv replaced b-Ya new sanctuary in the fifteenth centur]', the old nave having meanrthile been rebuilt, and embellished (about r r7o-8o) by the remarkable wcst portal. This is set against a plain basilican fagade. The portal seemshalf Roman becauseof its gablc, its classic columnar forms, and the rather stumpy classiclooking statuary. It contrasts strangcly with the tall, austere interior of the church, though the latter is carried out in the excellent ashlar of
2((
Provence. Its division into nave and aisles is not typical of the region, nor are the very tall proportions and rather obstructive piers. The transept (partl-v of the tenth centurv) is of simple design and relatively slight projection. J'he arches at the crossing are relatively low, as is usual, and the old apses were no higher. Over the crossing at Arles rises one of the frnest of the Provenqal Romanesque towers Irgz]. Formerly the main apse of the church 'fhe stood below it, immediately to the east. tower has three principal stages,almost cubical in shape, and has strong set-backs which give it a r i g o r o u s p r o f i l e . l t s d e c o r a t i o ni s u n a s s u m i n g pilaster strips and arched corbel tables on the two lower stages, Corinthian pilasters above, with an ingenious pierced frieze and a corbelled cornice. Good proportion gives it a grace which is surprising in such a heavy design'
ryt(leJi)andrgz.-{.rles,Saint-Trophime,fagadc,r. rrTo llo,andcloistcrgarthandtowcr,largcll'twelfthcenturl
$, d*
s
256
M T D D L EA N D S O U T H E R N FRANCE
Beside the church there is one of the finest cloisters in France, though of late date (about rr83, finished, perhaps, about r38g, in the Gothic style) [r93]. The piers ancl spur buttresses ale very heavv, for the cloister walks are covered by substantial stone-ribbed quadrant vaulting. The designer beautifully lightened the effect by giving the Romanesque spur buttresses the form of fluted Corinthian souare
T H E K I N G D O ] \ TO F A R L F . S ,A N D B U R G U N D Y
with bold, lively, and varied Corinthianes(lue citpitals of great beauty. Among other 6ne churches which descr,.,, mention is rhe monastery church of I\1,,111_ maiour.l5 Its affiliationwith Cluny and irs lolrr tion on a Pilgrimage route account for rhe spacious crypt with a central rotunda, an 11,_ bulatory, and radiating chapels. Above the crr p1 l e v e l i r i s a n i m p o s i n g a n d b e a u t i l u l l _ vb r r i l r
gnon,16also aislelessItq+' tg5l It stands on an lminenc" beside the heavy irregular mass of the |ruge fourteenth-century Papal Palace. A handsome Renaissance stairway contributes to the
r9.y.Arles,.Saint-Trophimc, Romanesque cloisterwalk, r. r l8j
columns,by adorningthe pierswith bold figures on the interior corners,and by placing relief panelson the adiacentwall surfaces.The Romanesquebays of the cloister open upon the garth through deep and richly moulded round arches.The supporting columns are in pairs, set on a plinth and carrying an elegantimpost. Someof the shaftsare round, othersoctagonal.
built ;rbout I'zoo lSainte-Croix). appearance, gains much fiom its lorelv and ths group remote situatlon' Much better known is the cathedral o1'Avi-
dignity of the church, which is, however. in_ fringed by an unlbrtunate nineteenth-century votive statue set like a pinnacle on the tower.17 The entrance porch of the cathedral is of surprisingly Roman form and surprisingly late date (about r2oo). The tower behind it is in part rebuilt, but wirhout iniury to its essentially Roman dignity. A date of r069 is given for the
r94. Avignon Cathedral, t. rr4o 6o and later (porch c. rzoo). The pedestal and the statue on thc tower are a distressing modcrn addition
aislelesschurch of very pure and austere 1brm. gracious, ample, and satisfyinglv classical. Apparently the construction of this great church was started as early as rl17, but consecration did not take placeuntil r r53. A very simple but substantial and well-proportioned cloister ad, ioins the church, and at a little distance there is a f:rmous crucifbrm charrel of almost classicrl
\
I H E K I h - C D O N IO F . 4 R L E S . A N D B U R G T J N D Y
258
"*==1:=--jt O
lO
2-59
5rIT
rg.5.Ar ig;non(iathedral, r. r r4o 6o andlater 'Ihus
this cathedral is a tardv example of the type with tlvo axial towcrs which wc fbund in the filth century at the church of St
church proper, but universally set aside because of the mature character of the masonrl' and sculpture. The nave is of ample proportions'
the nave.
and handsomely covered by a pointed tunnel vault rvith transverse arches. The lateral mouldings, arcading, and nook shafts which support this vault and the ribs are particularly rich and
Martin ol"fours.
beautiful, being consonant with a date from about rr4o to r16o. Lovely marble capitals, carved with rare delicacy and beauty, still survive from a cloister of this period' An odd feature of the building is an octagonal lantern s u s t a i n e d o n l o n p J i t u d i n a l ' e n c o r b e l l e da r c h e s ' sprung between the vault arches at the head of
In passing, ref'erence should be made to thc famous bridge, now broken, of Saint-Bcn6zct Irq6]. This is the'dancing'bridge named in the delightful old song, and it has a picturesque chapel which is largely contcmporary. The arches ancl piers ofthe bridge are fine examplcs of heavy block masonry construction' The date is r r77 85 and later. Orange Cathedralr8 is another o{'the cavernous, rather dark aisleless Provengal churches
rt'7i 85 and latcr rty6.Asignor.t,Pont-Saint-B6n6zet, I97. Saint-Pons-de-'lhomiires,priorl' church, interior. r r6a and later Here, too, we find a pointed vault. Saint-Gabriel has a smaller church which is similar. Aix,le an ancient city also, has lost its old cathedral of roTo-rro3 (except an aisle, the
extends into this region. Alet Cathedral, lor example, has an apse which is polygonal ex-
baptistery, and a cloister), in favour of a florid Gothic edifice. The cloister is of the twelfth century, and more ordinary in form than that
teriorly, and decorated with Corinthianesque
of Arles - being small, un,r'aulted,and provided with piers only at the four corners; but it is gav with paired columns, and richly carved.
history of sculpturc, has a fine church with a
Largely because of the sculptural relationships, Septimania or Gothia (the ancient Gallia Narbonensis) is assigned to the Romanesque school ofLanguedoc. However, part ofit, Rous-
a
sillon, is actually French Catalonia, which has a character ofits own, though Provengai influence
corner columns in Provengal style. Saint-Pons-de--lhomibres,r" important in the typical Provengal interior of rr64 and later aisleless, ample in proportion, and covered by a monumental pointed tunnel vault with transv e r s ea r c h e sI r 9 7 ] . F o r t i f i c a t i o n s o f G o t h i c d a t e b u t R o m a n e s q u e c h a r a c t e rh a v e l e l i t h e c h u r c h with an interesting interior gallerv, and a machi-
260
. I ' I I T ,K I N G D O M
FRANCE M I D D L EA N D S O U T H E R N
arc also unusuali the aislelesschurch with onc apse at the head of it is preponderant. Apsc
provincial works, though the comrecall Roman medie\al. Thc carting can be a r e oositions d u l l . but in the finest cxamples the r n d h.ruy
The precipitous austerity ofthe cathedral of Agde and the huge solidity of that of Maguelone:1 - both carried out in monumental ashlar seem to have something Provengal about them.
exteriors are regularly polygonal, with columns or pilasters decorating the angles; they are semicircular and arcaded on the interior. Nave walls
admirable' design is lively and the chiselling 'fhe naaesof Provengal churches are covered vaults by substantial, usually pointed, tunnel
are strongly articulated by interior arcading and
Agde, a construction of the middle of the twelfth
exterior spur buttresses of substantial construc-
century, was fortified in consequence of royal permission granted in r r73.
with ffansverse arches. The aisles are divided by arches and covered with quadrant vaulting (asat Arles) or ramping parallel tunnel vaulting
over the crossing
colated exterior gallery carried on a handsome applied arcade. f'he building was probably crenellated also.
Saint-Guilhem-le-D6sert22 (eleventh and centuries) is picturesquely set in a
twelfth
mountain valley above Aniane. The church, well known, is Lombardic, rather than ProvenEal or Languedocian. It is stoutly built and completely r,aulted over a satisf'actory clerestorl'. The sanctuary
wider, later, and more
finished than the nar,e
represents an intended
but these are unusual. Trefoil plans occur, bur
tion. There is sometimes a transept, with a towcr or, failing a transept, over the bay immediately preceding the apse. This bay and the apse are often lower than the rest 01 the nave. Porches are rare. but do occur (as in the cathedral of Avignon, and the Lombardic 'I'he lateral portal of the cathedral of Embrun). portals sometimes take classical forrn (Carpentras, Saint-Gabriel, Saint-Quinin at Vaison. Saint-Restitutr3), but important examples are
reconstruction which was planned to sweep
embrasured and enriched by tympanum sculp-
awa]' the earlier work completelv. Saint-Guilhem had a verv fine cloister, with carvings of 'l'his ProvenEal character. cloister has been partly re-erected at The Cloisters in New York,
ture and other reliefs, as well as by columns and statuar),' set on plinths which project in front
where multitudes har,e learned lrom it the charms of thesc old monastrc courts. We mav now proceed to examine the char-
architectural embellishment onlv).
actcristics of typical Provenqal churches, noting f i r s t o l - a l l t h e s c a r c i r _ ro l i n r e r e s t i n g m o n a s r i c churches, and the abundancc of interesting cathedral buildings - thc result of historical processesin the region. The towns were achieving strong civic consciousncssand were making important progress in self-government during the twclfih centurv) when most of the mature Provengal Romanesque buildings were built.
of the faqades (Arles, Saint-Gilles;
SainteMarthe at Tarascon has a similar portal with
D et ai ls of S uper strucI ur e If one remembers that the buildings which we have been considcring are contemporar.v with the Earlv Gothic constructions at Chartres Cathedral (rr35-8o) and Paris Cathedral (the sanctuary arm in its original form, 1163 77) t h e ] - a p p e a r c o n s e r v a t i v e .B u t t h e y s h o w h i g h competence on the part of the architects, builders, and decorators, whose designs, strongh impregnated with the provincial Roman tradi-
T1,les oJ'Plan
tions of the region, have a convincing soliditt', generous proportions, and (as a rule) a finc
The southern French cathcdral of the twellth
s e n s eo f ' a m p l e i n t e r i o r s p a c e .
century was not a highly evolvcd building, partly becausc the southern diocesesare small. Consequentl.v thc church plans are simple; ccrtain
Roman work, was used in the better construc-
ambitious buildings, such as the cathedral at Arles, are aisled and triapsidal, likc the basilicas,
Fine block masonrv in limestone, resembling tions, and it gives them great dignitv. N{arblc was used lbr manl- decorative carvings. Sculptured figures and accessory elements strongll'
(as at the cathedral of Vaison). The aisles were kept narrow, and the nave vaulting relatively low, supported on interior arcading and provided with stout spur buttresses. Since large windows were not needed' clerestoriescould be lbrtilied church, r98.Les Saintes-\'Iaries-de-la-Iler, twelfth centur.v
O T A R I , F , S ,A N D B U R G U N D Y
z6r
built under the nave r,aulting without danger. Because of the mild climate of the rcgion, it is possible to pave the extrados of masonry vaulting, forming a roofterrace, and thus to dispense with an exterior roof. But ordinarily thcre is a sheltering roof covered with round tile in the Roman manner. Bells are very often hung not in towers, but in gabled walls pierced with arches (wall belfries, belfry walls, or bell-cotes). C//11.f occur in churches which attractcd a pilgrimage. At Les-Saintes-Maries-de-la-Merr+ [Ig8l there is a two-store-v church of pilgrimage, provided with a cr].pt, which makes a third level.
262
N I I D D L E A N D S O U T H E R NF R A N C E
A fourth was created by paving the upper vault; surrounded by battlements, this terrace made the building a citadel and fortress, which is not really unusual in Provence. The turret over the sanctuary is surmounted by a bellry wall ofbold outline. More unusual are the Italianate tlvers of Puissalicon (lree-standing), Uzis (round, and pierced by openings with paired arches under an enclosing arch) and Cruas2s(about ro98; an amusing round lantern on a rounded crossing tower). Returning to the interiors, we find that crucior wall form piers are the usual supports arcading in aisleless buildings. Deep interior
o f t e n a s m a l l c o l u m n r e p l a c e sr h e a n g u l a r do.seret ar the top of the pier (Digne. Arignonr,.. Some examples are very eleganr indecd, xl,1 s o p h i s t i c a t e d ,t h e w a r m c l a s s i c a lt e e l i n g h e i n " made piquant bv a touch of medieial inrrginr"_ tion. The same is true of the mouldings.
p T E Rr 4
UITANIA,
W I ' T F IB O R D E R I N G A R E A SO N T H E L O I R E
MEDI'I'ERRANEAN D THE
A Roman architect visiting Provence in Ro_ manesque times would have seen much which would have pleased his lancy by its rngagine
interpenetrate one another' with the result that the grouping of their monuments inlo convenient regional schools has caused art histo-
novelty in exploiting Late Classic lbrmsl he would have seenlittle or nothing which he could
ri:rns much Puzzlement. -I'he clearest of the suggested classifications Velay sets oll Languedoc, the Limousin, and as anAuvcrg;ne school, architectural one as
not have understood or admired. Even the towers have a Roman matter-of-f'actness about
reresse.s with transverse vaults occur in the aislelesschurches (Cavaillon); pier forms (Le Thor),
them; the roofs maintain the flat slope of'inliquity and are covered with tile; lorcll i.ine-vards,orchards, and pines embowcr thc mrrnu-
and columnar shafts are also used in this situation. The piers usually have dosserets' and
c a r e s st h e m
other, and subdivides into'groups' the architeclure ol the rasl and varied district remaining in the West of France, stretching from the south-west to southern Brittany'r 'groups' are recognized Three architectural
ments, and enchanting atmospheric cflects as in ancient times.
who could not hold it with Spain' thcVisigoths, lcft it open to Frankish conquest While the Frrnkswereable to drive out the Moors, they wereunableto protect the areafrom the Vikings, whoinflictedterrible damage Assimilatedto Frrnce,its westernpart passedto the English by the historicalaccidentof a marriage,and hrd to be reconqueredla promisingderelopoent of independenccin thc south was suffocatedby French conquestin the Albigensian
Wu.
The great rivers have kept it accessibleto iders,and to trade. even from the Orient. The Pyrenees have not preventedcontinuing contrctswith Spain.There harc bccn ccntresof mtcllectual, spiritual,and artisticlile ar Tours, Poitiers,Fleurv (or Sainr-Benoit-sur-Loire), Limoges,Clermont, and Toulouse,but there nevervtasonecommandingcentrelor all Aquitania.The related territory is madeup of areas whicharerichly varied iniopographl,climate, ouilding *",.ri.Ir. and ethnic rlpes - all ol' th;m full On account of characrerand intere.sr' ot easycommunication. the archirecturalareas
folin the school ot'the West of France, in the w h ich t o a r e a , L o i r e ( r ) T h e r e g i o n s : lowing the river itselfgives a certain unity; it consists o f s o u t h B r i t t a n y . T o u r a i n e . S o l o g n e 'O r l 6 a n a i s ' with Berry, and Bourbonnais; (z) Poitou, which a Anjou. Saintonge' and the south-west {brms (3) P6rigord group; more compact architectural for conand the -\ngoumois Thc argumenr school onc as groups three !lreater the sidering is a is interesting. It rests on the fact that there quite unusually high proportion of aisleless mo.hur"he, - large and small, important and 65o to s o m e a r e a : t h e i n l a t e a n c l e a r l r desr, r oo with aisles; moreover' 7oo aislelessto about aisled churches olten have a special t1'pc of rvide nave, and the others can most often, though not alwa1.s,be ascribecl to outside influcnce'' In the inclusive greater school of the Loire fbr and the \\'est of France (here was a search monumental and fireproof solutions through as rethe development of this aisleless type' durtng sourcesand requirements both increased coursc ol the later cleventh century rnd in the the trvellth.
2 6 4 ' M I D D L E A N D S O U T H E R NF ' R A N C F ,
These works may fairly be considered as 'variations on an architectural theme'. The origin ofthe theme is perhaps to be sought in large Roman wooden-roofed open halls like the Temple of Augustus in Rome and the Basilica -I'rier, which had r,ery impressir,e unob-
in
structed interior space.
The Loire area, carrying on old Neustrjnl traditions, was active in architecture; it .ontinued to be a sourceofarchitcctural id",r, rna good mason nork; ir transmittcdmanr 1n111,1 encesto the Norman region. and it borr.r,$e.r e s p e c i a l l li n t h e w e s t . L a c k i n g u n ; t ' , , i. r ; . , , , i _ sidered a weak school dtringthe mature Rorlan_
The theme of the region is thus to be recognized in those edifices which have a very wide wooden-roofed barn-like nave without aisles,
such important architectural elements.
as often in Berry; or with aisles, as at SaintHilaire, Poitiers, St Fulbert's Chartres, and the
Odo of'Clunv seems to rei'er to the rvitie_nare 'theme church' of the region in a dilicult tcrt. a
old cathedral of Bourges. It is to be recognized in those churches which have a wide tunnelvaulted nave, plain or with transverse arches; and in those which by the use of parallel tunnel vaults cover an ample nave with only slender and unobstructive supports, as in Poitou. The theme is equally ro be recognized in the buildings which cover an open nave with a succession of domes, in P6rigord and near bv, and those with domed-up rib vaults, which were introduced about rr45 in Aniou to replace domed construction.
esque period buildings,
paradoxically; becausethc y,^reat heterogeneous, e\cmplifv
though
sermon deliveredabout go8 in the church of'g1 Martin at 1'ours, referring to the building as it was befbre go3 (and, probably, befbre ,!;r): 'The previous builders wished it to be arranged with arcaded passages, because the strucrure. though very wide, with the crowds pressing is h a b i t u a l l v s o c o n s t r i c t e dt h a t t h e v o \ . c r t u r n t h e choir benches and the little gates, in spitc of' themselves.'3 This text, sometimes quotctl as proof of an earlv ambulatorJ. at St \larrin, merely indicates that aisles were requirccl ro
In order to make the development clear, we refer here to certain works in the region which underlie the mature Romanesque of the area.
augment this wide-naved church becausc of exceptional crowds.a 'Ihe beautiful stone-work ofthe earlv pcriod of building in the Loire country conrinued t0
T T I EW E S ' I ' O FF R A N C E
be used and improved. Walls are ordinarilr of fine white or buff limestone, with ashlar blocks
The Loire Group This area was really'the heir ofthe active architectural school of Carolingian Neustria. f'he Norman raids, however, devastated northern Neustria. During the period of recovery after the Norman settlement (grr), Burgundian and Lombard ecclesiastics greatly influenced Norman churchmanship and architecture. This,
t99.Saint-G6n6roux, church,r. 95o
neatlv cut to a rather stubbv shape and rvcll l;rid up with excellent mortar; thel-' are articuleted b v s h a l l o w b u t t r e s s e s ,a n d o c c a s i o n a l h ' s h o r v p a n e l so f ' r o u g h e r s t o n e s( l i k e t h o s e o f t h c 6 l l i n F or hearting of the wall) which, with rheir uneven contours and wide joints, enliven thc surf'ace.Also, wall areasofcarefullv shaped ficing-
and the conquest ofEngland, gave a strong and distinct orientation to the Norman school of Romanesque architecture, which might other-
stones in a pattern, and clecorativepanel mouldings occur frequently.5 'lhe important little thurch ol saint-(rerrtroux, probably built afier g-5o lr(lql, sh()\1s excellent though restored examples ofplain rntr p a t t e r n e dw a l l - w o r k . I t i s m o r e i m p o r t a n t .h {r $
wise have been more like that of the southern part of Carolingian Neustrra.
e r e r , f b r i t s p l a n .o r i g i n a l l ya n o r a b l ce r a m p l . " r the wide-naved theme (subsequenth' dirided 2oo. Autrdche,
church. tenth centurt.
266
M I D D L , EA N D S O U T I I E R NF R A N C E
AQUITANIA. WITH
into three). A Carolingian fl-v-ingscreen still divides the nave from the transept, which for-
The clypt of Saint-Aignan, with this layout, is still in existence. According to an eleventh-
merly had dwarf arms extendinp; beyond the nave wall line. The sanctuaries are in 6chelon.
mont-Ferrand
centurl' text6 it was copied from that o[ Clcr(9,16), but its fbrms are more
The small parish church at Autreche [2oo] is a good example ofthe wooden-ro
maturc.
chancel type of structure which must have been
sur-Loire
verl- widely built on a modest scale in the tenth
river, near Germigny-des-Pres), erected a remarkable church of the mature style in the c o u r s eo f a c e n t u r y f o l l o w i n g t h e r o 6 o s [ z o r - 4 ] .
century'. The wall is stayed on the exterior by semi-cylindrical buttresses ofa type which later becomes lamiliar on the tall Norman interiors. At Crrvant the church (perhaps dating fiom
h i s t o r v . I n 6 7 3 , d u r i n g t h e d e s o l a t i o no f M o n t c -
pilgrimage to'Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire' dereloped. Gaucelin (illegitimate son of Hugh Capet)
with apse, ambulatory, and radiating chapels.
became abbot in roo4. He and :r notrble abber
': .,'tl.r
ffi....t{$'.,
LIo der n
.p,,$..,,{p:-5:,{-r. ii r,lr/
-l+ i
.w* & ll
zoz and zo3 ( below) . Sint-Benoit-sur-Loire' abbeychurch,c Io8o-trvelfthcenturv choir platftrrm,nou remored PlanshowsRenaissance
school gave lustre to the house; its influencr e x t e n d e d t o E , n g l a n da n d S p a i n . T h e m c d i o a l abbel' buildings have long since becn replacecl. but, except for the mutilation of its westcrn tower, thc church still exists in a very perfcct state. Its composition begins with the mutilated tower-porch
iust mentioncd, n'hich lost its upper stage as punishment to the monks for rcsisting their first commendatorv abbot ( r 525 7 ). T h e n r i d d l e s t a g es u r v i v e s a s a d i s u s e d C h a p e l o f S t N I i c h a e l ,a n d t h e o p e n g r t ) u n d s t a g es e r v c s , as it always has, to sheltcr the main entrancc door ofthe church. This, ofcourse, is a development of the fortificd entrance-$av-and-chapel tower which we have followcd all the way lrorrr
$,
m
,. ,
(It seems that in 749, at the request of Popc Zachar.v and Pepin the Short on behalf ot Montecassino, a small parcel was returned.) \
in scale, basilican in arrangement, and provided
zor. Saint-Bcnoit-sur-Loire,ahbevchurch, r. r o.3otwclfth ccntury. N o t c f l v i n g b u t t r e s s eosf a p s e( p . 4 9 r . N o t c 4 7 )
rrrH
ffi
It exemplifies the ideas ofthe school better than
c a s s i n o( 5 8 r 7 r 4 ) , t h e b o n e s o f ' S tB e n e d i c t w e l t brouglrt to Fleury, where the1,are still venerated.
grandeur of the early school on the rniddle course of the river. Both buildings were large
I
f /l cdnf urli
any other building, and embodies an augusr
terned wall-work. Almost as imposing as St X'Iartin of Tours,
.eart1 Io
#::'* .#
The old abbey of Fleury, or Saint-Benoir(also on the middle course of the
the tenth century) has unusuallv good pat-
t h e c a t h e d r a l( r o r z f f . ) a n d t h e c h u r c h o f S a i n t A i g n a n ( r . r o r 8 f 1 . ) a t O r l 6 a n s r e p r e s e n t e dt h e
N
I } O R D E R I N GA R F , A S 2 6 i
the church of'St Martin at Tours, built nearthc s a m c r i r e r i n $ 6 - 1 2 .T h e e x a m p l e a t S a i n t B e n o i t - s u r - L o i r e i s a d m i r a b l v s u b s t a n t i a l ,v a u l ted in nine compartments over lbur interior supports on each level, with elaborate sculpturecl capitals. The nave beyond is of Romanesque cons t r u c t i o n w i t h a p a i r o f g r o i n - v a u l t e d a i s l e s .I t
I
wasperhaps wooden-roofed before being covered by the existing Gothic vault. Following the nave is a Romanesque transept with a tall cross-
by a pair of aisles, all tunnel-vaulted above two files of columns. Then. with its chord on the east line ofa dwarftransept marked by two engaging
ing tower (which makes it, like St Martin, a church with two axial towers); following this there is a handsome long sanctuary ba1' flanked
dwarf towers, comes a spacious apse with amb u l a t o r y a n d t w o r a d i a t i n g c h a p e l s( t h c n u m b e r being even, as it $'ould be in Auvcrgne). The
{R}.qS 209 AQtlT\NlA, WITH BORDLRING
w 1A
apse pavement is raised above a spacirlus crvpt which has three rvindows (reopened) looking 91 the sanctuarv bar'. The building has a clerestory throughout. Deformations show that this has put a strain on the walls of the apse end. The tower-porch mav
dccorative frieze abovc thc main arcadc.t
s u r e l y b e e n r e b u i l t ; t h e r i c h c r c a r v i n p l so f - t h c ground storel'seem to belong to a ltter date the late eleventh centurv, perhaps. Figured
building complete, though construction continucd until about rr1o.
capitals in the upper stage indicate a date of' about roTo 8o. Doubtless the tower resembled
clear Burgundian
zo5.Ebreuil, church, tower and porch, twelfth centurr'
:.:..".*,.
blind arcading, with balustcr columns, as a Saint-Bcnoit-sur-Loire as we know it bcgan t o c o m c i n t o b e i n g a b o u t r o 7 r . I t s u f f e r e dl r o m fire in rogi. but there was a dedication in r ro8
pavement now lowered to thc old lerel) rc-
,'v
Genou, rvhich is also long, tunnel-like, well lighted, and columnar. Both hare engaging
represent the tamous tower which Abbot G a u c e l i nb e g a n t o e r e c t a b o u t r o z o . I l ' s o , i t h a s
fine examples at Ebreuil [zo5], Germignl'I'Exempt, and in the Poitevin arca Lesterps, before it was mutilated.; The sanctuan' (its
p o.
sembles the chevet of'the church of Saint-
r v h i c i r m u s t h a v e s e e n r h c c s s c n t i a lp a r t s o f t h e
On the borders of Burgundv, and showing influencc in thc beautiful portal,
sculptured
Saint-Benoit's
priorl.
ol'
Pcrrecr'-les-Forgcs has a fine tlvelfih-centurv t o w e r - p o r c h i n t h e s t 1 ' l eo f t h e L o i r c r c g i o n . giving cntrance to a ty'pical church of'archaic form, clated in the eleventh.century. This church is as good an example ofthe interpenetration ofLigerine and Cluniac influences as the more famous examples, La (,haritd-sur-I-oire i
a n d S a i n t - E t i c n n e ,N e t e r s . T h e c r r r e d p o r t a l is a berrutiful example, cl:rtedabout r r o-5. Among the (,luniac priories, the church of Bourbon-Lancv p;ivesa good idea of Cluny II ,:l
iq
rM
a s i n t e r p r e t e di n t h c L o i r c r e g i o n . At La (-harit6-sur-Loire'' thc original build-
t"
i n g , b e g r . r ni n r o 5 g o r s h o r t l ! a l i e r , h a d a n a p s e 'l'he chevet rvls enlarplcdwhen the b u i l d i n g w a s r e c o n s t r u c t e d( f b l l o w i n g t h c d c d i -
J'i
cchclon.
a;:
w '::t,:.
cation of rroT) to rcsemble Clunl'' III.
t 7'" ,?::,:',,1;
**1
Y''
which it has a fine apsc and an ambulatorv with
:
lr
'l
zo4. Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire, abbeychurch, r. rol.iotwclfth centurr
The
sanctuary is dcep, with several ba-vs, bcyoncl f i v c r a d i a t i n g c h a p e l s ,s o m e w h i r tm o r e l o g i c a l l y planned thirn thosc at (.lunv. There is much g r c a t e r e m p h a s i st h a n r r t C , l u n vo n t h e c o l u m n s (rathcr stout) which sustainthc apse wall, and t h e a p s ei t s e l f r e a c h e st h e h c i g h t o f t h e s a n c t u a r l v a u l t . I n t h e s ed c v i a t i o n sl r o m C l u n v , t h e a r c h i tect of La Charit6, doubtless traincd in the
'!'
L o i r e r e g i o n , f b l l o w e d l o c a lc u s t o m . 'I'hc great north-$'est ton'cr at La (,harir[ I r 6 6 1u a s p e r h a p sb c g u n a b o u t r r j o a n d f i n i s h c d late in thc centurv. Whilc the design does not
AQUITANIA, wlTH MIDDI,E
AND
SOUTHIRN
BoRDERtNG ARLAS
27I
FRANCE
zo6 ( hLlon). Lochcs,Saint-Ours,before t I6ll 2o7( ot'posit( ). Ncuvl-Saint-S6pulcre,church lbundcd ro4z
here. The tower is seen from great distances in sweeping views over thc river, lvhich makes a wondcrful big bow ncar La Charit6. Chitcaumeillantr" has a Bencdictine church with r arious f-eatureswhich parallel those of La Charit!. It is a fine example on a smaller scale, and has not undergone the disasters which have injured the greatcr building. We easily recognizc the same activity and energetic character in the designs for SaintEticnne, Neversll (ro68 97) [r45, I46]. As noted, this was an important Cluniac priory; influence spread to smaller houses which it possessed in the region. The architect drew upon Burgundian and Pilgrim-
its architectural
age themes, and in his nave. where he introduced a clerestory under the tunnel vault' he surpassed his models. The smaller churches which abound in the region, Cluniac or not, have the same crisp air. Here the aislelesschurches *'ith projecting transepts and f'airlv tall crossing toivcrs often make similar Burgundian buildings seem rather placid by' comparison.li 'I'he open-naved, rvooden-roofed'theme
dated before r I68, which cover its nave. There is an obvious connexion here with the wide nar cs of Pdrigord and near by, unobstructed, aud
church' of western France, earlv suggesteclat Saint-G6n6rour Irgq], was magnificentl]' re'
covered with domes, which we shall consiclcr presently. Meanwhile we take up other erccp-
presented on a g;rand scale about Ioo5 .1o in the important church of Beaulieu-les-Loches (near the Loire Rivcr; later remade as a Vaulted hall church, now partly rebuilt, partlv ruined).
tional buildings.
t-vpical example, extant near
{ r ' c r r e l e g a n t a i s l e d r w c l t i h - c e n l u r } c h t r r ' (h with the aislespracticalll'as high as the nate e x i s t sa t S a i n t - R d re r i e n . r "T h i s w a s a C l u n i r r c priorr'. and the church has pointed arch :lrJ
Bourges, is the church of Les Aix d'Angillonlr (tweltih century'). A contemporarv example
v a u l l c o n s t r u c t i o n r . r h i c hl o o k s C l u n i a c , b u t t l r c b a s i c i n s p i r a t i o n c o m e s l i o m t h e 5 q h s 6 l r' 1 '
betwecn Clunv ancl Lyon, almost at the southeastern extrcmity' of the school of'the Loire, is t h e c h u r c h o f B e a u j e u .I I
Poitou, where tunnel-r'aulted hall churcht' a b o u n d . S a i n t - R d v 6 r i e nh a s s o m eg r o i n t a u l t i r r ' : a r t h e e a s te n d ( a n d n e c e s s a r i l yi n t h c a m b u l ' t tory) along with semi-domes oYer the apse lntl
A
later
and
A noteworthv
aislelcss church is Slint-Ours
a t L o c h e s l s [ 2 0 6 ] , i n t e r e s t i n gf b r i t s t w o R o m a n esque axial towers, but er,en more so lbr the two hollow
octagonal spires in ashlar masonry,
radiating chapelsas is usual everywhere. 1'hc church is beautifully lighted and elegantly opcn 1 ' h e g r a c e t u lc o l u m n s o l ' t h e a p s ea r e e c h o e Ji "
in the nave, the median columns of a double ba-v'' which otherwise has slender piers as supports of pointed tunnel vaulting lvith transversc arches. The rotunda derelops in the Loirc region with Carolingian precedent; for example, at Ferridres-en-Gitinais there are in the parish church traces ol an octagon (inspired fiom that of Aachen) which was built fbr Alcuin's old monastery. Saint-B6nigne at Diion [ro8, roql and the Dome of the Rock in -lerusalem inspired thc boldest of the rotundas in the Loirc region that built in the early-twelfth centurv fol the P o w e r l u la b b e r o l ( . h a r r o u r . r a n d n o u a r u i n The central *.ll of,h. rotunda survives as an openwork tower. uith a cr\pt at its base'lbrm'femplars' ing a platform on which, as in a Church, the principal altar wrrs set. In addition
there was an aisled sanctuar]' with ambulatory long and radiating chapels; there was also a excavarccent and faqade' navc nith I Gothic tions have uncovered remains of a transept' 'l'he lbur arms of thr; church were pushed out' two so to speak, lrom the central well bv the 'l'his prohave must ensemble aislcs. annular t i u c e c la n i n t e l c s t i n g b t r t r a t h e r r i o t o u s a r c h i tectur'rl ellect. 3 f'he church of Neuvv-Saint-Sipulcrel [zo7] p o s s e s s ea s simpler rotunda, intcnded to bc arl in the likencss of'thc Holv Scpulchre' \cur1-Saint-Sdpulcrc originated in a fbundtn ation of ro.1z. ruhen the Holv Sepulchre was ruins. Houcrcr, thc building was known
instur
through manuscripts and pilgrims' Construct i o n w a s b e g u n i n I o 4 5 o r r 0 : + 6w h e n C o n s t a n tinc Nlonomachos was rebuilding the originat 'fhe cxisting navo at \eu\'y' rotuncla (1o45-8).
272
|'/IIDDLE
AND
SOtTl HLRN
AQUITANIA, WITH
FRA\t'E
ment by the French engineers.
Nlention ofthesc rotundas offers the occrrsion lbr rn excursion to Brittanv; for the only notable
Chinon onrheVienneharastrongsituatiorr, and it was important even in Celtic times.
Romanesque building in that region is SainteCroir at Quimperld,r" dated rt87 but restored
Largelv becauseofits strength as a fortress, thc historv of Chinon is studded with grert namcs
after a collapsc in 1862. It is related to both Charroux and Neurv-Saint-56pulcre. Thc nu-
Clor,is; Geoffroy' \{artcl
Plantagenct and Richard Caur de Lion of'E,ng-
cleus of the building is a r aultcd squarebay oi' heavv construction. surrounded bv a ponderous
land; Charles VII of'France and Joan of Alc; 'Chiteau R a b e l a i s ;R i c h e l i e u . I n t h e du MilicLr'
r o u n d a i s l e ,a n d m a d e c r u c i ( b r m b 1 ' f b u r v a u l t e d extensions. It is rather rough and provincial in
is the site of the Roman castrum and the wartl
series in stone irnd a long period ofhieh achier t-
of Aniou; Henrl
That Brcton Romanesque churches should have connexions with the p;roup of the Loire is
or ro1,ll dwelling where Henry' II Plantagenet
understanclable when wc remembcr that Tours was the Breton ccclesiastical mefropolis, and
reccived Joan of Arc, is rebuilt, and a ruin. Other old towcrs and walls have also been much
t h a t c o m m c r c ea n d o t h c r c o m m u n i c r t i o n su e r e e a s i e rb v t h e w a t e r s s o u t h o f t h c p e n i n s u l a t h a n lrom NormandJ'or overland. Onh'Rennes and
r e b u i l t a n d a u g m e n t c d ; w i t h h t c r a d d i t i o n st h c
The greatest historical, spiritual, and intellectual centre of this region the western part ol' was Poitiers. It was an Carolingian Aquitania important citv under the Romans. Resounding military victories were won near by in early medieval times, none more important than that of Charles Nlartel over the Saracens in 732. 'I'here was a brilliant court at Poitiers in the Romanesque period. The eminence of the
works. A much better idea of militarv architecturr
C h a r e n t e f b r b u i l d i n g ; c n g i n e e r sa n c la r c h i t e c t s -I'he church ol'Saintlblloued the same route.
did torver at Beaugency, and the two to\lcr\ in the donjon at Lochcsrr fzo8l. Beaugencr r.
S a u v e u r a t D i n a n h a s P o i t e v i n c h a r a c t e r ,a n d usuallv a witness to wc 6nd the ambulltorv '-l'ouraine at Loctudl , at inflr.rencc fiom
roughlv square; the larger tower at Lochcs measures about eightv by forty-{ivc feet, tuie. the dimensionsof the smaller. When first built a l l o f ' t h e m m e i r s u r e da b o u t r 3 o l c e t i n h e i g h r . 'l'heir sheer prccipitous walls are in excellcnt a s h l a r w i t h s l i g h r l r p r o i e c t i n gb u t t r e s s e s n i l ' a s t e r s t r i p s a t B e a u g e n c - \ ,a n d s e m i - c v l i n t l e t '
r r.38. 'l h e o l d c a th e d r a l si n t h e g r c a t c r c i t i e su e r e i n m a n y c a s e sR o m r n e s q u c , b u t t h e v h a v e b e e n
a t L o c h e s . I n b o t h c a s e st h e c x t e r i o r s a r c s t r i c t l \ b u s i n c s s - l i L e ,r v i t h n o s c r r c h t b l t h e g r : r c er l h i . l r
r e p l a c e d ; n o f i r s t - r a t c R o m a n e s q u cm o n u m e n t s
one usually' perceivcs in a nronument of' the
r e m : r i ni n t h e r e g i o n .
Loire region. -I'he plan of the towcrs tt ,tt. utu,,t .,na ,,"' the ags: it merely called lbr simple open roonl
Beforelearing thc group of thc Loire Ibr Poitou, it \\'ill be wcll to look at sc\ eral fine monuments of militarv architccture which have conncxions
one above another, with floors of timbcr, sntrtll w i n d o r v s , a n d f i r e p l a c e s .T h e e x a m p l e a t B er r L r gencr. datcd in the clercnth cenlun, i' tlt'
with both regions.'I'hc nerv-built fortifications
m o s t a d m i r c r lo l i t s t r p c i n l i r a n c c . . l t I . o e l r e ' t h e R o m a n c s q u cc o n s l r u e t i o no f t h e e l c r e t l t l r a n d t u e l t t h c e n t t t r i e si s n o u e i r d l ( ' d b r r r t l r 't
were tvpicallv in rvood. F-ulk Ncrra's masonrv
The Arc hitectur nl Grou p oJ'Poit ou, nith ,4njou, Saintonga, and the South-West
chiteau is a most imposing arral' of militalr
in the Romanesque period is given by the splen-
ofthe earlv medicval period in western Europe
ideas and Neustrian tradition.
died in rr89 irnd wherc in r4z9 Charles VII
its rcgion had closc connexions with Normand-v. Limestone was actuallv imported lrom the
where Pierre Abelard was abbot, and had an thc monks on his hands in insurrection among,^.
makes them all live ; the sap, in the group of the Loire, is the lively inheritance of Carolingian
(unusually long for its width) of the early medi'l'he tweltth-century Grand Logis
cval fortress.
Lantl6renncc, and at Saint-Gildrrs-dc-Rhuis,
shed. Another simile might be that of a tree with grafted branches of various sorts. One sap
ll
exccution.
273
fying institution, such as the Burgundian school had, to bring it to a focus. Instead, old motit's flowed up and down the river, and outside motifs flowed into the valley from the water-
donjon at Langeais (r. r ooo) inaugurates a grear
i s o f t h e e l e v e n t hc e n t u r y , a n d t h e r o t u n d a m a y be in large part. It was fbrmerll encircled b-v residences, stout lbrtifications, and a moaf.r"
BORDERINGARDAS
zo8.Loches,donjon, r. rroo works which, though verl' simple, conf-esstheir late date by significant dctails such as the almond-shlped plirn of thc proiecting towers. The severer character of earlier medieval work is clearly shown b1' comparing the rounded towers of Loches with the lrowning semicircular towers of the chiteau at Angers, built after r r8o, and indecd largcly in the thirteenth century by Philippe-Auguste and Louis IX. The upper parts of the torvers ancl certain outlying works har,e been destroyed, so that the effect is rather ofa Rornancsque than a Gothic chiteau. It should be noted, holrever, that there is no such thing as a school of the Loire in military architecture; that was inter-regional like the wars which brought it into being, and It was lor the most part the work of engineers. From the rcport wc havc made, it is obvious that the architcctural group of the I-oire is not easily summarized. 'l'here was no grcat unl-
church of Poitiers goes back to its Early Christian bishop, Hilary, whose shrine has been a place ol'pilgrimage throughout succeeding centuries. The baptistery of Poitiers is one of the oldest buildings o{'its kind. O n e o f t h e m a i n r o u t e so f t h e W a y o l ' S t J a m e s (Paris Orl6ans Bordeaux) passed through Poitiers, and unquestionably contributed to the spread of Poitevin architectural motif's to the south-west of France and to northern Spain. Onlv at Santiago de Compostela were the Spaniards able to build in the grandest French Romanesque st.vle; elsewhere they olten built in simpler forms which can be traced back to Poitou and its region. Excellent limestonc is available in the area ofthc Poitevin school; it is white, weathering pleasantly to bufI.s and warm greys. The stonecutting and mason-work are excellent, but the dcsigners kept to earlv solutions of vaulting and compositional problems in the twelfth century' Poitevin dcsigners werc seeking and xchisvrng
2 ' 1 1' M T D D L t
AeUtTANIA' wlTH
AND SOUTHERNFRANCE
and the i1.-d.-F.attc". Poitou was early concerned rvith effects o1' clear interior space, as the old nar,e of SaintHilaire in Poitiers indicates.By the middle of the eleventh centurv forward-looking designers began to take an interest in vaulting problems. The lbrmer abbey' church of Lesterps2r presents an early example of the solution of the problem ofthe vaulted church of basilican plan which rvas widelv adoptcd in Poitou. If the and it mav be in this clerestorv be given up
Dortsthe crenellations ifthe building is fortifieJ' The roofing is carried over nave and aisles t'gether in a vast two-sloped turtle-back a sinple form which obviates much trouble in mair-
the nave supports miry be more slender,
and consequentll' less obstructive. With the aisles approaching the nare in height, the gen-
tenance. This type of church spread lar and rvide cn
eral efl'ect of such a building is that of an ample hall with generous sp:rce in it, fustity'ing the usualname'hall church'. Such interiors are less dramatic and less brilliantly
its own merits. A much admired example of the Poitei:n style stands handsomelv at Saint-Savin-su:Gartempe [zrol. The church, though norv par'-
lighted than the
typical basilica, but have a space-beauty oftheir own. At Lesterps [zo9] the present nave just east of the tower porch already mentioned repr e s e n t sa c h u r c h o f ' r o 3 z w h i c h w : r sd a m a g e db - v fire about r o4o and continued very handsomely, in line austere forms with noble and simple geometry, as a hall church, covered by semicircular tunnel vaulting with transverse archcs. 'l'his work was dedicatedin Io7o. 'I'he wide wooden-roofed nave of Ileaulieu-
sense of ample scale and openness,rvith rich dccoration on the faqades, but their plans rc-
les-Loches was divided by' two files ol'piers and corered by three parallel tunnel vaults about ro8o, and the church thus becamc a hall
mained relativell' simple in most cases. .\s thc t\4elfth centur\ adranccd, pointetl archcs and 't':rultstook the placc of scmicircular
church.l
ones,uith goo.l cllect. it\ \ e mx\ ree in the t.rll tunnel vault with transverse arches at Chau-
vaults. Of these the middle one is regularly somewhat higher and wider than the others. 'I'his nave is (except for end windows) dependent on openings placed high in the aisles for its light. The scheme is an old one which rvas used by the Romans; it was earll' adopted for
c h i a l ,w a s b u i l t b y a p o w e r f u l a b b e v ; i t i s v i s i t ' e f r o m c o n s i d e r a b el d i s t a n c e sb e c a u s ea r e r l s l c : der and beautiful Gothic spire carries the we't
zorl.Lcstcrps,abbel church,dcdicatedIoTo
crr,pts, and appears abore ground in Catalan churches befbre the ]'ear rooo. In Poitou supcr-
Thus before the twelfih century began, there was a satistactorl' t1''peof Poitevin church with the western arm covered b-vthree parallel tunnel
275
the hall church arrangement' Slend(r olified by piers with applitJ Ivfindrical piers' or grouped 'crushin-' can carrs the s t i l t s l i k e .otu1nnt. vault, since the lateral laul:s weight ofthe high to absorb thrust' InlvarJ placed are perfectly vaults partly neutraliz's aisle the from thrust vaults' Transverse arch(s the thrust ofthe high responds in tlc in the vaults strengthen them; easily car:r buttresses spur stout and walls aisle there:s the thrusts to the ground. Sometimes on tre arcading between the open buttresses for 't makes arcading Such building. a flanks of sul'and openings, the window over wall stiffer
magnificent Romanesque decorative effects at thc time when thc practical ground-work of Gothic architecture was being laid in Burgundy
region
B O R D E R I N GA R E A S
fronttoa greatheight 3rzfeet.Thelorlerpa:t o f t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n i s a R o m a n c s q u ea x i a l e r trance tower which goes back, at least, to rob:.
structures ol'this tvpe achieved a quite ner
Beyond are the nate. lransept with crossirS tower, apse, ambulatory, and radiating chapeir. According to the most recent studies. tie o l d e s t p a r r s o f t h e c h u r c h p r o p e r ( a p s e ,a m b - latory, radiating chapels and transept, at tle east) are to be dated about ro6o 75. Perhals there was originalll- an open wooden-roolid n a v e ,e x t e n d e d a b o u t I o 7 5 8 5 b y t h e c o n s t r u . tion ofthe western bays ofthe existing nave, brt
vignv (begun afier rtoo).:5 To be sure the pointed nave has its most dramatic and brerrth-
demolished about ro95 to make wal'' fbr the s:r existing eastern bays' rvhich were hnished fr rIr5. This nave, more generousin dimensicn than the chevet, has wide, high, groin-raultrJ
taking expression when the vault is seen floating abore a pool ol light from a clercston,but it i' true that a shadorvednave Vault, such as uc see in this Poitevin type of church, imparls ttt a r e l i g i o u s b u i l d i n g a s e n s eo f g e n t l e s h e l t e r i n g mvsterv. Statical problems are ver\r much sim-
aisles; the central nave is tunnel-raulted' wi:ir the three western bays, only, carried by group.J
^-
abbel church' 216.S1in1-Slvin-sur-Gartempe, ( . 1 0 6 0I I t 5 ' n a \ c 'l'hc piers ancl separated bv transversc arches' supported on reall'l splenrit ofri", latcr ba.vs, colrtmns' wcre btrilr conc y l i n d r i c a l tlid'ercar with Clunl lll and Durham i..iorrntoutlv part of the nave ls qurte comCathedral. This in artistic qualitl' to Clun-v III and n"Jt it was most beautifulll'' dcsigned fbr ;;;;"-: b1' the ever-memorable series of .1".-n-r", is called thc Bible of'St Savin, which i;r.;.. of its kind. Thc palntrngis, works linest one ol'thc in tonality, are suptawnr.and reddish-brown bv others in the crypt and the J.-"n,.a piers' and bv a striking'ma'bling' ofthe ;r;;;.r, which is still :i[.r, ensemble an up ,11an. and perfect':" sineularl)' complete "' i o ' t a n earll cxample ut the h'rll h n ' F;;;.;:' t h r o u g h l h e r e w o r k t n go r or three-na\e church (ro75) [z5rl, but rt retatns th. Nlonti...teuf'"
276
I / ' I D D L EA N D S O U T H E R NF R A N C E
(though in a disappointing setting which emphasizes unfortunate additions, and with distasteful restored interior polvchromy) the fine church of Notre-Dame-la-Grande28 [z r r, z r z], datable perhaps to r r30 45, or at anv rate to the first half of the twellth century. Notre-Dame-la-Grande, in spite of its name, i s n o t a v e r l . l a r g e c h u r c h . I t h a s a n a p s ec a r r i e d
zr r. Poitiers, Notre-Dame-la-Grande,
,. r rlo
AQUITANIA, WITH BORDERINGAREAS
columns on each side) and the arches abo... show a lavish use of decorated roussoir, 1.signed individually with radiating motifs. l.n1_ eral decorative arcading of similar charaqcr but pointed, encloses paired arches with bl,rnk tympana, and above all three enclosing arches runs a system of spandrels embellished \\ith figure sculpture and crowned by an claborate
zIz. Poitiers, Notre-Dame-la-Grande,
+5
on cvlindrical columns and an ambulatorl. of polvgonal erterior plan, with three radiating 'l'his chapels. construction is attachcd to an intermediatc bav with a crossing tower, and a 'I'he tvpical round-archcd dark nave. aisles arc covercd with groin vaulting throughout. Spur buttresses and applied arcading gir.e a tl.pical Poitevin lateral elevation, and the old part of' t h c b u i l d i n g i s c o r . c r e dw i t h t h e u s u a l s l a b - s i d e d roof in two slopes. Thc f'agadcis r.crv rr,pical o1'the latcr Poitevin fiqades; it is generalll accepted as a sort of paradigm, though it is perhaps the richest and 'I'he finest of'them all. profile, basilican, does not correspond to thc rool'behind it, but gives cmphasisto the three axial motives of the com'I'hc position. d o o r w a v i s t 1 , ' p i c aol f t h e r e g i o n ;
277
r. r r jo .15
arched corbel table. The axial motivc of' thc middle register is a vast window, with two zoncs of'arcading to eachside. The arcadingherc en-
On Notre-Dame-la-Grande the corner turrets are of typical form also. Bundles of three engagedcolumns set iust back from the corners
closes statuary, and is richlv bordered. Once morc an elaborate corbel table marks a stagc in
support a stubby drum engaged with the f'agade on each side, and with the flanks ofthe building at the eaveslevel. Above each drum there is an open cylindrical arcaded stage capped with a
the composition, but it is broken by the richll bordered window arch, and thus prepares tl.rc ey-efor the pcdimental string course, which cng a g e sa h u g e , r i c h l r c a r v e d a n d b o r d e r e d r . t r e , t o n t h e a x i s o f t h e u p p e r s t a g eo r p e d i m e n t . l h c e n t i r e p e d i m e n t a sl t a g ei s l ' a c e dw i t h i n l e r t . t i n { p:rtterncd masonr\ and capped by a ponrnr.l' 'l h i s w h o l e c o m p o s i t i o nh a s a n o r i e n t l l r i t h n e s sa b o u t i t - p e r h a p s t h e r i c h n e s so f ' a B r z a n t i n e i r o r l c a s k e tr a t h e r t h a n t h a t o f \ l r r . l t r n architecture, but the oriental suggcstion is Ltn-
i t h a s n o l i n t e l o r t ) . m p a n u m , a n d i s e n c l o s e di n
mistakable. The taste fbr it probabll'owes sonte' t h i n g t o a c t u a l o r i e n t a l t r a d e , t h e C r u s a d c s .l t r o
lbur orders of'stumpv columns (two bundles of'
the rcfler from the Pilgrimage to Santiago.
turn supported by an arcaded square stage which houses the crossing vault. Tower, turrets, and imbrications are repeated, with variations, elsewhere and are, in fact, characteristic ofthe Poitevin architectural group. The-v spread to the medieval domed churchcs of P6rigord, and thence in modern times to the Sacr6-Coeur in
conoidal roof and pommel. The roofs are as usual built of radiating srones with slanting
Paris. 'I'he
tronts. Each slanting lront has an integral imbrication or scallop proiecting from it. The faces ofthe imbrications are vertical, so that a iolly l n v e r t e d f i s h - s c a l ep a t r e r n results. Such roofs < l r a i ne a s i l y b e t w e e n the imbricarions, but the vertical ioints in the troughs often give trouble. The crossine tower of Nltre_Dame_la_Grande has a simila-r roof above a cvlindrical arcaded alrd columnar upper stage. *hiah .a.,. on ,n arcaded square intermediate belfry stage, in
we have seen as the motif of the corner turrcts of Notre-Damc-la-Grande has an interesting
bundle of shafts with a pinnacle which
history. Used independently, it is the theme of the charming'Lantern of the Dead'in Fenioux. It appears, restored (with variations), in the Abbey kitchen at Fontevrault [zz4]. More important, it comes in prettily as a corner ornament in the church towers and lantcrns r'rith d i m i n i s h i n g s t a g e sw h i c h b e g r n t o a p p c a r a b o u t I roo in Poitou and elsewhere"Ihere is a ruined
276
i . { T D D L EA N D S O U T H E R NF R A N C E
AQUITANIA,
example at the Montierneuf, Poitiers, which is believed to be one of the earliest [z5r]. Four
cious, of considerable width - a Gothic reconstruction covered with octopartite domed-un
bundles, each with its pinnacle, stood gracefully above the corners ofa square tower stage, and
r i b b e d v a u l r s o f r h e t y p e t h a r w a s d e v e l o p e di n Anjou. As if in compensation for this, we fincl Cunault, near Angers, built in the poitevin
beside the diagonal sides ofan octagonal stage, making a felicitous transition to the pyramidal roof of the latter. This pattern was used, on a larger scale,in Spain at the crossing ,cimborio, ofthe cathedralofZamora
[z5o] and derivative monuments ; at the Martorana in Palermo Iz7z], and derivative monuments also in Norman Sicily. Some of the derivatives are as late in date as the thirteenth century. At this point we should consider briefly how the architectural group of Poitou interpenetrates with that of Anjou and that of Pdrigord, all within the greater school of the West of France. An example is Sainte-Radegonde, poitiers, a church of pilgrimage built from about rogo onward.2e Its plan includes apse, ambu_ latory, radiating chapels, and a very characteristic tower-porch which is accepted as a model of thc Poitevin version of that historic element. At Sainte-Radegonde the nave is spa-
style, and we shall find that the domed-up Angevin octopartite ribbed vaults are related to the Aquitanian domed churches. It is because of such interpenetration of these western architectural groups that French critics prefer to consider the school ofthe west of France as an inclusive unit. Pursuing this matter in Anjou brings us to its capital, Angers, the seat ofa dynasty important
in the west country, on a very simple plan: four aisleless arms of a great cross. The northern, southern, and eastern arms of the church terminated in apses.Over the crossing a somewhat warped pendentive dome was built, by ro7.5,
2?O
dome still serves as the support ofa rather heavy block of masonrv doubtless intended to carry s,belfty or turritus dpe'r. The ability to construct such a dome, almost free-standing at a considerable height (where it has given a good
centur!' it was progressively rebuilt, prcserving some of the old nave walls. The new work was
account ofitselffor nearly 9oo years), makes the achievement of the splendid twelfth-century domes ofthe abbcy church ofFontevrault, near
about r 2,1o.
paign of expansion of the County of Aniou was beginning. The church had a wooden-roof-ed w i d e n a v e ,t r a n s e p t , a p s e ,a m b u l a t o r v , a n d s h a l low oblong radiating chapels. In the tweltih
started about Ir50, continued by the Plantag e n e t s( w h o h e l d A n j o u l r o m r r 5 4 t o r z o o ) , a n d finished, except for details, under the Irrench The twelfih-centurr
na\,e, which exists al-
most unchanged, consists of three tremendous domed-up square groined bays with the usual diagonal ribs of the Early Gothic style. The-v are in ashlar with relativell'thin cells and span about 52 feet, the hrst in lirance to have so generousa dimension. Their historical importance as evidence ofPoitcr,in and Angevin engi-
the same timc the Angevin rib vault, is the c a t h e d r a lo f A n g e r s i t s e l f 3 r [ 2 r 4 , 2 r 5 ] . I t s s c a l e is much larger than that of Saint-Martin in the same citl'', but the plan is even simpler. Thc
neering ingenuitl. is verl' considerable. The laults combined the advantagesof the rib-r'ault
original cathedral was begun shortlv aftcr IoIo
was much built in thc Angevin region and in
zt4. Anglers (lathcdral, e l e v e n t h t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s ,l a \ e r 0 2 5 ! vaulted r. r r 5o, cxtcndcd later
-il-
AREAS
and dedicatedin roz5, when the dramatic cam-
reference has been made. Best known of all the buildings which exemplify the great aislcless cross in plan, and at
was created by reconstruction shortly after r o r z . 3 0T h e b u i l d i n g w a s l a i d o u t , a s w e r e m a n v
BORD[,RING
this structure, still in place, if not earlier; and to be the oldest large French is considered in existence [zl3]. It is redome ftomanesque 'pottery'. which porred 10 be in rubblc and R o m a n derivation. This a L a l c s u g g e s r *ould
Angers, and thc P6rigordinc domes, seem less s t r a n g e ;a n d i t h e l p s a l s o t o e x p l a i n t h e A n g e v i n domed-up rib vaults to which a preliminarl.
in French, English, and Levantine history. For Saint-Martin at Angers, an old foundation, a remarkable church (now lacking its nave)
WI l'il
ofthc ile-de-France with thc advantagcs ofthin ashlar domed construction. This type of vault
A Q U I T A N I A , W I T H B O R D E R T N CA; n l _ , t S
Spain. Later Gothic developments includc tcchnically interesting rib systems.
p r o d u c e a m e d i e v a l s i l h o u c t t e .1 ' h c a x i a l s q u a r e tower gives an ellect somcwhat like a screcn,
The transcpt of Angers Cathedral (including the crossing) consists of three ba.vs with an aggreg te interior length of about r48 feet;
such as was planned lbr Novon Cathcdral in the unexecuted arcade between the belfiies o1'thc 'I'he whole mass of thc three western towers.
similrrly r,aulted the technique, however, is maturer, and the vaults havc the characteristic
western towers at Angers resembles a westwork
Angevin octopartite division, with ridge ribs. (The octopartitc division looks, in plan, like the U n i o n J a c k . ) A s i m i l a r s q u a r eb a y a n d t h c s e m i circular apse, with eight triangular cells, bring the interior length of the church on the main 'I'he height to the soflit of axis close to zg5 feet. the transverse arches is about 6q fect. which is equal to that of the Romanesque nave of Sant-
Returning
lrom
Angers and the north to
Poitou, we lind a radiation ofthe Poitevin tvpes to thc wcst, the east, the south-east, ancl the south-west also. The buildings were almost all built in the twelfth centurv, when the countrv -I'he various was well organized and prospcrous. fcatures of the Poiteyin stvle as we have found them in the capital occur, engagingly counter-
a height of about 86 f'eet. Thc stout spur but-
which have a r,erv direct appeal.12 It is olten
tresses havc alwal's maintained these magnificent vaults saf'ely in position.
possible to savour these churches in an un-
The great interior space ofAngers Cathedral
certain awkwardncss which often results from
is almost Roman, though the dimensions fall short of the greatest Roman works (the nar,e of the Basilica Nova of N{axentius and Constantine measured 83 feet in the clear, rzo feet in height, z4o feet in length; the lateral tunnel r,aults are 63 f'eet high). In spite of the Gothic tincture given b.v thc pointcd arches, the linear qualitl'' of the details, and the odd feeling that thc church is like a small building magnified, here is a monument which an
changed, in a multitude of smaller buildings
disturbed old sctting. One comes to accept a the simple naive plans, and to enjoy', er,en in rustic examples, the luxuriant
carving, the
rather riotous arcading, and the hierarchies of plump columns which catch a soft ripple of light fbr the fagades. Round and pointed arches were often used together, but there was a constant relative increase in the latter as the twcllth centurv advanced. Where tunnel vaulting has been used, the naves have often become deformed or have
Imperial architect would have understood and
lost their r,aults, due to inexpert workmanship
enioyed.
or faulty'mortar. This is truc e\,en fbr spans of the order of twenty feet; the domes, which we
Not so the laqade ofAngers Cathedral, which makesa definitc compromise with Gothic forms. The blocky' front has a central portal in the stylc of Chartres, above which is a triplet with a fine big Early Gothic window in the ccntre. At each side, a tower with stage upon stage ofdecorative arcading rises to a tall Gothic fldche, as ifAngers were a pinched and narrow cathedral of basilican plan in the ile-de-France. The space between the towers and above thc sreat window i s o c c u o i e d b r R c n a i s s a n c em o t i f s a r r a n g e d t o
^.
appropriatclv cnough in a cathcdral whcre the plan is almost simple enough to be Carolingian.
iago, where, however, thc width is only about zg feet. The crowns of the cells at Angers reach
has a simplicitl'which
zI-5. Angers cathedral, eleventh thirteenth centuries, na\:e r025, r'rultcd r. r r-5o, extended larcr
z8r
shall considcr prcscntly, have held up much better, e\,en ovcr spans of double the width. Close to Poitiers there arc scvcral wcll-known examples. At Cir,ra.v, the imposing lagade has among its sculptures part of a horseman, supposed to represent Constantine, and accepted into the iconography of the region ; Gengal' and 'fo the Montmorillon also deserve mention. north-wcst of Poitiers thcre are interesling cxamples at Parthenav, Saint-Jouin-de-N{arnes,
282
MIDDLF'
AND
SOUTIIIRN
A Q t it r A N l A ' W I T I I B O R D E n t N c l n r a s
FRANCI
Poiand Airvault. Melle, to the south-west of tiers, has two YerY charming and typical Saint-Hilaire, and Saint-Pierre, churches which is one of'the most elegantly composed of all. It has a fine apse and crossing tower. Chiteauneu[-sur-Charente, south of Melle and Poitiers, has a good church with a fine fagade. Like Civray, it has a Constantine. Not lrar distant is Saint-Michel-'d'Entraigues', an octofoil chapel (rr37) with a famous reliefofthe Archangel conquering his antagonist. We are here on the borders of the Saintonge. The church of Aulnay-de-Saintonp;e is well known also; it is oflate date and well preserved. The amusingly carved voussoirs of the arches have the motifs radiating, as is usual in the style, rather than in sequence up the arch, which is typical ol'Gothic. The church at Aulnav [2r6,
zrTl has a handsomepointed tunnel vault orgl l h c n a \ e . a h a n d s o m e c r o s s i n g l o w c r . c r r r lx dignified apse. At Saintes (from which the Saintonge trrkc5 its name) there exists, in a very puch reducg6 state, the Clunirc priory church of Saint'l'he Eutrope, beg;un about ro8r Ir38, r391. crypt, a goal ofpilgrimage, is in its original claborate (brm, substantially constructed, with aisles, 'l'hc apse, ambulatory, and radiating chapels. raised choir (1br monrstic liturgies) communicated rvith aisles. and thus with the remlll:rble nave, stepped all round and opened on the crypt Irz.5e], so that pilgrim throngs could sr:c and hear serliccs performed at the shrine.j' The fbrmer convent church of Sainte-Nlalicdes-Dames at Saintes is, appropriatelv, morc local in f-eeling.'l'he fagade is rich with arcading
283
desolate' manner'and rhe main door has been more lonely, and in places almost in the Poitevin 'jl,tr. and ordcrs Rellex influence from Spain shows itself more capitals carved -r.u.ttously Thc naveis corercdb1'a strongl-v here, irs fbr example in the vaults lirraitrits voussoirs stvlq, at I-'H6pital-Saint-Blaise, domes The crossingtower' charac- of Mozarabic l"ri.r "f y Poiterin and closelyresemblingthat Saint-P6-de-Bigorle, and Sainte-Croix at Oio,..iui".ff tI at Poitiers'has an ron-Sainte-\tlarie. oiNo,t"-Ot-e-la-Grande
'-3lTTfi::';adius
wennda rrompoitiers,
longitudinal buildings near seriesof interesting which the naves are corcred i n Angoul6m.. (Montmoreau, Mouthiers' *iti tunnel vaulting Montbron)' PuyP6roux, also be ih. t,t""a of influence can of course (Sainte-Croix); Bordeaux to Poitou from traced with a charming to Petit-Palais, near Bordeaux, Oloron, near fagade; to Moirax, near Agen' to are 1'he monuments Spain' into on Pau, and so always has which south-west, the in sparser
Pirigord: the Aquitttnian GrouP oJ'Doned Churches We present the domed churches of Aquitania as rhe rhird subgroup in the school ol'thc west ol France. The question ofboth the origin and the classification of the domed churches of P6rigord 'It is dilhcult and near by has long been vexed' to understand whv so essential a feature as the roofing of a whole church lvith domes should not in itself warrant the placing of the domed-
zr(r. Aulnar', church, twellth ccnturl
ff-' ,if
,{lr.:;isr
,rr::,
:c
.'$ i ;,
)
284
2u5
M I D D L E A N D S O U T T I I , R NF R A N C E
church type in a separate school,' wrote Sir Alfred Clapham (who was bv training an architect),'but it is argued that the adoption of'domes was more or less accidental, and is an episode merely in the architectural history of a school which began without them and only adopted them in a comparatively small number
of
churches even in P6rigord. Furthermore it is argued that the general ordinance of these
Angouldme Cathedral lzzr, zzz], the othcr famous example, was begun about rro5. Ir rs only partly covered by domes, but the schernr is clearly not archaic, though the domes in thc nave, covered by a conventional two-slope roof. look like a utilitarian solution, adopted to avoid the use of a long tunnel vault (difficult ro abur). Whether by direct suggestion or not, the solu-
domed churchcs, apart lrom their roof system, is indistinguishable from other churches of the
tion in the nave of Angoul!me Cathedral is the old oriental solution of reduplicated domcs. commonly used for centuries previously in or-
school.'rs
dinary structures such as cisterns, store-rooms.
It should be mentioned that the group extends far outside P6rigord, and that seventy-
bazaars, baths, and the like. Camille Enlart rvas persuaded that the inspiration was Cypriote, for.
seven examples are known to have been built, of which sixty still exist (thirty in P6rigord and the rest scattered all the way lrom Fontevrault in
there were churches of similar character in Cyprus at the time, accessiblethrough pilgrim-
the Loirc country to Agen on the Garonne). Otherwise this is a very lair statement, and it justifies the classification ofthe domcd churchcs as a subgroup within the school of the West of France.r6 Although
we have the
eleventh-century
crossing dome at Saint-Martin in Angers [zr3l, unlbrtunately there is no text which indicates the beginnings of the Aquitanian church type with domes arranged in series over the naves and transepts. There is now good reason for believing that Saint-Front at P6rigueux had an early dome, built over and around the constricted sanctuary of an old 'Latin' basilica really a church dated about g84 to ro47. The spectacular church with Iive domes lzz5-7l,by I'ar the most conspicuous example of the P6rigordine group, was a special development. Pressure from pilgrim throngs probably induced the construction, by ro6o 7o, ofthe ori-
age movements.38 'l'he oldest of the Aquitanian
domes arc
simple and rather uninspired in design. Thcrc is practical iustification for them in the fact that only about a third of the tunnel vaults of the Poitevin type - even those of moderate span have held, whereas sixty out of the sevenfiseven domed churches, including several ofrhc largest examples, still have their twelfth-centur\ cupolas. The builders'instinct, the character of' the stone, and the quality of the mortar - urilitarian elements all - would thus account for the use of'domes in this region, rather than an aesthetic pref'erence.Perhaps the acoustical efects were admired.3e The excellent architects who chose domecl conslruction built it in their own wa1, usingpointed arches ofashlar on the four sides ofeach bay to support pendentives of peculiar form. also in ashlar. Unquestionably the pendentivcs were suggested ultimately by Byzantine work.
ginal dome, which had round great arches and other archaic f'eatures. The other fbur domes
but the reverse curvature in the profile of the pendentive, resulting from geometrical rela-
seem to have been envisioned at this time. In-
tions with the pointed arch, is special to the Aquitanian domes. The actual shells of the oldcr
expert masonry in their lower portions gare way to better work in domes on pointed great arches which were built after the Latin basilica was burnt out in r rzo.J;
cupolas are in rubble stuccoed over on the interior, like ordinary Romanesque vaults of thc period.
Several of the oldest churches in the Aquitanian group consist simply of a file of' domes, plus an apse and absidioles.a0A mere straight row offour domed units on unpierced interior
zrli. Pdrigueur, Saint-Etiennc-dela-C,it6, a.lroo! rr50 zr9. Cahors Ciathedral, dedicatcd incomplete in r r rg, llank and portal
piers formed the cathedral of Saint-EtiennedeJa-Cit6 in P6rigueux Izr8]. The two original domes, probably built somewhat befbre Iroo, have been demolished; two more claborate ones, dated before and after rr5o, are still in position. They show low vertical drums externally. Another simple earl]'example is the cathedral ofCahors [zr9], which also appearsto hale been begun shortll' before r roo; there was a dedication in r r rq. but the construction was probabll' incomplete at that time. The schemo at Cahors consists of no more than two enormous and awkwardly proportioned rubble domes within low ashlar-f'aceddrums, carried on pendentivcs, pointed arches, and unpierced wall piers ofashlar, with the vast interior spacethus created continuing into a capacious open apse with three radiating chapels. The west lront, which is rather like a Saxon westwork, and the lateral portal, which is Burgundian in style, hardly'prcpare the visitor for an interior with a clear span of sixty-five feet. It is eas-vto see how the southerners, accustomed to the warmth and
openness of such interiors, were in no haste tbr Gothic, though at Cahors the east end of the cathedralwas rebuilt in that style. Cahors uas an important ccntrc, xnd it\ cathedral served as a model fbr a famill'o1'somewhat similar buildings in the region. Among
286
MIDDLE AND sourHERN
FR:\NcE
AQUI'TANIA)WIl'II BORDERI\G AREAS
radiating chapels, and which also has an axial window. Each arm of the transept :rt Angoul0mc is covered by a bay o1'tunnel vaulting. L,ach has an easternabsidiole and a crr.rcifbrm domecl chapel beyond. The upper stages of these chapels are lanterns, each one much resembling a bav of the nal,eat I-e Puy Cathedral, or thq crossing at S a i n t - P h i l i b e r t ,T o u r n u s . ' I ' h c n o r t h c r l v c h a p e l hasa tall and characteristic arcaded stagcd tower over it - suggested, perhaps, bl the arcrded bclfries which were being built at the time in Rome, as we shall sce later. Its matc to the south was destroyed, else the cathcdral rvould still be in the rather restricted class of churches with towers at the transept entls (Cuxa ond St .l\{artin of Tours in their later period; Old Sarum and Exeter Catheclrals, where thc torvers form the entire transepfal projections; the Gothic example at Barcelona Cathedral). So composed, the whole design of Angoul0me Cathedral obviously came to a handsome climax at the east. w h e r e t h e f b u r r a d i a t i n g a n d t u . o t r a n s c p t a la b sidioles, the generous arcaded principal apsc, the dome at the crossing, and the two terminal towers ofthe rransept produced a very striking symmetrical group.
zzo. Souillac, church, irpse and transepf, .. r 1-lo
these is Souillac [zzo], which also has two domed bavs and a capacious apse with three radiating chapels opening directly upon it. Souillac is bettcr proporrioned than Cahors, and it is provided with a transepr; rhe dare is 'fhe about rr3o. building is generally known fbr the man'ellous carvings set into the west wall of the navc and obviouslv made for a portal which was nevcr brought to completion. Angouldme Cathedral,a' previously men_ tioned fzzr, zzz], is anorher type-church, in t h i s c a s ei n f l u e n c e d l r o m P o i t o u . T h e l a q a d ei s a rich examplc of the Poitevin stvle, with much arcading and intercsting Iigural carvings, the wholc liont being composed as a lision of the
Second Coming of Christ. Abadie the resrorcr contaminated the design with regrettable additions tympanum sculptures over the main doorwar,, an awkward arcade at the top of rhe lrontispiece; two unlbrtunare western towcrs, and the lantern, all with imbricated roofs. 'l he interior was also restored,at rhe cost of its old patina and much of its medieval savour: and this is likewisetrue ofthe eastend. The range of four domes on the main axis is very impressive. They are supported in the usual wav on solid wall piers, pointed arches. a n d p e n d e n t i v e s .T h e f o u r t h d o m e i s t h e l a n tern. Bevond it a tunnel-vaulted bay extends to the open main apse, lvhich is augmented tly lbur
-"5+-*l=-:-1., u
1 ^' 5r,!r
zzt antl zzz. {ngoul6me (lathcdral, r ro; :8 and larcr
2th
AeurrANrA, wrrlr RoRDERtrclHr.as
288
I
?5
Poitouand \niou. and its eclectic c h u r c h e so l o t ' t h e g o o d r e a s o n sl b r c o n s i d e r i n g o n . ierign it A q u i t u n i un group ol domes as helonging' ,h. \niou and Poitou' u i t h a l l . after menBefore leaving Fontelrault we should the onll.important kitchcn abbev [zz4], tion the to survive' It is oart ofthe conventual buildings torver, with a (rein the form of an octagonal roof, man-v stored) hollow stone spire serving as top which the pinnacle at a and chimneys, The holninetl'f-cet. to about height the brings low stone spire makcs one think of Saint-Ours at Loches [zo6l; the bundle of columns at the
11
w Ii]m
t-, -,<> cr g 6r 1dtl19
zz3. Fontevrault, abbei,' church, dcdicated r r rg
pinnacle recalls P6rigord, and these two items of thc styles in variety confirm the unitf
Angouldme also had its family of related churches; in certain aspects Souillac [zzo] and Solignac (about r r3o) arc in its ambient. Their transepts and
apses resemble Angoul6me, though their naves are shorter. Gensac has its file of fbur domes in reduced dimension. Bordeaux Cathedral was prepared fbr largc domes
died). Fontevrault is locatcd near Angers in thc Loire country, and, appealing ro rhe highesr nobilitv, it prospered. +2It is easy to see wh1' thc
Greek cross plan, with its pierced wall piers' was obviouslf inspired from St Mark's in Venice (ro63 94), the latter church being at that time still unshcathed with marblc and mosaic, and, though built in brick, much morc
abbey church is a noble and I'astidiouslv designed building. In rrrg it was dedicated br Pope Calixtus II. At that time surely thc beauti-
o\.er the nave, but Gothic vaults were built instead.
ful cher,et was complete. The splendid church is about z7 5 feet in length. Its spacious nave of f b u r b a v s , b e g u n a b o u t r r z 5 , i s a i s l e l c s s ,a n d
Angouldme was begun about rro5, and the nave was at leastpartlv vaulted in r rz8, which
widcr than the crossing, as is so olien the casein the Loire rcgion. Four domes of modern con-
suggests that the smaller eramplcs f'all near the middlc of'the century. By this time the tech-
s t r u c t i o n , b u i l t a b o u t r g r o t o r e p l a c et h o s c d e stroyed while the building was serr-ing militarr
nique had quite definitell- improved proportions were better, ornament was better disposed,
uses, rest upon the old pendentives. A change in proportions between cheYet and nave has sug-
and some of the domes were carried out in ashlar (this is the case lbr all the domes at Angouldme Cathedral exccpt one).
g e s t e dt h a t d o m c s w e r e n o t o r i g i n a l l l ' p l a n n e d : it is quite possible that the original project callccl 'I'he fbr a hall arrangcmcnt. supports lbr thc
One of the grandest of the domed churchcs was built lbr the abbey 01'Fontevrault Plantagenct roval panthcon, with the tombs of Hcnry II, Elcanor, Richard I, Isabclla [zz3]. Iiounded bv Robert of Arbrissel about r r oo as a
domes are verv stout wall piers with attachecl columns in pairs. The capitals are excellenl cramples of carving in thc Poitevin-Angu'in 'l'hc stylc. transept, with a crossing tower, has two absidioles.It is covered by tunnel r,ault:
doublc abbcy, with an abbess ruling rhe communitl', it becamc the centre of a small but not unimportant Order (fifiy-ser,cn houses in all,
t i o n e d a m b u l a t o r y 'w i t h t h r e c r a d i a t i n g c h a p el s .
Sooo nuns b1' rrr7, when Robcrt of Arbrissel
which we have bcen studYing. After this account of the Aquitanian domed style, Saint-Front at P6rigucux+r [zz5 7i seems like an outsider, which in lbct it now is; lbr the
like the Aquitanian churches with their bare stone-work than is the case at present. The new arrangements were so unusual, and they are so little understood, due to later rebuilding at Saint-Front, that it is worth while to describe them. One entered fiom the west through the porch of the basilica, but its nave, afier the fire, was roofless.and it became a lbrecourt, recalling thc atria which we havc seen at Clunv II and at SS. Peter and Paul. Hirsau. As at Hirsau, there was a plan to make thc atrium into a covered narthex. Piers uere built in the tbur curnersol' the atrium space at P6rigueux, but a dome was never built over them. Instead the-v were madc into pylons, two of which flank the entrance to the atrium, while the others flank the entrance to the church, bcneath the grcat torver. This great tower, of classic fbrm, is perhaps
lvith transr,erse arches, as is the well-proporT h e h i g h v a u l t o f t h e s a n c t u a r vi s s c m i c i r c u l a r . F o n t e v r a u l t i s d c c o r a t e da l t e r t h e m a n n e r o f t h e
the most imposing of all the towcr porches. It
\
z8g
'l'he eleventh-century lantern. ground store.v passage-wa]' to the nave, between flanking aisles, has two elaborate dornical
replaces an
vaults like those which we have found singly at the transept ends ofAngoulOme Cathedral' and also, in sequence, over the nave ofthe cathedral of Le Puy'. The tower porch with its pylons and aisles is massed rather like a westwork' but the great shaft is very classical in feeling' built up in stages with set-backs, and ornamented with pilaster and pedimental motifs. The tower terminates in a tremendous drum of columns covered b1' an imbricated conoidal rool-. It was fairl-v well rcstored bv Boeswillwald. Once past this extraordinary tower porch, the pilgrim lbund himself under the spacrous wcsternmost dome of the main church and near the high altar. There over the tomb of St Front stood the remarkable shrine (by Guinamundus, a monk of La Chaise-Dieu, ro77) intended for
224.FontevraultAbbe1, kitchen, twelfth centurv (rcstored)
2qO
MIDDLE AND SOUTHERNFRANCE
225to 227- P6riglueuxCathcdral,largelvafter r r zo, liew from the south-wcst,r'icw acrosstransept, twellth century,rebuilt ninetcenthcenturv,dnd plan the relics of the saint, and there Aymery Picaud, who wrote the Pilgrim's Guide to Santiago, saw and admired it. The shrine was a holwith a dome and gables, richly
low turret
I
church.as 'I'hus we leave the style of the West of Francc. It is interesting to speculate on the question rs
In to77, v'ith a sanctuarJ'dome, an imprcssivc
to whether a synthcsis of its varied elemcnts
a n d r v o r k a b l ep i l g r i m a g e c h u r c h e x i s t c d . T h e n three new domes were added transr,ersely, and
lvould ever have been achieved ifGothic art hrd
beyond the crossing a fifth and easternmost
true national status with one great capital ol'ils own. As it is, the erportation of the style trt
really at the loot of the nave,
c,t,i1\tnor,nl!,1,!,,,,..,,,
% ' %
C h L L r t l tt i r h et L P " l a s I L S P
'
P
t
l'
n
l'
WA ut4tut-rnedcuPolo
west. In tact Abadie's restoration spoiled the
decorated with hgure and animal sculpture, and e n a m e l s . ' aF r a g m e n t a r y r e m a i n s e r i s t .
dome was built
i
to this part of the building, and there are no\\ practically no traces of the old sanctuarv at the
f
ru F
not been invented, or ifthe region had achieved
for the church now had reverse orientation. The
Spain, the interesting development of Gothic
traditional orientation, reinstated fbr a time, was
ribbed dome structure, and the experimcnts
later given up, however, and a chapel extended
with wide-nave construction, the dccisively im-
eastward on the axis until modern times, when it was replaced by a pseudo-Romanesque apse.
portant hrrll-church scheme, and the architec-
The hiEh altar has been transferred once more
and more widely appreciated than they arc.
tural use ofsculpture deserve to be better known 'l ,f
I
5 --L
'
i,ttt sollr
CI{APTER
I5
OF AUVERGNE THE SCHOOL
limits of CarolingianAquiWithin the eastern and the upper courseof Burgundy onir,n"^t land of Auvergne, beautiful ,h. Loit", lies the by the Limousin, and on side one on border"d greatcontrastto the west theotherby Velay. In and it has a of France,it is a compactdistrict, buildings of church series highlycharacterized historians French the which design of rr,u." callthe Schoolof Auvergne'' The type church is Notre-Dame-du-Portat Clermont-Ferrand[zz8-3ol; it is not an earll' work,aswasformerly believed,but ratherofthe first half of the twelfth century,althoughthere about r r 85' is a recordof somereconslruction bold, and its is the church aspect exterior In elementsare well articulated'It has apse,ambulatory,and radiating chapelsset againstthe precipitouseast wall of a characteristicAuvergnat'lantern transept',made by raisingthe bays which flank the crossingvault so that a rangeof windows may be carried around the three outer sides above the ridge level of the transeptarmsIz3o].Pent roolsslopeupwardon the flanking bays,and betweenthem, over the crossingvault, rises an octagonalbelfry' The crossingvault is supportedon the east by the window wall abovethe apse,but on the other three sides by Carolingian interior flying screens. West of the transeptliesthe nave,with aislesandgalleriesbut no clerestory;beyondthe naveis a sort ofwestwork with narthexand tribuneunder a modernaxialtower ofappropriate design. Entering the church' we find before us an austerenave of four bays with a plain tunnel vault.The navewall is ditided in two on cach sideby an applied column rising liom a cruciform pier; thesecolumnsserveas interior but226
Cllermont-Fcrrand, Notrc-Damc-du-port, trlelfih ccnturv
L
tresses, but there is no transverse arch above them. The other piers of the nave proper have two shafts each for the aisle arcade, and one fbr the 11nn5vs15sarch which separates the aisle bays ofgroin vaulting. A quadrant vault covers the gallery cut into bavs bv diaphragm arches and spsling into the nave through triple arcades bay by bay. These are cusped, and suggest somc sort of oriental influence, and thel' repeat the fbrm ofthe Carolingian flying screens uncler the crossing tower (where also the piers har'e, logically, four applied shafis). The apse has ths same height as the crossing arches, and so have the projecting ba1's(each with a chapel) of the transept, but the lantern-transept is, of course, much higher. '['here is a much-restored crypt under NotreDame-du-Port - a somewhat unusual feature for the region. I'he crypt repeats the main lines of the apse, ambulatory, and radiating chapels above, but the chamber under the sanctuary is groin-vaulted in small bays carried on stout colurn15. l'hese are set so as to fbrm a sort of inner ambulatory; four of the columns are placed under the altar. The whole arrangement recalls Al6aume's Clermont Cathedral of 946. In the church above, the apse and the sanctuary bav are not separated by a transverse arch, nor are the groin-vaulted bays of the ambulatory. Eight columns support the apse and ambulatory. The exterior wall of the ambulatory is logically divided into nine bays, of which four arc occupied by round radiating chapels, and the other live in the usual way by windows, including the axial one. This is common in Auvergne, and it is remarked that the arrangement occurs in churches dedicated to the Virgin, whcther the absidioles number two ot four,
THE SCHOOL OF AUVERGNE
w i t h o t h e r d e d i c a t i o n sa n a r i a l r a t l i a t whereas ( s o m e t i n r e so b l o n g ) i s i n t r o t l r r c e d . fg chap.l a n.lmusing rarietl in rhe buttresses bnr finat c h a p els some being plain spur butt h e of columnar. T'hc transepts harc u e s s e s .o t h e r s the navc has an arcadc above spur buttresses; buttresses' 5pur There is patterneduall-work of a simplc sort in the interior ot' Notre-Damc-du-Port, and cmbellishment of this much more el:rborate 'I'he local building material kind on the exterior. is an arkose or granitc, which allows of very preffy accents in red, brown, grev. or black, arrangedin panels. Star forms occur, along with d i a p e r sa n d s t r i p e s .R o u n d a n d m i t r e d a l c a c l i n g i s u s e d ,a n d a l s o s h a l l o w s u n k p a n c l s e n l i v e n e d by toy-like decorative columns ancl chisel-curl eaves-bracketswhich bring a littlc oriental spice to the design. In general the picturesque old structure in the refiactorl'local building material seems indeed morc to belong in the rock1. countrl.'side ol Aur ergne than in ths trrez3o.Clermont-F<:rrrnd,Notre-l )ane-clu-Port, twellthcenturt
2qq
making metropolis of Francc which ClermontIierrand norv is. Notre-Dame-du-Port is a \crv satisfnctorv paradigm for a cluster of churches within a radius of about twent]. milcs of the cit-v. Ennezat, the oldest o1'the group, will be mcntioncd again. It is difl'erentiated liom the re$ b-van indefinable flavour of'the I-oire countr.v. SaintNectaire perhapscomes next, about ro8o, then others Saint-Saturnin (without radiating chapels), Orcir,al (built about rroo, with rebuilding about rr68), Issoire (r. rr3o 5o), Saint-Amable at Riom, NIozac (a Cluniac priorv), and last of all Brior.rtle. 'l'he background of' the Auvergnat t]-pec h u r c h i s i n t e r e s t i n g ,b r . r tn o t c n t i r e l J ' c l e a r .T h e ambulatorl is old in the region, brought in from the Loire, and this may be true of the lanterntransept also, lbr something of the sort mav har'e existecl at Beaulieu-les-Loches ( r oo5 ; much rebuilt). Structuralll' the lantcrn-transept recalls Gernrignr'-des-Pr6s (about 8o6) rvith its flving screens; in silhoustte it recalls Saint-Riquicr (US: 8oS), plus transcpt arms and minus the flanking round stair tolvcrs. The westworks are ultimatelr connected with Saint-Riquier also. Thcre is a tcnth-centur-n-example in Auvergnc, 'l'he general formula of the at Chamalidres. l u v c r g n a t c h u r c h , u i t h i t s v a u l t i n g , a p p e n r st o the time the archaic-
hare becn settled bl
looking little church at Ennezat was built, probably'not long afier its foundation as a collegiatc church betlvcen ro6r and 1o78. One suspects that the eleventh-centurv cathedral of Cler'monl (which succccded Alclaume'sbuilding), uas thc critical design. It is known to have had rvith {bur radiating chrrpels.
an ambulatorl'
Whercver it was, the kcv designmust havc had this motif and transept arms of cqual height c o m p o s e d a g a i n s tt h e p r e c i p i t o u s b u l k o f a l a n t e r n - t r a n s c p t w i t h a l o f t l b e l l r . ' - - a si t s p i n n a c l e . -I'here is a strong tradition lbr carll architectural and sculptural rvork connected with the abbev of L-a Chaise-Dicr.r, where therc is nou a
I
1i zz9. Cilermont-Ferrand, Notrc_Dame_du_port, twclfth
centur\
L
29b
T { I D D L EA N D S T ] T I H E RFNR . . l N C E
beautiful Gothic church. The abbey was lbunded in ro43 by Robert de Turlande, a c a n o n o f ' S a i n t - J u l i e na rB r i o u d ea, n d c o n f i r m e d by diplomas of ro5z. lt is reported that the abbel' wa"- responsiblc lbr the consrruction of roo churches in the ricinitv: elentuallv the n u m b e r o l ' m o n a s r e r i c s u b m i r r e d, o o , , l l i . d rvirh La Chaise-Ilieu reachecl 4oo. The abbev is remembered lbr lrorl 0n lhe roads, anrl for der,elopments in husbandryprefiguring those of the Cistercians. There areno identifiable re_ m a i n s o f a r c h i t e c t u r a lo r s c u l p t u r a l w o r k . but t h e r c i s n o l i c c l h a t T h i o d a r d ,a m a s t e r mason. i r n d t w o s c u l p r o r sw e r e5 r n lt o S a i n t - C e m m e in to7g, and that Guinamundus, g;oldsmith a ancl enameller of La Chaise-Dieu,made the tomb s t r u c t u r e f b r t h e r e l i c so f s t F r o n t a t p d r i s u e u x in ro77, as alrt.adr remlrl,ed.-
Apart lrom the group of churches iust considered, therc arc some I'ew interesting cq_ amples in Aurerplne Volvic and others wit\_ out galleries. Rovat is aisleless,and fbrtificcl r bold, rather arvkwardbuilding lull ofcharactcr.. -Ihese minor churches talten with the grorrp about Clermont have undoubtcd interest bLrt they are not sufficient to make a grand school such as those rve hat.e studied previoush.. 'I.he A u v e r g n a t s c h o o le a r l v e n t e r c d i n t o t h e n o m e n _ clature of'schools. Representing (after a lashion t the Pilgrimage type of which so manv grcrlr examples, proportionately, hare been lost. ir will probably' remain in the conr,entional list. Except lbr its rather shadowv but indubitablc early importance,the Auvergne manner slroulcl be noted merelv as a subgroup under the Schor,l of Languedoc.
c H e P t n nr 6 THE SCHOOL OF I-ANGUEDOC
The remaining area of Carolingian Aquitania is Languedoc plus the Limousin, to rvhich (bcc a u s ei t b e c a m ep a r t o f t h e C o u n t v o f T o u l o u s e ) S e p t i m a n i ao r G o t h i a i s t o b e a d d e d . H e r e t h e most glorious of thc South Frcnch schools of' Romanesque architccturc and sculpture u'as created. Rightlv so, for it was one of the glowing 'Bient6t la areas of early medieval civilization. rafale venue du nord tua cette floraison,'savs Enlart of the Albigensian Crusade and the Inquisition (rzog 45) rvhich pcrmanentl-v injurcd the countrl. and lef t a mark on the Church. A defect of the plan ol'our exposition of Romanesque architecture is that it takes the greatest monuments created bv Languedoc from the local school, and puts them in the generalhistory ofarchitecture with other works of equal importance. We have already given irn accolrnt ot- the crcation of rhc Pilgrinagc t].pc of church, which was matured in I-anguedoc (Saint-Martial at Limoges Irr3], Sainte-Foi at Conques Irr3, rr{r r8], and Saint-Scrnin at Toulouse Irrj, rrg zrl, with Santiago(,athedral Ir r3, rr4) r22 5] (ro78 rzr r) as an extraterritorial membcr of'the school. Reference has
Normans capturcd it during a fbray'of 848, and the fbmous marriage of Henry of Anjou to E l e a n o r o f A q u i t a i n e t e c h n i c a l l y b r o u g ; h ti t u n der English dominion. Its truc history was written undcr the (,ounts ofToulouse between 852 a n d r z o g . L i m o g e s i n t h e R o m a n e s q u ea g e w a s ruled (9r 8 to n64) by thc Dukes of Aquitainc. Oriental influences came there, as to Le Puy. Because of'the earl'r' date of Saint-Martial at Limoges (about rooo 95 and later) [rrj] it is perhaps well to begin with churches in the Lirnousin which are relared to the Pilgrimagc g r o u p . A m o n g t h e s et h e a b b e v c h u r c h o f B e a u Iieu in the Corrdzel is surely the most interesting. It is much like a Pilgrimage church with t h c t r i f b r i u m o f t h e n a y e r e d u c e d t o t h e s c a l eo f the usual apsidal trifbrium, thus omitting thc charming enclosing arches abor,e the paired a r c h e sw h i c h a r e s o h a r m o n i o u s a f ' e a t u r eo f t h e P i l g r i m a g ei n t e r i o r s . B c a u l i e u h a s a r e m a r k a b l e lateral portal o{'about r r18, rrther like that o1' N'Ioissac,and hoodecl, likc Moissac. f'he aislc, a m b u l a t o r y , a n d l a u l t i n g a r c h e sa t B e a u l i e u a r e pointed, and the portal has an elegant frame in three orders of pointed arches, but thc round
also been matle to the Cistercians. who built magnifi cently' in Languedoc. However, even rvithout the principal monu-
a r c h n c r e r t h e l e s s p e r s i s t si n t h e b u i l d i n g .
ments which have bcen analysed elses,hcre, Languedoc has a considcrable number of not-
c o n f u s e db u i l d i n g n o u . o n a c c o u n t o f l a t e r a d d i tions. It has a high vault abutted b-v quadrant
able examples to show. They represent a f:ascinating interrvcaring of influences from the acknowledged masterpieces, and from thc
v a u l t s ,a n d t h e c h e v e t h a s a p s e ,a m b u l a t o r v , a n d 'I'herc radiating chapels. are rcmains of a small -I'he rotunda. finest l'eaturc ofthe church is the
various regions bordering on Languedoc. Toulouse. which was to be the centre of Languedoc, had a chequerecl early histor-v. It
adjoining tower, built about rr50, which bel o n g s t o a s e r i e sf o u n d i n t h i s r e g i o n a t S a i n t -
was a capital citv fbr the Visigoths (4rg), Merovingians (628), and Carolingians (78r). 'Ihe
Snint-L6onardr is anothcr simplified example of the Pilgrimage fbrmula, though it is a rather
Martial, Limoges, the cathedral of Le Pu1. [rz7], and Brantirme, to namc the more important cxamples. At Saint-Martial thc charac-
298
MrDDr-[
AND SOUTHERN FRANCi
terlstlc upper stages wcre an addition of rather I a t e r c l a t eb u i l t o n t h e o l d w e s t e r r l t o w e r - p o r c h . In the other eramples the dcsign was integral: at Le Puv, cast of the sanctuarv,at Brant6mc anclSaint-L6onard bcsidethe church. T h e t o r v c r sa r e a l l i n t c r e s t i n g s t u d i e s i n t r a n _ sition liom a square basc to a pointcd roof.r Saint-L6onard is a straightfbru.ard example, and anahsis of it rvill do fbr all. Thc rowcr is s c l u a r e ,w i t h t w o o p e n i n g s o n e a c h s i d e o f t h e lorvcr storeys, but the scconcl stage has a slight r c r e a l a t t h e c o r n e r , w h i c h s e t st h e p r o f i l e b a c t l little, because tho square has, in effect, small nicks takcn out of'the corners. This efi'ect is re_ p e a t e da t t h e t h i r d s t a g e ,w h e r e t h c a r c a d er e s t s 'I'he on round picrs. f b u r t h s r i r g ei s b o l d l r s e t back abor.e a slope, but has a stecp-gablcd ele_ mcnt brcaking fbrward. Above the spring_line of this gable the tolver is octrgonal, set point_ that is, with arriseson thc cardinal and
wisc
T}IL SCHOOL OII LANGUEDO(
299
dral of Limoges, Saint-Michel-aux-Lions, an11 S a i n t - P i e r r e - P c v r o u xI ) a v ca t t r a c t i l c s p e c i n r c n s of this tvpc of tower. The louer part of' rhr cathedral tower is Romanesque; the lowcst oi t h e o c t a g o n a l s t a g e s i s t r . a n s i t i o n a lt o G o t h r r . rrgr; the upper parrs have becn rebuilt in Gothic v'ith a strong Romanesque f-eeling. J.e Dorari is another striking church in thc Lim
diagonal axes of the towor. -{ little buttr.css there is partial r e m i n i s c e n c eo f S a i n t _ R i q u i e r i n c l e r e r l y - f i l l s i n t h e a n p l l eo n t h c d i a g o n a l b c s i d e a h e a r , t toucr (which contains a dome) srrn_ -I'herc the gable. are trvo arcadecl stages of thc metricallv llankcd bJ- trvo charming octagonal octagon, then a frieze-like band with a simole turrets set point-rvisc. Substantial spur btrt_ p r r r m i d a b o rc . t r e s s e sc o n r r i b u t c t o a r i g o r o u s p 1 - r a n r i c l acl l c c r \t Uzerchc (in a church of similar tunncl_ in this parr of the building. 'I'he main portal is a n d - q u a d r a n t c o n s t r u c t i o n ) a r e l a t e d t o w c r h a s plain, two-archcd, with no sculpture on the t1,nr_ h a l f - e a b l e s s s t b e s i d e t h c c h a r a c t e r i s t i cs t e c o p a n u m , b u t v c r r , h a n d s o m e l l b o r c l e r e cbl r f b u : . g l b l c t l e l c n r c n t . T h c h a l f - g a h l e s .j o i n i n g s i m i o r d e r s o f c u s p e d a r c h c s .a n d f l a n k e c lb v t w o t : t l l lar hall--gableson the adiacent sidcs ofthe torver, l a n < e t - s h a p e dr e c c s s e s .l h e c u s p c r i . r . h . r r . fbrm intercsting acroteria. At Uzerche thc oc_ a p p c a r o n t h e l i r n t e r nt o u , e r ,a n d a r e c o n s i d e r c r l . t a g o n i s s e r f l a t u ' i s e ;a r B r a n t 6 m e t h e u p p e r p a r t o t c o u r s e ,a s a n i n d i c a t i o n o f s p a n i s h i n f l u c n c c . o f t h e t o w c r i s s q u a r e ,a n d t h i s i s t h c c a s el v i t h ( L a S o u t e r r a i n e (h , a s a s i m i l a r f ' a g a d ew , ith cnt h e m u c h m o r c e l a b o r a t et o w e r o l ' t h e c a t h e d r a l g a g i n g asvmmetries.)'l'he plan of'Lc Dorat is. o l ' I - e P u y , u h i c h h a s e i g h t a r c h e c l s r a g e sb c e x c e p t f b r t h e $ e s t w o r k , m u c h l i k e t h a t o f ' S a i nr _ neath the plramid. Iltiennc at Ncvers. I-c l)orat has no clerestorr. 'l'he octagonal tower set point-wise has in_ except in the apse. Its lantern tower is espc_ t e r e s t i n g il a t c r v a r i a n t s i n t h e L i m o u s i n . r S u c h c i a l l v i n t c r e s r i n g , f b r i t h a s s p h c r i c t a lp e n c l e n toners rise shcer, stage upon stagc, fi.om a trlcs, and a dome of circular olan. squa.rebase, with polygonal tourclles covering \loissac is relatcd somcwhal ro Le Dorrrr t h c l n g l e s o l l h e s q u a r e ,l a n g e n t l o t h c t o t r e r t h r o r r g h t h c h e a r . r . w e s t e r nt o w c r . I t h a s a l r e a c l r a n c l c a r r i e d u p t h e l l l l h c i g h t o l ' t h c s h a f ' t .A n h c c n s . r i d r h r r rI l o i s s l c r r r s f i r s r p l a n n e d 1ir i. octlgonal pvramid of steep slope terminates the believed) as rr hall chr.rrch, then cor.ered b1 m a i n t o r v e r a n d c a c h o f t h e t o u r c l l e s .- l . h c c a t h c _ d o m c s , a n d finallv reconstructcdwith the pre-
z3I. Moissac,priorr church,cloister, ,. I loo, later relvorkcd sent Gothic laults Ir6o]. The famous cloister [ 2 3I ] w a s a l s o r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n t h c G o t h i c period. Moulded and pointed arches of' red
m u l a , u h i c h u i r s b r o u g ; h tt o a c l i m a x i n S a i n t -
brick now rest on the Romanesque impost blockswhich are so beaurifully carvcd, and srr gracefully sustained b1. the Romanesque col-
r a c l i c a l l l d i l l c r e n t i n t l p e - I t m a r k e d a s t a g i ei n
umns, alternatelr. single and in pairs. with rich and imaginatire capitals.The handsome slabs with large ligure relief-sof r. r roo srill havc their places at thc corner piers. The rebuilt cloistcr, with its beautiful garth, is ycrl poctic indced. T o u l o u s e , t h e c a p i t a l o f ' L a n g u c c l o c ,h a s s u f tered greatly from demolition and roconstructton' 'Ihe most elaborate cloistcr in Lrnguedoc w a st h a t o f L a D a u r a d e i n ' l ' o u l o u s c ; i t w a s c l c molished in r8r3, and only specimensof the c a r v i n g sr e m a i n . T
I n s p i t e o f t h c p r e s t i g eo f ' t h e P i l g r i r n a g e f b r Scrnin at'l'oulousc,r the nclv half-Romanesque cathedral of Toulouse, begun in If,rr," was thc dcrelopmcnt of the characteristic widen a v c d G o t h i c o l s o u t h F r a n c c a n d C a t a l o n i a .I n t h c s e \ i r s t i n t c r i o r s p a c c sw e h a r e a n c r v v e r s i o n o f t h e u i d e n a v e sw h i c h p r o d u c c d s u c h r e m a r k able elI'ects in Carolingian and Romanesquc 'l'his timcs. kind of Gothic rctainecl Romancsquc proportions, antl uscd a version of Romanesque interior buttressing to makc poss i b l e m a x i m u m G o t h i c v a r r l t i n gs p a n s . 'I'he church of Bindrent-l'Abba1'cr" in rhc Limousin is relatcd to the Pilgrimage t]'pc t h r o u g h i t s a p s e . a m b u l a t o r - r ,a n d r r c l i a t i n g
3oo
M I D D L I , A N D S o U T H E R NF R A N c E TIIE
chapels, but thc nave rs like Cistercian work be_ c a u s co f i t s p o i n t e d b a n d e d t u n n e l v a u l t , s t o u t l l abutted bt'pointed transverse tunnel vaults bav b t b a - v .- \ a r r o n . p i c r c i n g s b e r w c e n s r . . . . . i r . ba1's and a timid clerestorv, norv lrlocked uo. show a concernlbr soliditr. 'l'he church dates from the twelfth centurv. Cistercian architec_ t u r e w h e n i t c a m e ( a s a t S i l v a n e s ,S 6 n a n q u e r l ) was al home among such buildings, lor ir is structurallv similar. This abutment system of interior recesses. when develope<1vertically, 1,.ieldedthe effrcieni interior buttress slstem of'southern Gothic. Structuralh.it is rather like aqueduct construc_ tion with'screen walls at the back and Gothic vaults sprung betrvecn. In a way it is like the Pantheon in Rome, where in effect aqueduct_ l i L e a r c h e sa n d s u p p o r t s f o r m a c i r c u m t e r e n c e . w i t h t h e d o m e t u r n e d b e r w e e nr h e m . With clerer irbutment such as the flying but_ tresses developed in the ilc_tlc_Francc atier rr7-5, Gorhic naves could go high. With stout spur buttresses or interior recessesther. could b e g i r e n g r e a r b r e a d r h .T h u s i t * r , p o r r i b l . , o achieve on a grand scale the ver\.spaclous n:lves of ample Romanesque proportions rvhich were prelbrred in southern France, Catalonia. and I t a l . v . ' l h i s i s r h c s 1s t e m w h i c h w a s e m p l o v e d i n t h e T o u l r u s a n c a t h c d r aI o l ' r : r r p e r h u p , , ihe firsr cxampleof its t.vpc.r The span ot..sjrtr_ four leet uas achiered in brick consrruc(i;n with immense square rib-v4ulted bavs. boldlv domed up over plain rectangul". rib., iike Lom_ b a r d R o m a n e s q u ev a u l t s . ' I ' h e l o w p r o p o r t i o n s and the detail are very dilfcrent from those of the High Gothic cathedral of Reims, started in t h e s a m ey e a r . Y c r t h e r e i s i n t h e n o l v m u t i l a r c d and unlovely work at loulouse a good promise of Albi and Gerona (where thc widest Gothic span, s'eventy-three l'cet, was reachccl).ir It is significant that the developmcnt of this type of building. with its Romanesque rrncture, rvas continued after the stanclard High Gothic of the ile-de-France had been introduced at
Narbonne in rz7z, Limoges in 1273, anl 'I'oulouse itself though the destruction of.rhi calhcdral ol r z r r was planner.l.and parrL, a c h i e v e d ,d u r i n g t h e w o r k s u n d e r t a k e n i n rz;, Calcassonne shows the pa.aiat..r". of tu',, Romanesque schemes. The Gothic Sainr_ Vincent (fourteenth century and later) has x single-nave span of sixty_eight f'eet, the wiclesr in all Irrance. On the other hand, the wesrcrn limb of rhe lbrmcr calhedral of Sainr_\azai.c. in the Citd, is a hall church dating back to roo6 i n i t s b e g i n n i n g s .T h e l i g h t a n d b e a u r i f u l rrun_ sept and apseofthe thirteenth century respecr the disposition, heights, and proportions of: thc old building - presenring, in glowing contrasr. the openness and light which Gothic bralurr m a d e p o s s i b l e r. 3 Along the \{editerranean coasr the influence of the Pilgrimage rype in the Romanesque ot. L a n g u e d o c w a s w e a ki c o n v e r s e l y , L o m b i r l r l and Catalan influences were strong, as alreaclr indicated. In this ver1, southern u-Ui..r, on.t climate the differentiations which make a buikl_ ing sepm French had no great occasion to de_ velop. I'et, perhaps because of the persistcncc o f l o r i n g l l s c u l p t u r . e do r n a m e n t , t h e r e i s sonr.. f l a v o u r o f L a n g u e d o c a b o u t t h e s ew o r k s . 'I'he cathedral of Elne,11in French Catalonir. is perhaps the best example. It is an eleventh_ century conception, interrupted in execution a n d c a r r i e d o n , c o n s i s t e n t l y ,a t a l a t e r t i m e . T h e nar,e has a semicirular banded tunnel vaulr carried on piers with crucilbrm nuclei antl attached shafts or pilasters. Thus there are three orclersofarches in the aisle arcade, for the transversc arches are single and the nave has no clerestory. The ell'ect is very substantial antl good. 1'he aisles have quadrant r.auks dividctl i n t o b a v sb v d i a p h r a g m a r c h e s s h a l l o w a r c a d i n g ;
decorates the exterior walls ofthe aisles. At ancl near the lbgade there is rib vaulting, a sign of.late date, but thc frontispiece has two crenellatcil torvcrs of traditional l,ombardic form. One is much heavier than the other, but thev comnose
'Ihere is a fine and characteristic handsomelv. the to church. Thc church of attached cloister Arles-sur-'I'ech was lebuilt rvith similar r.aulti n g i n t h i s p e r i o d ( c o n s e c r a t i o n ,r r S T ) . T h e r e are other picturesque works in the mountain country tirther west, but space does not sulice for their consideration.
SCHOOI-
OF I-ANGLIEDOC
.]OI
monks, g-5r ), retaincd the strongest imprinr, but oriental motili cuspcd irrchcs; ribs in con_ ncxion with domes and donricalraultsi rcncti_ t i r e o c t a g o n a ld o m i c a l r a u l t s a n d d o m c s i n e r _ haps also imbricirrrd rooting *er. p..pp.:r.d about thc rvhole Aquitanian region anclabsorbed into the eler,enth- and tuolfih-ccnrurv st],Ie. C a t a l o n i a ,w h i c h w a s i n a c t u a l c o n t a c t t v i t h t h e Nloors, shows surprisinglv little trace of thcir
How shall we achievcan ordcrh'statemcnt and explanation of' the wonderful flowering of Romanesque architecture and sculpture which we have fbund in the eleventh and twellth centuries in Carolingian Aquitania and its borderi n g l a n d s o n t h e L o i r e a n d t h e M e d i r e r r a n e a n?
i n f l u e n c e , t h o u g h t h e i r c a r \ - c r sm a \ . h a v e a i d e d i n I I r er e - c r e a t i o no l ' s c r r l p t u r a lt c c h n i q u e d u r i n g t h e t e n t h c e n t u r r , r c i n l b r c i n g p e r h a p sa l i n g e r ing tradition in Septimaniaor Gothia. 'fhe centrcs trf power, mostl\ secular, began to gain focus about thc \ear rooo, il'not bcfirre, in the Aquitanian area, ancl tt'pe-monuments
It is clear that there rvas an underlving dcvelopment, alive with Carolingian encrgy., in the Loire region, in the ninth and tenth centuries. This radiated northward into the region
appeared which were to affect regional building fbr several cenruries afier that. -I'hcre is, howeler, also the intcr-rep;ional influencc of the
where Gothic architecture was to be crcated. irs we shall see later. Its radiation to the south and
monks of Clunv in their builtling enterpriscs a n d a R o m a n h e r i t a g e ,a l s o .T ' h e a r c a o f C l u n i a c
east may be roughlv traced b}'the churchcs which har eambulatories, olien tu,oaxial towers. and, in the earlier examplcs, the t-vpicalmasonrv wall-work; we find many such in Burgunclv and Aquitania proper. Obviousll also the Irirst Romanesque arca contributed to the architcctural fbrmation of Aquitania. Serious studv of lost earlv monuments will have to bc undertaken bclbre this flow ofinfluenccs can be clarifiecl, but onc cliscernsthat it must have been drawn on in developing the sculpture, and in vaulting basilican schemesabove the ground let'el. Catalan laulthg (alread)' fhirh adr.anced at the end of-rhc tenth centurv). earlv sculpture norrh of the Pyrenees,ancl Burgundian developments under First Romanesque inpact appear to har,c llowed rntoAquitania. Oriental influences flolvcd in too, from N,Ios_ lem Spain as earlr as the rcnth ccntury., from the Near East in Crusacler times. Auvergne. w h i c h h a t l t h e e a r l i c s (o n r e c o r d o l s r r c hn c n i n sular contacts (Bishop Cotlescalc antl his .zoo
wcstr.ard expansion until the end of Odilo's abbacl' (ro4g) w:rs almosr cotcrminous with A q u i t a n i a , r - it h c d o m a i n o f t h e i r f b r r n d e r D u k e William. Abbot Odilo is wcll known asa buildcr in r,arious rcgions. The r.ision of the Cluniac rnonks can surch be credited with an important part in the impulsc which brought about consistcntlv larp;er, more ma jestic. and bettcr vaulted church buildings, and some o1'theskill a n c ls u c c e s so l ' t h c r c g i o n a l s c h o o l sm u s t b e d u e to thc stimulation of' wide knowledgc which c a m e w i t h t h c p r e s e n c eo f ' t h c C l u n i a c s . a n d t h e tidc o1'I'il grimalic ctrnracts. 'l'lius i n - { n i o u r s u c c o s s t u lc o m b i n a t i c r n o l ' thc principlesof'ribbed and of'domed construction was rnade. In Poitou quite surprisinelv monumental ellccts were earll- achieved with columnar supporrs and 'h:rll church' r'aulting, w h i c h h a d h a r d l _ y ,i n p r c v i o u s t i m e s , a c h i e r c d 'I'he anv reallv noble ell'ccts. latcr application of' g r o u p e d p i c r s a n d p o i n r e d a r c h e st o t h i s s c h c m c opcnecl up a whole panoramt of interesting eff'ects.ancl these, together with -{ngevin vaults
]O2
MIDDLL
AND
SOUTHF,RN
FRANCT]
f u r t h e r d e v c l o p e d , w e r c s u c c e s s f u l l vd r a w n o n indecd at the cathedral of' in Gothic work Poitiers itsclf, as well as later, with grcat art, in thc developcd hall churches o1'South France, Spain, and Germany. In P6rigord a quite pedestrian and utilitarian scheme of dome construction developed spccial and monumental effects of' genuine interest, quite apart liom
the
achievemcntof building the cathcdral of Pirig u c u x . T h e s a m e r e s i l i e n c e o f ' s p i r i t s h o l r , si n
and scale, such tirelessnessof'fancf in treatinqt h e s i m p l e v o c a b u l a r y o f l c a v e s a n d s c r o l l s ,t h a t 'I'hc the eflects are the equivalent of orientalism. g r e a t s c u l p t u r e so f t h e S c h o o l o f ' T o u l o u s e h a i t a l - u l l e rc l a r i t r . o l i e n a n o r c r p o w c r i n gi n t e n s i t r. and thel' gain vastlv as decoration from tht stvlizcd fbrm and subtlc rippling surfaces, sri s w e e tt o t h c l i g h t , i n w h i c h t h e v p a r a l l e lo r i e n t r r l
multipl'l over the churchcs as thev did in Burgundl'and thc North. .In decorative works therc lvas a notable skill 'I'hcrc ofelerv sort. a r e s u c c e s s l u li m i t a t i o n s o f
lronticr countr]' like Earl.v Romanesquc Spain. or the Crusaders'Holv Land. Both thesearcas
provincial Roman rvork, carvings rvhich havc the strong bulk o1-carlv medielal work, and others which suggest the subtlc refinement of Bvzantine or oriental works in ivorv such as w e r e t r e a s u r e db v t h c a r t i s t s ' p a t r o n sa n d k n o r v n
were architectural provinces of' Burgundr. 'I'hc Romanesque ol
Poitou, and Languedoc. Aquitania
s h o w e d a r e m a r k a b l e e x p a n s i re power. In the mo\.ement towards Spain lvhich
and mouldings arc treated with such conscious-
started seriouslv in the earlv eleventh centllr\. and in thc Crusadeswhich began in rog7, thc Frcnch took their architecture with them. arrd built it with a local nuance, but retained tht
n e s so f e n r e l o p c , s u c h d e l i c a c vo 1 ' u n d e r c u t t i n g
s p c c i a l s t a m po l ' l ; r c n c hg e n i u so n i r .
to the designers themselves. In Anjou and Poitou the column-bundles, leaf'age,arcading,
THE MATURE ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 'I'HE HOLY LANI) O F S P A I N , P O R ' I ' U G A I , ,A N D
and Bvzantineworks. With all this. the fundamental architectur.al tvpes createdin the area of (,arolingian Aquitania were not maeinified or elaborated bey-ond 'I'hev measure. alwavs remaincd eminentlr -Ihis practical. is the key to their usefulness in
the livelv, original, and monumental tower and lantern lbrms, though the towcrs fiile d to
PART FI\ E
c H A P T E Rr 7 STYLES
DL,PL,NDEN'I'ON
'I'HI.,
MOORS
All Christian Spain ultimatell' succumbed to French architectural genius, as thc Gothic cathedrals of Letin, Barcelona, and Seville clearly show. But thc northern kingdoms were building in the French Romanesquc stvle as e a r l ya s r o 5 o . Catalonia remained an active province of the Lombardic st1'lc until the advent of Gothic the Gothic of Citeaux, and that of Langucdoc,
AND
dcnce
ON
LO\'IBARD\
even in Cistercian works. Hence these
trvo st1'lesrvill be considered befbre we resume our studl' of the expansion of French architecture to the other lands which had been r\loslem.
N T u D a J A R o M A N I s e u EA R ( i H r r E c ' r ' u R L I\ BRICK The elcventh- and twclfth-ccnturv
victories of
referred to in the preceding chapter. The Christians in the Nloorish part o1'Spain worked in the Nlozarabic st1'lebefbre thc tcnth
the Christian kingdoms in Spain advanced their
centurv, as we have scen. In the lbllorving period they did not greatl!' develop thcir church art, 'l except at oledo, uhich lbr a time uas scmiindependent. The 'Ntuddjar' st.vle, that is, thc M o o r i s h s t l l e i n ( . h r i s t i a n s e r r i c e . a p p c a r st o have been worked out in -I'oleclo before the conquest (ro85), and drawn on as Christian
areasubject to the Christians lvas nearly'doubled 'I'he new conquests were in two hundrcd 1'cars. progressivell' more settlcd in character, and
buildings multiplied in the middle and southern parts ofthe pcninsula, where the \,{ud6jar was most appropriate to local conditions.l Iior us lts interest is largely confined to brickwork and
frontiers rvellsouth ofthe equator ofthe peninsula, except in the hinterland of Valencia.The
morc densel]' populated, with large N{oorish and Jelvish contingents in the population. N'toorish masons in thcsc rcgions built verv successfullv in brick. Sefror G6mez-\Ioreno makes the point that ordinarl building must have procccded as before, with ordinarv N{oorish
craftsmen.:
Clever
learned the Christian
N'Ioorish craftsmen style, and ultimatch
wall patterning in the sophisticated Moorish tashion.
Christian crafismen lcarncd the N'Ioorish sty.le which was, after all, dill-erent rather than
The Mucl6iar was outsidc the currcnt of French architecture. ancl the Catalan Romanesgue alwavs maintained a certain indcpen-
lbreign. In the earlier pcriod an ambitious Romanesquc work lbr the reconquercd arca would in-
.lo.l
spAIN, PORTU(;Al-, AND THE HOLY LAND
volve all thc diffrculties attendant on importetl cralismen fiom Poitou. I-anguedoc,Burgundl
the round-arched decorativearcading is sct i1 Iloorish-looking oblong pancls. San Lorenz,,
or Spanish crattsmen from the norrh, with s i m i l a r t r a i n i n g ; s u c h l v o r k sw c r c n o t n u n l er o u s . Romancsque architecture in f-actnevcr reached Tolcdo at all; that was the centre of'rhe N{ud6jar
a t S a h a e i l n t n d t h e P e r e g r i n ac o m e l a t c r , i n t l r q thirteenth centurv, and har.e thc cusping rnrl pointed arches which become er-cr morc ti.r_ 'l'oro quent in this work. has correspondins
s t v l e, a n d , a s t i m c w o r e o n , t h e S p a n i a r d s b e c a m e l e s s d c p c n d e n r o n l i r r c i g n e r s .W h e n p o s -
s i m p l e c x a m p l c s , t h e C r i s t o d e l a s B a t a l l a sa n r l S a n L o r e n z o , d a t c c la b o u t r z o o . L r L u g a r c j a l r
siblc, it uas naturirl fbr them to profit br the e r p e r i c n c c o f t h e \ l o o r . i s h a n d N , I u d 6j a r b u i l d e r s in nervlr occupied arels, and to devclop Rtrmanesque variations on the N,Iud6jar stvle, built, lile the originals,largelr,in brick, but organica l l r R o m i r n e s q u cr a t h c r t h a n o r i e n t a l . . \ c t u a l l y , the rlecorative pilastcr str-ips and decoratire a r c a d i n g w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z et h e } I u d i ' j l r s t r l c irre bascd ultimatclv on the ver\, same elenrents u hich lvere de vcloped in thc Lombardo-(,atalan First Romanesquc stvle. In Spain the pattern work on the pale-brolrn brick rvalls,wirh the spicv shadowsof dccoratire cusped and intcrlaccd arches, givcs an oriental nuance tu the r i p p l e o l s u n s h i n c w h i c h p l a v su p o n t h e n r . \Ianv of the \luclt'jar churchcs arc ntodest a i s l e l e s sa f l a i r s , w i t h p o l v g o n a l a p s e s ,g e n e r a l h precedcd bv a tunnel-r'aultcd sanctuart bar rvhich carriesthe torvcr.if therc is onc.'I-he nnrcs, and the aislesil' prcsent, are usuallr r o o f e d i n l v o o c l . \ l o o r i s h ' a r t c s o n a c l o s 'w i t h t l r i n t i e - b e a m so f t c r . o r c c u r a sn a r e c e i l i n g s . Xlozarabic brick rvorkcrs were among the settlers when Qgintana, near Sahaginr and L e 6 n , r v a sr e p o p u l a t e di n t h e t e n t h c c n t u r \ , a n c l t h i s p o i n t i s a l i k e l r s t a r t i n c - p l a c ef i r r t h e b r - i c k building str.le ol (-astilc. Earh- examplcs are l l c k i n g ; t h e 1 ,w e r e c k i u b t l e s su t i l i t a r i a n , : r n c l ,i n c h u r c h a r c h i t e c t u r e , r e p h c e d b c c a u s eo t t h e i r modestscalc'l'he C l u n i a c a b b e l . o f ' S a h a g r i nt,h o u g h s ro n c built, had the brick chapclof'San Mancio, built 'l'his Irbout I roo. i s a s i r r p l e c l e s i g n ,a n d o n c o l ' p r c s e r r e c l\ l u d 6 j a r w o r k s . S r n - l i r s o thc olclcr at Sahagin lzjzl, tuelf rh ccntur\', is much like a I r i r s t R o m a n e s q u cc h u r c h i n b r i c k . e x c e n t t h a t
liom thc east , 3 2 .S a h a g u nS. a nT i r s o . t u c l l i h c e n t u r r .
Areraio is a similar work, Clistcrciana , n c ld a t e , l in the thirteenth century.+ 'l'he 'I'oledo oldest prescn'ed example at i. the extension, dated about roll7, of a tt:nllr_ centurv mosque called El Cristo dc la l.uz. where ,{llbnso \rI paused rvhen he enrcred tlr.. c i t l o n . z- 5 \ l a v 1 o 8 , 5 . .H e r e t h e r e i s a r o u n r l a r c h e t l c l e c o r a t i r ea r c a d c i n t h e l o w c r r e g i s t t r . . a n d a c u s p e d r a n g e a b o r . e .L a t e r e x a m p l e s ,l i l e Santiago dcl Arrabal (r. rz56), Sanro Tomr. Santa Fi (thirtecnth centur)'), and others arc more purelv oriental. San Romdn at J'olcdo, tirr. instance,is pcrl'ectlvNloorish in stvle: a cle:tr c a s eo l ' c c l c c t i c i s m , t b r i t l v a s c l e d i c a t e di n r _ : : r bv,\rchbishop RodcrigoJimenez de Rada, r,r'ho laid thc corncrstoneof the Gothic cathedralin r227. T h i s s a m c 'm i x r u r c o f s t r l c s i s p e r c e p t i b l e i n the southern arca at Sclille, Granada, antl b e t ' o n c l ,a n c lt o s o m e e x t c n t i n t h c n o r t h d u r i n , r the Gothic period. A remarkable derclopmenr o f ' t h c I I u d !j a r s t v l e w i t h s r r o n g R o m a n e s q u e rcminiscenccs took placc in the Ebro Valler during thc Gothic agc, anclcontinued into rht 'l'eruel Renaissance. has splendid examplcs ril t h c f b u r t e e n t h c e n t u r r ' , a n d t h e r e l v a sa w o n c l e rf u l f l o n c r i n g i n Z a r a g c : z aa n c l n c a r b 1 . T h c t l t , l c l o p m e n t t l i d n o t e n d w i t h G o t h i c t i m e s ,a sr h ( handsomc belfrv and crossing towcr of' fhe cathcdral of"l'arazona bcar lvitness ft5ry zi) -I'here is cvcn one cxample in America .r l b u n t a i n h o u s c o l r . ; { r 3i n t h c p u b l i c s q u i r r e, ' l ( . h i r p r d c ( i r r z r ri n \ l e r i c o . 1'he \ludijar stvlc oflcrs irn inrerestinr parrrlleland conrrast to thc 'brick Gothic' or' 'l'he Bttksteingttik of Germanv. latter str lu
L
306
STYLES DEPENDENT ON THE IVlOORS,{NDON LON{BARDY
SPAIN, PORTU(;AL' AND TIIE HOLY LAND
started with rctual Lombard Romanesque elcments about the middle ol the twellth ccnturv' rnd devclopcd interestinglbrms appropriateto brick. Its simplicitl accords well with the so'ere Baltic countrl rvhere it flourishcd. Later', like t h e M u d 6 j a r s t 1 l e ,i t b e c a m e p l a l f u l a n d i n t r o duced Gothic motifi. I TfiE MATURE C A T A L A NR O M A N E S Q USET Y L E
ditl'crentll-) and embellished rvith sculpture 1n the French mannsr; the dates probabll tlll betwecn r r r4 and r r5o. Yet despiteits |rcn11. elements thc resulting btrilding docs not stcrl French. Nor does San Pedro at Besalu.(It ha. an ambulatorl- uith nichcs in the outer \\rll s e r r i n g a s r a d i a t i r r g c h a p e l s ; t h e a p s e a r c a c l ri 5 d o u b l e c l , l i k e t h e s u p p o r t s o { ' a c l o i s t e r ' . )S a n t x Maria ol \iilabertrin, dated about Iroo, r'tsembles a simple Prorengal or Burguntli,rl c h u r c h . L i k e m a n l ' s u c h b u i l d i n g s i n F r a n c e. i t
Ram6n Berengucr III, Count o1' Barcelona (ro96 r r3r), was masterof'the whole Nlediterranean coast-line from the Ebro to Nice. Under
h a s q u a d r a n t v i r u l t e d a i s l e s ,a s c m i c i r c u l a r t L r n nel vault with trlnslersc archcs in thc nnrc.
him French influences filtered into the architectural sculpture in Catalonia, but in general the area retained its Lombardic st1'le,which had
o r n a m e n t o n t h e e x t e r i o r a n d a c l o i s t c ro 1 ' L o n t -
dominated since the tenth centur-t. The increase of means, in Catalonia as elsewhere in the eleventh and twelith centuries, permitted an improvement in craftsmanship' particularly in the use ol'fine ashlar masonry for interior and 'l'he later churches are generous in scale, and ordinarily vaulted; thet are in
exterior walls.
occasionally many cases richly ernbellished 'lvith carved with tvmpanum reliefs, usualll' capitals, and therv often have cloisters, richlv carr,ed and unfailingly poetic. Reminiscences of the Mozarabic st1'leare unusual, but there ts an indefinable half-oriental warmth in the buildings which must owe something ultimatel-v to the Moors. San Clemente oF'l'ahull,6 well known lor its paintings, is almost archaic for its date (tt3z)' It is a perfectly plain triapsidal wooden-roofed basilica without even a clerestory. The handsome square tower is traditionally Lombard. French influence in Catalonia may, as usual, be traced bl the ambulatory and radiating chapels (rare in Romanesque Catalonia) and by sculptural style. San Juan de las Abadesas'shows the old scheme of a tight cruciform plan ol surprisingly grand scale expanded by an lmbulatorv and radiating chapels (later rebuilt
307
'i
\,li
rvith a timid clerestorl', but it has Lombardic bardic character. O f ' t h e g r o u p o f c l o i s t e r sr v h i c h m u l t i p l i e d i n the twelfth centur)'', a I-erv are noticcd hcrc,' being connected with intcresting churchcs: San Pedro Galligans, Gerona (about tt.;o), S r r n t aN l a r i a d e I ' E s t a n v ( r r 3 3 ) , S a n C u g a t d c l Vallds (about rI5o); the crthedral of Gcrona (neally contemporarv); San Benito de Bagcs ( r v e l l a l t e r r r 5 o , p r o b a b l l i n c o r p o r a t i t . t gc ' t r r,ings which belonged to thc cloistcl ol 9;:)' ancl, beside thc charming little latc Lomb:rrtlic church of San Pablo del Clmpo in Barcelon"r' a r i n v c l o i s t c ro l a b o u r I 2 o o , t o $ h i c h c u s l ' c t l arches give an odd oriental look. The visiror who makes the rounds of'thcse and others likc thcm cxpericnccs onc of thc tlclights ol lltc ' ho morttl metlieral trrrclling ecclcsiltsticu from monaster\ to monasterJ and slu sottttthing of life in the cloister wherever he r'r'ent' t The monasterv of Ripoll has an attracttr c l o i s t e r a l s o , i n t $ o s t o r e y s ,b u t t h e i m p o r t ' r n t s c u l p t u r a l m o n u m e n t t h e r e i s t h e e l a b o r a t ep i r r -
2 3 3 .S e od e U r g e l C a t h e d r a lr,I 3 r - ? 5 and later, from the north-west
2 3 4 .S c od e U r g e l C a t h c d r a l r, r 3 r 7 5 and latcr, analvticalsection
orientation in architecture. The Catalans think ofthe later twelfth centur,v as a rather decadent period in this art. So it is that the chief great
east walls of the transept also being thick enough to contain its fbur absidioles, and those of the apse thick enough to contrin a small arial rotunda. In the massive horseshoe-shaped
e n t e r p r i s eo f t h e t i m e , t h e c a t h e d r a l o f t h e S e o de Urgel 143, 41, is in larious wavs like a maturer and more finished version of Ripoll, and in the lineage of San Vicente, Cardona (r. tozo-4o), San Pons de Corbeira (c. ro8o), and S a n J a i m ed e F r o n t a n y d ( r o 7 o ) . ' ' The grand old cathedral of rr3r-75 at the Seo ds Lht.lro has a T-shaped plan rather like that of Ripoll, but simpler. It is laid out rvith tremendous stout walls in fine ashlar masonrv.
t a l o f ' t h e m o n a s t e r y 'c h u r c h . T h e c l o i s t e r n t ' t l b e a se a r l v a s I r z 5 a n d t h e p o r t a l a sl a t e a s I t 7 5 'I'hev were added, of course, to the remarlirblc church of ro.iz, lvhich $e have mcntlolrct'
The walls oithe transeot enclsserve as the actual bases of trvo hear'1' towers (containing compartments which open into the transept), the
previously.
o' I n r r 3 5 C a t a l o n i a r v a s! o i n e d t o t h e c r o u t t t t c t' ' t a b o u r n o r b l i n g \ragon, but the ttnion did
L
nave thcre are t\lo files ofcrucilbrm piers lvith nook-shalis, supporting banded tunnel vaulting in the transept and naYe, groin vaulting in t h e a i s l e s .T h e c r o s s i n g i s c o l e r c d b 1 ' a c u r i o u s fbur-ribbed dome carried on squinches and 'l'he nate has a clcrestorlshallolvpendentivcs. paired arches suppolted on paircd of prettv 'l shatts like thosc of a cloister' he fiont of the b u i l d i n g w a s p l a n n e d l b r t u o s q u a t es t a i r l u t lets, llhich n'ith the huge tlanseptal torvcrs and the trvel\e-sidcd lantern would mark a strong silhouettc ergrinstthc sk-v Not the least rcmark-
)
3O8
sPAlN, PORTUGAL, ANI) THL HOLY I.AND
able thing about the building is its almost pure Lombard strle, especiirlll'on the extcrior, where the design uith its decorative arcading, apse g:rllerl', and other f'eaturesmight casilv bc mis-
narrow openings, likc those of the Moorish LUlmt:. In passing, the other great Catalan Cistercian
taken fbr an actual Lombard building o1'the
foundation should be mentioned Santas Creu. ( r r 5 7 ) , a l s o p r o v i d e d w i t h a n a u s t e r ea n d c h a r -
errlv or middle twellih century.
ncteristic church which builds up into a beauti-
Completion of'the roofs, towers, and dome u'as in f'act contracted fbr in r r7S between thc
lul octagonal cimborio or crossing lo\4cr r' Gothic date.rl
Chapter on onc part, and Raimundus with lour
Tarragona Cathedral, begun in rrTr,rr is tht
lamhardos on the other: lumlturdus at the time
heir of all these tendencies. Metropolitan archi-
s i g n i f r i n g n o m o r e t h a , n m a s u n .B u t t h c s t y ' l c
episcopal establishment in a city with manr
of'the edificc shows thrt masonrv of-the Lom-
Romirn remains. the church has the resolute
bard ty'pe rvas expectcd, as it had becn fbr ccnturiesin Catalonia. 'l'he c o n s e r v a t i \ e c h a r a e t e ro f ' t h e b u i l d e r s i n
Provcngal construction.
sturdiness of the most invincible Roman or 'Ihough finished in
C a t a l o n i ac a n n o t b c t o o m u c h e m p h a s i z e d .T h e C l u n i a c p o s s e s s i o n st,h o u g h t h e f i r s t g i f t d a t e s
Gothic times, the excellent ashlal masonry has Romanesque character. The plan has the ar'rangement of a much smaller French church ol
back to 966. serc nert'r actile ol important. 'l'hcrcfbrc. after thc Lombartls and thc Pro-
the apse echelon type (nave offive bays, single proiecting apsidal transept ba1's,with sanctuar\
Vengaux, the first ensrrinp;ware of fbreign influence was thc (,istcrcian sn1e, which came in
bay and triapsidal chevct bevond). The result-
b e c a u s eo f t h e i n t e r e s t w h i c h t h e n c w d v n a s t l ' (of Aragon, sincc rr.1i) carll erinced in the refbrm of Citeaur. The Gothic
Burgundian half-
in France so relativelv conscr\.ative
i n C a t a l o n i am a r k s r n a d r a n c c . P o b l e t , l ' a l r e a d v m e n t i o n e c li n o u r b r i c f ' s u r vel of'Cistercian archjtecture,rvasfbundcd in
ing effect of magnilic:rtion is awkward in various respccts, but imposing, since heavy lbrms dcrivcd {rom the Cistercian stvle (with Poiter rn influence, perhaps, in thc column-bunclle pier: ) wcre used with f-air consistency in the loucr parts of the building, and the exterior, flatroofed, is blockl' and plain like a Provcng:rl -l'he building. cloister is surprisinglv Burgurrdian - with Cistercian architectural forms, and
rr5r, and it became the Aragonese dl.nastic p:rnthcon, which erplains its fine construction and its vast developmant.'l'he pointecltunnel
elsewhere in thc cathedral establishment thcle
vault with transverse arches is of'undiluted R o m a n e s q u ci b r m . S u r p r i s i n g a s i t i s i n r c l a t i o n to its contcmporar), the 1,lult of Notre-Dlme
vaulted onlv in 1287, and dedicated complctc onll in r j3r, the building has Gothic details
in Paris (about rr75 g5), it u:rs quitc natural i n t h e C a t a l o n i ao f t h a t a p ; e w , herc the rib vaults of the aislosof Poblet werc) on the contrar\,, surprising. Throughout the vasr ertent of thc l a t e r m e d i e v a l b u i l c l i n g sa t P o b l c t t h e r e i s m o r e t h a n a h i n t o f ' R o m a n e s q u ec h a r a c t e ri n t h e r v l l l work irnd massing, rvhilc the plal ful Gothic trlcerr
h'ls a half'-oricntal sparkle, and occurs
o f t e n i n w i n c l o l rs l v i t h s l e n d e rs h a f t sa n d c l e q a n t
carvings in the Cluniac tradition. Herc and are oriental touches. Of course, being fullr
also: in thc wcst portal, the windo$ trrccrv, lntl the (characteristic) octrgonal crossing tower. 'I'he old cathedral of L6ridara [235], boldlr sct on a great rock which dominates th. mod"r', torvn, is a somewhat more consistent examplc ot'this samc solid, sunburned late half-Gothic architccture (rzo3-78). Its plan is simpler thrn tlrat ol Tarragona (an dchelon of five apscs to t h e c a s t 0 t l h e t r a n s e p ti h a n d s o m ec i m b o r i o , , t
235. L6rida Cathcdral, rzoj
^L-
wcst ptrrtrl into the cathedral 7ll, vicw liom thc
3IO
SPAIN, POR'IUGAL,AND THE HOLY LAND
6gAPTER r 8
S T Y L E SD E P E N D E N T O N F R A N C E
p R E L l N l l N A R rC O N S T D [ , R A T I O N S
the passesinto thc Peninsula. A large proportion of them were southern Frenchmen - in parti-
Conservatism in Cirtalonia prevented an earlv or effective spread of Iirench Romanesque architecture to the region. It was quite the
cular from Poitou, Languedoc, and Burgundv.
reverse in the Christian states to the west. in spite of the apparent barrier of the Pyrenees. The southrvard advance of'the doughtl' Spanish kings and soldicrs produced a splendid oppor-
conringof the Cluniacs under Sancho the Great (97o ro35), King of Navarrc.l S a n c h o ' sg r a n d s o n , A l l b n s o V I ( r o 6 S - r r o g ) ,
tunity for inrmigration, and religious aspects of' the war turned it into a crusade. French partici-
the great patron of Santiago and Clunv, reassembled thc Kingdom (parcelled in accor-
pation in such crusades has usually becn accompanied bv good and practical rcsults ol-some
d a n c e w i t h S a n c h o t h e G r e a t ' s b e q u e s t s )a n d enlargcd it. He continued the ecclesiastical policJ' ol' Sancho, as we know. Srhagirn, the greatest monaster) in Castile, was associated
sort, and thc storl' of thenr is often written in
L6rida, Exchange,rhirreenrhcenturl
architecture. The war of rcconquest began at Cor,adonga
transrttonal st1-le; heavill,_built nave oI three bays) except that a Gothic .to;r,., ,o_.rtr, larger than the church was added at the west. 1'he cloister, which reall
hasagreat port"r i*;;vr.?;;t.,r*.ljr#; q u a r t e r . sa r e a t t"f he
north; at the south_west is r rall octagonalroucr sct poinr_
- l 1r st ne ., 1 , t t t . 1 . w lrke the Limousin tr
in therburtee;;il;:T;:',Tll T:,i Romanesque. I alencia,though temporarily captured and ruled bt, thc Cid (that is, Said, Lor
ish style. Certain other details can only be N:lTin origin, and are doubtless .or,.,..t"d with Sicily, whereaoual Aragonese .ute begai rn 1262. Someremainsof medievalcivic anddomestic rork ol'the Romanesque periodexistin Cata_ ronra,bur the fine examples(the {rchbishop,s t-r Barcelona,the Exchange in L!.i;; .O"ti:.. [zj6l), do nor anredarethe thirteenth..n,r.f, when urbanismreallvbegins in the.egiorr.Brt an donion (,Torr. a. Ho-_.nrj"ji ,occasional with ward and enclosure walls, perhaps also survived,along with .ity t,our., l1*..1 lur in Mur, Solsona,Vich, Besalf , ard Ge.ona.So_e_ times.in rhe back_country rillages,wherethe chrrrchrs likelr still ro bc Romanesque, thereis a medievalimprint yet remaininp; rt,. ,irnil. "" houses,porticoes, and overhanging.uu.r.Th. Romanesquestamp on Catalonia i, i"d;"; extraoriinarv.
Benedictinism and Carolingian monasticisn'r earll-' filtered into middle and western north Spain, but lvere not rcally'ellectite until thc
in 7r8. It increasingl-v gained French recruits as the Pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela
with Clun1., and its abbot, Bernard of Agen, 'Ioledo in became primate aftcr the crpture of ro85 and the resuscitation of its ancient ec-
flourished. Actually the conquering Christian kingdoms offered profitable opportunitics to
clesiastical dignitl'.
adventurers becausethe population of Christian north Spain was not large enough to stand the 'lhc drain of cxpansion. arca of the Christian kingdoms trebled in the eleventh century. When
tics and religion, but also in blood. Four ofthe
the great cities fell, many faithful Moslems were displaced, their room being taken by Cas'l'his tilians and French, occurred alicr the rec o n q u e s to f ' T o l e d o ( r o 8 5 ) , H u e s c a ( r o t l 6 ) , V a l e n c i a ( r o g , + ) ,a n d Z a r a g o z a( r r r 8 ) . It was the same with the native Church: problems on an entirely nelv scale werc presented to it, and foreig;n ecclesiasticswith suitable experience had to be called to fill the great posts. The Isidorian church was overfloocled by. this tide, and Romanized befbre the end of the eleventh centurv. So ecclesiastics as lvell as pilgrims, knights, ancl settlers flowcd through
T h e c o u r t b e c a m eg a l l i c i z e d ,n o t o n l f i n p o l i consorts of Allbnso VI were F'renchwomen, and sei eral of his children made French marriages; French chivllry flo*ered at the court, and so it \\'as that the arbitcrs of taste and the patrons of art were b.v-'nature fitted to desire French creations, though not quite to the exclusion of sophisticated Moslem works. Alfbnso's son-in-law, Ra1'mond of Burgundy, is known to have brought twentl' French mas < r n st o u o r k o n t h e w a l l s o l ' . i l i l a ( r o r l o ) | 2 . 1 4l . Alfonso VII
(rrz6-57) lbunded a number o1'
C i s t e r c i a n m o n a s t e r i e si n C a s t i l e , A r a g o n , a n d Galicia, which of course meant an influx of the usual Burgundian hall'-Gothic. Under Altbnso \''II's son, Sancho III (rr57 8), the Order o1' Calatlara rvas founded lbr the def'encc of the
-lr2
s p A I N , p o R . I . U G A r ,A, N D T H [ . t { o L y L A N D
fiontier, under the Cistercian Rule. Sancho I I I ' s s o n ,A l f b n s o V I I I ( r r 5 g _ r z r 4 ) , m a r r i e da dar-rghrerof Henrl' of'Anjou (who had by his marrilge with Eleanor of- Aquitaine ".qui."d that great territorv- which long_int..".,.iE.rglish rolalty
as much as the Island) and th]s union fu'rher opened spain to influences from Frrnce' rn rzrz, at LasNa'a^s a. lotor", o.rif about roo miles from c6rdoba, Alfonso vIIi won the victory which insured an ultimate triumph (r492) againstthe Moors. Meanwhile Burgundian dynasts were acrvancing the' conquest of Portugal' \Iilitary strugglesin which Archbishop Diego Gelmir., ois..r,i"go *r, incidentally concerned, resulted in the in'-d.p..rd e n c e o l r h e c o u n t r l . u n d e r .A f i b n s o l in ,'ra3. In rr47, rvith the herp of pirgrimr, h..rptrr"i Lisbon' All modern portugal had been conquered lrom the Moors by rz7g. In spite of'the ob'ious French sources of style in northern spain. and the presence of' c o n s i d e r a b l en u m b e r s o f F r e n c h c r a f t s m e ' n ,t h e Spanishmonumenrsrealll'areSpanish.andnot ser'ile copies what precisely gi'es the subtle nuance it is difficult or impossible to sav liastidious tastc, rbrmed in the presence of Moorish a r t , d o u b t l e s sc o u n t s f o r s o m e t h i n g . Mozarabic archirecrureand Iloslcrn crafismen ha. some slight influence Traclitional skill in cxploiting e f l ' e c t so f s u n a n d s h a c l o w ; s i m p l e r bulks, ani the indefinable plaJ' of relationships between the buildings and their austere' alwavs mountainous surroundings or backgrouni may be
lliiil:ffiJil"l:'iJil:::T::::l',1':l"' or
ARAcoN AND NA\ ARRE
In the fbrmati'e period of Romanesque ar.cl1tecture these two mountain kingdoms rcccired many architecturar impurses fiom abroacl, du. to their contacs wittr ttre pilgrimage and *irh clun,r,. parrs.f Ar;;';*sess brick Ronran_ .rqu. and Mucl.iar u..hi,..ru.., ancr this is occasionalll.echoecl in stone buildings, like the eleventh-centu.y.h..,..t ,o.,".rs of Ldrrcclc rrnd Gavin.2 r"-u".alf J*,ri',, *.,, represcnrcd in the cathedr"r oinoJ.-i. Ribagorga(ro.;6 ( 1 7 ) .E c c l e s i a s t i c a l c o n n e x i o n sb r o u g h t a F r c . c h o.i.nt"tion. cluniac ;;;k;."-. abour ro:0, but thc earliest cluniac church still cxistinS^is S a n S a l r , a d o r. t L . r r . , i"rr.rr, noted) [r-q71. I . - ti s r v o n d c r t u i l v s e r i n , n r o u n r r i n .r.hc 'ailer. e a s r e r np a r t s o f t h e c h u r c h h a d been buirr hr ro57. They are notable fbr the h a n d s o m eu s eo f . irregurar) ashrar stone fro-.*tu, rn m;ln\ ,.gion, still an unusuar thing at this date. .l.he 'aulted crvpt somcrvhat reca's saint_\larrin_ a,,-canigou, bur ir is -rr.. o.iginat. srum'r .olu.nn, support hairpin-like rransr.erse archcs uncler the vault with .r,er1,, picturesque efrccr. 'fhc main triapsidal liun.,ur.1,, with parirllcr t u n n " l ' ' ' o r l t . , r c c a l l sL a n g u e c l o c . Bv the t*.cilih ."n,u.nawidenarcrvasaddcd, likerhoseof.thc i,oi..; i, now has fine Gothic vaults. The r.rrl Augustinian fbundation ar Siresa built 1als, ,o-"*h"t in the stvle of.Languedoc) a runncl_ v a u l t e c la i s r e l e s sc . r c i f b r . n r c h u r c h in roliz. Jaca cathedral, Lzlllinaugur{rcd a distinc_
tirle rocarschoor R"o-un".qu. n'.hi",.;';;p;;
bu'ding spuin, .'.n*.iililTT:iJ:; ,.*i,,,::.;il;[TT:in:"iJ:"il:*,i]: n e v e r b c c a m e F r e n c h , a n c li t w a s thc samervith of de'elopment
the architectu.e' 'lhis nuancc is alrva's to be understood' even when not mentionecl. in the ensuing discussions.
STYt,L,S DEP[,NDEN'I'
i n c l u d i n g t h e c a t h e d r a l ,u . h i c h rvasto bc (perhaps only in part) a raultecl sr.rcture. A council is saicl to har.e becn helcl in thc building in ro63, but there is no a s s u r a n c et h r r r the lhbric was rhen adranced. .lhe b a s i cd c s i g n is very slggxnl, but so eclectic a s t o s u g g e s tt h i l r a Spirniard uas rhc :rrchirecr.
ON
FRANC[,
1I1
t h e c r - v ' ' pot f ' r o 3 o h a s c y l i n d r i c a l p l i n t h s r r n d e r thc piers, likc those ofJaca Cathedral). Abore the arcrde thc wall at Jacais plain, with a single clcrestor] window over each opening in thc aisle arcatle. 'l'here 'included trirnsept' with tunncl is an vaulting in the arms, and a fine stone dome the latter slightll'distortcd to lit over an octagon made bl trumpct squinches. A rib rises fiom t h e m i d d l e o f e a c h s i d e o f t h e o c t a g o ni n M o o r ish fashion. Intermediate bays of tunncl raulting beyond the transept preceded three Rom a n c s q u e a p s e s ,o f l v h i c h t h e c e n t r l l o n e h a s been replaced. 'l'hornr. archaeological problems are posed b 1 ' t h c b u i l d i n g b e c a u s eo l ' t h e e x c e l l e n c eo f i t s construction and the luxuriance, vivacitr', and -I'he grcat merit of its sculptural dccoration. o l d e r F r c n c h a r c h i t e c t u r a lh i s t o r i a n s\ \ e r c p r o n e to post-date such structures, but nerver studies hare pushed the enscmble of dates back b1' t\yentr or thirtl' vears. Noting that two of the 237.Jtct Crrthedral,in use ro6.1,finishcdlater
At the entrance o1'the cathedral there is a tunnel-r'aultecl porch of tlvo ba1s. lbrmcrlv o p e na t t h e s i d c s ,w i t h a n i n t e r e s t i n gw e s t p o r t a l - Burgundian in general srrle like the porch, but with lions and the XP monogram (later 'I'he copied in rhc region) on th{j tympanum. n a v ea n d a i s l e sh a v c b e a u t i l i r l s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r \ star vaufting, but the relativcl-v-.light original construction prcdicates a Romanesque rool in wood. 'l'he nave bals are double (except the westernmost one) with elegant round columns
column capitals in the intcrior of the church a r ec v e n n o w i n a b l o c k l c o n d i t i o n , n e v c r h a v i n g becn carlcd, we may suppse that the carving 'l'he high r v a sd e l a v c d a t J a c a u n t i l a b o u t r o 7 o . q u a l i t l o f ' t h c f a b r i c , s o u n e x p e c t c di n a r e m o r c place. rvould be due to thc personalintcrest of the King, and his excellentchoice ot il master builder. 'I'he
influence of'Jaca Cathedral radiated through the district; wc find an ccho ofits plan, and pcrhaps of its structurc, in thc fine ruined C l a s t i l i a na b b e v c h u r c h o f A r l a n z a , d a t e d a b o u t ro8o to r roo. L o a r r c ' f z j t i , 2 3 9 l , a l s os h o r v i n gt h e i n l l u e n c c of'Jaca Cathedral, has thc finest Romanesque
as intermediate supports betrvt:en groupctl p i e r s .T h e r e i s a h a u n t i n s r e m i n i s c c n c eo f ' t h e Loire region in the clesign, but onl1. impcr'ttct corrtparisons can be made (Saint-Sar-inien at
bcautifullv set on a rockt spur, commanding gorgeous views of the Gdllego Vallel. and its
Sens;Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire; thc abbel' church of Jumidges, to4o 67, which rvas in(luenccd lrom the L o i r e : r h e c a t h e d r a lo f A u r e r r e . w h e r e
an cstablishmentol' Au-rustinian canons thcrc, sanctioned by the Pope in ro7I. 1'he church,
c a s t l ei r . rS p a i n , a b l u l i m a s so f w a l l s t n c l t o w e r s
mountain barriers. Parts of thc castlc antedate
.lt+
sp-\l\.
PoRT('(iAL,.{ND l'llE II()LY L{\l)
S T Y L E SD E P E N D E N T ON FRANC]E3I5
ception, bcing set in an octagonal open spacc, screened off somewhat likc a classical building in its temenos,or like the Dome of'thc Rock in Jerusalem, which probably inspired the general form of this and similar buildings. Stronglv under Cistercian and Poitevin influcncc in plan is the half'-Gothic cathcdral of Tudela,10 wherc the high altar was consecrated in rzo4. A consistent st1''lewas maintained on the interior, although the building wasnot finisheduntil about r275. As in Catalonia, the tardv half-Gothic -I'arraw a s s u c c e s s l u l l va b s o r b c d ; L 6 r i d a a n d gona are thc comparable eramPles-
L [ , O N ,C A S T t L E A , ND GALtCIA Union with Navarre and Aragon, and everincreasing relationships rvith France, stirrcd a rery' interesting artistic rcvival in the western kingdoms. Le6n (in the Asturias) alreadl'had a national st1'le of'architccture, which we havc s t u d i e d . T h e c a p i t a l c i t . v ,L e 6 n i t s e l f ' s i n c eg r 4 , z1li. l,oarre, castle, r. ro1;5
which now dominatesthe whole group, has an epitaph of rog5 carvedin the lower part, which probably indicates that construction was wcll
-I'oulousan in the decorative arcade, resemble c a r r , i n g so f ' t h e t i m e . T h e a r c h i t e c t u r e , t h o u g h close in detail to that of'Languedoc and Poitou.
on towards completion at that time. Approach to the church is through a long ascending stair corridor to thc castle ward, and
has a half--oriental warmth and seems verr Spanish. The aesthetic and acoustical effect ol'
thence bv a lateral portal into the ccntral bav of the church. To the west of this is an irregular tunnel-vaulted bay, and to ths east a very elcgant arcaded apse, the architectural lines being delicatelv rnarked by billet mouldings. The central bay itselfrises through a combination of' oricntal f-accted f-an squinches, broad trumpet squinches, and shallow pendentives pierced with oculi, to a hemispherical dome all in firstclass ashlar which has endurcd well. The sculptured capitals, placed on shalts under the gireatarches beside thc windows, and
the interior is dramatic, in Spanish fashion; thc abrupt verticalitv of the middle bay' is startling,as one cnters, without harm to the graciousness or harmonious proportions of the interior. On the exterior the domed bay has a stubbl.octrgonal tower, brought to a square base over thc squinches by 'broach' rool.s cmall half'-pvram i d s , t h a t i s . T h e c a s t e r n c r o s s i n go f C l u n 1 . I I t
z3g.Loarre,castlechapel,r. lo95
rallied alter destruction by Almanzor in 996, and undoubtedll. initiated a new architcctural revival likc that rvhich had stirrcd Oviedo twcr
erected by Pedro de Roda, a Cluniac refbrming bishop, who is known to have been at Cluny in t h e y e a r r r o o . O n e o f h i s m a s t e r sw a s S t e p h e n ,
centuries befbrc. Both Leirn and Castile had some peaccablc contact with the Nloors, and Nlozarabic works eristed in both areas before
who worked on the cathedral at Santiago. Unquestionably the old cathedral of Pamplona, if it existed, would throw interesting light on the
the Romanesque stl'le t'as introduccd. 'I'he earliest eristing fragmcnt of Romane s q u ca r c h i t e c t u r ei n t h e r e g i o n i s a n e r l e n s i o n
tangled architectural history ofits period. In passing, it is worth while to mention a few stylistically complex buildings which, with the
to the Visigothic crypt of thc cathedral o1'Palencia. Date d ro3:[, it is in excellent ashlar work,
Mud6jar work, show foreign architectural currents in this region ofAragon and Navarre, e\,en
had a somewhat similar roof, and the ty'pe became common in Aragon.o Relationships with Pamplona Cathedral in Nayarre cannot be traced, owing to the destruc' tion of that important Romanesque building,
l
and has a clcr,er arcade in the apse vault which shows competenceon the part of'the builders at this earlv date.
at a late date. There is, fbr instance, the halfGothic-half-Poitevin Santa Maria la Real at SangiiesaT (rr3r and later). The half'-Moorish
I n L e 6 n u n k n o l v n m a s t e r so f r c a l g e n i u s e x tcnded the little old church of St John Baptist and San Pelavo de C6rdoba betrveenro54 and
Santo Sepulcro in'Iorres del Rios (alrcady reterredto Ir32, r33]; late twelfth century) ought to be mentioned, as well as the supposed 'l'emplar octagon at Eunate') - thc last, by rare ex-
ro67 to fbrm a portico and the roval pantheon. -I'he church. latcr rebuilt, became the church ol San Isidoro [z4o-zl when the relicsof'the grcat D o c t o r o f S e v i l l e w e r e b r o u g h t t o i t . 1 1T h i s a n d
3IO
SPAIN, PORTUGAL,AND THE HOLY LAND
o t h e r c h a n g e sh a r e l e f t t h e n e w w o r k o f r o 5 4 67 as a retircd chapcl, whereas in origin the pantheon was a kind of inner narthex with a
of the time. Its oblong area is dirided into si1 compartments over two ample columnar sunportsl the) :rnd the numerous rnall responll, har.e capitals which are among the best anrl most interesting of their periocl. The well_ d e s i g n e ds y s t e m o f d o m e d - u p g r o i n v a u k s j u s t above them has remarkable frcsco decoration. extraordinarily well preserved, which was pain_ red about r r75. The church ofSan Isidoro was progressirclr r e b u i l t , a n d u l t i m a r c l . rr a u l t e r l b y r h e a r c h i r e t l r 'I'he Petrus Deustamben. central one of its three !i c n e r o u sa p s e sh a s b e e n r e p l a c e d b u t t h e h a n d some lateral apses are still in place, with interesting sculptural decoration. The transepr, tunnel-vaulted, extends bevond the lateral apscs, and opens into the nave through lrsr c u s p e d a r c h e s ,a b o v e w h i c h t h e h i g h v a u l t ( c a r _ ried airily over a clerestory in the nave) is pro_ longetl.This is rcrl sqrnp.lent rvork of the cn.l ofthe eleventh centurv and the beginning ofthc tlvelfth. The carr.inEl,especiallr. on the latcrtli portal, shows progress bcyond the point rcachcd
z4o. Lc6n, San Isicloro,ro54 tweltih centurl 'l'he tribune abore it. p o r t i c o $ a s p l a c e c lo n i t s north flank. and ertended also along the west s i d e . w i t h t h e s o l i d m a s so f ' t h c c i t v n . a l l i u s t t o the west of the passagc-wa_l . 'P6rtico The c l el o s R e r e s ' t h u s e n c l o s e dt l v o s i d c s o f t h e ' P a n t e 6 n d e l o s R e 1 , e s ,'.I ' h e l a t t e r , o n c o f t h e f i n e s t a n d b c s t p r c s e r r c d r v o r k so l i t s kind, is reallv a special vcrsion of the Carolingian burial porch which we hare scen ar Saint-Riquier (where Angilbert was buriecl), and at Saint-Denis (where Pepin the Short was laid awav)
and also a spccial version of'the t o w e r - p o r c h e s w h i c h w e h a v c s e e ni n t h e L o i r e
region ar Sr Nlartin of Tours (466 7o ancl about ro5o) and Sainr-Benoit-sur-Loirc (datccl rn rts presentfbrm shortlv after ro67). 'l'hc Pante6n dc los Reles is actuallv more accornplishcd than anl'existing French *.ork
i n t h e P a n t e 6 n d e l o s R e v e si n t h e c a r l i e r p e r i o t l . We now turn to other important Romanesqueworks ofthc Leonesc school. A church resembling San Isidoro was builr (,. ro65-85) as the cathcdral of Le6n, but clcmolishcd to make wav for the present beautilirl Gothic building, under the pavement of u.hich the old fbundations came to light in r884 8.r San Nlartin at Fr6mistarr is a sort of'paradignr lor the Leonese school. Fr6mista, like Le6n, i, on the Pilgrimage routc to Santiaso de Contpostela. A monaster.!. was being built there br Doia Nlavor, widow of Sancho the Great ot Nararrc, rvhen the dollager Queen's testamenl 'I'his was written, in ro66. date docsnot strictlr applv to the church, and it mav be that the extraorclinarill vivacious sculptures date fronr the latter vcars of the eler.enth centurv. 'I'he c n s e m b l eo f t h e b u i t d i n g i s r c r r h a r m o n i o r r . and dignified, though it sufiers fiom hxr,ing been over-restored a generirtion ago. The platr
z4r. Le6n, San Isidoro, I'ante6ndc los Rc.vcs,lo54 67 z4z.Le6n, San Isidoro, 1o5.1twcllth ccnturl'
-a-J
+
Oo, |,Ot?
lorrrro -a fr?t
,*/ t,
{'+
)
STYLES DEPENDENT ON FRANCE 3rlJ
3I9
sPAIN, PORTU(;ALr AND TLIE IIOL'l- LAND
is triapsidal, and rather short, with an octagonal lantern towcl over a tunnel-vaulted transept; the nave has no clerestorl', but is covered by a tunncl vault with transverse arches. carried. with the similar vaulting of the aisles, on logical grouped piers. The resulting building resembles a P o i t e v i n h a l l c h u r c h . T h e : r b r u p t v e r t i c a l so f thc pair of crlindrical stlir turrets at the west, and the boldnessof the hntern give it special character. It is quite clear that Leon could not have nrade the leap from N{ozarabic to Romanesque without France, but the exact incidcnce of the influencc is not easl'' to determine. There are, as in the case ol'the Prnte6n de los Reyes, cledible signs ol- connexions with the Loire region, nourished by the pilgrimage to the tomb of St Nlartin (a popular saint in Spain) and reinlbrced b1' contacts with French pilgrims to Santiag;o.Even more evident are the indices of Poiterin influcnce. The southward expansion ofthe Poitevin st1'lehas alreadv been the subiect o f c o m m e n t . I t i s e r e m p l i f i e d i n t h e c a t h e d r a lo f Ciudad Rodrigo [243J where also the nave is
z4j. CiudadRodrigoCathedral,nave,twelfrhcenrun
vaulted with Angevin ribbed domes; in the v a r i o u s c h u r c h e sa t S o r i a ; a t O v i e d o i n t h e l a t e r
p1rirndestell'ects, it was never applied bf itsell
constructions of the Cimara Santa, beautifullv
i n a r e a l l v l a r g e - s c a l eS p a n i s h b u i l d i n g . E i t h e r
cmbellished uith figure sculptures i58]. and at Santiago de (,ompostela in the church of Santa
it u,as used bv a Spanish architect in an eclectic composition, or bt a Burgundian masterin one
Nlaria del Sar (rr44); also, in the portal, the Christ in Glorl', and the'Apostolado'(rr65) of
episode ofa long-continued building enterprise. 'I'he Spaniards nerer developed a Romanesqr.tc
thc f-agadcat Carri6n de los Condes.r+ 01'thcse buildings, the cathedral of'Ciudad
stvle strong enough to exclude all importations
Rodrigo is b1. fir thc most interesting and the latest in dats (1r65 r:io), proofof'continuing 'l'he contacts rvith wcstcrn Francc. intcrior has domcd-up rib-r'aults resembling Angerin construction, carried on substantial piers which remind one of the column-bundles of Poitou.
fiom the design of large works. Usuallv, as the great Spanish buildings went lbrward, the imported forms were progressivell hispanized, or, through change of plan, other fbrms were brought in to modify the design (not ahvavs to its advantage). A good example of this process, with Bur-
The grcrt cffbrt made in Romancsque times
gundian fbrms involved, is offered b1'the cathe-
b y w a r r i o r s , s e t t l e r s ,a n d c c c l e s i a s t i c lsi o m B u r 9u''d!' makes it naturnl to expcct the work of Burgu"dixn architccts and sculptors. Although
dral ol Santiagode CompostelaIr r3, r r4, rzz6 1 , t o w h i c h r e ( e r e n c ei n d e t a i l h a s a l r e a d v b e e n made. The main thcmc of Srrntiago rvas first
i n B u r g u r ^ . l yi t s c l f t h e s t l l c w a s c a p a b l eo f ' t h e
a c h i e v e di n L a n g u e d o c , b u t t h e a x i a l c h a p e l o 1 '
24+
clt\
wall, begun rogo
seems ratncr San Salrador, o1l'the ambulatorv' arches there Cusped Prorenqal or ;;;;;tt, a N'Ioorish gile in thc building .fi.*t... "nJ l r a n s c pt suggesl o f t h e t a n g .T h e c o r n e r t u r r e t s at Poitiers) poiiou tN.,..-Dame-la-Grande rowers (resembling the fzrz), asdo the rvestern of Angounorth-"".t tower of thc cathcrlral o fthe navc' e n d c a s t t h e a t l !m e ) ,b u t t h e t u r r e t s lirnousin' The ths suggest pointwrse, being set Cathedral was original west front of Santiago Pu-v Irz8l' but Le of that finished offr'athe r like from Burinspirecl rvas Glona the P6rtico dc la of the gundv. In a wlJ'' one ('eels thc eft'ect tn Roads iunn.l-rhrp".1 map of the Pilgrimagc a delivertng Santiago at France with its spout 'lhe eclectt(caturcs varietv ofFrcnch regional architect' of Santiago in
c a s e so f i n s p i r a t i o n of Orense;1ithere are other which have evldent hand second liom Iirance rrt weakncsses. ' where BurWe turn now to other examples l t i s c ertainl) fi'lt s t r o n g i s guntliirn influence e l e g a r ' ct h u r c h t h c a t S e g o r i a ' i n f l f U " l , . S . nf and at rhe del Burgo' in Zamora' oii.n,i*go of Aguas church wooden-rool'ed i.rigit,f"i sustained b) is cor.ering the Sr.ti"r, *hr.. and diaphragm nare arcadcs carr,rlng screens t ' l 'x' r c h e s . Ra'rg . . s u " a ] ' i s s t r o n g l v f ' e l ta l s o a t A v i l a : t 7 masonslo l ; r c n c h h r o u g h t *on.l.-ot Burgundr of lhclr trilolstart $orks there. and something 'Ihe Avilrr of [244]' rrt which rvalls tior, t;nr* i".a. when the cttl rogo' in ,ft"t'tuUo,',..a beginning thc ,ru. ,n nro...' of being rcpopulated.rlier o h s t r t r c tco l i l t l c and aonqu.r,. r,a still complcte 'lhc1' prescnt u bl subsequent construction'
32O
sPAIN, PORTU(;AL' AND THE HOI-Y I,AND
magnificcnt Spanish ensemble earlier in 1111. than (.arcassonne,and not nearll 16 Dttlch rcstorccl. The Rorranesquc cathedral, now replirced. w i r s c l o s c t o t h e c i t - yw l l l , a n d q u i t c p o s s i h l i ., , was planned as a def'encc work fiom thc beqinn i n g . A n o r m a l t r i a p s i d a lp l a n ( ) r . r g d i n g b 1 s rl n c tural lincs which thc present Gothic cathcdrnl has inherited) would havc ioined and pcrhrps extended past the line of'curtain u'all erst o1 rhr cathedral. In the rebuildinel, thc transept \\a( apparentll enlarged eastward, and a spacrOus nelv apse, ambulirtor)', and radiating chirpt'ls were erected within a \,ast semicircular projcction which containecl thesc elements and 'llso continued thc line of defences: indeed .ru{jm e n t e d t h e m ; l b r t h e p r o j e c t i o n h a st h r o e b a t t l emented passrge-wavs and a machicolatcd g,^rrll e r l . o f b o l d d e s i g n .T h i s w o r k i s o f G o t h i c c l a t e , b u t i t h a s R o m a n e s q u e c h a r a c t e r ,a n d i s m r g 24.5.ir.ila Cathedral,twclfth centurr or later, east\ie$, withour prrasitcstru,Jluie((K.j.a'.)
nificentlv imposing [24.5]. San Vicente at Avilars [u46-8|, a pilgrirnarrc 'oe{bie trog, itntl church, rvas begun shcitlr' continucd, with interruptions, to Gothic timcs I t h a s a p l a r r w h i c h b c c a m e c l a s s i ci n S p a i n sanctuary triapsidal, applied with short sanituarl' bays to a long transept with oblong bal: 4
lni
'=
_ilr"' L--
t:' t''
i
ltr
+
projecting rvcll beyond the aisles; a lantcrtr t o w e r a t t h e c r o s s i n g ,a n d a r e l a t i v e l Yl o n g n a r c . The narc of San Viccnte has six bavs, groinr . a u l t e c l ,w i t h r i b s o n t h e h i g h r ' : r u l t . I t i s a u g mcntcd by'' r ver-r' Spanish lateral porch antl (crceptionalll-) br a tall opcn vaultcd narthe\ ba\. like a great hood betwecn thc rvestcrn 'l'hc tower ba]'s open lateralll upon thc towcrs. e x i i r l b a r . a n d t h u t s t l g H ( s ta n e r l c r i o r v r e s l t l ' l l transcpt.r" '-['hcle are other Burgundian featurcs about
the squ:lrc crossing tower, thc San \ricente ",1,:d+,4q pier fbrms, thc high nare with half--Gothic vaulting. The p;olgeous \\'cstern portai, partll Burgunclian, parth' Poite\.in in inspiration, is one of the verl 6nest in Spain; it is of about rr50.
c t roq and latcr zq6 arfi z,1i ivila. San Vicentt'
122
323
SPAIN, PORTUGAL, AND THE IIOLY LAND
,48 (0!!0sne)'
i r09 and later Avila' San Vicente''
later, cloister Domingo de Silos' r' ro8{-r roo and (below)"Santo z4g.
Santo Domingo de Silos is another site associated rvith line sculpture. The lost church
P o r t e r s u p p o s e d ,b u t q u i t e c r e d i b l l . i n t h e p e r i o d
(almost entirelv replaced between rySb ^nd r 8I6) was apparently a small building dating in part from the lifetime of St Domingo (d. ro73)
The church of Santillanadel Mar, near Santandcr, is another in this series of triapsicl;rl R o m a n e s q u eb u i l d i n g s . D a t i n g l r o m t h e t w e l l i h
but enlarged at both ends. There was a dedication in ro88. As finished, the church had a layout somewhat resembling that of San Vicente
century (and continued perhaps evcn into thc thirteenth), it shows thc Spanish love lbr a sn le once received and given a Spanish cachet. Santl -I'era Marta de shows this in another way: in l
at Avila. But the interest at Silos must always have been in the remarkablecloister [249]. It is now two storeys in height, and in use bv the community planted at Silos in the nineteenth century. The most beautilul ol'its carvingsare those on the north and east walks at the lower level, and they are the oldest not dating before St Domingo's death in ro73 asArthur Kingslev
roljq r roo.l0
building dated rrzg the plan (a simple cross). t h e b u t t r e s s s y s t e m ,t h e m a s s i n g ,a n d t h c d c c o r ' ative zoning are surprisinglv like thoseofa fine late Visigothic church, such as Q:intanilla dc las Vifras
but the striking thing is that both rhc masonry and the detail are accomplished Romanesoue.:r
Another traditionxl element is the Spanish south porch connected perhaps. but not demonstrably, with the lateral porches ofSvrian Early Christian churches. In and near Segoria and Burgos there is a charming group of such porches: Sepirlveda, ro93 ff', Gormaz, Jarawith a millo de la Fuente, San Millin, and characteristic tower - San Esteban, at Sego\la' This is all twelfth-centurl work'22 On the Duero and to lhe south' near thc western border oi the old Kingdom of Leon (the present Hispano-Portuguese border)' there is a group of half--Gothic churches which have
because the cathedrals irnd collegiate churches narc in h : r v et h e c a n o n s ' c h o i r a t r h e h e a d o l ' t h e u n excepp i e r s i n a n d w a l l s h e a v v v e r y Spain); contionable ashlar masonr)'; ribbed dome marked vaults; Angevin struction resembling (at thc emnhasis on elaboratc lantern towcrs in thc crossing); and a superlicial orientalism w estcrn i n s t a n d decoration.'I'hcse buildings rein their do 1'arragona Snain, as L6ri<1aand and R o m a n e s q u e t h c f o r r i c t s ' d i s t c spccti\ in transitional Gothic as received together with indelibl-v marked Spain, absorbecl, and
national characteristics' probablv The cathedral of Ztmorazr lz5ol is a shong and unmistakably Spanish character' group ofthe Duero to be rcalized ofthe ol
324
sPAIN, PORTUGAL, AND IHE HOLY LAND
rets.
'I-he
vault of the lantern is a singlc shell 61 ashlar work with a rib over each of the sixtcsn piers, and a gore over each of the sixtcen s 11_ -l'hc ribs have crestinp;which is drau n uD dows. i n a n o g e e c u r \ e t o t h e a p e x o t t h e t o u e r . 16 . gores and the spirclets (which repeat thc og^ee curve) both have a scale pattcrn on the stonq roofing. At the west enrl of Zamora Cathedral thcre is, lbr constrast, a vcry simple and impo:ing 'fhe squlrc to\\er. east end has unlortunilrl\ been rebuilt, but without spoiling the building.
i
dedicated in
try4.
Gudiol
and Gaya Nufro think that the architect was not a Spaniard, per-
haps becausethe orientolism of the Bishop's
Cathedral inspired a handsome but less erotic design. I'he church at Toro was built in thc period r 16o rz4o, almost exactly that of' thc cathedral o1'Notre-Dame in Paris. Thc herrr Romanesque walls and piers of Toro, its triapsidal chevet with short three-bav nave, sh()rt t u n n e l - r , a u l t e dt r a n s e p ta r m s a n d r i b b e d l o b u l , r r
Door irnd the crossing tower is self'-conscious
and dome d vaults, are in marked contrast to thc
and exap;gcratedrather than intimately under-
Parisian building, which was already on thc threshold of the High Gothic style. 'l'he l a r r t e r n a t T o r o h a s t w o s t o r e y so l ' u i n -
stood. Yct the building is eclectic as Spanish designcrs' work often is. The transept l-agade has a strong Poitevin imprint; the interior is simple and perf'ect Burgundian half-Gothic. It has becn sholrn in an exccllentstudt'r'that the lantcrn at the crossing was inspired in part by
dows, like that of Salamanca, but it is finished offrather lamelv by a flat drum and simple rile 'I'here roof. is a great show of cusping on thr windows of' the drum, contrasting with ball
the domc over thc Crusadcrs' transcpt at the
ornament on thc corner turrets.
Church of the Holr, Sepulchre in Jerusalem (dcdicated in rr-19), though the pcndentives
porch at
and thc gored panels in the ribbed dome are spccial variants of' French and Mosleln work respecti\ cl\'. Shortll
aftcr its first eonstruction, corner
There alc two latclal portals and an arr.tl 'Ioro. The north portal has threc
figured archivolts, two ofcusping with a figulc in every cusp, and all radiating like the figr.rrcs of'a Poiterin portal, but set ofi'by alternating
i n g l o l r c l a l Z a m o r l . a n d t h u s i t s c x t e r i o rc a m e
archivolts of'Moorish leafage.:5 -Ihe spread ofthe characteristic lantern motrl of Zrmort in the Duero region brought it trt
r o r e s c m b l e t h e c r o s s i n gt o w e r o f t h e . l \ l o n t i e r neufat Poiticrs, a vcrv influcntial design lz5rl.
ations, in thc crossing tower and the formct'
One window of the lantcrn rvas obscured by cach of'the lbur corner turrots, lcavin.q twelve
s h o r t l - vb e l b r e r 2 o o . T h e l a s t i m p o r t a n t m c d i -
windorvs open
eval example is the thirteenth-century chapter-
turrets and axial grrblcswcre ldded to the cross-
thrce bctween each pail oftur-
*e -,j ,
which had meanwhile been built at Salamanc;r z5o. Zxnora Cathedral, crossing towcr, ,. I r7,l
.,,.
':." . i
Near by, in the collegiate church of Toro, thc lantcrn of Ztmorr and the more famous onc
S a l a m a n c a ,w h e r e i t i s r c p r e s e n t c d , w i t h r a r i c h a p t e r - h o u s eo f t h e O l d C a t h e d r a l , b o t h d a t c d c I I40 z5r. Poiters, Montierneuf, renrains ofcrossing tower
320
Sp,{rN, poRTLrcAL, AND THE HOLy
LAND
house of the cathedral of plasencia, whcre it is called 'el Mel
tic background ofthe cath
varied asrhat ofzam ora,riiTJ,T"lJill.-::: wasachicred
at Salamanca. f n. .n r..h * ,,. ,i,. ornamentof Salamanca Ercatest whenth" .itrl" earl.vconrribu(ions to intellecrual lifc ,n.t 1..,..,1 t'u' derelopnren wle r eb e i n g m a d e r b o ur 2 t oo-
r"q (.athcdrrl, :ir i 5 ! . S a h m a n c a0,t d I o r r c d c l G r l l o , s l r o r r l rh c l b r er z o o
*l
t
'w{
J28
Sl YLES
SPAIN, PORTUGAL, AND'I'Htr HOLY LAND
Salamanca, an ancient Roman town, was held by the Moors until about ro5o. Under Alfonso
alitv of its architect, Pedro Petriz, ro be anr_ thing but Spanish.rn
VI a special effort was made about r roo to develop it, and it was repopulated under Raymond of Burgundy. The architecture of the cathedral
The building was begun about rr5z nn,1 finished early in the thirteenth centurl-. Peclrq Petriz is mentioned in r 163 or r r64 in the nill
may owe something to a tradition started by a French archbishop, Jer6nimo of P6rigord,
o l ' a S a l a m a n t i n ee c c l e s i a s t i cV e l a w h o d i r e c t c d the sale ol various assets fbr the work of thc 'sic cimborio quomodo dixerit PetrusPetriz quc de bet esse'. A Peter was master of the works in
before r rz5. Anticipations of its elements are found in Poitou, Languedoc, and Burgundy, b u t t h e b u i l d i n g p o s s e s s eas m a t u r e s p i r i t o f i t s own as an accomplished Spanish work of art [254]. The warm but proud and unyielding mass of the beautiful procession of nave piers makes one forget that their originals are Poitevin ; the grave and severe succession of pointed
rrEz, rrgz, rzoz, tnd rzo7. Gudiol irnd Gala Nuio believethat the first master (responsible lbr the generous layout, with an outer porch. fir'e nar,c bays, and a transept extending a firll ba-y to each side of the nave and the triapsichl sanctuary) was influenced bv the School of' Avila; that Pedro Petriz, who took o\:er rhc building when the walls had been raised to l certain height, possessed more genius, and a
our consideration the area There remains for '; 'l hc rural de Compostcll S a n t i a g o about ot Galicia has a rarc charm' but f,-orrn.rqu. building in that rcmotc ,h.r. it no firsr-rate S l n t i ago The rirrtousmotet i o m r e g i o na p a r t produccd lht Romanesquc ol' w t , i c l t mlnt. - including Santiago ('athedral itself Sprin 'l'he in these minor buildings' ,.fl..t.d "r. still has its battlecathedral of'I'6v, lbr instance, are tardy Cathedrals Orense and Lugo ments. indeed the Romanesque and half-Gothic evcn to the flavour ofRomanesque is pleserved works' Galician rural in century fifteenth Santa Maria del Campo in La Coruia and a Santa Maria at Cambre in the province have like the rather in fact, Thelare, local interest. handsome Romanesque of near-b1. Portugal, which is worth)-ofstudY on its own account'
t e e n c e l l s w h i c h c a r r i e s a s l i g h t l l , ' c o n v e xe i g h r sided fish-scale roof of stone with crockets on the arrises. This roof is in fact a separate shcll of corbel construction weighing down the 'fhe haunches of the ribbed dome. interspacc was filled with rubble. The thrusts of rhe dome are picked up by wide pilaster-like forms bchind the corner turrets, and b1'a projccting blr enclosing the middlc rvindow on cnch of' thc c a r d i n a l s i d e so f t h e r o w e r . ' f h e b a 1 ' s . . r rleo a d c d b 1 ' w e l l - d e s i g n e d g a b l e s ,t h e t u r r e r s b y c o n i c a l rool-s which increase their resistance as but254. Salamanca, Old Cathedral,nave, tweltih centurv nave arches, clerestory windows, and halfGothic vaults makes one forget that they' are Burgundian and Angevin; the crossing tower, though suggested by that of Ztmora, and ulrimately by the crossing tower of the Montierneuf at Poiters, is too deeph'stamped with the origin-
tresses, and break the silhouette ofthe tower in thc most admirable manner. The construction of the enormous nelv Late Gothic clthedral. begun in r5r3, involved clippingthe norrh trans e p t a n d a i s l eo f t h e o l d c h u r c h , b u t o n e m a y b e sure that the architects who left the remainder o f t h c b u i l d i n g i n p l a c e d i d s o b e c a u s eo f t h c general affcction in which it has alwavs bcen held.
ON
FRANCI-
12q
captured Lisbon in rr47 and held it, despitc N{oorish resurgence which gare much troublc t o S a n c h o I , h i s s u c c e s s o (r r r 8 5 r z l r ) . A f t e r struggles with the Moors, the Spaniards, and P o o e I n n o c e n t I I I . t h e d c f i n i t i r e b o u n d a r i c so f ' continental Portugal were reached and the kingll' office assumed by Aflbnso III in Iu63' this process the Portuguese followed the policl-'of'repopulation with fbreigners (manr' ol' thcm French pilgrims and rdr enturers)
During
which was so success(ulin Spain' It was Aflbnso I Henriques, ruler fiom r rz8 to r t85, who built the enduring core ofthe state, as his grandfather Alfonso VI had done in Spain. Many of the Romanesque churches date from this prosperous and effective reiP;n. Allonso Henriques's birthplace, the castle ofGuimaries, is realll' the cradle of Portugal lt
P O R T UG AL
goes back to g27, but was rebuilt by Henry I about rroo. and may'still be seen to-day, the finest example of Romanesque fbrtification in
It might hale been expected that Portugal, as the Reconquest went forword, would become a part of Christian Spain, in spite of its somewhat more Celtic stock and the rather more orienlal
ifnot in the Peninsttla lts bold austere battlementcd towers are lull ofthe severit! of the time, and enormously picturesquc' Near b-v is the little nave-and-chancel church of Sio
bent towardsZamora. \mong Spaniartls the crossing tower go(\ 'l'orre under the name of del Gallo becausc of 'Ihe its rveather cock. tower has two storevs ot rvindows under a lobulated ribbed vrrultof sir-
DEP!.ND[,NT
c h a r a c t e ro f t h e c o u n t r v . T h e C o u n t l ' o f P o r t u ' gal (Portucalia. tlking its name tiom O Porto, the Port) rvas retaken in ro5.5 64, and Allbnso VI of Spain gave it to Henrv of Burgund-v in Iog5 as a plrt of the dowrv of his daughter Teresa. This gave Alfonso \iI a certain protection against the Nloors, uho still hsld cons i d e r a b l et e r r i t o r i e s t o t h e w e s t o ( h i s d o m i n i o n s ' On Alfonso \ l's death in t totl scparatism(lcveloped at oncc. The Irrench colonizers, who only succeedcd in gallicizing the court in Spain' reached indepcndcnt status in Portugal ln rr43, under Henrv of Burguncll"s son, Aflbnso I Henriqucs, Portugal achievcd an indcpendencewhich was onlv lost (and temporarily) to Philip Il and \apolcon I. Affonso I{cnriqucs extended the countrl' southward tiom the old bounclarl' on the Nilondego to the'l'agus, rvhere r'r'ithcrr'rsaderhelp he
Portugal
Miguel clo Castelo, where, probably, Affonso H e n r i q u e s w a s b a p t i z e di n r r I I . r o The rise o[ the towns' which occurrcd in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in Portugal, is aptl-\ illustrated by a contemporary monument (about rzoo) theDomusMunicipalisorCounc i l H a l l a t B r a g r r n q laz 5 5 l . T h i s u n i q u e e x a m p l c of'civic architecture (in plan rlther like a fivesided pocket, on account of'an irregular site) is placed over a cistern adioining t he castle church' In function it resembled an abbey chapterhouse; like a chapter-house it h:ts a stone bench 'fhe intcrior is tworunning cntirelv around it. n a v e d .a n d w o o d e n - r o o l ' e d ' ' f h u s i t w a s p o s s i b l e to carry a gallery with thirty-cight windows en-. tirel.v round it at the top of the wall a rare mottl among existing buildings, but already reported i n A b b o t O d i l o ' s d o r m i t o r - va t C l u n l . l r o 4 l . ' I h e ro'15 n a r r l l e l b e t u e e n r h e t w o c o n s t tu c t i o n so f
3JO
j ND THE HOLy spArN, PoRTUGAT_A
LAND
a n d r 2 o o p o i n t s t o t h e r e l a t i v e c o n s e r v a t i s mo f cir ic architecture.j' Braga, the capital of Portugal from ro9-3 to rr47, was placcd in thc ccclesiastical province o 1 ' S a n t i a g o ,w h e n t h e a r c h b i s h o p r i c w a s s e t u p i n r r z o a t t h e e x p e n s eo f ' t h e a n c i c n t d i e n i t v o l -
STI'L-ES DEPENDENT
ON
FRANC]E
.l.l r
influences we find that the cletail is Romanesq 1rc 'fhe sameis truc fbr the church of'Cedofcitl in O p o r t o ( r r z o i ) ; a t F e r r e i r a t h e n c r . ri n l l u c n t t . have brought a Poitevin apse.3(, The local building material, granitc, is x1 course similar to that in Galicia; hencc thc
gl*w*k*;"ilH'&, o*.ffi :5.5.I3ragangaX , {unicipal Hall, r. r:oo
\ I 6 r i d a ; b u t t h i s m e r e l y r e c o g n i z e ca l n eristing state ol'affairs. Artistic influences had long bcen coming lrom Asturias and Galicia. We have in_ dicated that the tenth-centur.r, church of l.ou_ r o s a i s t h e b c s t e x i s t i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i r . eo f t h e Santiago Cathcdral which was built between 'l'he 86r and Ug6. s i m p l e r R o m a n e s q u ec h u r c h e s carr'\' on the schcme so often used in the small Asturian buildings, of a nare, and a smaller s h e d l i k e s a n u u : r r y b e y o n d ( e . g .S i o M i g u e l d o C a s t e l oa t G u i m a r i e s , r . r r o o ) ; b u t u n d e r n e w
256.CoimbraC.athedral, begrtnt I6z. from thc north-ucst P o r t u g u e s eb u i l d i n g s a s a r u l e , l i k e t h e G a l i c i a n , are wisely kept simplc, ancl whcrc elaborate sculptural clle'cts are (by exception) sought fbr..
the familiar grouped piers ancl pointed arches, though the1. were never vaulted. Even more naturallv do Pilgrimage and Bulgundian inflr-r-
c i p l e o f S t J a m c s ,w a s t h c o r i g i n a l f b u n d e r o f t h e church in Braga. At Oporto a similar triapsidal cathedral church has been almost complctely
the lbrms show the limit:rtions o1' rhe hard material r er1'clearly.
e n c e sc o m e t o t h e c a t h c d r a l s u h i c h F e r c b u i l t progressivcll' as the conquest and repopuhtion
P i l g r i m a g e a n d B u r g u n d i a n R o m a n e s q u ei n _ f l u c n c e ss h o r r t h e m s e l re s i n t h e m o r e a m b i t i o u . P o r t u g u c s eb u i l d i n g s . rI S i o S a l v a d o r ,- I r a v a n c i r
went forward. until, south of the Duero, the Iate date brings in Gothic architecture instead. S o m e t h i n g r e m a i n s o f t h e c a t h e d r a lo f B r a g a '
transformcd. ,{t Lisbon there has becn much rcbuilding, but the cathsdral has been understandingll'' restorcd to something like its original fbrm. It
( r ' . r r 5 o . ) ) a n d S i o P e d r o , R a t e s( a f t e r r r 5z) are 'fravanca triapsidal with thc traditional deen r e c t a n g u l a r a p s e o tnh e a x i s .B o t h c h u r c h e sh a r e
a triapsidal truilding originrlll begun about t r o o , a n d c o n n e c t e d w i t h S a n t i a g ot h r o u g h t h e legend that Sio Pedro de Rates, a supposed dis-
s t a n d sp r e t t i l v o n a s l o p e a n d s t i l l d o m i n a t c s i t s quarter with a well-proportioned two-tower l a q a d ea n d p o r c h . T h e n a v e h a s a n a i s l c t o c a c h side; therc is a transept with a lantern, and'
332
S p A I N , p O R T U G A L ,A N D T H E H O L y L A N D
bevond, an ambulatory of Gothic ribbed con_ struction with radiating chapels. There were EnglishandFlemingsinthepilgrimbandwhich c a p t u r e d t h e c i t y i n t t 4 7 , a n d i t r v a so n e o f t h e Englishmen, Ralph of Hastings, who began the construdion of the cathedral in r r 5o. The church is, however, not an Engrish buitding; it has the Latin character and the fastidious warmth which we have mentioned in speaking of the finest Spanish Romanesque buildings.32 Lisbon cathedral shared two masters, Robert and.Bernardo, u'ith the cathedral of coimbrarr [.256],norv called the 56 Velha becauseits func_ tion has been transferred to a newer building. Work was begun on the Se Velha in r16z, jult alier Santiago Cathedral was finished. In this casethe Portuguese architects produced a characteristic variation on the theme of Santiago de Compostela. The resulti.
sr \
t h e v a u l t o f t h e c a t h e d r a la n d t h u- -s -m" -a"k' , . a i r - - , u ttshtingplatformthere. T h e i n t e r i o r , e s p e c i a l l yw h e n s e e n rrrnr th. quadrant_r.ault.d goll..i: abore the ,i1.r,,1: very elegant and harmonious. The orr,.... . supported of'course on ,rr. g-i" ,,rr,ri,, _ i],l it aisles,andthereisatunnervaultwithrransrcrse arches over the nave, which is without a clerestory. 1'he lantern, square and rib_r,aulrccr, is carried high, and the l(ht which it sheds un the head end of the church is a happy f earure ot.rhe interioreffect. t"or", O.i"g in the south beyond the.fagus, was not captured from the Moors until r166, when the sanctuary of paris Cathedral s.as al_ ready under corrst.uctiorr. At Evora a spacious cathedral was started in the Romanesque sr1,le in r rg5 or r rg6 and consecrated in rzo4, ten
resem bringthat ofSan : ffiT"'[1'5:;ruffi ,:f i:1H:,TlT:r "1,1"1_?f "l:,',::11 dral has the last of the peninsular cimborios in
fir'e.nave bays, a transept with a t..min"l p.of e c t i n g b a 1 ' a t e a c h e n d ' a n d t h r e e a p s e s- b u t the superstructure, suffused with an elegance w}ich betokens an appreciation of the delicacy
of xloslemarr on rhepart of its designers and
craftsmen, has a verv different temper from the robustBurgundian sanvicenteantltheopulent Languedocian santiago. Decorative a.lditiorrs by' 'Joio de Ruio' (Jean de Rouen) and his school carlv in the sixteenrh centur),have made the building intcresting to historians of Early R e n a i s s a n c ea r c h i t e c t u r e w i t h o u t r e a l l y spoil_ i n g i t . I t s t i l l r e t a i n s i t s s e v e r ew e s t f r o n t , with corner turrets and a proiecting shallow tower_ like mass comprehending the
the Romanesque tradition, built about r:s: when the wonderful chevet ofBeauvais cathcdral was being reconstructed. yet the cathedral
of Eoo." il;?il;;;;ihii
harf:Gothic, ,,,irh
ribbed .omes over the aisres,and a strong c.is_ tercian or other Burgundian rnfluence in thc plan and in many of the details. .fhe church hrs u ,,rr. ..rd aisles of six bays, rhe transept er_ tending beyond them. The sanctuarl. has been rebuilt, unfortunately i. ,rr.'.rrT;'.;il,;:i not in a Gothic centurv; fbr the Romanesque w a s s t i l l b e l o v e d i n p o r t u g a l c l u r r n gt h e Gothic period.jl The great quarities of the 'ery spacious cistercian abbey: church at Alcobaga, to which ref.erencehas already U..n -"a., o'J _;#.;q u e q r . r a l i t i e s ,a l t h o u g h t h e c h u r c h was buil between r r5g and rzz3. one might well cat thc hall church (here so magnificentrl represenrerr insturdl.ribbedconstruction)atransfiguration. bv the genius of poitou, of the F-irst Romanesque hail church type which we have followed in
and ele'enth examplesof the tenth 6odest .enturles' t" u c 6nd thisoutstrndingerample ntl, ont. do at \lcobaqain architcctttrc-here ^f'Cirr.r.irn thc 1'r:mplars in addition but l"rn-or.fotrugtl. by one of thc finest of thcir "i.-r.p..r"ntttt existing the churchot rhc Coni'uifainststill 'l'omar 257':58 " G traldino l' | ]Jn,oao Crit,o ,t ot the Order of Nlaster Grand elecrecl pri, *.r in rr5o, and it washe Portugal in Tr-pl. ti. time still closeto the whofortifiedTomar' at the goesbackto r r6z, church The frontier. Moorish in the fantasticlate a nave of addition the with Gothic and transitionalstylc called Portuguese
LEs DEeENDl.N l oN FRANctE
i-l-l
glvrng Lrp the frivolouschiralrl,of'the dav'to 'l'he-v fight for the true and suprcme King'. had man! rr'c1xi1s lrorn the vagabond crowd of 'rogues ;1n{ impious men, robbers and sacrilegious- murderers, periurers and adulterers' (to grv(- St Bcrnard's list) who overllooded the Holl- [- lntl in searchof'salvation and plunder, w h i c h 1 1 ' g 1 gb o t h a v a i l a b l e t h c r e . S t B e r n a r d sponsorcd the morement; its rule was sanctioncd 11 the Council of'l'roves, and soon thc Order rl'as establishcd in irlmost all thc kingdoms o1'I-atin Christcndom. Bclbre long it had rich eq{6s'rpents and cxceptionirl privilcgcs;
Manuelino.
it becapl6 a polrerful international institution with establi
Land. These movements werc' greatlv facilitated, and serious help was given to individuals and to the Christian Levantine states.b1'the
the mo5qvss (churches under thc C,rusaders) 'l'emple ancl otr occasion the porticoes of the platfbrrn entered into the Templars' pattern tbr
military Orders of Templars and Hospitallers. Both Orders had dependencies in Europe which served pilgrims and wa1''farers,encouraged recruitment, and provided income lbr the grert
church building in the Ordcr. Thc mosquc calledthe Dome of.the Rock is a great n.rasterpieceof Nloslem architecture, ul-
s i a s mc o u l d b e s t i r r c d . -{t J crusalem quirrtcrsu ere earll gir cn to thc A N D T I I E H ( ) S P I T A t , L } , R S 'Iemp111s T H ET E M P L A R S i n B a l d u i n I I ' s p a l a c ea d j o i n i n g t h e l ) o m e Roman1 ) f 1 5 s R o c k , ( r 8 . 59 r ( m i s c a l l e dt h e N l o s Flcnch to lbllow about we are Since que ol (161r,) and the'Distant'X{osque el \qsa esque architecturc to the Near East, this is an ( e i g h t h c e n t u r - v , r o 1 - 5 ,a n d l a t e r ) , b o t h o n t h e appropriate place to consider the reflex from i m p o s i n g r o c k p l a t l b r m u ' h e r eS o l o m o n ' s T e n r great intcrnatitrnal the pilgrimage another ple an3 thc later templcs all had stood. Both of' pilgrimage and series of Crusades to the Holv
timatrll,
work ofdefence, protection' and charitable care which the Orders perlblmed in the East NIedi-
inspired tiom thc Rotunda ot the A n a s t ; 1 s i 5a t t h e C h u r c h o f t h e H o l l ' S e p u l c h r e . It takcs one part ol'its name from a rvood-built
terranean area. The 'Poor Knights of the Christ and the Temple of Solomon' are remembered fbr con'l'he Order was siderable works of building.
centritl dome carried on a cvlindrical wall 'l'hc piercc{ b1' columnar arcades. dome covers a rockl outcrop stcred to the }{oslcms because Mohammed is said to have ascended to hcaven
founded b-r-Hugh oi Pa1'ns,a Burgundian, and Godefroy of Saint-Omer in the north of'France. In rrrg thel'undertook the obligation to pro-
from it but the rock is bclieved to have been sacrctl in Jewish times also. Onll thc clergv m i g h t c n 1 s 1t h e d o m e d s a n c t u a r y ; o t h e r w o r shippcrs rcmaincd in thc aisles(also wooden-
tect pilgrims on the Palestinian roads. Joined soon after by other knights, they banded thems e l v e st o g e t h e l t o l i r e i n c h a s t i t y , o b e d i e n c e , and povertv ilccording to the rule ofSt Benedict,
rooted) which envelop the cylindcr, but are 'l'his bouncled b1'an octagonal extcrior wall. a r r a n g e m e n to f c e n t r a l r o t u n d a a n c la n n u l a r a i s l e
-]15 S T Y L E SD E P E N D ! ] N TO N F R A N C E
-)Ja
I
d-Lt5ri/r-g -ii
ili
-
li
LILLLUJ.ll.l.l.[)
iii ii
it
u-57and z-58.T'omar, (lhurch ofthc Conventodo Cristo, plan (K.J.C.) and sancuan,
was used by the Templars in a limited number of their most important churches, and often augmented later by a choir or nave, or by both. The I'emplars built vaulted churchcs in the Romanesque or Gothic idiom of their times, and quite lost the enchantment of'their oriental originals. Like Cistercian architecture, the 'femplars' works tend to be monotonous, and not one of them ever rated high as an archi_ tectural masterpiece. The real architectural geniusof the West never took on the'femplars' problem as such. Their establishments were like contemporary conyentual structures, with little or norhing specifically T'cmplar, except, occasionally, the church. 'I'he great Tcmplar church of the Con,r,cnto do Cristo ar Tomarr5 [257,2581, already mcn_ tioned, is a notable exception. 'I'he older part ofthe church, begun between rr5o and rr6z, has a sixtcen-sided exterior aisle wrappecl round an arched octagonal tower-like structure which serves as sanctuary. 'fhe stvle here is half_ Gothic.
at Templar church ol'the Vera Crtz 11 the Spain the ambulatorl is sixtecni n a.uoJ, small central compartmenl ls two.ll""a; tttt t h e r e a r e - p r o i e c t i n ga p s e sl o w a r d l.r.t.a' and - like those of a normal church' Thc ;;;;t, is givcnfor this building''" ir,. tros flourishcd in Nararre under The Templars 'I'he octagon at Wise (rr5o-94)' the Sancho to his time Eunalc'; is b e l o n g w e l l m a y iunate Puente la Reina' whcre the Pillitu.t.d near lrom France all joined' It was a c r i m a g eR o a d s c hurch. not a'femplars' church, b u r i a l iilgrims' b u ilt under the influence of the c l e " t l y ihJugh is well proportioned, octagon Templars. The it is ribcompartment; interior no has but it east' vaulted, and has a rib-vaulted apse at thc The church stands free in a remarkable arcaded porcourt which recalls (with a difference) the ticoesofthe'Iemple platform in Jerusalcm ; but z5g.Laon,
'I'emplars' Church, r. r I6o
the connexion is not proved and the arrangement is not in its original condition. The odd arcadcd court, with some Moslem detail, which stands beside the little wide-naved church of San Juan de Duero may be related to Eunate, or perhaps to the atrium of a mosque. The church belonged to the Hospitallers of St of thc militarl. John of Jerusalem, anothcr orders. N{ore familiar among the Tcmplars' churches is the octagon at Laon, in northern Francerr hasalreadl' [259], dated about r I6o; this church been mentioned. The greatest church of the 'l'emplars in France was that in Paris, destroyed at the Revolution. It was built as a rotunda about r r5o, but cxtended by a porch and a vast choir later on. shrinc In England one well-known'Iemplar -l'emple conLondon, Church, the survives,
STYLES DEPENDENT 0N 336
FRANCE
-13/-
LAND sPAIN, PORTUGAL' AND THE HOLY
'Iemplars, After the suppressionof the 111. b u l k o f t h e i r p r o p e r t y p a s s e dt o t h e O t d c r 1 ; 1 '
w@'
:'.1:).:.
the Knights Hospitallers ol' St John of'-lrrLrr s a l e m( b 1 ' r 3 z o ) . 1 ' h e H o s p i t a l l c r s a c t u a l l l a n r c 'l'emplars, having been organizrd dated the '1har about rrr.1. Gcrard, the Iirst Nlaster of Ilouse of God the Hospital fbr the supporr of' p i l g r i m s a n d t h e n e c c s s i t i e so f t h e P o o r ' , r r 1 . c o n f i r m e d b l P o p c P a s c a lI I i n F e b r u a r l o f t h . r t 1car. The pilgrims wcrc olien both poor irnd sick; the Hospitallcrs especiall-vcarcd (irr sur[ 'Palace of the Sick' in unfbrtunates in their J r : r u s a l e m .T h e h o s p i c e w a s l o c a t e d , u s t s o u r h o f t h e C h u r c h o 1 - t h eH o l y S e p u l c h r e , b r S a n t r X , l a r i aL a t i n a , a n d i t s o o n h a d a c c o m m o d a t i , r n
'-**r-*"&rsjw ; ( i o . C a n r b r i d g cS, t S e p u l c h r ci,. I t 3 o
secrated in churches
rr85, alongl with three relatcd thc Norman rotunda ol'St Sepul-
c h r e , C r m b r i d g e ( b u i l t a b o u t r r 3 0 ) [ z ( r o ]; S t Scpulchre, Northampton; and the supposed Hospitallers' church of Little Nlaplestcad (r'. rr rg r27z,later rebuilt).'I'hc Temple Church, L o n d o n , i s a g o o d e x a m p l c o f t h c E , a r l 1L - n g l i s h Gothic sty'le,with stronpi Burgundian and othcr R o m a n e s q u e r e m i n i s c e n c e s .A n o b l o n g c h o i r was added in the (iothic style about rz4o.r" 'l'cmplar 'Comnrndcr'1--' survives comNo pletc. but such a group rvould bc easil,''understandablc on thc basis of'what we know of monastic architecturc. The knights thcn.rselres would havc quartcrs rescmbling those of I mona s t e r l ' o f ' t h e t i m e , i n t e g r a t e c lw i t h t h c c h u r c h . Quarters like those of the monastery scrvants would be provided fbr thc servitors and garris o n . S o m e e s t a b l i s h m e n t sw e r c l i k e m a n o r s . I n Palestinc the 1'cmplars manned Crusader lbrtilrcquently built irnd streng-
fications; thel
t h c n e d c a s t l c s ,a s n e c d a r o s e .
fbr 75o sick poor. In r 16o John of Wiirzbursleports 2ooo sick and rvounded being carcd Ior there. lvith ir mortalitl of liftl'a da1''l'he H o s p i t a l l e r s l b u g h t a l s o ; t h e l h el d , anrong othcrs, the grcxt fbrtrcsses at thc Kr.,.lk des Chevaliers(after rr4z; r'. rzoo) [z{rrl, antl 'with man) towers that scentc(l \'largat (r'. r zoo) t o s u s t a i n t h e s k y . . . e a g l e sl n d v u l t u r e s a l o n t could rcach its ramparts'.r. In Er.rropc the Hospitallers had vast posscssions, with myrirds of buildings of'all sorts. sccular and ecclesiastical, but no charactcristie architccture. One striking Commanderv is preservcd, at Saint-Andrf it Luz, rz6o.rr It dor' not include a hospice, but its grim still haltR o m a n e s q u ef b r m s a n d i t s l b r t i f i e d c h u r c h r l c otherwise very expressivc.At this late perit,tl the Hospitallcrs also participated in thc cons l r u c t i o n o l h r s t i t l e s ,b u t t h c l a t t e r t r e p r o p ( ' r l \ studied under thc herding of civic planning and design in the Gothic epoch.
T I I F .I I O L Y L A \ D Examples of French Romanesquearchitectrtre s t i l l e x i s t i n t h e I I o l l l . a n d a s w i t n e s s e st o t l t ' C r u s a d e s ,w h i c h , t h o u g h a s p i r i t u a l m o v c m e r l t . rcsulted in thc establishment of a nunrber ot L a t i n s t a t e sr u l e d b y . F r e n c h d v n a s t s r e a l l r . t
('heralters,r. tzoo clcsCheraliers, z6r. The Krrk clcs
Francc by loose colonial empire attachcd to a !rench wls lt biood, historv, and sentiment a a f t e r w h o ' i o u r n ef fr3m I I , Pope, Urban Parma through lirance along a route burgeonln!i churches, preached the with new Ro*"n.rqu. z6 NovFirst Crusacleat Clermont-Fcrrand on lrche m b e r t o 9 5 . l n t h e p r e s e n c eo f l b u r t e e n '+oo bishops, about z5o bishops and about prohe Spain, and abbors fiom Francc, Ital-v, nounced a remarkable tddress in Romance' and making a drarnatic cali upon Iirench picty 'fhe enormous' was response chivalric pride. and it had the efl'cct ol re-uniting Western Christcnclom behincl Urban II at the expense
1'emplars and losses and suffering Later the somewnat' distress sr-rch mitigated Hospitallcrs r o97 thele b1 A great military ellbrt came earl-v; on thcir Constantinople in *.:r. ,5o,ooo .oldicrs a.group. ott'1. t in whereas Land, Holy wa-vto the archbishop ot. of Tooo pilgrims including the in point of It"i.r, ort, .onsiclered remarkablc
nrtmbcrs. thc fleets ot With considerable support fiom hosts Crusade'r the Italian maritime cities thc I5 on Jul!aclvanced, and capturecl Jertrsalem 'Ihe-v died II L-lrban befbre ,ogq, ,*o weeks arrangemcnts fbr ha.l-not madc lrcll-reasoncd t e r r itorics'and were lhe gorernment ol' their r n e c i n e i n t e o f i e a l o u s i c sw ' hile thuJat the mcrcl of the AntipoPe Clcment III' reassembled ro99' in clisunitecl th. N{url.*.. 'I'hcre ln il 'Ihe was precedent tbr thc enterprlse Crusaders missed thcir earl-v thcir strcngth. Y I I ' a l G r e g o r ] ' b v I o 7 . 1 force gathercd in lnd \lcppo' .rppnr,uniit lo capturc Dam:rscus Near though the troops were not sent to thc dominions \ l o s l e m t h e c u t *'hi.h *uuid harc E.rt.' It was Urbitn's plca that the Crusade of ('hristirrn dettnce the conscqucntlv irr two; thc should bc an orglnrzcd erpcdition' but and ultiPalestine was much more diflicult' great waves of'em
t
338
sPAIN, PORTUGAL, AND THE HOLY LAND
irresponsible Christians made it necessary for the Moslems to destrol' the Crusader states. Jerusalem itself was lost in r r87, and its Kingdom came to an end in t244. A theocratic government was first attempted
Constantinian Martl-rion had been destlolq4. a n d t h e R o t u n d a t w i c e r e b u i l t - i n . ( r r 4 . : r 16 , t h e P a t r i a r c h N l o d e s t o s ,a n d i n r o . 1 5 8 h r 1 1 . , . Emperor Constantine \lonomachos. FIe 1.it, and the ambulatory' with radiating chapel5 on its wcstern side besides which he ;rcldgfl
s i s t e d i n t h e c o n s e c r a t i o na t C l u n y ' I I I i n r o g - 5 .
n e w a p s e so n t h e e a s t e r n s i d e o f t h e R o t u n t l a . 'fhe Crusaders rcplaced these lpses with a Jolg trxnsept entered through the frmous clouble
r.rnsuccessfull-v tried to set up a state like the Papal Patrimony.'Ihe
e c c l e s i a s t i c a li n t e r e s t ,
thc most lamiliar aspect of the church.
ncr of its kind, succeeded in gaining con-
lagade is flanked on the east b't' a small domcd
siderable fiscal advantages. This meant ample
vestibulc,and on the wcst bv a belfrl.toner. \t the crossing of the transept, on the east-\\rsr a x i s o f t h e R o t u n d a o f t h e A n a s t a s i s ,a s n r a l l
l'he best-known construction which resulted is the Crusadcr enlargemcnt of the Church of the Holy. Sepulchrel2 [262, 263]. 1'he originrrl
n
CENTURY |
+tH
ll."l,:l7 rrr NN Irru f_l
Latt,
transept oI Crusa'1ers'
"I5"4"'o'
portal of its south fagade, which is for us b1 lirr 'lhg
h o l v e v e r ,w a s a l w a v ss t r o n g , a n d a l i e r t h c m a n -
resources for building.
r I49' Church of the HolJ' Sepulchre' dedicated t ^tanstt! ) and 2o3. Jerusalem,
s t o r c d t h e T o m b o f C h r i s t , t h e R o t u n c l aa b q n l
under the former bishop of Pisa, Daimbert, who had accompaniedUrban II to France, and asHe came to Palestinc with the Pisan fleet, and
.
th'
dome was built (the model lbr the lantcrn rrt Zamora\ and the cilst-west aris rras further
*---r sq str N -;r rNrr#'h,u' ffi W*Wfr
C ALVARf '. i, @ (] H,,\IE
i i' : : io* xsr. &t -l ' '. .".* *Sb{ r*
t
L
ffi.w
''i tt l'
*-t
"l$r-:il}*
-?-,,4" .5
*.;:rwrt .{'Zr'
$f
.r-
l
34o
spArN, PORTUGAL, AND THE HOLY LAND
prolonged across a choir to a new eastern apse surrounded by an ambulatory and radiating chapels. Thus the new porrion of the church
form. It is much to be hoped that there ma1,b.,, sympathetic restoration of the Crusader [.o1; and the Rotunda, where Constantine NIo16_
was in effect like the transept and chevet of a Pilgrimage church. The ambulatory was required in order to provide communication with
machos's work was buried within clumsl. ar* cading after a fire of r8o8. The old builclinq retainsa certain dignity in spite ofall its drrlr_ ters and the divisioning which has been neccssary in order to accornmodate the various sccts
earlier shrines on the site. Bevond the apse, the crypt of the Martyrion basilica survived as the Chapel o[ St Helena, and a sub-crypt opening downward to the east from it was none other than the grotto where, according to tradition, the relics of the Holv Cross were found by the Empress Helena in 326. Beside the choir on the south, and served bv the choir ambulatory, a raised chapel was built over the traditional Rock ofCalvary. Exterior accessto the Calvary chapel was through the small domed vestibule already mentioned. The dome of the Chapel of St Helena projected upward into rhe garth of the cloister of a monastcry built fbr Augustinian canons who served the Holl'Sepulchre; l a y t o t h e e a s to f t h e n e w a p s e .
this
This work has largely'survived,though disfigured in parts, and much of the rest is at present under restoration. Therc is a considerable though not disturbing variety in style and fabric. Fine Syrian limestone is the material
w h i c h p o s s e s sr i g h t s i n t h e b u i l d i n g . I t s g r e a t e s t moment is at the Orthodox Easter, with thg traditional ceremony of the new Easter firc, brought lrom the tomb to the multitude waiting, in the darkened Rotunda, with their cancllcs ready for the symbolic light. The beautit'ul south doorways ofthe transcpt ofthe Church ofthe Holy Sepulchre are exccptional in their richness. The carved lintels, rvith scroll-work and figures, recall early twelfihcentury Toulousan work.a3 Crusader masonrv is fine, and the buildings make their point bv ercellence of construction, on which account they are in many cases srill preservetl entire with but little change. In lirrrl and execution they are comparable to good French work; the designers were obviouslv men in close communication with the motherland. Many churches were in Cistercian or Burgun-
used, and the original work is beautifully cut. Four rcigning sovereigns of French nationa-
dian half-Gothic style, though with the rerracc roofs which the climate permits. The cathedrul
lity were present, during the Second Crusade, at the dedication of the new lvork, which took place on r5 July rr49, thc fiftieth anniversary o f t h e f ' a l lo f t h e c i t y i n r o 9 9 . l t i s l i k e l y . r h a rt h e
of Beirut (now the chief old mosque of the citl ) is fairly typical. It has a dignified nave of fi.e
building was complere at rhe time, although t h e r e w a s n o s p e c i a ln e e d f o r - t h e C r u s a d e r st o build in a hurry the Rorunda of ro45 8 which they took oyer was a fairlv spaciousbuilding. The existing work is very complex stylistically: thcre is a range all the way fiom the classicism
b a y s w i t h a t u n n c l v a u l t w i t h t r a n s \ , e r s ea r c h e s and a clerestory. The aisles are groin-vaultcd. a n d t h e e a s te n d i s t r i a p s i d a l . P o i n t c d a r c h e s . r r c u s e c l ;a n d t h i s , t o o , i s q u i t e g e n e r a l i n t h c C l r r s a d e r c h u r c h e s . T y r e , C a e s a r e a ,a n d S e b a s t i c h 'I'ortosa have transepts. has chapels arrangctl like the Orthodox prothesis and diaconicon; the C , l u n i a cp r i o r y c h u r c h o n M o u n t T a b o r ( n o u
of thc transept cornices through the half-Pror,cngal-half-Poitevin transept and sanctuarl' to the Gothic bell-tower. The high vault of the
small interior chapels. Apses enclosed in bloclt m a s s e so f m a s o n r v ( a s i s o c c a s i o n a l l yt h e c a s ct t t
transept is ribbed, and its design has an odd 'l'he Burgundian flavour. dome is of Levantine
Provence)occur at Nazareth. Ramleh, Mount 'I'abor, T o r t o s a , C a e s a r e aG . .oin-t"ulted n,t,.t
destroyed) had western towers provided rvith
STYLES
occur. lbr instance' at St .re uouSull. but do S t A n n c h a s a c r o s s i n gr Ti t h i n J..u.utem inn. on pc.ndenti\(jsresembling thosc of ,'aoa. which is also unusurl " i' 1-rTi gi eosr.d , buildings hare somehow kept alir e the of the Crusadc' too oftqn lbrr e l i g i o u sa s p e c t ' reed' ofignoble conrpcritionsg ootLn in ttt. t"l.s \4oslem of innocent '^suffering ierfidy, lealousl rcsourccs' lvhich are folk and waste of human f'eaturesof Llrusader history-' conspicuous such that the popuA r a b o b s e r v e r ss e e m t o i n d i c a t e relativell' well was states Christian the of lation breathe off, and the shrines which still remain lif'e. ofa satisfYing religious In passing, Cyprus should be mentioned lt was conquered by Richard Cceur de Lion in rr9r, on his wav to the Holy Land during the Third Crusade, and sold to Gu!' de Lusignan; the Lusignans held it until I-189. Bellapais Abbey, Cistercian in character though dated c. r324-g, remains, with seleral clstles, irs a
DEP[,ND[,I,{T ON
FRANCL
11I
Spain stronger than it had been befbre. This was true also of the Nloslem conquosts and the Iconoclastic troubles, which expatriatcd vast numbers of'Greeks some of them artists, some 'I'he ofthem patrons with a taste fbr Eastcrn art. Ottonian Bl zantinism afi'ectcd architecture but little. Bt Ottonian times divcrgcnces betwcen East and West were strong in churchmanship and monastic practice especially strong at thc t i m e r v h e n R o m a n c s q u ea r c h i t e c t u r eu a s b e i n g formed. Consequentll', at that time the actrral oriental inlluencc was relatively small, be1-'ond what was bcing absorbcd by a sort ofarchitectural osmosis. Critics with sound architectural training and Sir Alfred \\'as one are littlc imprcssed b,-v supcrlicial and literary resemblances when practical and structural elemcnts do not corres-I'his objection is valicl in the case of Arpond. menian architecture, rvhich is the most subtle, Iinished, and impressive of all the proto-
memorial lo their regimc.''
Romanesque stvles. T h e - \ r n e n i a n a r c h i t c c t sd e a l t w i t h t h e s a m e elements antl manv of the same conditions as
I X C H A N G EO F I N F L U E N C E S :
the Romanesque architectsof the West. Thcl' d e v e l o p e dp a r a l l c l s o l u t i o n sa t a n e a r l i e r p c r i o d , a n d s i n c et h e l - t i c e d t h e i r b u i l d i n g s l ' i t h a s h l a r ,
T H E P R O B L E MO F A R M E N I A Sir Alfred Clapham, in his exccllent book RomanesqueArchitetture in Il/estern Europe' takesoccasion in the chapter on the Holy Land and the East to consider the theorics of oriental influence on Romanesquc architecture. Hc was, quite rightly, a convinced 'Westerncr' inclined to place high discounts on theories of clirect influence, except where trust\{'orthv historical 'fhis information is available'. is the case with the Templar churches, rvhere the Western imitation is admittedl]' \,ery imperfect. Supposed derivations too often repose on guesswork and suPerficial resemblanccs. Stress was laid by Sir Alfrcd on the point that intercourse between East and \\jest sufered no interruption at the fall of the \\iestern Empire' and that the rcconquest undcr Justinian rendered Eastern influence in It,rl1. :rnd parts of
t h e s u p e r f i c i a l a p p e a r a n c eo f t h e b u i l d i n g s i s sometimes quite similar to Romancsque. One of the most notable buildings in this respectis t h e c a t h e d r a lo f . { n i ( 9 8 q r o o l ) b . v ' I r d a t . T h i s i s a d o m e d b a s i l i c a p o s s e s s i n pg; r o u p e d p i e r s ; pointed arches,ribs. lncl Iault; decoratire cxt e r i o r a r c a d i n g s o m e w h a t r es e m b l i n g P i s a n work, and (befbre its destruction) a gracefirl crossingtoner with a dome on drum and pen'lhe Armenian church designs most dentives. ' b u i l d u p ' i n t o d o m e sa n d t u u e r s o f t\picall\ this t1'pe.The noticeablelack ol this arrangement in supposed imitations counts hearill' against the idea of direct influence fiom Armenia on the Occiclent. S i m i l a r d o u b t : l t t en d s t h e i d e a o 1 ' d i r e c t t n fluence fiom -\rme nian ribbed vault construc-
342
SpAIN, pORTUGAL, AND THE HOLy
tion to the West.
'l'he
LAND
h i s t o r r , o f ' t h i ss o r t o f r . a u l t
o r d e r o l t a l e n ta t t r a c l e dt o t h e p r o b l e n r , : l n r l rh. \ ast resource\made ar ailable fo, ,.rron",l 1,,1_ grammes of def'ence. 'l h c e a r l r C r u s a d e r c a s r i e si n p a l e s r i n t . lr,.r r r a t l r t i o n a ls q u a r e o r o b l o n g d o n j o n . . a n g u l a rs u r r o u n d i n gu a l l s : t r e n g r h e n . . t" ; , 1 , 1 " U.,,frl long towers. The perennial shortage ol ,rr,,n_ power lbr fighting in the Holy Land made effi_ crent design imperative. ,\Iuch was lcarned Iiom local examples oi' Byzantine ..d \,.;; lortification, and li.om experienced .ngin..r",,t t h e a r c a . P r o g r e s s i re i m p r o r c m e n r s rnclu.lirr, r o u n d t o u e r s , t a l L t s e so.t h c r d e r i c e s . .on..n,rii a r r a n g e m e n t s ,a n d r e g i o n a l s i g n a l l i n g bcrrccn c a s t l e s- t a u g h t a l e s s o nt o t h e W e s t . Richard I Caur de Lion of England, son of. Eleanor of Aquitaine and Henry II, after pr,rc_ tical experience on the Third Crusade, buiit thc finest o1'the twelfih-century castles in France Chdteau-Gaillard on the Seine at I_es Andelr s. n o t fa r I r o n r R o u e n ( r t g h 7). It had projct.riD,g to$ers. (hrce succcs\i\ewitrds,of rhieh rire inner had *alls witlr )ucccssi\.c onrex nrrrier_ t i o n s t o i n c r e a s et h e e f l e c t i r e n e s s o l . d e f c n d r rr . fire, and a central donjon. It prefigured the concentnc castlcs which were dcleloped in thc thincenrhccnlur\-rnd buijt. in imposing lrr.:rr. bv the Crusaderknights in Svria (includins tl,. .{n authentic case of influence f rom the Near. K r a k d e s C h e v a l i e r sa n d M a r g a r ) .F u r r h e r . J . East on the Romanesclr-reand Gothic norlcl is velopments of machicolated galleries. bratticcs. ol]'ered br rhe lbrtifications. .I.he Crusaders crcnellations, applied to the royal ' t h c a nd noble learned hrrrd waf ibout Bvzanrine and r e s i d e n c c t ,g r a d u a l l r g a \ e t o , u . h ,trr.tur.. -{rab impror ments on ancient Romln fbrtifica_ the picturesque and unmistakable characttr t i o r r , w h i c h u , a sa l l , o r n e a r l r . a l l , r h c !tr'esterners which we lssociate w i t h r h e l a t c m e d i er . rI knerv. Iircnch dci.clopmcnts of. thesc Near_ chitcau. But the development was functionrrl. Iiastern motil's in fbrtification becamc in the cncl a n d t h e J ) i C t U r c s q u e n c sr:\ a s g c n u r n e . n , r t rcal architcctural fl.atures of the French chi_ rontantlc. t e a u x , a n d o c c a s i o n a l l r .o f ' t h e c h u r . c h c s . The With this comment on the reflex liom thc increasing scrle of rvarfhre in the \\rest for it C r u s a d c s ,r y e l e a v e t h e H o l l . L a n t l , : r n d alsoibr. became national in scope in thc course of the a ttme the regions lr,here French influencc l1rr: trvellihcenturv would inant,caschavebroueht paramount, in order to take up the s u b i e c t oj abuut innorltions antl impro,e*..nt, .non_ m a l u r c R o m a n e s q u ea r c h i t c t . t u r ei n the qrc,rr t a n e o u s l . i\n r h e O c c i d c n r . b e c a u s e o l r h e h i e h a r c i l sa s s o c i a t end. i t h i nt h e Holr RomanEmtrir.. construction
in Armenia
begins with Surb I{ripsim6 at Valarshapat (6rg), rvhere twelve decorativeribs exist, probabll suggested br St Sophia in Constantinople, but ibrmine (in groups of threc) the arms of'a la.ge decoiative cross on the soflit of the dome. The Roman_ esque-loofting -{rmenian ribbetl work of the tenth centur\ is a passing phase fbr th e clcr cloo_ ; m e n t c o n t i n u e si n t o i n g e n i o u sc t , m h i n a t i o n , ol. ribs arrangcd (somctimes over fbur supports) like a printer's sign for space ftf ) wirh a turret ar the summit. centrall\ placecl. In l.act, the Ar_ menians rvere alwa\-s interested in ccntralized r i b s c h e m c s ,a n d t h e s e h a r e h a d onlv slight in_ f l u e n c ei n r h c \ \ c s t . It is knorvn that the .\rmcnians r.ere good masons.and |erftxp. somrthing ol the fine q u a l i t , r o l ' t h e ( . r u " - a d e rc h u r c h e s in Svria is due to them; but thc Sr.rians, equall1., are good m a s o n s ,; r n d d o u h t l c s s g o o d m a s o n r a*rna liorn France. It is significant that u,hen rhe French patrons rvereactualh,close to .{rmenia and its a r c h i t e c t u r e a n c li n d e e c lt h e r e u e r e Armenians i n - f e r u s a l e ma l s o t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l inlluencc r v a sn i l , o r b u t l i t t l e m o r e . I n s t c a d , r v c have an '6cole d'outrc-mcr' lvhich is verv largelr. Bur_ gundian and Prorenqal Frcnch.
PART
SIX
M A T U R E R O N ' I A N E S Q U EA R C H I E C I ' U R E IN THE LANDS ASSOCIA'TEI) WITHIN THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
INTRODUCTION TO CI{AP]'ERS 19-22
The areas which are to be considered in Part Six have a very loose geographical and stylistic
of traclition was too strong. A certain unitl' will be givcn to our cxposition by mention of the
connexion. Thev oftbr a magniFcent architectural panorarna ol-local developments based on the primirive Romanesque of the rcspective
lcatures u hich the respective st]'lcs contributcd
regions.
beginning with the
T h e y d e v e l o p e d s p e c t a c u l a r l r , i n s c a l e ,r i c h ness,and supcrior cralismanship from thc local E a r l y R o m a n e s q u es t 1 . l e sb, u t l a c k c d t h e i n v e n -
to Dalmatia and Hungarl, northward again to
t i v e d r i v e w h i c h c v e n t u a l h . a c h i e v e dt h e d e l i n i tive solution (in Irrance) of'thc esscntial vaulting problem. Gothic architecturemight hare come
I t n e e d st o b e e m p h a s i z e dt h a t t h i s a c c o u n t i s purell topographical, and not dcvelopmental. L,ach locrrl group has its own historl' but the
out ol a number ot-the schools which we are about to analvse rhc components of Gothic w e r e t h e r c ; b u t t h e e s t l b l i s h c d s r y l c sh a d g i v c n a f a i r l y g o o d l c c o u n t o f t h e m s e l v e s ,a n d t h e h o l d
s t r a n d s w h i c h a r e i n t e r l v o r e n r e p r e s e n ts t 1 ' l i s t i c
to thc dc\ elopment of'Gothic architecture. The order to be follorved is geographical, 'f w o S i c i l i e sa n d p r o c c e d i n g
northward through Italv and, altcr an excursion the Germanic lands.
impulses which we havc scen appearing in thc great stlles
the styles alreadr treatcd as our
principal thcrne.
CflAPTER
I9
THE Two SICIILIL'S
A P U LTA
d o m s , a n d t h c i s l a n c lt o t h e A r a b s i n 9 r 7 , b u t retaincd Apulia, Crrlabria, ancl thc Basilicata.
As to the Holl'Land, so also to south Italv and S i c i l y ,R o m a n e s q u ea r c b i t e c t u r e c a m e b e c a u s e o f f a b u l o u sl i r e n c h a d v e n t u r i n g . T h c m o u n t a i n
Bcginrring about ro-jo seleral sons ol"l'ancred of' Hautsville or Hautteville-la-Guichard, near
barrier of the Apennines and the Abruzzi, together with the stagnant Papal state, kcpt off influences tiom the north - except what might come through the pilgrimagc to Nlontc Garwhile the brilliance of gano, and later to Bari Byzantine and Moslem civilization was rcflected from the south and east, then in closc maritime and political contact with south Italv and Sicilv. The Eastern Empire
had gradually- lost the
Beneventan and Salcrnitan arcas fo local dukc-
2b4. Bari, San Nicola, undcr construction to89
Coutancesin Normandv, came into thc south Itllian areaat the head of Norman bands. and b 1 r o . 1 rh a d a s t r o n g h o l d o n A p u l i a . O n c o f t h c s o n s ,R o b c r t G u i s c a r d , r v h o a r r i v e d i n r o 4 ( r ,w a s b v r o 5 g r c c o g ; n i z e da s D u k e o l ' A p u l i a a n d C a l a b r i a ; a l s o a s f i r t u r e D u k e o f S i c i l 1 . ,a s h e 'if said. thc grrce of'God and St Peter help me'. The same year marks the consccration of the f i r s t c h u r c h a t t h c a b b c v o f V e n o s a ,w h i c h w a s built to be the famil.v panrheon. In ro6r qr S i c i l l w a s c o n q u e r e c l ;R o g e r I I , C o u n t o f ' S i c i l v ,
346
LANDS ASSOCIATED wITHIN
ir'osrcrLIEs
THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRI'
obtainedthe titlc of'King in r r 3o; he united ancl filled out the Normirn posscssionson the mainl a n d b 1 r r 3 7 , b u t i n r r g . 1 t h e l ' p a s s e dt o t h r : E m p i r e . ' l ' h e a r e ap a s s e dt o t h e R o m a n l r o m t h e Blzantine patriarchate in the pontificate of Urban II, and saw hosts ofthe First Crusade depart in rc96 7.
The first seriousbeginnings of Romanesrluq architecture came tt this timc, and Lombill.(l influencc. rvhich had played upon Normantlr. irscll. is felr in .{pulia in rhe oldesr Nornr,rn church of importance in the south of Itall'. 'l hc building in qucstion, San Nicola at Barir l z 6 q 6 1 ,s t a n d sa s t h e h e a d o f a r e g i o n a l s t J - l i s r i c
composition San Nicola As an architectural a n d e c l e c t i c w i t h t h e t r a c e so l a is sophisticated pcrsonalitv in thc design' matur. inaitiatral ol derelopmenl wilhin the s i g n s t h e ,rth.t ttttn tradition' ofa frarne the first as a The church was planned from at Saintas earlier here, pilgrimage church; meant a large crypt, with that Diion, lenign", groin vaults az quadrille , supported on columns' to the crypt was Lombard fashion. Access into the easternopening arranged by stairways where there were a i s l e s , c h u r c h o f t h e b a y s most part of' the suitable lateral entrances' This in church, with its superstructure, was finished of. Council held the II Urban Pope rog8, when Bari in the building. A large part of the church was built and embellished by rI3z, but the work dragged on to a dedication in r I96 a fact western in the irregularities explains which towers. With these towers San Nicola became, in intention at least, a fbur-torver church (one tower at each corner), and perhaps the original of a Hungarian group of such buildings' Almost certainly, however, the fine great bulks of the western towers one Lombard in appearance, the other hall-oriental \ ere not part ol the first design, though the sheer prccipice ol' masonry which they m:rkc, flanking the strong basilican profile of the church, is verl' efi-ective' If San Nicola was indeed at first intended to h a v eo n l y l h e t w o s l e n d e r s e n t i n e l r o w c r s a t t h t ' eastern corners, be-vond thc crossing, it lvould
265 nnd z(16.Bari, San Nicola, r:nder construcrion ro89
FI group localized on the east coast of Norman Italy'. I
The relics ofthe venerablc wonderworker St Nicholas, bishop of \{,vra in Anatolia so much i n h o n o u r w i t h t h e G r e e k s a n d R u s s i a n s ,a n t l
Tllitrr I
a
knowntousasSantaC.hus had beenabstractctl trom his tomb in thc ancient cathedral ancl brought in ro87 to Bari, rvhcre they still are, in x sanctuar) rvhich was alreadvbuilding in ro[it1. u n d e r B e n e d i c t i n e a u s p i c e s ,t o r e c e i v c t h e m .
originally have resembled Sant'Abbondio at Como (r. ro6J 95) l.;ool. However. one ol'the 'l'hc aislcs tower pair has never bcen completed w e r e r a u l t e t l , a s a t l h e c a t h e d r a l o l P i s : r( r o f i . j ff.). Disorders in the western ba1'sof this cons t r u c t i o n h a r e c a u s e dt h c i n t r u s i o n o f l o w d i a phragm arches spoiling the efitct of the wcst end of the great nave, rvhich was intended to rise free. as the castern part does' to the wooden-I-hc handsomc rangic ol t r u s s e c lr o o f a b o r e . a r c h e d s p u r b u t t r e s s e so n t h e f l a n k s , r a t h e r l i k e those ofa Poitevin church, has taken care ofthe
3r+7
c - r u t ' w a r ct hl r u s t o f t h e a i s l e r a u l t i n g . - \ b o r c i t thcre is a rich arcaded uall-gallcrl at the trilbrium levcl an early cxanrple ol' this motil, rvhich became very common in Lombardl' Thc t r i l b r i u m s p a c ei t s c l f . a s a t P i s a .o P c n s u p o n t h e n a v e t h r o u g h a s e r i e so f ' t r i p l e a r c h e s u n d e r e n closing arches; above there is a simple clerestor!'t as at Pisa. Analysis thus shows that thc d e b t o f t h e b u i l d i n g t o P i s a C a t h e c i r : r li s m o r e rcal than 2rpparent. A further debt to Tuscanf is evitlent in the nare. diridcd into two mirjol bals' eachcorresponding (as at San Nliniato al Nlonte, Florence on columns' I z 9 o ] ) t o t h r e e a i s l e b a 1 ' sc a l r i e d pier at thc grouped is a there As at San Nliniato junction between the maior bays, and it is possible that a diaphragm arch was inrended (as at San Miniaro) though nerer execu(ed' It seemslikely that the western maior bay was d e s i g n e ds p e c i f i c a l l yf o r t h e c o n g r e g : r r i o nl 1 s e r 'l'here arc thrce portals xt the tag:rcle'ancl r icest h e r e i s a l a t e r a l p o r t a l i n e a c ha i s l ca t t h e h c a d o t this maior ba1'.The eastern maior bal of the nirr e would then serl'e specilicalh f'or the scholu (dnturuilt of the monks, marketl oll' fiom the thus leaving the flanking aislcs and public portals ibr accessto the pilgrimage cr-vpt' 1'he transept opens behind a triumphal arch rvhichfrrmes the altarand the apsc ln ldclition, thcre is iln open three-archecl screen rvhich ser\es to mirrk off the monks' choir fiom the t r a n s e p t , a n d a t t h e s a m et i m e t o s t r e n g t h e nt h e (irn oclagtlnitl sul)l)orls ol the crossing to\rer lirntern on squinches).The high rrltar' rvith a l c n e a t h ,a s o l i e n i n E a r l l b a l c l a c c h i n o i,s p l a c e c b r'l Chlisrian times.'l'he modern arllngemenl clergr'' thc fbr clear area this kceps stalls flanking but in thc Romanesqueperiod the u'holc tranbe s ep t o f I B e n e d i c t i n c c h u r c h w o u l d n t r r m a l l l m a1' T h i s d e r o t i o n s reserretl fbr the monks' l o g i c a lh u h c r e ' N i c o l a , S a n i n s e n s e c l still bc t ' n o u g h . l h e r c l r e n u t r i l l ) s e p tp o r l r t l s the E , a c ha r m o f ' t h e t r a n s e p t h a s a n a b s i d i o l c ; ('hrtsE a r l r ' t h e i n s 1 ' n t h r o n o n m a i n a p s eh a s a
348
LANDS ASSOCIATED \1 ITHTN THE HOLY ROMAN t,MPIRE
z6j (lpplsitt).
'l'rani
Cathedral,bcgun Io98' from the west
trulli (corbelledtlomcs),traditional 2f8. Alberobello,
t i a n m a n n e r , w i t h a b i s h o p ' st h r o n e o n a x i s .T h e 'l'hrone, as ir is callcd, has an interestins p l e c ci n t h c h i s r o r r o l R o m a n e s q u c s c u l p tu r e ; Ibr, dated ro98, ir is a marure u,ork ol.Gueliel_ Bari
esque addition, perhaps suglgested b-v thc I-ateran transept [283]. The wall has shallou. arcading with a half-pisan, half_Lombard look ahnut it. well related to thc more visorous b u t t r e s sa r c a d i n g .r h e g a l l e r y .a n d t h e p o r t a l s .
mus, onc ol thc mcn uho first rencue,l th.,art i n I t a l v . I t i s p o s s i b l et h a r I r e i n r c n t e d rhe well_ Nor rhe leasr charm of San Nicoia is it, known motif of'achurch portal lvith its columns hanclsome ashlar masonry. Thc stone_wort. carried on the backsofanimals; at anv rate the finel1.cut, has mclloived to a warnt soft grevish m o t i l d p n c e r si n S l n N i c o l a a r B a r i . wirh rhe h r o w n , a c r i re i n r e x r u r c a n d l r i t h l o , elr iurir.. animals in the fbrm o1'corbels.: e f l c c t si n r h e s u n s h i n e .' f h i s b e a u r i l i r l . , o n . *r. It rcmains to mention thc box_like wall which gencrallv ar.ailable,and its use characterizes the e n c l o s e sa l l t h e a p s e so f ' S a n N i c o l a , a n d m a k e s w h o l e s e r i e so f b u i l d i n g s r e l a t e c lt o S a n N i c o l a , a sheer straight east wall for the church, cm_ vert grearl,v to their advantagc. 'l'he bellishecl bv the rich rvinclow of the main arrse. g e n c r a l d e s i g n o l s a n i ' i . . o l a u . a sq u i c k l , a n d i n t c n d c r lt o h l r e t h c : l e n d e r t u i n r o u c r s absorbed into Apulian architecture, ,na ,n. r i s i n g a b o r , ei t a t t h e c o r n e r s . I t was a Roman_ resulting tlmily.of buildings consrlrutes a \ert.
a t t r a c t i v er e g i o n a l g r o u p r a n g e d a l o n g a n d n c a r 'fhc the coast north-rvesterll'from Bari. notable examples are all cathedrals. Several of them stand boldly with their sentinel tolvers close to t h e w a t e r ' s e d g c o n t h e A d r i a t i c s h o r e ,a n d t h u s a d d t o t h e p i c t u r c s q u e n e s so f t h c r o w n s . \ l o s t closelv rclated to San Nicola are thc cathedrals o f B a r l e t t a ( b e g l u na b o u t r r 3 9 , u n d e r w a v i n r r 5 3 , a n d e n l a r g e d i n a d i f i - e r e n ts t 1 ' l c i n t h e f o u l t e c n t h c e n t r . r r l ' ) ,B ' , r r i ( b e g u n a l t e r r r 5 6 , u n d e r w a v i n r r 7 < . ; )B, i t o n t o ( b e g u n r r 7 5 ; p o r t a l t z o o ) . R u r o ( t l ' e l f t h c e n t u r l ' ) ,a n d B i t c t t o ( m o r c o r l e s sc o n t e m p o r a r l ' ) .r Less clearll li'om Bari is the filiation of the cathedral o1'Tranir [:(r71, begun in rogll and dedicatedto St Nicholas the Pilgrim, an idiot
b o y u n a b l e t o s a l a n v t h i n g b r t K . 1 ' r i ec l e i s o n . 'I-his pilgrimage who attracted pious attention. church hasa complete cr]'pt; there is a fine wcst p o r c h l c a d i n g t o b r o n z e c l o o r s ;t h e r c i s a s i n g ; l e bold western towcr. The u'ooden-roof'ed basilic a n n r \ e h a s a n i n c l u d e d t t ' a n s e p t ;t h c e a s t c n c l has no towers or'box'
only thrcc projecting
r o u n d a p s e s .t s e a u t i f i r l l v u ' c a t h e r e c l t, h e b u i l d ing is lerl' handsome in a setting which hrrs 'l'hc detail is h a r d l r c h a n g c c ls i n c c i t r v a s b u i l t . largcll l-ombrrd. To this rathcr Lombard group of NormanoItalian buildings ma]. be adclcd a sporaclic d o m e d g r o u p . D o m e s h a d b e e n r r s e dt i r r a l o n g 'hcel' of' Itrrll', as at Alberobello timc in the [ 2 6 8 1 ,f b r u t i l i t a l i a n c o n s t r u c t i o n s . '
350
L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I l H I N T H E H O L Y R O M A N E M p I R E
N f o l f ' e t t aC a t h e d r a l [ 2 6 9 1 ,l i k e t h a t o l T r a n i , has Lombard detail, and is set close to the water. Like the churchesat Bari. it has slender paired eastern towers, but the na.r'eis cor.ered with three domes in line, and the aisles are quadrant-vaulted: a most unusual arrangement. f'he date falls late in the trvelfth century (r l6z
ff., with
some reconstruction about
r-loo). \Iolfctta C,athcdral,r rf)2and latcr, 2611fiom thc north-ucst
The repeated dome occurs also in 1l1o cathedral ol san Sabino in Canosa,dar;n, f i o m r r o o a n d l a t e r . H e r e a t C a n o s ai s a l s o th" domed classicizing tomb (rrrr t8) ofrhc r....,less and laithless crusader Bohemond, son ot. Robert Guiscard." Tuscan influences flowed, rather parsimoniouslv, into Norman Italy too.7 Troia Cathc_ dral, lor historical rex.sons,is Tuscan in str lc.
THt.TWOSICtT.IES35r
on lhc (\teriol of the apsc. ,acept perhaps i r s u f f i c i e n t l vl i l c t h a r o l K a l a t S e m a n i n *ifi q u e s t i o n o l F ' a s t e r ni n f l u e n c e t o s u r i a r a i s et h e through thc Crusadesl tbl the n . . . r r r t i l y lot begun in roq.l' and uas well along .hur.h *"t i1 rtzT fzTol' has Siponto Cathedral (twclfth century) also, but the church Tuscan exterior arcading block. \'er'\' orientalis an abrupt squarc
interesting, except for a later campanile ancl a domed tomb or baptister]-(r. r r8o). So far we have seen little or no l"rcnch influence in this architecture of the Norn.ran 'I'he latter were fighting men, and their dvnasts. entourage was lar too mixcd to havc anr' artistic orientation. Moreover', when the Hautcvilles lef t Normand-v, the Norman school u as :rs its great earll monu-
vet hardl,r'constituted
21o.'I' roia.Cnthcdral.begun I ot1-1, upperPartof west far,rtle
F l:,]i
iil
looking in mass. It has a rich portal in the Lombard style, and thus is suitabll' eclectic for the region. The great shrine of St Nlichael of' Monte Gargano, or Monte Sant'Angelo, resulted from a vision of the archangel seen bl a bishop of Siponto in 49r. The sitc is not architccturall.v
ment, Jumidges [:.SZ ql, dates lrom ro17 66. -l'he Norman French wcre then still under strong influences fiom the Loire, fiom Burgundl-', and fi'om Lombardv, on which the south-Italian Normans alsodrew. ln the latcr pcriod atier l05o' thcf( is o c c a s i o n a lF r e n c h i n f l u e n c e i n N o l m a n I t a l l '
352
L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I T H I N
THE HOLY ROMAN t',MPIRE
T h i s i s t h e c a s ca t V e n o s a( b e g u n a f t c r I r o o a n d nerer finishcd or dilapidated, so that it sho*s the technique of Romanesquebuilding) and in Acerenza (related to Venosa). A't'ersa," not far lrom Naples, has a cathedral dating lrom about r r 5o, containing an archaic-looking rib-r'aulted ambulatory, which would sccm to be ultimatell
e a r l i e r . l l I t i s o n e o f a g r o u p o 1 ' c h u r c h e sw h r r . h are basically versions of the Byzantine firtrr.column church. Another Byzirntine reminiscence is that ot St Nilus of Rossano, who, driven fiom the region by the Saracens,carried the Eastu.l (Basilian) monastic mle to Grottaf-errata, nrrr
( r r T t l - 8 2 ) , w h i c h h a s a h a l f - - B u r g u n d i a nt r i p l e
Rome, where Otto III, perhaps remembcrins 'Iheophano, a i d ed i 1 his Bl zantine mother founding a monasterv (roo4) which is srill
porch, it may have acquired thc libs through
B r r s i l i a n .t h o u g h u n d e r p a p a l a u s p i c c s .
ofFrench inspiration, though with the church 'l'cramo of San Ciemente at Torre dei Passieri,
Lombard influcnce.') Riroira believccl that thc ambulator-v at thc cathedral ofAversir dated back to ro49 56, and Arthur Kingsley Porter rvas lcd to give considerable emphasis to the sculptures of San N i c o l a , B a r i , a s e a r l v e x a m p l e sd u e t o P i l g r i m -
SICILY The fantastic history of this island guarantecd it an exotic architecture. \iery little ol'rcrl importance to the histor]- of architecture $as
age connexions; but the remoteness 01'the
built. as lar as we know. between Greek and
Apulian school, and the f'act that the civilization of the Two Sicilies was hardll a Romanesque
Norman days, though the successive Roman,
cir,ilization, make this Romanesque really a Romrrnesque in ltartihus, oi which the reflcx influence elsewhere was perceptible, but not grear.
THE BASILICATA W o r t h l . o f n o t i c e i s a s m a l l g r o u p o f c h u r c h e si n 'Roccella d i S q u i l l a c e ' ,n e a r t h e s i t e o l Calabria.
B v z a n t i n e , a n d M o s l e m r e g i m e sl e f t t h e i r m a r k . T h e N o r m a n s , w h o c o n q u e r e d S i c i l - vi n r o 6 r 9r, hare left monuments of great dignitv but composite st1'le. Like their English cousins. t h e l a c h i e v e d ,w i t h p a p a l s a n c t i o n , a t i g h t c o n trol ofthe church, and intelligently prevented fiiction between the Latins, the Orthodox, ancl t h e M o s l e m s . N e w e p i s c o p a l s e e s\ 4 e r c s e t u p 'fhe and staffed with Latin ecclesiastics. hallNloslern-half-Byzantine
charm of' the place
Cassiodorus's sixth-century monasterv o1'Vi\,a-
afl'ectcd them. the court. and the architects
riunr. has an imposing ruin of rather Bvzantine
p r o t b u n d l v , a n d t h e i r R o m a n e s q u ea r c h i t e c t u r e
character, in some wavs like the tenth- and
absorbed. with much grace, thc alien elemcnts.
clerenth-century churches in the capital. The
This mode of building was still in logue uhcn
policv of the Normans, who acquired this
the Two Sicilies were united to the Empirc.
region in ro57, was countcr to the Orthodox 'I'he p l a n o 1 ' R o c c e l l ad i S q u i l l a c e ,w i t h Church.
r rg-+.
a crypt, a wide transept, and a lvide wooden-
Moslem modcls; for the Normans of thc court
Court
architecturelr
naturally. inclined to
rooled navc, seenrs Western, probabh of the
we're human alter all, and thc N,Ioslem pallccs
l a t c e l e r , e n t hc e n t u r v .I o 'La Cattolica'(Catholicon, the chicl church
were designed to house a lif'e of sophisticrtecl
of a monasterl') of Stild, near thc coast, closell
north. l'he Farcra, Menani, L,a Ziza, and L;t Cuba are knolvn cxamples - Palermitan builcl-
rescmblcs the latel rustic Bvzantine rvhich is fbund in the Balkans, and mav date fiom the fburtecnth ccnturv, though it is otten dated
rsfinement such as wrs hardly known in the
ings in which the oriental lords of Sicily would h a r c b c e n r e r v m u c h a l h o m c , T h e l o e, r l
27r. Palermo.PalatineChapel,r r3z- tig
.tf+
L A N D S A S S O ( ] I A T t r DW I I ' H I N
THE HOLY ROMAN },]!tPIRE
THETWOStCrLrEs
355
bowers of orange, lemon, and palm trees. crosslng towers here. Wherever originated, the RogerII acquired territorieson the mainland tower design of the N{artorana has been half_ orientalized, and developed rowards thc fbrm of Aftica,which accentuatedthe orientalismof hisdominionsand naturallycameto expression w h i c h w e s h a l l f i n d i n t h e d r a m a t i c c l u s t e r s o f turrets at Palermo Cathedral later on. 11the architecture. It has been very reasonablysuggestedthat San Giovanni degli Eremiti,r, of rI jz, has the Orthodox in the Greek parts of the island o n t h e c h u r c h ( a s i m p l e b l o c k o f a b u i l d i n g o f had for two hundred years been assimilating austere oriental exterior fbrm) a series of Moslem and Byzantine archirecturalmotifs, trloslem domes which irre hemispherical, and achievingt satoir-faireby which the Norman placed wirhout mouldings on short cvlindrical architectsearly profited.lr drums. The tower terminatescoquettishh in a A famous example of' l'aried architectural similar dome. There is a poetic cloister. San combinationis the PalatineChapelin Palermol [z7r], actuallywithin what remainso1'theroval palacethere. It was built br,Roger II between rr32 and rr43, and dedicatedto St peterl really it is a miniature church, with slencler columnsof marble dividing the navefrom the aislesofa triapsidalbasilicanplan.The columns and the lavish wall mosaics- applied, except for somerestoration, betweenr r43 and r r89 are purely Byzantine in stlle. Tall pointed arches of Moslem form, and an elaborate stalactiteceiling over.thenave are the oriental compon!nts in this design. The'N{artorana'15 [z7zl, reallvthe churchof SantaMaria del Ammiraglio, built and clecoratedbetween I r4-tand I r5r forKingRogerII's greatadmiralGeorgeof Antioch, wasdedicated to the Virgin 'with much love, and as a small andunworthy-recompense' so the inscription 273.Palermo,San (laraldo,bcfore r r6r says.Later building has disturbedthe original entrancesystem.An axial porch (still existing, Cataldo [2731, essentiallv similar to San Gioand marked by a late tower) gave upon an vanni, was built as a svnagogue and taken over atrium and narthex,as in an Early Christian a s a c h u t c h i n r r6r. Exotic and unchurchly asit churchI hovlerer. bel.ond rhe narthex rhe is, with Nloslem domes and decoratir.e pointed building was arrangecland decoratedlike a a r c a d i n g . it does not seem out of'place as an Byzantinefour-column chur.ch,exceptthat the e c c l e s i a s t i c a l building in Palermo. Pointedarchesand the squinchesof the dome N{eanwhile, in rr.1r, construction of the wereof Moslem design.The tower (fburteenth c a t h e d r a l o f C e f ' a l i rh a d b e e n b e g u n r Tl z 7 4 l . k s centur)')is basicalll.likethe crossingtower of p a t r o n , ( , o u n t R o g e r I I , w a s a c c o r d e dt h e t i t l e theMontierneufat Poitiers r]. Perhapsthere o f K i n g bl thc antipope Anacletus II. and firr [25 is influence from the Salmantine school of t h i s alliance was excommunicated in r r 1q bv
't
1'
'l
z7z. Palermo,the X,{artorana, r t_1.j5r irnd later, flank building material, none other than the prtros N4oslem pointed arch, and rib u.ork. ,l.here rre (rough limestone) which the ancient Greeks d e c o r a t i v ed e t a i l sw h e r e R o m a n e s q u e , Moslenr, used their temples, adapted irself verv _-fbr and Byzantine motives frolic together; ther.c happih ro rhe new archirectural mode. In it are columns of classic proportlon takine thcir decoratir.e Moslem arcading and pattern_wort part in composirions u.irh Br.zantine mosair. looked u'ell; ir combinecl happill: wirh stucco and Moslem domes, honel,.comb roof art(.for panelled effects, and with marble and s o n a d o sa n d s t a l a c t i t ec e i l i n g . s . All are brillianr mosaic fbr rich interiors. One finds in these in A{editerranean sunshine and glowing rvirh designs, without seeming contracliction, the warmth; lbr the limestone walls weather to round Roman arch, the interlaced Norman enchanting toasted browns, buffs, and grers, arches which make pointed_arch patterns, rhe richly contrasting with rhe azurc ,krl ,n.l
--r
TllE TWt) srcrt.rE.s 357
but,the situation was pope Innocenl ll. was serrcd b1' a in rr'lo ,"iut^tirra .Celalir c a n o ns' For them a A u g u s t i n i a n of at-rpt.. was built. in the stvlc of the . l o i t r . . l..ity to the norlh. {fter Roger II's time ihurch, iust project at Celilir languished; ultithe $e^t pately the royal pantheon was established in palermo, and even King Roger's sarcophagus his tombwas transf-erred there from this, church' In plan Cefalir Cathedral is very handsome -lhe east end walls are substantial. [275].'fhe groin vaulting and a has a sanctuary covered b1 pointed semi-dome; flanking it are two deep
f
ii
*
z T q , a n dz i 5 . ( l c l a l i r( l a t h e d r a lb, e u u nr r . i r
fiom rz4o, with some rebuilding in thc htteenth century. The exterior of the cathedral is perhaps the 'l'wo
6nest in all the Sicilian Romancsque. handsome to\r'ers, like North-African
minarcts
in design, flank an elegant columnar porch rvith three pointed archcs, bchind rvhich appears the faqade wall ofthe church, decorated 'lhc nale ancl with Norman interlirced arches. aisles are of course basilican columnar shafis mark off the aisles, u'hich are sroin-vaulted, with lateral arcading. In the nave proper, the roofis at a lower level than wasat first intcnded. 'Ihe transept is carried higher than the nave,
runnel-vaulted chapels. The transept, slightlv proiecting, is covered partly by tunnel vaulting and partly by wooden roofing. These parts of
m o r e t h a n a t N { o n t e c a s s i n oo n t h e m a i n l a n d ; the sanctuary be-vond it, though Byzantine in
the church had been hnished and decorated in the nave rr48, but there is much later work w a sb u i l t b e t w e e n r r 8 o a n d I 2 o o o n a r e d u c e d
ture, proportion, and extcrior decolation. The great Christ of the semi-dome, singularlv impressive, is one of'the finest Byzantine mosaics
plan, and the wooden-trussed roofing of the nxve was restored in rz63; the faqade dates
to be fbund anywhere. It is a perf'ectly pure exarnpleof the Second Golden Age, and goes
p l a n a n d d e c o r a t i o n . i s R o n r a n e s q t t ci n s t t ' u c -
THE TWO STCTLTES 35g
'l-he minor originals in Constanlinople a r e a l s o . o fg r e a t i n t e r e s t a n d b c a u t l ' IuUi..ts of Santa \4aria la \uorl in The calhctlral
b a c kr o
is the clin.rax of Sicilian Monrealel8 lz76-8.) 'l a r c h i t c c t u l c . h e s e e \ 4 a se s t i l b Romanesquc the cathedral huilr br King Willished and to the po$er o{ the fiam II as a counterpoisc
their decorative character
and conscquenrlt. quite the reverse ol' the development in the north of France, which at this verv rime was systematizing the flying buttress and ushcring in the accomplished phase of F-arlv Gorhic. There is no sign ofthis architectural progress ar Nlonreale. Fires werc not so li'equent in the
I
lil
ti I I
I1l II I
I
archbishop of' Palermo. It was served b1Benedictines from La Cava on the tnainland, where thc monks observed the Cluniac rulc,
south as in the north, so that it was admissible to risk wooden-trussed roofing over the wide
and for them an intcresting conventual struc'fhis t u r e w a s r a i s e dt o t h e s o u t h o f t h e c h u r c h .
vault and the
building and the exterior ofthe church are in a markedly local Romancsque sttle; integrated so happily that one is not so conscious of stylistic 'ingredients' as in manl ol the Siculo-
zi6 and 277.NlonrcaleC.athedral, begun r r74
L
Norman edifices. H o * ' e v c r , i t m u s t b e s a i d t h a t t h e m o t i f - sa r e a rather riotous growth, interesting lafgcl.v for
spans. The
Moslem t1'pc o1' :rll-but-pointcd Moslem pointed arch were
sufficientll'stablc fbr the narrouer spans. Monreale Cathcdral was apparentl) started in r174; in t t76 decds and endorvmentswel'e deposited on the high altar, and in rr8z the I - a b r i cw a s s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o m p l e t e. 1 ' h e s i t e , u p thc Conca d'Oro lrom Palcrmo, is onc ol'grcrt l r e a u t ) ,b u t t h e c h t t r c h e x t e r i o ri s n o t a s f i n e l s that of' Cefhli
- fbr thc interlacing pointed
'lHETwo slclt.tts 360
L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I T H I N ' I l l E
36r
HOLY ROMAN TMPIRE
where pointecl arches are used also.
-I'hc
arches on the apse are overwrought Romanesque Baroque; the two blocky tower bases have disparate and not altogether pleasing terminations; and the heavy portico ot t77o
dr:cor.xt i o n i s B y z a n t i n e ( i n t h e m o s r r i c s )a n d \ 1 n 5 1 . " ( t h e m a r b l e d a d o o f t h e a i s l e s ,t h e p o l r c h l o r y l " ceiling). No attempt was made to tirse 16.
between the towers is very inappropriatc'r" The interior, however, is perfect. The plan is Romanesque, with nave, aisles, transept, deep sanctuary and deep flanking chapels; the
styles: they' are here independent, anLl ;n coniunction.2(' The cathedral at Monreale has ;r r s1, beautiful cloister enclosed within the bloclr s e r i e s o f m o n r s t i c b u i l d i n g s o n t h e s o t r r l r. 1 1 .
sup!rstructure fbllows Early Christian lines in the basilican nave, which is divided from the aisles b.v classic Corinthian columns (though with Moslem pointecl arches). The st1'le is Romanesque in the transept and sanctuary.
of the church. This cloister is dated I 17: 89. Possibly' refugee sculptors came here aficl thr: f a l l o f , l e r u s a l e mi n r r 8 7 I t h e w o r k w a s s u t e l r finished b1' rzoo. The cloister has twentr-fiie
d
ccnturtes As the twelfth and thirteenth achiered a designers Sicilian the advance
*iillffi,J:['iri::i* tf {i.,1
tl:,
t-
.ff:
t.. l fi :,: :i
:78. Monrcale Cathedral, cloistcr, I I7:-Et1 27() (af?oete). Palermo ()athedral, r r7z fitieenth centur\' south firgadc
i3
r,i,
362
L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I T H I N
THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
in the fantastic group of turrets joined b1' a bridgc to the rvest faqade(r3oo 59), fbr thcl' have strangc, belated reminisccnces of the 'Ihc Carolingian rvestwork at Saint-Riquier. south portal dates fi'om r4z-5, and its great porch lrom later in the samc centurv. unlbrtunatelv thc interior was spoiled bt rebuilding between r7[ir and r8or, but it containsthe roval and imperial tombs of thc dynastv, including that of the E,mperor Flederick II. f'hev scem strangelv lost in the plastcr whiteness of the uther
austerc Baroquc inter.ior. Sicilr''s orvn riotous, warm, mcdier al stllc
lvould fit them much better.rr
CANIPANIA A N D N E I G I I B O U R I \ GR E G I O N S
derius imported objectsof'art lrom Constanti_ nople, called artists thehce, anclactualll. mrr11s provision fol training Italians and others in thr various arts. G r e a t r e s o u r c e s w e r e a r , a i l a b l et o h i m 1 1 n part surely fi'om the Normans), and DesidcriLrs undertook a general re building of the monaslu.,,. 'l in the ninth rcal of his abbacv. robb. lru dimensioned description in Lco of Osti;r's c h r o n i c l e l e a r . e sn o d o u b t t h a t t h e m a i n p a r t s o l thc church and monastert, though rebuilr rn the fburteenth centur\.and [ater, r.etainctl D e s i d e r i u s ' s s c h e m ed o w n t o m o d e r n t i m e s . I l r m e a n s o f p a r a l l e le x a n p l e s b u i l d i n g s o b v i o r i . l l . i n s p i r e d i n v a r i o u s l - e a t u r e sb \ N , I o n t e c a s s i n o it has been possible to make a trustworrh\
The Normans acquired -{r'ersaand its rcgion about ro3o, (,apua (in which rcgion Nlonte-
restoration [z8o]. In roTr the church urrs dedicated nninto trepudio 'with the grearcsl possible stir' in the presence of numer.oLrs
c a s s i n ol i c s ) i n r o i 8 . G a e t a i n r o 6 j ; t h c r e g i o n s a b o u t B e n e v e n t oa n c lS a l c r n o ,i n c l u d i n g { m a l f i ,
r a n k i n g e c c l e s i a s t i c s k; n o u l e d g c o f i t i n s t a n t l r sprcad f-ar, and Montecassino continued to
i n r o 7 7 : N a p l e s ,h n a l l r ' ,i n r r 3 7 .
draw visitols of malk.
8 1 l - a rt h c n r o s t i m p o r t a n t s h r i n e i n t h e r e g i o n r v a sN l o n t e c a s s i n o ,w i t h i t s a u g u s t m e m o l i e s o f ' -l'he St Benedict. monasterl', lbunded in -5.2g, h a d b c e n r e s t o r c c la f t e l b a r b a r i a n d e s o l a t i o n s (Lombards, -58r; Saracens,8[J:), and subsc-
1 ' h e l a 1 - o u tw a s o b v i o u s l l t a k e n f r o m O l r l S t P e t e r ' ' si n R o m e [ j ] , w i t h m o n u m e n t a l s r a i r ' . propvlaea, atrium, and T-shaped basilic.r,
quent to 95o it flourished again. An elegant interprctation of the much rebuilt Renaissance church and conventual buildings has replacccl. on thc same sitcs, the structures dcstrol-ed in t h c S e c o n c l\ \ o r l d W a r .
t h o u g h o n a m u c h s m a l l e r s c a l e( r o u g h l l ' o n c third linear'; single aisle at cach side; no s c r e c n e d r e c c s s e sa t t h e e n d s o f t h c t r a n s e p r . which was tliapsidal; ir hcavv, stumpr. belltower of local tvpe at the north-east corner ol the atrium). ^{ctual materials rvcre bror.rght from Rome, and some ol'these were carricrl u1,
The great Abbot Desiderius assumsd ofhce w h c n t h e N o r m a n r e p J i m ew a s b e g i n n i n g . I { e
the great slope b1,the fhithlul
gathered a pleiad of important churchmen, s c h o l a r s ,a n d a r t i s t s a b o u t h i m , a n d m a d e t h e
Sevcral I'catules of'Desiderius's church rvelc novel, and they should be noted here. Somc ol
abbey. a light to its age, as rccounted bv his excellcnt archivist and biographer Lco of O s t i a . : r D e s i d e r i u s l a b o u r c d t o r e - e s t a b l i s ht h e fine arts in Itah, lvhcre '\.,IistressLatinitas had been wantins in the skill of thcse alts . . . tbr'
the builders were from Amalfi. then at thc summit of its powel as a widelv ramillcd
f i v e h u n d r e d v c i r r s )a n d m o r e ; a n d b l t h e e l 1 b r t ol this man, rvith thc inspiration and help of God, merited to regain it in our time.' Dcsi-
an anticiparion
of the cart cults o1'Gothic cathedrals.
commercial republic, with stations in Cairo. Jcrusalem, Cyprus, Constanrinople, Alexlnd r i a , a n d T u n i s . T h e c i t y - ,r u i n e d s o s o o n i r ft c r ' . must have sholln these oriental connexionsin i t s a r c h i t e c t u r e .I t i s o u r b e l i e f t h a t t h e n o v c l t i c : a t N { o n t e c a s s i n ow h i c h h a r e o r i e n t a l c h a r a c t c r -
'1,,f, ;'if : (K.J.cl.) z8o.MontecassinoAbbe1, restorationstud]' as ln ro75 istics were due to this influcncel and in tact some of these feutures are anlicipated in existing North-Alrican work F o r e x a m p l e .a b o u t l o 5 o t h e i n n e r p o r l i c o o l the Great Mosque at Mahdia (Tunisia) had pointed arches and peculiar groin vaults, with arrises nearly straight, as at Sant'Angelo in Formis, a priory of Montecasstno. Desiderius's propylaeum and church porch' each with five arches, are reported as having ' l a n c e o l a t e 'a r c h e s o l ' \ a u l t s ' fornttes spi,ul,t5 with a ver-vblunt point il' they were like the single remaining original pointed vault in the south pylon of the outer porch,r3 which I 'l'he porch of measured befbre the destruction Sant'Angelo in Formis,21 though later than the church of ro58-75 and more oriental in feeling, is a somewhat unskilful conflation of the tll'o
naturalll' take pointed shapes' The characteristic straight arrisesol thc groin vaults ol'the porch ol' Sant'Angelo in Forrnis [z8r] were d o u b t l e s sf o r m e d o v c t ' d i a g o n a l m i t r e s ' Abbot Hugh of (,lun1' r'isitcd Nlontccassino in ro8l. Greatlf interestedin building (as we have seen), he, or an architect in his suite, s u p p o s e t l l r t r a n s m i t t e d t h c n o r e l l e a t u r e sl t . r C l u n l l I I , t h e b u i l d i n g o f w h i c h b e g a nb 1 ' r o 8 8 ' Unquestionabl-r- the oriental pointed arch, the B 1 ' z a n t i n ei r n d o r i e n t a l p i n c h c d l a u l t ' i r p p r o r i nritel-v of catenarl' profile, and the straight-arris groin rault were rationalized b-'-'Desiderius's 'fhel' marked a distinct and Hugh's engineers. step forwarcl in Romanesque engineering, and perhaps started the process which eventuall]' crcJtedthe nevt Gothic tlpe ol enginecring' 'fhc tbrtune ofthe pointed arch lnd vault was
porticoes at Montecassino lz8o z)' The pointed a r c h a n d v a u l t w e r e w e l l e s t i r b l i s h e di n E g l p t by the tenth centur.v' Eg1'ptian arches, eren to
m l t l e u l t e n t h e l w e r ea p p l i e d ,t o t h c n u m b c r o l are neirrll'two hundred, at Cluny' As f:rr as rve thcre able to make out at present, thev went
this day, are constructed over a rough filling carried by straight sticks forming a mitrc, and the arches, brought up to the apex ofthe mitre,
Iiom Montecassino. Desiderius'sporch had plaster-work decorabronze tion, presumably also Moslcm, and
,I'II}-
304
TWO
SICII,IES
J , '5
2 8 r a n dz8z. Sant'Angeloin Formis, fbundcd ro58, Iinishedr. ro73 5
including the church of the town o f A q u i n o , w h e r c S t T h o m a s A q u i n a s * a sb o r n ,
plates fi'om Constantinople on rhe door-\,alves; a dccorative lunette was or.cr each of the door_
with most of the tomb, when the high altar *rrs moved here.
of the motif
wavs,in the Bvzantine manner i and the interior was Ii'escoed in Bvzantine stvle. 'I'hus we ha,r,e
Thc paintings of the interior mav be judgcrl b y - t h o s eo 1 ' S a n t ' A n g e l oi n F o r m i s , a D c s i d e r i a n church (asremarked) [z8zl. Thc whole interior.
and Minuto.
h c r e i n r o 6 6 7 . 5a n a p p o s i t i o n o f s t y - l e sl i k e t h a t which lr'e find in Sicilv a centurv later. In lerelling the rocky' ridgc to make a place f b r t h e b a s i l i c a ,a t o m b u n d e r s t o o d t o b c t h a t o f St Benedict was discovered about ten I'eetunder. the surface. The monks at Montccassino in thcir recent cxcar.ationshar,c corroborated this, b u t t h e g ; r a v ew a s e m p r i e d ( i n 7 o 3 ? ) , w h e n r e l i c s supposed to bc those of St Benedict wcre taken to Fleury-sur-Loire afier the Lombard cleso'l'o lation. retain the ncwly--discovered tomb untouched, the transept pavement was established eight steps above that of thc nar.e. I)esiderius built a cenotaph, clestroyed later,
here is painted in the Cassinese style. It is b e l i e v e dt h a t t h i s s r v l e w a s t a k e n u p b y . C l u n l : the chapel of Berzd-la-Ville surr.ives as r witness.l-t 'I'he dvnamic I'eaturesof Montecassino. then. were taken up and developed in Burgundl. But in the main the abbey church was a conserr,atir,ebuilding, and the conservan\.e asDects o l ' i t a l e r e f l e c t e di n t h e c a t h e d r a l so l ' S a l e r n , (dedicatedin ro84), Benevenro (rebuilt rrr.1 rz79), Ravello (by rr56), and Amalfi (Romanesque, to rz76; rebuilt). All are basilican. Besides these there are many rustic rcductions
In the region therc are manv elaborate pulpits,rb usually of white marble rT'ith mosatc rlnd opus Alerandrinum insets, in medielal R o m a n s t - v l eE . xamples dated befbre r2oo exrst at Rarello (alter log5)' La (.ara (alier r r'1h)' -l'hev and Salerno (between rr53 and rI8r) show, as does the basilicrn architectule' thrt 'I'wo Sicilies is a architecturally this part o('the e1'e will attentive but the Roman province find Byzxntine and Nlloslem details in them' The pulpits are parapeted platforms carricd on c o l u m n s a n d r e a c h e db 1 ' f l i g h t s o t ' s t e p s ;u s u a l l - v there is a plojection with r lecteln whele thc baldacchinos in actual reading is done. XIan-'-.marble have also been preserved' Such furni-
ture is often verl' picturesque, wherc thc workmanship is rustic and the air is of folk art On thc other hand, this architectural and s c u l p t u r a l t r a d i t i o n w a s t h c b a s i so f t h e r e v i v a l of antique st,-vlein thc works of the Emperor Frederick Il.r; His gate at Capua (t233 4o) was built in Roman-stvlc ashlar and adorned w i t h c l a s s i c a lb u s t s , o f ' r v h i c h t h c P i e t r o d c l l a V i g n a i s t h e b e s t k n o w n . S u c h c l a s s i c i s mw a s d o u b t l e s ss u g g e s t ed b , r ' t h c a n c i e n t m e m o r i es o f C a p u a a n d t h e i m p e r i a l o l f i c e ; i t i s a w i t n es s t o the catholic taste of the Emperor, and it ma)' l ' e p r e s e n la l s o I r t a c l i o n a g a i n s t t h e e r o t i c ' overblown Romanesque of Sicil-v' lt was obliousll the training-ground lbr Nicolrr Pisano ' P c t tu s d c \ p u l i l " a u t h o r ' ( . . | 2 2 5 7 8 ) .s o n o l rveshall p u ofthe classicizing lpit of rzig rvhich find in Pisa.
CflLPTEn
zo
I'rALY
CENTRAL
ROME
.*""#;
'tt:Yi
AND THE PAPAL STATI.,
of the capital of the Empire from The removal fourth century'' the barbarian disthe in Rome rule of thc City as a part of the locations,the the coming ol'Greek and B y z a n t i n ee x a r c h a t ci s t r u g g l c so l l o c a l n o b l c s . t h e t h e P o p e s ; Syrian pontifl.s, and the emperors not the commune, to mention the malaria and the burning of a part of the City by Robert Guiscard all make a tragicstory. In such a history therc is little room for interesting building. Architectural style remained so stagnant in Rome that the church of San Clemente, rebuilt alter Robert Guiscard's fire of ro8a. was mistaken for the fburth-century church on the site, until the ruins of that building under the present church were susp e c t e d( r 8 4 7 ) a n d e x c a v a t e d( r 8 5 7 - 6 r ) . Though it figured in the military struggles of' the Middle Ages, Old St Peter's [3] escapeddestruction, only to be demolished piecerneal between r45o and 1585 to make way for the present church. Recent excavations have revealedthe history ofits apse, where the altar, iI' present, stood until about 6oo in fiont of the Memoria Apostolicu,asmall ancient recessat the pavement level. By the ser,enthcentury the apse pavement had been raised to the top of the memoria, and the high altar cstablished abor,e the latter. A semicircular corridor was formcd, contiguous to the apse at the original pavement level and giving access to an axial corridor b1' which the memoria could be reached from behind.l'I'his arrangement underlics the primitive
z8l. Rome, I-atcran Church and palace, restoration stuclv as rn r r45o (Rohault de Fleurv)
in 896, was rebuilt betwcen go,1 and 928 bv Sergius III and John X as San Giovanni in Laterano,without losingits rank.r It wasfurther rebuilt alier suffcring gravely from fires in r3o8 -I'he a p s e ,t h o u g h d a m a g c d , r e t a i n e d and r36r. its old ambulatory, laid out in the ninth centurl' (or possibly' in the lburth) without radiating chapels [2831. This august example probably had some influence on the development of ambulatories at the main.pavement level during the N{iddle Ages. It was destroy'edonl.v in r 876 ; the medieval transept and navt: had been masked b v R e n a i s s a n c ea n d B a r o q u e a d d i t i o n s . Near by' was the Lateran Palacc, replaced in r 5 8 5 6 . T h e v e n e r a b l eo l d c r b u i l d i n g [ 2 8 3 ] w a s in various fbrms the papal palace for nearll' twelve centuries, though fiom the time of' Gregory lX (tzz7 4r) malarial conditions in the district led to the transf'erofthe actual pontifical residence to the Vatican Palace.r The medieval building (resulting liom progressive rec o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e p a l a c eo f t h e L a t e r a n i , g i Y e n by Constantine to Pope N,liltiades) was much larger than the present one, and more open in construction. It had a great man]' rooms with a p s i d a l r e c e s s e s ,a n d t h e s e i n c l u d e d s c v e r a l ceremonial halls. Of all this, only' the terminal a p s co f t h e T r i c l i n i u m s u r v i v e sa s a s o r t o f p a v i lion, by the ScalaSanta.+ The monastery adjoining the Lateran had a long historl'. It was the refugc of the Benedictincs of N{ontccassino, whcn their own mona-
Lombard crypts, and contains the germ of the arnbulatory scheme.
stery was destroyed by the Lombards in -58r, and was their first establishment in Rome. The pretty cloister, in the Roman Romanesquc st]'le, was built about tzz7, Pietro Vassalletto and his
The cathedral of the Saviour. built under Constantine, and overthrown by an earthquake
s o n b e i n g t h e m a s t e r s . s ' l ' h eg a r t h , s q u a r c , h a s a fbuntain hcac in the middle of a sarden; the
168
lHl' LANDs AssoclA'lED \\'lTlllN
rloLY RoMAN ['NlPIRF
w a l k s . o n a l l t b u r s i d e s ,a r c n o w g r o i n - r ' a u l t e d ' 'fhe L - s h a p e t lc o r n c r p i e r s t e r m i n a t e r a n g c s o l supports, inclucling lour oblong piers betrvccn (irsmateach pair. I classicalentablaturc with a esque liicze is carricd entirclv around the cloistcr abore them. Each intetval betwccn t$o plcrs has 6ve grrrcctil arches cirricd on {bur pairs ot slentlel colunns abore a pilrapet the middle prrirs in each case bcing twistcd. It rlas an easy' step liom this thirteenth-centur]' work to some o f t h e E a r l l R e n a i s s a n ccel o i s t u r s Cosmati and Cosmatesque work, iust mentioned, takes its name trom a Roman familyw h i c h f l o u r i s h e d a ft e r I r - 5 o .1 ' h c y d i d o n e s e r i ous work of architecture, thc portico, in the Ionic st1'le,ol the cathedral of'Civita-Castcllana, ncar Rome.(' rvhich is aln-rostpcrfectlv classical in design, though built in r z r o b1 Lorenz<.rand
J a c o p o C o s m a t i . I t h a s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i ct l g 1 , , t ative marble and mosaic ornament rvhich rr 1n i n d e x o f t h e C o s m a t i s t - v l e .T h c l ' a n d o t l l 1 1 . rvorking in the samc mxnner devekrptd 16. a n c i e n t t ] ' p e o f o p u s' l l c . r t t r r t l r i n u mt s o r n i l l n r n t fbr cloisters, pulpits, chancels, Paschal crrrl1ll1sticks,thrones, tombs, altars,and the likc. 'I'he most f'amiliar t\pe ot'olrl.\ '4ltttn,ltttttrut ilppearsin the beautilul Roman church p11cm e n t s . T h e v a r e m a d e o f s l a b so f w h i t e n r . r r b l e and disks ol-colourcd marble (olien porphr 11) w i t h l i n e s o f g o l d a n d c o l o u r e d m o s a i cs c t i n t h e bordcring slabs as an embellishment. \bbot Desiderius had such a pavsment maclc lbr -N{ontecassino. A beautilul example ttnc o1' manf in thc citl' exists at Santa Nlari:r in (.osm c d i n i n R o m eI i t i s d a t c d l b o u t t t o o l : \ - 1 : s e e a l s o 2 8 5] . ;
zfl-1.Romc. Santa\Iaria in (,osmctlin. interior, r. r roo (rcstored)
(Ilunsen) stud-r as in r' I roo e85. Rome, San Clcmcntc' rcsroration
37O
L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I T I I I N
ctNTRAt,
THE HOLY ROMAN [,MpIRE
Cosmati work applied to church furniture is naturally more delicate in scale than the pave-
de Compostela. Originally- such sralls werr 1. stone. but wood was later introduced for 1.,,6
ments, and this is true ofthe cloisters also. While in general the columns are Corinthianesque, as
fort, and canopies were built to preventdraughts T h e o l d c h a n c r .b l uilr br PopcJohn VIII 1i-.,, w a s r e - u s e da t S a n C l e m e n t e . w h e n t h a t c l r r r r l \
is usual everywhere in the Middle Ages, the Ionic and Composite appear frcquently, and in important works. Elsewhere these orders were little used until Renaissance times. Columnar fbrms are ordinarily much enrichcd: often the shafts are 'Salmonic' (twisted), and straight or spiral fluting
was regularlv garnished with mosaics set in running designs, especially star patterns. For a long time classicalreminiscences
lragments dating back to about [12.5.Occasion_ allv, in the monasteries, fald-stools (-fitnrrtrlrtst arententioncd; thev nrust hare becnoftcn Lrsrtl. Although there was a grear deal o1'disturb_ ance in Rome during the strugglc o\rer thc In_ \.estltures, the r.igour of the Papacy.induccrl a certarn amount of' building. Verv little recrrlls Gregorl-VII, Victor II, or Urban II, bur sc\cral interesting churches are connected with Paschal
Gothic designs. Very handsome baldacchinos, sometimes in Cosmatesque work, were made at this time. T h e v a r e s q u a r e o r n e a r l y . s q u a r ei n p l a n ; t h e y have four corner columns with connecting archi-
II (rogg rrr8).
[285]), and Santa Maria in Cosmedin [zSa] (a Gothic design), all in Romc. The baldacchinos ar Bari, for examplc lz6ql - arc inferior in desip;n,proportion, and execution to the Roman works, but they and the pulpits
in south Italv
o[icn hare a naire lush altracti\eness. Few churches have preserved the old arrange_ ment of'stalls, namely, a chancel marked off bv a parapet at the head of the nave. as at San Clemente [285], with its auxiliariesof pulpits, lecterns, and Paschal candlestick. 'I'he canons or monks used to stand inside these enclosurcs. though in the eler.enth or twelfth centurv sralls began to be pror,ided, as by Gelmirez at Santiaso
which wassung'Suchliturgical lir'ri.o office, from Scriptureat interr als' t.taings l?.., ftt". pulpirsuere prorided oneto the InJfor,tt.t. for the epistleand gospelduring .r.ft.ia. used lecternfor usein readingsdircca ti. rmr, and space' congregattonal the tedtowards
w a s r e b u i l t b y ' P a s c h a lI I . S a n t a S a b i n a a l s o l l x . the old choir arrangement, recentlv restoreclg ith
were strong in Cosmati work, but it was also used in conjunction with Romanesque themes, as in the cloister ofN{onreale, and eventually in
tra.r,es,above which there is a staged open-work turret with small columns; ther. ordinarilv ter_ minate in an octagonal pvramid, with orb and cross. f'hus a plaJ.ful 'turritus apex'took the place of the dome which is usual in Byzantine baldacchinos. Beautilul examples are to be seen at San Lorenzo fuori le N{ura (rr48 ancllater), San Giorgio in Velabro, Santa Maria in 'I'rastevere, San Clemente (where the top is gabled
choir of San Clemenle' dating f h e c h a n c e lo r "'--t^,,r Rrz as already indicated' ma1 be ttor" ' atsll, because here the r schola cantorum v^iled, "' - or ' - c^ a n o n sw o u l d g a t h e r -^in bodY of the monKs
\laria in Cosmcdin' 2 8 6 .R o m e , S a n t a ' r2oo (reslurcd) l i 1 ; r a r ,r ' , I 2 0 . t o s c r
It was he who rebuilt San Clemente (ruintd i n r o 8 4 d u r i n g t h e s i e g eo f t h e c i t v b v R o b e r t Guiscard), and thc works continucd to about rr3o. The resulting churcht [285] non h.rs adventitious Baroque decorations, but the old arrangements are clear. The old propl'laeurl and atrium are not greatly changed; the orientat i o n i s r e v e r s e d ,a s i t w a s i n t h e f b u r t h - c e n t L r r . r b a s i l i c aT . h e n a v es r i l l s h o u s l h c o r i g i n a la l r . . r n a t i o n 0 1 ' p i e r sa n d I o n i c c o l u m n a r s u p p o r t s . I r 'fhe has a clerestorr. head end is triapsidal, rvith a raised central platfbrm. The semi-dome has ir quite lovely mosaic with patterns of'rinceaux in gold against a dark ground, perhaps a work of' the twelfth century. Bclow, there is a marblc throne on the axis, with a sl.nthronon lbr lou cr clergy extending along the apse wall to cithcr side. l'he altar is beneath a beautiful baldacchino, and the celebrant, with his back to thc throne, officiates at the west side or back ol'the altar, looking eastward tolvard the choir in the nave (previously mentioned) and the conliregation. 1'he lront ofthe apse platfbrm is pierced, beneath the altar, by a f'enestrellagiving upon :r 'l'he spacefbr relics. arrangement is an unusuallr perf'ectexample of the Constantinian disposition of the sanctuary elements.'r
L
ITALY
37r
The church of the Santi Qyattro Incoronati was likewise rebuilt by PaschalII, rogg rro6 or r r r2, by which time the rather stump-v campanile was finished. San Bartolomeo was also rebuilt, about rIr3i the tower' ho$'ever,dates from about rzI8. San Giorgio in Velabro and Santa Pudenziana have towers which ma-vfairlv 'I'he towers be ascribed to the twelfth centur].. Santa and in Cosmedin Maria [286] of Santa 'Irastevere may have been built before Maria in
LANDS
ASSOCIATED
WI'THIN
THE
HOLY
r2oo. The tower oI SS. Gior.anni e Paolo is dated to rzo6, that ofSanta Ceciliato rzzo. an
lr
1] li
ROMAN
EMPIRL,
c h a p e lo t S a n Z e n o ( 8 z z \ , r e c e i r . e di t s rernri.-m e n r o f d i a p h r a g m a r c h e si n r t . r * . t t i r , ]irt u r l . S S . G i o r a n n i e P a o l o .b u r n e d i n , :' r e s t o r e d ( b y e x c e p t i o n i n t t . t - o . t r r U"' .; ,, . " , 1 t very true to type. The one which is most advan_ l a r g e l yb 1 H a d r i a n I V ( r r S + q , t h e o n l v I.,"i,'^lr tageously placed stands at rhe lbcade ol the Popc): the touer is, howerer, i" ,h. R;;;l church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin. This is an style, and dated rzo6.r1 old building incorporating a Roman corn hall. At San Lorenzo luori le Mura a simple, rerr but it is basilican; it was rhe church to which austere cloister was built to. the Ci.t"r.i.n, Gelasius II was attached lrom roTg until his about r rgo. In the monastery at St puut,, out_ e l e v a t i o n( r r r 8 ) t o t h e p a p a c y . A l t e r G e l a s i r . r s ' s side the Walls, a new cloisrer ,r, bu;lr .bout death (r r r9) Calixtus II continued repairsand rzoo, similar to the Lateran cloister which r.s embellishments. The interior, wcll restored have mentioned.r: w i t h a c e i l i n g an d a s c h o l ac u n t o r u m , i sa r c h a i ci n The Torre delle Milizieli is a private lbrtil'eeling becauseol the piers in the colonnaclc and fication dated about r2oo! or later. Nlore irrter_ ._fhe the small clerestory winclows. fine pave_ e s t i n g i s t h e m i s c a l l e d H o u s e of Rienzi, near menr darcs liom the rimc ot Gellsius or Calix_ Santa Maria in Cosmedin, a strangelv cnrbel_ tus. At the cosr ofa very folly Baroque fiontis_ lished brick tower-base where the architect ( per_ plece ln stucco, the f'agadehas been restored to h a p s a b o u t r r o o ) u s e d u n c o n r . e n t i o n a lm r u n s its old condition, asofabout r rzo, with a porch (partlv Moslem in inspiration?) to enrich rhe in front ol an open narthc\, and a chamber design. above. Brick is tlre constructional material, as This completes the list of Romanesquc de_ 'lhe trsual in Rome. tower, hardly chansed in signs of importance existing in Rome, ,n.l .rn_ 8oo years, has seven store_r.s abo'eihe wiidow_ p h a s i z e st h e c o n s e r v a t i v ec h a r a c t e ro f t h e c i r r i n less shaft which reaches to the eaves line of the a r c h i t e c t u r e .B u r g u n d i a n h a l f - G o r h i c t l i t l n , , t church nave. Each ofthe sevenstoreys has arcad_ come in until about rz8o, and then uniquclr in ing, u'ith the impost Iine carriecl as a strinE Santa Maria sopra Minerra. finishetl ,1. , ;oo. c o u r s e a r o u n d t h e ( o r l e r l e l c h s r a g ea l . o has a The French High Gothic is not reDrescnred brick cornice. gr-acelirllr propor.iioned. .l.he irt all. Br r4o: Brunelleschiand Dr.rnrrrrllo lower storevs, logically more substantial, have were in Rome together, studying Antiqr.rin in f'ewer openings, and piers; the uppcr storel,s o r d e r t o b r i n g a b o u t t h e R e n a i s s a n c e . have triple openings with marble mia_watt shafts. Somc of the Roman towers havc ceramic T U S C AN Y r n s e t s ,b u t t h i s i s n o t t h e c a s ea t S a n t a N{ariain Cosmedin.r(, Florence, rvhere the Renaissance was to begin, Santa Maria in Trastevere, with a fine tower h a d m o n u m e n t s l e s sl a i t h f u l t o t h e a n t i o u e s r \ l e o f r r . 1 8 , i s s t i l l e s s e n t i a l l yt h e c h u r c h b u i l t bv than contemporary Roman *o.ks. bui hrr,llf Innocent Il as a thankoffering lbr. his s u c c e s s less clas.sicalin spirit. The area covered br rhe over the anripope Anacletus II. Ir was finished T u s c a n R o m a n e s q u es c h o o li n c l u d e s t h e D u c l : . . undcr Eugcne III, the first Cisrercian pope, Sardinia (which the Pisans conquered), irnd 'Ihe about r r50. intervening Lucius II (r r44lS) some special monuments in the northern lnd \r'asthe restorer ofSanta Croce in Gerusalemme, s o u t h e r n p a r t s o f t h e I t a l i a n p e n i n s u l a .E s s c n n e a r t h e L a l e r a n . S a n r a p r a s s e d e ,r e m a r k a b l e t i a l l v t h e s t 1 . l ec o v e r s t h e d o m i n i o n s a n d r e p r c fbr ninth-century mosaics and the beautiful sents the effective reign of the great Countess
cENTRAL rTAr.Y
I5)' well rememberednot only .r.tjld,.Oo46-rr 'i)^ politicalfigure' but rgr,i'pro-papal ,n ruler. patronol'the arts enlighrened ,n ?"'.r personalfriend ot HildcS liUfopttite' the encouragedthe LomShe Anselm ilrr'narna the derelopmenrof and.favoured illa ,o*nt, amongthe greatest of Bologna..then f'eschool. progresswas being active where ii-Europ., and canonlaw' and in medicine' Iradein ciuil reflect Whilearchitecturedoesnot necessarily ol'the the'Roman-mindedness' suchconditons, Roman that thc it natttral made qreatsovereign lwle shouldbe rt homein her domain.It is no lessnatural given the active temper of the - that crealive ditlerentiationsshould Deriod .pp..t,.t theydid parlicularl]in Florenceand BaPtisterl ' 287.Florence, exterior, fifih ( ?), eleventh, and twclfth centuries
.17-l
Pisa. Endowed with a classicalsense,and able to profit by an excellent tradition offine workmanship, moreover, provided with good builcling stone and the means to use the easily available marble, the architects put a special stamp on a considerable number of 6ne buildings, particularly churches. Florence prospered in the age ofNlrtilda, and characteristic works were created there. Recent studies have brought down the very early dates ( l o r 3 , r o r 8 ) a s s i g n e d t o c o n s p i c u o u sR o m a n esque works without disturbing importancc ol the buildings.
the relative
In coming to Florence we instandy encounter the controvers!' over the date o{'the Baptistery o f S a n G i o v a n n i l r [ 2 8 7 , 2 8 8 ] ,t h e v a u l t o f w h i c h
374
L A N D S A S S O C T A T E DW T T H T N T H E H O L y
RoMAN EMpTRE
cENTRAL r1'ALY
ol'the present huilding arc indiconstruction mcdian ioint tliridcs thc foundation Jt"a " lengthwtse' earll octagonthcre was an i o t h e e a s to f ( h e
n o w . r e p r e s e n l e db 1 t h e s t r e e t . a n d h c 46ium, s t o o d ( a s b e l b r e ) t h e b a s i l i c ao f o o n dt h e a t r i u m originalli' built in the sixth Reparata, Santa a long period it served as the century. For The remains may be seen cathedral building. crypt which has been ararchaeological an in ranged near the west end of the nave at Santa Maria del Fiore, the present cathedral. Santa Reparata was augmented in various ways: the sanctuarlr level u'as raised; the apse wasflanked, as commonly in Imperial churches, by two towers. A transept and probably also a crossing tower were built. Beginning earlf in the eleventh century, both churches were rebuilt on a slightly larger scale, respecting the old locations. At San Giovanni the core of the existing octagon was built, replacing the earlier baptistery with a clear open
was srudied as a model fbr the .dome, of the present cathedral, the 6rst great vaultins enter_ prise ot' the Renaissance. San Giovanni is octagonal in plan, with an oblong extension on the western side, where f o r m e r l r t h e r e w a s a n a p s e .T h e r e a r e doors on the south, north, and east sides, filled respec_ tively by the memorable valves of Andrea pisano (tr3o) and Lorenzo Ghiberti (t4ot 24, tq47 5z). From wall to wall it measures about go f'eet English, or close to 93 Roman feet. While proximity ro the ciry wall sugglcsts that _ the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore mau o c c u p ) a n E a r l . r C h r i s r i a n c a r h c d r a ls i r e , in t.aci t h e s e e w a s n o t m o r e d l i o m S a n I . o r e r r z o( a c _ cording lo tlocuments broughr forward b1 Franhlin Toker) until the ninth centurr,. Nor_
malll' a baptisrery would first be built ar thar time, and the familiar opinion that the ocrason was the original carhedral buildinE would sccrn to bc unrenable. 'I'he oldest documcnted remains are those (,1 the earlv-sixth-century basilica of Sanrrr
sheathes the octagon o{' ro59 seems later, fbr it corresponds to the upper arcading on thc present cathedral. The latter building was planned by Arnolfo di Cambio about r zg6 to replace Santa Reparata. design, already started, was considerably augmented in scale about r j-55. T'hough Gothic, its interior thus became almost Roman in grandeur, and this great building Arnolfo's
presented Brunelleschi with his opportunity to construct, in r4zo 36, the first splendid monument o{' the Renaissance. The Baptistery's Corinthian columnar and pilaster orders, with entablature or arcades,and its parti-coloured marble veneering became and continued to be usual in the Florentine area until the Gothic came. Parti-coloured marble, coffered panel work, and paving slabs of great beauty and delicacv (exemplified also at San NIiniato, Florence) were made as time passed. Some importation of the zebra-work of Pisa occurred
as on the corners of the Baptistery, showed the structural
u'alls sheathe an aquedtrct-like construction bent around the eiglrt angles. The
which befbre tzg3 'macigno' stone.
new basilica,also rvooden-roofed, was more substantial but resembled the old design in many ways. This work was deducirtcd in ro-59 by Gebhard of Burgundy, the Irlorentine bishop
Pairs of handsome free-standing columns between pairs ofpilasters at the angles of'the octa-
space. The .288.Florencc,Baptisterv, rnterlor,supcrficiall.r' eler.enthand trvellth ccnturies
175
who, at the time, in Florence, was clected as the reforming pope Nicholas II (ro-Sg-6r). In this election the present rule of having the pope e l e c t e db y t h e c a r d i n a l s a l o n e w a s i n t r o d u c e d . About the 'rear r2oo the interior of San
Reparata. We recognized a stretch of sesnienljl fbrrndation uall raithin the ocragon as rht remarns of'a henricl,cle at the west end ol. thc original atrium. The active bishop Andrcrrs ( 8 6 9 0 3 1 i sc r e d i t e dw i r h m o v i n g r h e s e e ,b u i l t l ing the early octagon, and installing the relics ol St Zenobius, so rhat thc basilica becam.,,r Pilgrimagechurch.r5 Foundations show that the original octagon.
the new upper structure a series o1'arches, three to a typical bay, carrl' the remarkable cupola and the buttress-like external ribs which
a relatir.ell small building, lackedaisles arouri.l the central space. However, two episodss thc. in
support the roofing. The exterior attica datcs from this period, but the arcading below which
Giovanni rvas giren its present charactcr and covered b-"- the existing vault. The better to sustainthis r,ault, the present system ofcolumns a n d a r c h e sw a s a p p l i e d t o t h e i n s i d e o f t h e w a l l s of the otlagon ol r05q, reslingon conliguotts f o u n d a t i o n s i u s t w i t h i n t h c o c t a g o n o f r o . 5 9 .I n
The interior of the Baptistery is dignified.
gon sustain an entablature in the lower storey. Each column or pilaster of the ground storey has a pilaster above it, with the entablature abo\,e serving to mark the spring of the great octagonal vault. The recessesof the aqueductlike structural arches of the wall are masked by pretty bifora between marble parapets and parti-coloured panels. The vast mosaic above, and the extraordinary parti-coloured pavement beneath, both belong to the thirteenth century. San Miniato al Monterb [z8g grl is the most remarkable Florentine basilica. It became a Benedictineabbey church in ror8, and by rogo a new church was essentially complete, though the fbgade was finished in the twelfth century and the pavement dates fiom rzo7. There is an interesting open groin-vaulted crypt which en-
c E N , t R A Lt T A L \ ,
'I'ht' navchasa seriesolgfls a raisedsancruary' bavs with three clerestorr three-arched free and tbur trussesin each,ditided br' lindo*r archeson grouped piers The apse dirphragrn arcade.with a mosaicon the decorative a f,1s the fagadealso has a decorative rcoi-dome;
I
t
377
arcade with a mosaic above. Marble vencering and the brightly painted ceiling and rrusses add to the colourlul effect. San Miniato is believed to have inspired the fbgadesof the Badia at Fiesole (late twellih century, though the church was given to the Bene-
.414:-."*
z9oand ugr. F lorcncc,San trliniato, tnterior,linished ro6z go, and plan
d i c t i n e s i n r o r 8 ) , a n d t h e c o l l e g i a t ec h u r c h o l St Andrew in Empoli (twclfth centurl'). Smaller churches in Florence and the sur-f rounding region are much simpler. hey have a great deal of bare stone-work, but possess the
a:a
a
a
- |l' 'l'
il
whelming victorv of the Pisan navy in a battle o1I'
1
zl!9. Florcncc,.SanMiniato, llEade,
a : : :: : a
ro6: and twelfih centurr
a
a
l -I -T F I f ' a l t
classicaldignitv and good proportion which are generally characteristic of Florentine buildings. 'I'he year ro6z was signalized b1' an overPalermo. This action marked a 6nal successin a
llr
long war against the SaracensofSicily, whom the Pisans, with the Genoese, had fought to a standstill in Sardinia. and driven fiom that island.
IRAL ITAI-Y
379
tion of three basilicas, each with a galler-v: the great double-aisled nave is intersected b1' a minor transept formecl of two single-aisled crossdomed the with front, to front basilicasset Each t h e m b e t w e e n l z g 5 l n a v e g r e a t o f t h e i n g andcamPoSanto(r278ff') tr')' apse an with provided #;';i;;;of oflhe minor basilicas was examplcs finest make to i, with and extremit-v, .tht outward ffii :l'.:f tJl"t* buildings of its own at the cathedralbuildings'All the rel urned T h c s c e n d ' a r d i t s i n u a t a i s l e s returned with marblepanelling'arcading'and lr. t*.0 with the inner aisles ofthe great weatheredbeautifully' aisles coalesce hare thel Li-nra.r, basilicas' and to rhc nave, screen off the transeptal standas a splendidmonumenr dome (on oval the l;;;t lbr plovide extra support PisanrePublic'1; at the cross*rna.ut of the pendentives) shallow an<1 or squinches " lh..r,h.dttl wasdesignedby Buschetus galleries ing. The aisles are groin-vaulted; the Pisans began '- 'ro following year' 1063' the
ltg' +l' The fbund.ll l,."t"raUtecathedral stte' the churchwerelaid in an open llt""r --. ( r r 53 ff')' "t oaptistery --^ ^ lqrEe ftee-stanolng
began in earnest about Boschetto.Building perfbrmedby Gelasius was .t.or,t".tation lo=ig. westward ii"in ttta. A fairly homogeneous was not Rainaldus by nave the ,*t.nrion of plan is an elaboraThe 126r-72' trrr:Jl nnirft.a the conjunction ofthe basilicanlayout really
zgzandzgj.
PisaCathedral, ro61, ro8g r:72
tob3 t35o zg4.Pisa,cathedralgroup from the air'
extremltles' are covere
C E N T R A LI ' T A L Y 3 d r
38o
zg5. Pisa Cathedral, Io63, rolil
aa.a
296.Scctionsof baptisterics: ,r. Pisa,r r.5-j i265, comparativehall-scctitlnslvith hall-plans n. Parma, I r96, section'rvith Plan
rzTz
r:1
.-:a-!
E
f.,f-
I
L'.l
Fr-
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is, within an embracin!i unity, stvlistically,comp o s i t e . I t s b e a u t i l u l l v s h e a t h e dm a r b l e e x t e r i o r has decolrti ve arcadesand pilaster rirngeswhich were probirbly suggested from Rome and Florence, rarher than (as has been suggesred) ii'om Armenian works remote in time and place, and dillelent in design. I'he lbur-sroried arcading ofthe faQade,Iinished in the thirteenth centurv, probably' reflects Lombard lree-standinE gallerr worl. Such arcading in marble, free-
'luscan I-amiliar in Romanesque and Gothic. A pointed triumphal arch terminatesthe navc. b u t t h e r r c h e s b e v o n d a r e r o u n d , a n c lt h c m o s a i c o f t h e a p s ei s c l e a r l y i n t h e B v z a n r i n e t r a d i t i o n . T h e b a p t i s t e r y , d e s i g n e db 1 ' D i o t i s a l v i [ 2 9 . 1 ] , h a s l e m i n i s c e n c e so f R o m a n a n r i q u i t y , a n d o t Land, to which the Pisan merchanr
thc Holl
The great Pisan belfr.v Iz9z] is c1-lindrical like the old belfries in Rlvenna, but much morc elaborate, being faced rvith marble and embcllished with six storel's of decorative malble g a l l e r ya r c a d i n g .U n l b r t u n a t e l y i t w a s b u i l t w i t h insufficient lbundations on ground ot unc\cn resistance, and was carried fbrward in spite ol'
standing or applied, becomesthc sign manual of the Pisan school, especialll when accomp a n i e d w i t h s q u a r e p a n e l s s e t p o i n r u p r v a r d si n -l'he the tlmpana of the arches. n a v e a r c a d eo f ' the chulch is sct on a magnificentrangeofantiq u e c o l u m n s , p u r e l v R o m a n i n s t y l e, w i t h s l a b -
marine was transporting crusaders and pilgrims at the time of its construction. 'fhe scheme is l i k e t h a t o f t h e R o t u n d a o f t h e A n a s t a s i si n Jerus a l e m ,b u t t h e d e t a i l i s P i s a n , a n d t h e i n t e r i o r i s vaulted. The original vault is a truncared cone, w i t h i t s e r e n o w c l o s e d ;t h e o u t e r v a u l t ( l a t e r )i s
early settlement. Loading the uppel side and bending the shaft (which as a result has somew h a t t h e s h a p eo l a b ; r n a n a )u e r e u n a r a i l i n gt o arrest progressile deliation fiom the perpen-
a dome Iz96,r ]. Both tvpes of'roof , in wood, har-e protected the Anastasis. The older carving on the building is very beautiful, and r,erv classical
s i s t e n ti n s t v l e w i t h t h c b a p t i s t e r . va n d t h e c a t h e dral, although cal'ried fbrward as late ts t27r ( b y G e r a r c l o ) . T h e m o t i f i s c s s e n t i a l l yt h a t o f
like impost blocks. f'he upper parr of the nave has zebra u'ork (ultimately inspired from the
i n s p i t e o f i t s d a t e ( r r 5 3 a n d l a t e r ); N i c o l a P i s a n o participated in the remodelling of'the exterior
classical olur mittum) which becomes onlv too
i n t h e G o t h i c s t y l e( r z 5 o 6 5 ) . t N
the galleried fbgade ofthe cathedral envcloping 'I'he bcll the cvlindrical shali of the tower' chamber at the top dates fiom about r35o' As
d i c u l a r ,a n d t h i s h a s o n l r t t c c n t l r b e e ns t o p p e t l by a modeln fbr.rndationThe building is con-
thus linished the torver is r79 f'cethigh, and it ts slightly' more than thirteen f'eetout of plumb' 'Ihe Campo Santo [:94] is the lburth of thc great buildings in thc cxthedral closc at Pisr. and it is said that the earth coveringthe garth is i n d e e dh o l y , h a l i n g b e e nb r o u g h t f r o m P a l e s t i n e as ballast in Pisan ships Although the fianrpo Santo was largel-vbuilt (b1' Giovanni di Simone) in rz78-83, and has Italian Gothic archesxnd tracer]',it is laid out like an clongatcd classical a t r i u m . L a t e r i t w a s t l c c o t ' a l e du i t h t a m o u s l i e s c o e s .w h i c h m a d e i t l i k c a c l a s s i c a ls t o a p o e c i l e ' I n p a s s i n go n e s h o u l d n o t e t h a t t h e t t o r t l t t r i u m came to metrt ((ttt(lcr.)tin medie\al Latin' Both t h e u s a g ca n c lt h e a r ' c h i t e c t u r ea r e m c d i e r a l i z e d in this lerr beautiful examplc (It sullered greatlv in the Second World War') In the citv, thc chlractcristicswhich rvehave n o t e d i n t h e c a t h e d r r r lg r o u p a r e f u r t h e r c x e m -
3E2
L A N D S A S S O C T A T E D\ [ ' I T H I N T i l E I I O L y R O M A ^ * E M p t R E
c E N T R A Lr r l r _ v
b ; r s i l i c a si n t h e P i s a n s t t l e man) wooden-rooled g thcse \\e ma\ menlion San w e r e b u i l t . A m o n'forrcs (late eleventh centur-Y Porto Gar,ino at 'double-ender'), e x c e p t i o n a the b v r r r r ; to t. (r r t6 and a t C o d r o n g i a n r t s S a c c a r g i a d i Triniti ,. rrSo-r2oo), and Santa NIaria di Castcllo at Caglialrt(r. r zoo-r. r 3oo). On the mainland the Pisan Romancsque spreadfar bevond the boundaries of'the Republic. The style is exemplilied in parts of the cathedralofGenoa ( r r gg and later) ; at Pistoia in the church of San Giovanni luor civitas, trvcllih c e n t u r y ( t h r e e s t a g e so f P i s a n a r c a d i n g o n t h e 'Pieve' long flank ofthe church) ; at Arczzo in the or parish church (ranges ofcolumnar galleries on the laqade of the church, above an applied arcadei in stone, Izr6). Massa N{arittima
plified. San Paolo a Ripa d'Arno (begun about rzro) is a smaller and sercrer r.ersionof the great chur.ch. The r erv much be_str.ipedancl be_ pinnacled miniature chur.ch of Santa N1aria d e l l a S p i n a ( a t h o r n f i o m t h e c r . o w no f t h o r n s ) . r . 1 2 57 . s h o u s h o u s o m e l h i n g o l t h e s p i r i r o l . t h e ( . a t h e d r r l R o m a n e s t l u el i v c r l o n i n T u : c a n Gothic.1" L u c c a h a s a b e a u t i f i r ls e r i e so f c h u r c h e si n t h e P i s a n s t y l e , i n c l u d i n g t h e c a t h e d r a lo f s a n N t a r _ t i n o , r l h i c h , t h r o u g h i r s p o s s e s s i o no f t h e , \ ' o l t o Santo' lrom the eler,enth century onwar.d, be_ c a m c a p l a c eo f ' p i l g r i m a g e .T h o u g h r h e i n r e r i o r ofthc church is Gothic, our architectural interest
is in the Pisan Romanesque I'aqade,rvith a nar.t h e x , d a t e d a b o u t r z o 4 . S a n N I i c h e l e ,a l s op i s a n . dates lrom r r43 to the lburteenth centurv. San F l e d i a n o . | | | z . 4 j . h a s a s t r i k i n g m o s a i ct n r h . f a g a d e ,a n d i s m o r e R o m a n . A l l a r e b a s i l i c a ni n scheme, and employ marble, as is usual in 1'uscanv.2o 'I'he' expansion olthe Tuscan school was r erl considerable. In Sardinia it is found with litrlc c h a n g e . r rA n E a r l v C h r i s t i a n d o m e d c r u c i f o r m c h u r c h s u r v i v e s ,i n p a r t , i n S a n S a t u r n o , C a g l i a r i ( f i l i h c e n t u r . r) , a n d t h e r e a r e r a r h c r r o u s h larcl e x a n r p l e si n t h e s a m e s r y l e , s . e l l r . u u l t . d . B u r from the eleventh to the fourteenth centur\
T h e r e m a i n i n g s i t e i s n e a r S i e n aa l s o ,n a m c l r . . San Gimignano, which still has thirteen tall towers (out of' 48, or tladitionall.r'76) which were raised as prir,ate fortilications liom the t w e l f t h c e n t u r v o n w a r d I z 9 7 l . S u c h t o w e r . si r l s o servc as refuges fi'om the Iiequent conflagrations which dcsolated the wood-built and crorvdcd citics of the time. At San Gimignano, a s e l s e w h e l e ,t h c t o w e r s a r e s q u a r e i n p l a n , a n d rise sheer with no ornament and ver]. f'ew openi n g s . S u c h i n d i v i d u a l c i t a d e l s , r v e rb eu i l t i n g r e a t n u n b e r s d u r i n g t h e i n t e n s e s t r u g g l e sa n d c o m petitions of medio,al cir,ic lif-e. At San Gimig n i r n o t h e t o w e r s o f t h e S a l v u c c i a r c a s c r i b c dt o the twelfth ccntury. The Palazzo Comunale ( 1 2 8 8 1 3 - 2 3 )h a s a t o u e l r 7 . 3 f - e e th i g h r v i t h a mark bel.ond which private towets might not
Cathedral was built, still in the Pisan Romane s q u es t y l e , i n t z z S - 6 7 . O t h c r e x a m p l e sa r e S a n Giusto at Bazztno in the Abruzzi, and, firlther
rise.:r
o n , t h e c a t h e d r a lo f ' ' l ' r o i a i n A p u l i a ( r o g t t o t h e thirteenth centur,v) rvhich wc har c alreadr'
desolatedcities werc rebuilt. better construct i o n , w i t h g r e a t c r u s e o l ' m a s o n r 1 "i n t h e h o u s e s ,
seen22[z7ol. Before quitting central Itall w'e should mention three sites ofspecial interest. At the abbey
t h c i r c o n s i d e r a b l eb u l k a n d t h e i r t e n d e n o t o t i p
of Sant'Antimo, near Siena, a Burgundianlooking church with apse, ambulatory', and
297 San Gimignano, gcncrrl r.icu of torvcrs, I a r g e l i t s c l t i h t n ( l ( h t r l c ( . n ( lct c l l u r i c s
393
Florence is reported to havc had r5o such 'rose like a lbrest'. As the
t o r v e r s ,a n d L u c c a
rendered the towcrs less necessarr. Because of when not well fbundcd. almost all the towers have now been destrol'ed- 81, erception, thc t o w e r o f t h e A s i n e l l i l - a m i l y( r r 0 9 - r g ; 3 z o
I'eet
radiating chapels, embellished, too, rvith sculpture in the Toulousan st.vle, was begun about
high; foul feet out of plumb) and the Torre
I I I 8 . B u r g u n d i a n a r c h i t e c t u r a li n l l u e n c eb e f b r e
finished) irre to bc seen in Bologna, which
the arrival ofthc Cistercians is almost unheardo f , a n d S a n t ' A n t i m o i s n o t w e l l e x p l a i n e d .I t w a s not Cluniac.ri At San Galgano betwcen Siena
formerlr had about t8o privlte touers.
a n d M a s s a M a r i t t i m a t h e C i s t c r c i a n sb u i l t t h e i r chief house in Tuscanl'. The chulch there (alreadvmentioncd) datesft'om rzz4.
G a r i s e n d a( r r r o ; t e n
fcetout of plumb; never
O f t h e C o u n t e s sM a t i l d a ' s a n c e s t r a lc a s t l eo n Canossa, a rockl' f'astncssnear Reggio Emilia so much in thc news of ro77 - practicallvnothing rcmains. In generll thc tbltifications of the r e s i o n a r e r - e r vn u c h l a t e r i n d a t e .
CHAPTER
zt
I1'ALY NORTHERN
V E NI C E with thc Bvzantine East Constant rel'ltionships a r c h i t e crure a Blzantine cast qaue Ven.tiun " w h i c hi s a . . " . i l ] p c r e e p t i b l ea s t h e c l a s s i c i s mo l ' This shows itself most fulll' Rome and Tus.anr'. Marco'r begun in Iob3' not in the church of San b ut asthe ducal chapel; it is s e a t a st h e b i s h o p ' s of thc Evangelist St Mark' relics for shrine the in 828, and brought to Venice from -{lexandria after church 976 The old housedin a cruciform and u'as r9oz, tell in which in thePiazza, tower afterwards rebuilt, lvas associated with this building. The ncrv church o(' lo63 w''rs dedicated in rog5, but it was not linished with its mosaicembellishment until wcll into the twelfth century. As first built, it was almost purely Byzantine in st-vle,and undoubtedl-v due in large oart to Byzantine architects and craf tsmen The standard of workmanship is verl' high, especially for the time. The church is a good example of'the t-vpe 'cross ol domcs' or composite known as the cruciform five-domed church, for it has five d o m e d u n i t s s o c o m b i n e d ( u i t h i r p s el n ' 1 n a r c extension) as to mark a gleat cross in groundplan. This was thc'rrrangement of Justinian and Theodora's imperial mausoleum church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, and Justinian's church built at tl-retomb of St John the Evangelist in Ephesus, both of which hirve been destroyed. San N1arco difters from the original in lacking a gallerl', in h:r'r'ing the sanctuary in the eastern limb ol the cross (rather than cent r a l ) ,i n h a v i n g w i n d o w s i n t h e d o m e s c o r e r i n g t h e l i m b s o l ' t h e c r o s s ,a n d , o f c o u r s e , i n t h e l a t e r additions of pointed and Renaissancest1.le'The zgli. Padua,Srnt'-{ntonio, bcgun rz-lr
proiecting pierced piels go back to the B1'zln-
tine originals, and were ttansmitted, as wc have seen, to Saint-Irront at P6rigueux. A Bl.zantine church sould probablv not have large mosaic subjects on the pier rvalls, below the spring of the vault, but otherwise the decorative scheme 'l'he marble veneer of the runs true to tvpe' interior, now patinated to a beautiful soft brown, is actualll- made of slabs which werc almost white when applied. Much of thc furniture of the churcl-r is Byzantine in style also. N o ' s c h o o l ' d e l e l o p e do u t o l t h e e o n s t t ' u c t i o n ofSan N{arco in Venice''l'he building, bcautiful as it was, had ver.vlittle direct efect a sure sign t h a t i t s r r r c h i t e c t s$ c l e B l z i r n t i n e ' r n d o u t o l ' 'l'he B y z a n t i n c m o s a i c i s t s ,n o t touch with Italy. so f'arremoved in sentiment, rverc more influential.
'Il Santo' (the church of'Sant'AnAt Padua l a i d o u t ( r 2 3 I ) i n s o m e l v h a tt h c s a m e a s tonio) lr * a 1 ' , b u t i n t e r i o r l y - f a c c dw i t h h a n d s o m ea s h l a r , and cxteriorly carried out with l'ombald brickwork and detail'[zg8' 299]. At Torcello, Santa Fosca (perhaps d ated I o r i ) is a much Italianized version, with exterior gallcries, of'a centralized B1'zantine squinch church t5'pc Perhaps therc is something of Bl.zantine subtlcty in the hands o m eb u t s i m p l e b a s i l i c a nc a t h e d r a l( 6 ' 1 r, r e b u i l t in 86+ and again about Ioo8)' The sereneint e r i o r i s s t i l l a r r a n g e d a s D e s i d e r i u s ' s b a s i l i c aa t Montecassino was. The torvcr beside it is very elegant, and enriched with tall dccorative irrcad' o m b a r d ' b u t r e l a t e dt o ing, which is essentialllL the original shape ot recalls It B1-zantine work. t h e t o w e r o f S a n N l a r c o o n t h e P i a z z ai n V e n i c e ' ' Pelhaps something of'the eleganceofthc church at Mur ano (a crucilbrm building with a beauttabout fully arcacledrnd gallelied apse, finished also' contxcr B-vzantinc thc fiom I.1o) comes t
386
L A N D S A ^ S S O C I A T I DW T T H I N
THE HOL}- ROM,{N EMPIRI
N o R T H E R Nr r . r r _ v
Romanesque,$ orks to the pcl'iod of the -, and alterwa,ros -Lflgue its allurial character. the region W c a u s eo f brick. The clar burns to enchanting i n builds browns tn the ceslern pall o, thc dnls and t o full, beauti[ul. brighr. rich reds in a n d dley, about Nlilan. Sout'ces of'stone are, region dre \erl remote, and eas-tcomh O W e v e rn. e v e r it possible to use that material made municadon freely, often in combination with blick. The g1oneis rather grey and grittv; hence, lor better. cristing
marble and breccia (also obtainable) N'ere 311ect, 'fhough Veneusedwhen the means allowed it. thn architecture was littlc imitated, the gaiety of' Venetiancolour and rich matelirrls had its eli'ect on the mainland design. Architecturally, as we har,e scen, rhe rcgion had international importance bt the year 8oo. Its style of that time, the Lombardo-Catalan First Romanesque, did not change mr.rch as it matured. It was used in larger, more substantial buildings of much better workmanship, with
zgg. Padua, Sant'.{ntonio, begun rz.1r
Rut the lict that the Lombard stvle floocleclin so close ro San l{arco in Venicels n;.;;';; artistic maturity ofnorth ltalv_ LOMBARDY
more ambitious vaults, and enriched br, more elaborate mouldings, galleries, ancl sculptural rnotifs, but it shows little trace of outside indor ton'ards Spain, Irrance, S*itzcrland, Gcrmant.
fluence. and
Two striking features do,eloped, horveyer: the squarebelfrl rower, and the rib vauh. Ot' courseRoman towers stubby tlrrre.s- had been built in Lombardi. Thc scricsof monumcnral
A magnificent rotv of towns existetl crcn in a n l i q u i r vj n r h c p o | a l l e 1 . \ f t e r a d c c l i n e ,r r , r , l e derelopcd antl ther.increased greatll in poprrl.t_ t t o n a n d u r b a n c o n s c i o u s n e s ^_i ^ particularlr in the eleventh and twelfth c e n t u r i e s .s o t h a l r h c l uere capable of conlionring F r . e d e t . i c kl t r r r _ b a r o s s aw i t h t h e i r L o m b a r d Leaguc (r r(rS g.l) whenthatEmperorsoughrrorcgarn r.ighru s hir.h n a d l a p s e dd u r i n g r h e p e r . i o d o l . p a p a la n t l i r n _ perral anarchv.
church towers appears to begin wirh San r . o r e n z oi n M i l a n ( a b o u r 4oo. later rcr.r extensively rebuilt). The church, a qurrrefbil, has four corner torvers, with pr-oiecting apses bet w e e nt h r e e o f t h e p a i r s . T ' h i s s c h e m eo f a n a p s e b e t w e e na t o w e r p . i , * u . t a k e n up in Germany (Fulda, about 7go. and manj orhers subscquenrly).
Thegreat alluvial plain of the po and rhe Adige whicl l_ombardv lies is r.evealed br a mere 11 rt the map as a narural corridor. Th. t; 9r"l-._. itselfis navigable lrom near the .onflu.rr.. ui,hJ River Sesia,for 337 miles to rts mouth. This rvas a great aid to trade in the Middle -tg"r, ,lr.n land transport was so dilicult. Ur.l,lrn. V.ri." I n L o m b a r d - t .t h c o l d e r connected Lombardl, Romanesque buil(1, u,ith southcrn Italv and lnFs prcsenr difticulr the Near East. A system chronological p.ohl.n,.. of Alpin. purr...*rl There are two schools ring upon Milan facilitared o f ' a r c h a e o l o g i c atlh o u g h r c o n n e x r o n sw i t h r h e one inclincd ro stress North. We ha-vealready cu.ly exumplc. :;r.,1,_ seen how ar.chitcctur.al p o s e d l v t r a c e a b l et o toeas moyed from t h e e l e \ . e n t hc e n t u r l : t h c Rar.enna through this corriothel inclined ro assign f h e g r . c a t e r . r h r , . ., , ,
It is the tall Lombard tower built specificallv as a belfry, with pilaster strips and .o.b.l ,"b1.. ils decoration, which appears to otle something to Rome, the Exarchare, ancl thc B-rzanrines. The great betfiv of Old St Peter's in Rome, built into the propl'laeum range [3], largel-r-in 755 6s,
E
jg7
u , a su n d o u b t e d l y v e r y i n f l u e n t i a l . T h e p l a i n old M o n k s ' T o u c r b e s i d eS a n r ' . \ m h r . o c i o in \lilan [ . 1 o 2| i s o n e o f t h c o l d e s t n o r v i n e \ i s l e n c c ( r e n rh century) though the belfrf is modcrn. San Satiro in l\{ilan has a characferistic cxamnle. d a r e d r o 4 3 r a r h e r .t h a n c o n l e m p o r a n e o u s l _ur i r h the church. Belfl.ies multiplied in the eleventh centurv becauseof improvements in bell castins. a n t l i n c r e a s eo f m e a n s m a t l e i t p o s s i h l cf o r r n r n , churcltesto hare sets ol bclls. Conspicuous a m o n g t h e t v p i c a l L o m b a r d t o w e r s o f e a r l 1 .d a t e and mature design is that of pomposa (ro63), built by Abbot Guido of Ravenna [3or]. It has nine stap;es,marked by pilaster strips, applied shaf-ting, and arched corbel rables. Orieinallv t h e o p e n i n g s o n e a c h s i d e i n c r e a s e df , . , r - o n c narrow loophole at the bottom to tbur generous arches in the bellil-.-1 While within the Po Vallev onc f'eels Lombardy as a great corridor, in the north one is conscious of the radiating mountain pirssesand the reflex influences {r.om Germanic lands. l.he Lombard belfry r'25 represented on the pied_ montese cathedrals of Ivrea and Aosta bv the e a r l r e l e r c n t hc e n t u r ) . T h e r e i s a f i n e e x a n r p l c of paircd bclfn rouers on lhc church of Sant'Abbondio ar Como in north Lombardv | 3 o o l . h r e p l a c e d a n i n t e r e s r i n gE a r l y C h r i s r i a n structure which has been traced by excavation. 'fhe n e w c h u r c h , b u i l t o f s t o n e , w a sb e g u n a b o u t ro63 and dedicated in ro95.r,The deep sanctuarv has two bavs ofrib vaulting and a ribbed apse; lateralll' there are two groined ba1,sto each s i d e a t t h e e n t r a n c eo f t h e s a n c t u a r l ' ;e a c hh a s a n apsein the thicknessof the wall, and oler this p a i r o f l i t t l e s a n c t u a r i e so, n e a t e a c hs i d e .t h e t a l l . acti\e bulks of the belfrl rowers rise. The church has a dignilied basilicrn lbq:adeand a generous clerestory in the nave rvhich, like the d o u b l e a i s l e s ,i s r o o f c d i n w o o d . I t i s w e l l k n o w n as a typical example of the use of'decorative applied shafting, pilaster strips, and corbel tables fbr articulation of'the dcsign, and fbr the enrichment of the wall surface. The wooden roofine of'
188
L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I T H I N
THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
the nave is both archaic and prophctic; for alter the carthquake of'rrr7 manv fine naves wcre roofed on wooden truss-work to ar,oid the risk of falling vaults. In passing, the trefbil plan lnd the vaults of San lredelc at Como should bc mentioned, fbr thesearc said to have been influenced lrom thc north. The aislesare carried entirely around the t r o n s e p t s r o t h s r l ' i a p s i d a lc a s t e n d , p e r h a p s i n partial imitation
of St Mary
in Capitol at
C o l o g n c ( r o 4 5 6 5 ; s o m e w h a tl e b u i l t l ; r t c r ) . 1 ' h e date of San Fedelc apparently' fhlls, fbr most of
ample is claimed against conservative protesl f o r t h e c h u r c h o f S a n G i a c o m o i n C o m o ( ro r ; ; t try).i W e n o w t u r n t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o no f L o n r h 1 1 6 rib vaulting, a much rnorc difficult subjecr 11 involves some qucstions of-date and scopc 61' i n f l u e n c e sw h i c h m a y n e v e r b e s o l v e d , b e c a u s s of'lost monuments. For us it is sullicient to say that about lo5o there was, ovel a wide area, stretching all the rvay from Armenia through the Near Easr to Italy, Spain, and lirance, a eireat interest in rib ribbed tunnel, domical
i t s p r e s e n ts t r u c t u r e ,i n t h e c a r lI ' t r v e l f t h c e n t u r v .
v a u l t s o ( ' r ' a r i o u ss o r t s
I f s o , S a n F e d e l eh a sa n e a r l \ e x a m p l eo f t h e d e veloped Lombarcl caves gallerl' which we havc
o r c l o i s t e r ,r i b b e d g r o i n , a n d c o m p o u n d v a u l t s . The original impulse was Byzantine (thc dome
notcd previously at San Nicola in Bari. The
of St Sophia is the lirst ambitious ribbed rault); h t e r t h e i d e a w a s t a k e n u p b l ' t h e N l o s l e m sa n d
earliest definitell- datcd. fully der,eloped ex-
3ot.
3oo. (lomo, Sant'-\bhondio, r . r o 6 3 9 5 , s o u t hf l r n k
4
PomPosa'
from the wcst church and tower' Io6j'
3go
LANDS.{ssoclATED WITHIN
THL fiOLY ROM-\N EMPIRE
used successfirlly though sporadicalll' by them. The Armenians first applied it systcmaticallv
are rather like Moslem piers turned thron[\ f o r t r - f i r e c l e g r e e sA . gain, the aisle and rrih,.11,"
to church architecture, beginning early in the seventh century. Trdat, the Armenian architect who repaired the r,aultof'St Sophia about 975,
vaults still existing have strongh'salient ar.rises I n t h e o b l o n g g r o i n v a u l r b r i d g i n g r h e n a r c , 1l "
was one ofthe innovatorsin the'Second Period ol'Bloom' of'Armenian architecture. Afierwards (perhaps in the eleventh cenrury:) the Armenians der,eloped (especiallv for nartheces) a cler,er compound vaulr with thc r.ibsarranged in plan like a prinrer's sign for space (f ). 'fhe narthex of the church at Casale Monf'errato, so arranged, but dated about rzoo, is late enough to show Armenian influence of'this sort operati n g t h l o u g h t h e C r u s a d e s ,b u t i r i s n o t p o s s i b l e to trace definite influence from Armenia either at the critical rime (about roso) or upon the critical form (groin vaulting).t At most, oriental contacts mal har,e stirred thc originalitv of W e s t e r n b u i l d e r s , a n d l e d t h e m t o d e r el o p t h e i r o w n e s s e n t i a l l \R o m a n i n h e r i r a n c .e 'l'raccs of a Lombard ribbed groin vaulr claimedfor ro4o existin the ruined older part of t h e f o r m e r a b b e l ' c h u r c h o 1 ' s a n n a z z a r oS e s i a ( n o r t h - w e s t o l N l i l a n a n d N o r a r a ) .T h e o r i g i n a l church, reported as fbunded in ro4o. has becn r e p l a c c d .b u t t h e r e a r e r e m a i n so f a b r i c k n a r t h e x with two-storer groin-r'aulted aisles flanking an o p e n n a v e , a n d c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n st h a t t h e t r i b u n e was (as at V6zelay, about rr4o) carried across t h e o p e n n a v ea t t h e e a s te n d o f ' t h e n a r t h e x . O n l v t h i s a x i a l t r i b u n e b a v h a c lr i b s , a n d t h e v r e s t e d on terracotta capitals of archiac lbrm. Herringbone work and pebbles in the construction also give it an archaic air. Such wall-work usualll'
addition ofdiagonal ribs produced a much bctter s y s t e mo f i n t e r s e c i o n s a n d m a d e t h e v a u l t e a s i c r ro construct, in addition ro enriching it. Odcllr cnough ar Vezela) the high raulr aborr rhe tribune actually has diagonal ribs also, thougtl the other bays do nor (dated about rr.lo); ar Sant'Ambrogio in Milan, as well, the narthex h a s r i b s , t h o u g h t h e o t h e r b a - v -o - sf t h e a t r i u m (dated about rog8) do not Note should be taken that Ivrea Cathedral. twenty-fir'e miles from Sannazzaro Sesia, .nas rebuilt after 96z and before r oo r on a large scalc, and with an ambulatorr'. Without minimizing the importance of the mountain barrier, rvc mat sa) that the interr,ening Kingdom of Arlcs united lather than divided Lombardl. and France, for by the year r ooo very interesting and clever structural work (including a remarkable n a r t h e x ) w a s d o n e i n t h e L o m b a r d s t 1 - ' laet S a i n t Philibert, Tournus, scarcely 25o miles norrh-
NORTHF.RN
interior.buttresses rising from the Theshaft-like p i e r s s o m e t i m e s .c a l l i e d d i a p h r a g m ooup.a * h i . t l u r t h e r e m p h a s i z c dt h c b a v c o m irches. T h u s - t h e w a v w a . sp r e p a l c d l b r l a r g e I'osition. u r 1..of groin vaulting' resembling in Ilurt. thc large raults ot thc Basilica of -, JM*r. * r n* tryi ut . and Constlntine and thc rhermll in Rome' establishments fiom The square vaulted bays, inherited history in the cr1'pts, medieval their begin Rome, quadtille (as in Moslem where they are used en menwork). Agliate, near N1ilan [65], already exeleventh-century archaic an tioned, has in rubble, with i s i t s e l f r a u l t i n g T h e ample. these are erchesbetween the bays. In earll'' work ,disappearing arches'at their base, for the impost blocks of the columnar supports were relatively small, and wall responds were shallow or lacking. For the arches belween bays ol' a i s l ev a u l t i n g i n t h e c h u r c h e s , t h e p r i m i t i v e T shaped grouped nare-arcade pier developed spontaneousl!'!since there \rcre three arches 1br it to support. When transverse diaphragm arches w e r ep l a n n e d r o s p a n l h e n a r c . l h e r e u c r e f o u r
west from the Nlilanese area. William of Diion, who did such important architectural work at Saint-B6nigne(roor-r8), came from Volpiano
a i c h e st o s u p p o r l . a n d t h e p i e r t h e r e u p o n q t t i t e naturally developed a cruciform plan (SS' Felice e F o r t u n a t o ,V i c e n z a , . . r o o o ; L o m e l l o , . ' r 0 2 5 '
(forty miles distant) and Novara (only twenrl' miles distant from this same region). Hovrer.er, t h e s ew o r k s a t T o u r n u s a n d D i i o n d o n o t p o s s c s s
with diaphragm arches resembling Carolingian flying screens; San Carpofbro, Comtl' rozE 4 o ; r 0c o m p a r e S a n N l i n i a t o a l N l o n t e , F l o r e n c e
rib vaults, and would seem to show that the Lombard ribbed groin vaulr doesnot date back
[z9o], where the applied elements are round, r. lobz ff.). Further development in the rault
to the earll years ofthe eleventh centur]-. In Lombard churches the aisle arches arc
suggestedthe addition oflogical elements in the piers. Nook sha(ts on the diagonal appeared
ofien paired, with an intermediate column bet w e e n t h e s u c c e s s i v ep i e r s . T h e c o l u m n s a r e
when diagonal ribs were introduced. Since the :risle bals vaulted without ribs o b v i o u s l y 'i n d i c a t e r v h a t u n s u p p o r t e d a r e a t h e
indicates a ninth-, tenth-, or earlv eleventhcentury date. Restoration work has shown that this wall was not integral, and that the narthex may be of the twelfth century. While Sesia is
t r e s s i n g .C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e l , o m b a r d d e s i g n e r s
on the border of the Milanese area, the first Lombard ribbed groin vaults were most prob-
o f t e n t h o u g h t o f t h e i r n a v e si n t e r m s o f d o u b l e bays the more so becausethe aisles were abottt
ably built farther east, in or near Milan." In view of Nloslem rib constructions. it is w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t t h e p i e r s a t S : r n n a z z a r oS e s i a
half the width ol'the nave, and divided into s q u a r eb a y s .T h e n a v e ,i f i t h a d d o u b l e b a y s ,l l a s
\ e r V p r a c t i c a la n d u n o b s t r u c t i v e s u p p o r t s , w h i l e the piers provide bases tbr interior wall but-
rhythmicalll divided into nearlv square units.
engineers could convcnientlv vault, it is worth noting that a criss-cross ot ribs in the dotrblc bays of the n:n'e would divide such bays into four triangles. each equal in area to a squilre a i s l eb a y . A s t o u t a r c h e d c e n t e r i n g w a s e r e c t e d under each arch and rib; false-work bstween provided a suppolt fbr the rubble of'the Iault
ITALY
lgl
while it was being constructed,and also in the period of' lveeks or months during which it 'I'he Lombards built these vlults as solidilied. ponderous dome-like affairs which were not g o o d t o l o o k a t o r e a s yt o a b u t [ S o : 6 ] . A c t u a l l v the ribs neutralized the advantage of domed construction, for the.v brought to the angles of the vault strong concentrations ofthrust which 'l'his were neither understood nor prepared for. was particularll dangerous in large-scale high vaults. and in consequence such vaults have not behaved well. Partisans of earlv dating suppose that man] earlv vaults of this tvpe failed during the severe earthquake of rI17, but that examples continued (though less fiequently) to be built. Partisans of later dating assign such rauk, in general to a generationor morc after r r I7. Lighter vaulting' built more or less in the French Gothic manner, superseded the ponderous Lombard type late in the thirteenth century. Many important churches which had been rooden-roofed
were successlully vaulted at
that time. There is no specific documentarl reference t o e a r l y r i b b e d h i g h v a u l t s ,t h o u g h , b y w h a t o n e 'historical dead reckoning' conmight call sidering thc whole great revival of the mid thesewere due to appear in elerenth ccntur] sonre imltortant btrilding Proiects aboul l065 o r 7 5 o r 8 . 5 .B u t i t i s p r a c t i c a l l y c e r t a i n t h a t t h e original examples are lost, and the more conservative methods of studl indicatc a later date' For the creation of the fbrm, it would only be necessarv, as we easily perceive, for an engineer to imagine auxiliarv ribs like the usual arches ofthe little groin vaults in the crypts, but p l a c e d o n t h e d i a g o n a l a t t h e s u g g e s t i o n ,p r o b abl,v, of Roman groin vaulting (where, to be sure, the arris ribs are not auxiliarv construction, but integral). Since the engineers were alrcad.t building substintial centering under t h e a r c h e so f c o n v e n t i o n a l v a u l t i n g , t h e d i a g o n a l the centering which is so uselul in facilitating construction of big ba1's was easil-vimagined'
392
L A N D S A S S O C T A T E DW r l ' H r N
THI] HOLy
ROMAN [,MptRE
:oz. X{ilan, Sant'.{mbrogio.fiom thc *e.st. t e n t l tc c n t u r l a f i e r r r 8 r
along with the nook shafrsin the piers fbr the permanent support of the diagonalribs. -I-he historically important church of Sant' Ambrogio in Milan L:oz .Sl is a convenicnr erample ol'rhe developedfbrm ol'this architec_ t u r e a n d e n g i n e e r i n g .H c r e t h e L o m b a r d K i n g s and German Empcrors were crowned with the Iron (,rown, rvhich is nou, at Monza. Unfortunatelv the clating of the church is largelv conjectural, but it is usuallv accepted as r e p r e s e n t i n g w h a t t h e I , o m b a r d e n g i n e e r sa n d d e s i g n e r sw e r e a b l e t o p l a n a n d u n d e r t a k c a b o u t ro8o.r1As early as r196, however, the vaults llere being repaired, and the high vault mav
3o3 and -io.1.Nlihn, Sant' \mbrogio,
n o t a c t u a l l v h a v e b e e n b r . r i l te a r l i e r t h a n r r r ; . We have referred to the building preriou:lr b1'mcntion of thc old apscwhich u'ith its intnrductorv bal of tunnel vaulting (an earlr cra m p l e ) w a s l e f i i n t a c t , r v h i l et h e s o o d e n - r o r r l i d basilican nave was replaccd by' a complcrclr vaulted, aisled str.ucturc of bricft u.ith stuccoed brickandrubbleraulrs. Itisapproachedrhror.rgh a spacious atrium with bold arches and snLr' 'l'his b u t t r e s s e s[ 3 o z ] . s e e m st o b e d a t e d a b o r r r l o g S b 1 , a n i n s c r i p t i o n ,t h o u g h i t h : r sb e e n t , built to a certain cxtcnr. It joins the church in ,r handsome narthex, which, u.ith its tribunc. ir i n c l u d e d u n d e r a w i d e s u ' e e p i n gg a b l e .
ninth. elcr cnth. irnd twcllih ccntrtries (rcstored I li63)
rERNrTALY
tharofthe wasnot,for its north wall ioined nave 'rirr.r, trit<-rrium rnd aisles tht of rrults rna the the against built *"tt.subsequently *rii.tt Accordingto documents'the wall. l"rUi*a ro67I and (he new wasstill in u^se-in oiJnt". admitthis and must j'1' We rog in iru. rtt.uay specialconditionsprerentedcomthat ,uppot.
-195
to have been in use in rr3o lvith the altar reh a b i l i t a t e c l ,t h e d a t e o f r r z 8 f b r t h c f i r s t c o m pletion of Sant'Anrbrogio appears to be reasona b l e . F r a n k l , h o w e r " e r ,d e l a . v si t u n t i l r r T l l ( w i t h repairsas earlv as r r96). Sant'Ambrogio has a richll carled and embrasured main door-wa1.. Upon cntcring the
3o6.Rivoltad'Adda, San Sigismondo,ro99(r) elevcnthand trvcllih centuries
c a n o n s .E a c h h r r c a l c l o i s t e r .T o t h e s o u t h s t a n d s -lower thc lerJ' simple N{onks' (tenth centur'1)
s h a f i i n g , w i t h c o r b e l t a b l c s t o d i v i d e i t i n t o f r rc s t a g c sa b o r e t h e e a r e so f t h e c h u l c h . T h c o n i r l a r g e o p c n i n g s a r e t h r e e i r r c h e so n e a c h s i d c o t '.I'he late date explarrn the loftl' bell chamber.
and to the north the verv handsome Canons' 'I'ower o f r r 2 . 1 ,i n t c r r u p t c d i n r r 2 8 , a n d f i n i s h c d
i t s s i m i l a r i t v t o t h e b e a u t i fu l b c l f i l . o f ' S a n F r a n c e s c oa t A s s i s i ( a f i e r r z z 8 ) .
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e o r i e i i n a ls c h e m e a l i c r r r 8 r a sophisticateddesign which is much admired a n d r . e r vt y . p i c a l .I t h a s p i h s t e r s t r i p s a n d a p p l i e d
alreadJ. finished when the tower was unde:'-
T h e c h u r c h w a s s e r v e c ln, o t a l w a r s p c a c e a b l l, bv a communitl'
of monks and a chapter of
The masonrl indicates that the atrium *rts taken in r rz3, but the wcsternmost bav of'tltc
pletion of the westernmost ba]' of the nave, where it joins thc tower. I n t h e n a v eo f s a n t ' A m b r o g i o , d o u b l c b a y s o f domed-up rib vartlting were plannecl fiom the first. Conservative archaeologistshesitate to put their actual construction befbre the earthquake o f t r r 7 . I n r r z 8 r e v e n u e sw h i c h h a d g o n e t o t h e rrronks, presumabl-v tbr building' were reass i g n e dt o t h e c a n o n s ,a n d s i n c e t h e n a v e a p p e a r s
builcling, the visitor seesthrec great ba]'s ol' d o m e d - u p r i b b c d q u a d r i p a r t i l e\ a u l l i n F ' m u c h rebuilt, but probrbl-r likc the original late 1'}re e l e v e n t h - o r e a r l v t w e l f i h - c e n t u r ' , Yr a u l t s ' like fburth ba-v, be-vond, was formerlv covered an a s u p the others. but subsequentll'can'ied h t e r e e l c o r l r e T h t a i r l e s octagonll lantern. .ttnribbed groin laults; so also is the tntorlum tne galler,-v,rvhcre thel' are ill placcd to rcccl\e
3go
L A N D S A S S O C T A T E D\ \ r T I l t N T H E H O L y
t h r u s t o f t h e r . a s tr i b b e c l b l . s o f t h e n a r . e . ' I ' h e supports are logicallr clesigned,and conseq u e n t l v t h e ' s l s t c m ' i s a h e r n a t e ,w i t h s l e n d e r e r intcrmediate supports not columns, but ilpp r o p l i a t e l r a r t i c u l a t e dg r o u p e d p i e r s . E a c h p a i r of'main piers supports not onlv its shareof'the r a u l t i n g , b u t a l s o a s u b s t a n t i a lb u t t r e s s i n g u a l l
NORTHhRN
ROMAN Et\tptRE
ITALY
397
unribbed groin vaulting; the nave was inrcndcd t b r t n o b i g d o n r e d - u pd o u h l c b a r s o l ' r . i br ; r r r l t _ i n g , b u t w a s a c t u a l l y ' c o v e r e db v o b l o n g s i n q 1 . baysin the French manner. The clill-likc srrin. fbgadc, with a single sweeping gable fr-onring b o t h n a r e a n d a i s l e s .i s r c r ' l l a m o u s . a n , l , . r , i n t e l e s t i n gl b r i r s f r i c z e so f b e a s t s c u l p r u r . c |. 1 1 .
uhich riscs to rhc roofing. clirectly abore thc tlanslersc arch. Such rvalls, bl isolating the separate ba1,s of uooclcn rool' construction, 'fhe would arrest a fire thele. big vaulting ba1..s arc harmoniouslv composed, but lack thc process i o n a lq u a l i t v o f t u n n c l v a u l t i n g .U n q u c s t i o n a b l v the church was \.ery dark befbre thc construct i o n o f - t h e l a n t e r n ; f o r t h e r e i s n o c l e r e s t o r t . .'r l\lention should be made ol'Earlv Christian churchesin Nlilan. rebuilt in the mature Lombard Romanesque stvlc thc Basilica Apostolorum and San Simpliciano particularly. Rivolta d'Adda has in the church of San S i g i s m o n d o , d a t e d r o 9 < yi () , a u t h e n r i c e a r h , Lombard domed-r.rp rib-r.aults [3o{rl. The church is instructire, in that the east end is cor cred by two windowless bays of semicircular tunnel vaulting with transvcrse arches. Beyond these come tr.o navc-bays of rib vaulting, which are vcrv irregular in curvaturc - in parts almost
jo7. Paria, San Xlichelc, r. r roo 6o, from thc rvcsr
3o8. Parma Cathedral, twcllth ccnturv
fagade is articulated by shafiing and dosscrcrs w h i c h l b r m s h a l l o w b u t t r e s s e s ,a n d i s a d o r n c d
example. The date might better be applied to the t u n n e l - v a u l t e d s a n c t u a r v ,i n w h i c h c a s et h e b i g double bays of rib vaulting might be later
lbqadeis, like the older work in the cathedral' carried out in stone. It has thc usuirlsweeping w i d e g a b l e ,g a l l e r i e s ,a n d t h r e e p o r c h e s w i t h t h e
perhaps (inevitablyl) after the earthquake of rI17. It is an admirable example of the large
columns carried on the backsof animals. Each 'I'he p o r c h h a s a r e c e s sa n d t r i b u n e a b o v e i t . Gothic st-vleappears in a dignified rose window. Here ancl there in the fine m:rsculine interior
c o n i c a l - T h i s s h o w s i n e x p e r i e n c ea n d , t h o u g h a d m i t t e d l v r u s t i c , c i r u t i o n su s a g a i n s ta c c c p t i n g very earlv dates for the rjb construction. Here.
at the top b1, a fine arcaded gallery. There is singular power in this design; and this com-
o $ i n q t o s m a l l n e s s ,a c l e r c s t o r y i s p o s s i b l c . r l I n t h c g l e a r c h u r c h o l ' S a n \ | i c h c l c a r P a ri a '
ment mav be made gencrally on works in the Milanese area.
[3o7] rvehave a stonecounrcrparr of Sant'Ambrogio in Nlilan. It was built slowly, li.om about
Quitting the region about N{ilan fbr F,milirr. we find two excellent examples nl Lombald
thc vear r roo to about r r6o, over a crucifbrm plan and uas providcd originallv wirh a small 'I'he clerestor\'. church has a semi-dome ancl a
s t t l e i n P i a c c n z aS. a n S a v i n o , d c d i c a t c d in r ro;. h a s a n a p s cu i t h a t u n n e l - v a u l t e d s a n c t u a r ) b - al.
big single quadripartite bal. at the east; rhe t r a n s c p t h a s i t s a b s i d i o l e ss i m p l y c u r i n r o t h c subst:rntial east wall, with a crossing cor-cred br a n o c t i r p S o n adlo m i c a l v a u l t o n s q u i n c h e s , a n d arms hy tunnel vaulting without trans\,ersc a r c h e s ; t h e a i s l e sa n d g a l l e r i e sa r e c o v c r e d b v
f b l l o w e d b 1 't h r e e b i g d o u b l e b a 1 . so f r i b v a u l t i n g - . each with a single clerestorv window on cach side, and accompanving unribbed aisle bals. 'fhe interior has much r,igoul and harmoniou' proportions. The critics who date Lomblrd l a u l t i n g c o n s e r \ a t i v c l v a s s i g nt h c d e d i c a t i o n o l rIoT to the cltpt, which is a fine and spacious
Lombard parish church.r" P i a c e n z aC a t h e d r a l , l Tb e g u n b y r r 2 2 ' i n u s e by r r58, and finished, with somc rebuilding, in the thirtecnth century, is one ofthe grand row of E m i l i a n c a t h e d r a l s .I t h a s a w i d e t r a n s e p t w i t h a p s e sa t t h e e n d s , l i k e t h e t r a n s e p t o l ' l ) i s a , a n d 'l'he screened, as at Pisa, lrom the main navc. bold exterior forms ofthe church at the east are d r a m a t i z e d h a p p i l l ' b y a s e r i e so f ' G o t h i c p i n n a c l e s( i n b r i c k , l i k e t h e l a t e l c o n s t r u c l i o n si n the church). There is a single big brick tower, 'l'hc ofthe usual sort, to the north of the nlre
t h e r e i s a t o u c h o f t h e G o t h i c , b u t t h c e l l e c t sa r c R o m a n e s q u e . l ' h e n a v e h a s b i g r i b - r ' a u l t c c lb a v s with a clerestoly (except fbl thc traditional t u n n c l - r a u l t e d s a n c t u a r v b a 1 - ) ,a l s o t h e u s u a l octagonal domical vault on squinches at the crossing, and a spacious cr1'pt under the raised choir. Thc efl'ect, both extcrior and interior' is v e r v i m p r e s s i v e. I n P l r m a ( l a t h c d r l l ' " l - i o l { l u e h a v ea t t o l h c t ' s p l e n d i t lc r a m p l c . T h e r e u a s a d c d i c a t i o ni r r
jg8
.LANDS
ASSOCIA',IED \[I'IHIN
THE
HOLY
ROMAN
N O R T I I E R NI T A L Y
F-MPIRE
short with the nllc' but planted lt ir ' ' r tS t r n t ' tarr,a" *t e nd .. from the church. likc the prir 'f he toners har e thcir t'ear in l\lilan irl.ogi" f a l a d ew a l l o t t h e c h u l c h ' r h e uith *rffr i"fin. in widrh antl in dcpth' b o t h p r o i e c t ,Jtlrt tft.u in colouri tbr only the corner . o n r t u t t ih.y trtipt. thc corbel tables' and tltc openflrrt.t t,on.. thc restbeingot led blick Thc lngrrr. in \\ carried up onl.r hal I ;r stage : the no-rtttao*at iIS oi the other is capped b1' a Gothic tt"g. fourth and that in turn bl.pinnaclcs and stone, in belfry active profilc but late a tall pyramidal roof'of date. To the south-west near this towel stands the b a p t i s t e r vo f t h e c a t h e t l r a l , b u i l t o f b r i c k l n d stonein the tw ellih-century' st1le, although not finished until the thirteenth [296e, .ioSl' I'here 'Beneare rich portals and other sculptures by detto miscalled Antelami' (in X'{r Porter's
3og. Parma C,athedral, trvellih ccnturl
r I 0 6 , b u t t h e e a r t h q u a k eo f l r r 7 w a s d i s a s t r o u s , and only parts ofthc old work were retainedin 'l'hc t h e m a g n i f i c e n tr e b u i l c l i n g . c h u r c h w a sl a i d
L o m b a r d s c h e m ew h i c h r v e h a v e f b u n d i n S a n t ' Ambrogio and elsewhere; it is in line riith French developmcnts, though in France all thc vaults would be ribbed, the constructionllould
olrt as a great cross in plan [jogl, with a huge cr_r'ptrecalling that at Spel'er Cathedral. The c r l p t i s c o v e r e d b 1 ' a q L r a d r i l l co f ' g r o i n - r ' a u l t e d
b e l i g h t e r , a n d t h e c l e r e s t o r vw i n d o w s w o u l t l o f necessity (on account of the climate) be lalgcr.
b a r s . H e r e , a s a t t h e p r i n c i p l l l e r . c l ,t h e c r o s s i n g .
The weightiness of Parma is in the ltaLan
t h e s a n c t u a r yb a r , a n d b o t h a r m s o f t h e t r a n s e p t a I c p r a c t i c r l l \ s q u a l ' c il h e t l a n s e p t t e t m i n a l e s i n a p s e sa t t h e e n d s , a n d e a c h a r m h a s a n e a s t e r n a p s en e a r l v a s l a r g e a s t h c p r i n c i p a l a p s e .O n t h e extcrior this ploduces a powerful composition of serniq,lindrical and cubical fbrms building 'l'he u p t o a n o c t a g o n a ll a n t e r n . a p s c s ,t h e t f : t n s e p t , t h e s a n c t u a r v b a 1 ' ,a n d t h e t o r v c r a l e a l l enriched bv galleries. T h e w e s t e r n l i m b , r ' : r u l t e di n r r 6 z , h a s s e v e n b a v s w i t h s q u a r eg r o i n v a u l t s i n t h e a i s l e s ;t h e r e are uniform oblong ribbcd bavs,now sustained by tie-rods, over an arcacled tliforium gallerl 'l'his ancl a clerestorr', in the nave. unilbrm s\stem marks the surrcnder of'the traditional
phrase). The sculptor is believed to be the a u t h o r o f t h e b u i l d i n g , w h i c h w a sb e g u n i n I r 9 6 ' I t h a s ,a b o r e r h r : g l o u n d s t o r e r . l b u r s t a g e ' o f gallery colonnades between strong spur buttresses(at the corncrs); a decorative arcade and arched corbel table, plus corner pinnacles, ter-
399
i n c o m p o s i t i o n a lm a s s . ' I ' h eb u i l c l i n gi s l a r g e l r o t b r i c k , r v i t h a f a q a c l eo f s t o n c . T h i s i s i n p u t Romanesque, but it is adorned b1' a Gothic portal, pierced b-v a Gothic rose rvindow, and capped by huge scrolls of Renaissance design w i t h a R e n a i s s a n c ea r c a d e , p e d i m e n t , a n d p i n nacle on the axis. A vast torver of Gothic date r i s e st o t h e n o r t h , a n d a l a r g e b : r p t i s t e r l ' o 1r r 6 7 'I'hc cnsemble ]ras is set at the south and rvest. a p p o s i t ei n s h o u i n g i s s i n g u l a r l r a n d bold scale h o w t h e g r a n d q u a l i t i c so f t h c L o m b a r d R o m a n csque lived on into the Gothic and Renaissance periods. T h e r e a r e , o f c o u r s e ,g r e a t n u m b e r s o f s m a l l e r buildings, each with somethinq of interest, rvhich cannot be taken up in a general work ol' t h i s s o r t . P a s s i n gm e n t i o n o n l y c a n b e m a d e o f thc substantial rotunda ol the old cathedral in Brescia (about r I r 5) ; San Pietro in Cielo Aurco a t P a v i a ,d e d i c a t e di n r r 3 2 , f i n i s h e da b o u t r r 8 o , S a n t ' E u s t o r g i oa t M i l a n , w i t h f i ' a g m e n t sd a t i n g back to ro4o, but made over into a vaulted hlll church. with unilbrm domed-up groin vaults' a f t e l r r 7 8 ; F c r r a r a C a t h e d r a l ,w i t h a f i n e p o l t a l of'rr35; Verona Cathedral, with sculptures b1
tradition.
minate the design. Perhaps the colonnaded galleries were sup;gestedb1-'the fagade of Pisa Cathedral, which was being finished at the time. The interior also has colonnadccl galleries, two
Niccolir. dated about rr35i the cathedral of Borgo Sirn Donnino, with sculptules bl.Benedetto Antellmi; San Pictro at Asti and San Salvatoreat Almcnno. both circulal churches
A t t h e f - a g a d teh e d e s i g n , b u i l t o f s t o n e ,m r i n tains the Lombard characterintact. I'here is a precipitous great wall carried up to a tremcn(lous
in number, coming above the portals and their intervening niches and below a ribbed vault -l'he of eight compartments. font is of convcn-
ofthe elerenth centurY (a rare fbrm in f,onl-
sweeping gable, boldly accentuatedby a rich cornice and a continuous stepped gallerr bc'l h. trveen pvlon-like verticals .t th. .orn.rr.
tional form, with steps and an octagon:rl parapet. Monumental baptisteries of'this sort are rare in
horizontal is masterfullv intloduced b1'trvo less open horizontal galleries and the threc port.rls' w h i l e t h e p r o i e c t i n gc e n t r a l p o r t r l l r i t h i t ' t l i bunes and buttresses,and the big oculus pielccd between the latter, give a vertical accent. 'I'his striking flqade was augmentcd bv t\1o t o w e r s , s t i l l r e p r e s e n t i n gt h e o l d t r a d i t i o n o t t l r c free-standing belfry, since thev arc not inte-
the Middle Ages; they recall the timc rvhcn baptism was an episcopalfunction, and when large numbers of' catechumens were baptized together at Eastertide. Cremona',rhas a similar cathedral group begun in rr2g-.+-l with the church, but the transept arms date onlv fiom r 288 and lverc not finished unril about r342. T'his transept) the c r o s s i n g ,a n d t h c c h o r r a r m a r c \ c r \ i m p r e s s i t e
bardl').2" As ,r fine example of thc twelfth-centurv wooden-roof'cd church in [-ombardv' there can be no happier choice than S:rn Zcno Nlaggiore 'Ihc s t fu c t u r c i n c o r i n \ c t ' o n l r r [ . i l o . . 1r r l . p o r : r t e sl r a B m e n t s d a t i n g b a c k t o a b o u t t o . 1 o , but the building which we know took character a b o u t r r 2 3 3 - 5 ,a n d w a s l o n g u n d e r w a 1 ' ' .F i n e marble. now beautifullv patinated, was used '['he f'aqadeis much licelf in its construction. aclmireclfbr its harmonious pl'oportioning, with b a s i l i c i r np r o f i l c : i t s e n r b c l l i s h m e n t si n t h c l b l n r ol' marble relief.s neal the door (dated abottt
; 1 O O L A N D S A S S O C I A ' t E DW T T H I N T I I E H O L y R O M A N E M p T R E
1 r o. \'erona, San Zeno, r. r r zl and latcr
I r 4 0 ; b y a r t i s t sn a m e d N i c c o l d a n d G u g l i e l m o ) and bronze door valvcs (incorporating earlr eler,cnth-ccntury elements) are wcll known. Familiar also is thc soaring; tower, set to thc south of the church near its eastcnd. The interior is basilican, with a relatir,elv small clerestorv and no trilbrium. The nar,e, covered by a beautilul Gothic rrelbil ceiling, is l a i d o u t i n a s e r i e so f b a y - s ,d i r , i d e d b y i n t e r i o r
NORTHERN ITALY
40r
3rr. Verona,San Zcno, r. r rzl and later
t h e a i s l e so p e n e d i n t o t h i s b a y , w h i c h s c r i e d r s a sort of dwarf transept. The same bav anclits neighbour, plus a vaulted squaresanctuarr bar and apse of Gothic date, lbrm a line Lombar d 'high c h o i r ' . B r i d g e - l i k e s t a i r st o i t , i n t h e a i s l e s . s p a na d e s c c n d i n gf l i g h t w h i c h e x t e n d st h e $ h o l c width ofthe chulch and leadsto a magnificent c r ) , ' p tb e n e a t h t h e ' h i g h c h o i r ' . T h e c r y p r o p en s through three gencrous arches upon the stair'-
The arrangement iust described is, of course, the fullest possible and most monumental development of the old crypt and high choir
joining church of San Pietro is more or less contemporar]'. The interior of San Pietro is disappointing, but the fagade is one of the best of
scheme which we saw in its.beginnings at Old S t P e t e r ' sl a b o u r 6 o o ) , S a n t ' . \ p o l l i n a r ei n C l a s s e .
its kind.
Ravenna (ninth century), and Sant'Ambrogio in Milan (about g4o), all places of pilgrimage. This further reference to pilgrimage may
With this we conclude our general study of the Romanesque church architecture of Lombardy. But we must go f'ar in order to reach the fbrthest limits ofthe style for echoesofit pene-
buttrcsses which rise from compound piers. T ' h e s e b a v s a r e i r r e g u l a r b e c a u s eo f ' t h e d e l a v s in building. Thcre is a vcry narrow single bat just inside the fagade; then there fbllow, be-
way leading liom the nave, and a large part of it is actually visible fi'om the nar.c. 1'he litulgr,
serve to introduce the group known as Santo Stefano in Bologna,:r rsall].a Lombard Romanesque red-brick version ofthe Holy Sepulchre.
trated to Dalmatia (and on into Serbia as we have seen), Hungary, Gcrmany (and on into Russia, as already mentioned), the Netherlands,
s e e n a c r o s s t h c d e p r e s s i o n ,g a i n s s o m e w h l t i n dignity' because the sanctuary- platlbrm is clc-
tween compound piers, a three-archod bar, and thrce two-arched bavs, all with columnar shafts a s i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p o r t s . T h e s u c c e e d i n gb a v i s s i n g l e - a r c h e d .T h e a b s i d i o l e sa t t h e h e a d o f '
The octagonal church representing the Anastasis has a twelr,e-sided central structurc. It is
vated and somewhat remote. Lccterns fbr thc readings are efl'ectivelr placed on the parapcl here and in a number of other churches uitlr similar crvots.
rather rough wolk, dating h'om about rr5o. Adioining it is a court of tr4z which represents the Holy Garden (covered, in Jerusalem, b1''the -I'he Crusader transeDt dedicated in rr49). ad-
Scandinavia. and even, in some degree, to the north of France. It shared eastern Italy with designs partly dependent on the'liuscan style, all the way to Apulia. One Lombard monument will be best understood in this combined Lombardo-Tuscan am-
402
w
LANDS
ASSOCIA'I'ED
W I'I'H IN'THE
HOl,Y
ROMAN
EMPIRL,
i..:.:. Miniato [zgr l and San Nicola [:.661 in irs 1sx, l:'l.::: big double ba1--s,with intermediate colurnnr, supports, a trilbrium (though lalse) rvith t1io1. i.l1i'li a r c h e su n d e r e n c l o s i n ga r c h e s ,a c l e r e s t o r r ,4 1 u a . rr",.'.i phragm arches, and wooden rooling. F-rch diaphragm arch carries a parapet which hrrs bqq.
rather than suprn in feeling encloses, rvith rather This, gallerv I ias at B"ri;, b a v, makes a e a c h i n a r c h e s ive triple
built up well above the ridge lcvel irsa precaution against the sprerd of fir'e starting in 15.
3r2 to -lr+. N{odena Cathedral, begun togg, e\tcrl0r, rntcnor!
intermediate wooden looling. I-ike San \icolr 'inch.rded' at Bari, Nlodena Cathedral has an ( r 4 i 7 , t i m e s r - 1 4 ( ra, n d t r a n s e p t .O n l f i n G o t h i c
ancl plan
later) did the church receire its vaulting.'l'hcrc
&t {
$ I
g,
$
n a m e l y - ,t h e c a t h e d r a l o l t h e c i t v o 1 ' Modena, which, though Lombard. \{'asactuxll-v within the dominions of the Countess Nlatilda bient
of I'uscanl'' and thus particularl)' open to Tuscan influence [3I.2, 3I31. The building was begun in rog9.23 Tuscan influence, and doubtless the successf u l d e s i g no l ' S a n N i c o l a a t B a r i ( b e g u n r o 8 7 o ) [264, 265], explain the other\4ise surprising lack of Lombarcl rib vaulting in this important work which has rather emphatic Lomblrd stl.listic details. Actualll-' the plan [3 r 4] recalls San
$$
t:
i s o n l r o n e t o u e r , o l L o m b a r d t t p e . s e l t l o t l l tr ' 1 the transept. It carries:rGothic spire.'lhc stntinel towers of San Nicola are reduced to ir pllr
N E I G H B O U R IR NE GG I O NSSH O W I N G srYLE Eo M B A R D c o M P o N E N TosF M A T U R L
ol tulrels abore the apse. Lanfianco was the architect, and, to jrttl$c bv his building, an independent and ver\ pcr'r s o n a l r l e s i g n c r . L n d e r h i m c l o u b t l e s st h c t t l ' l was finished (r ro6), and he is supposabll .r'csponsible fbr the ordonnance of thc iI)teft()r' which isall in uarnt rctl blick, asrrellastirl lhe
Easternand Middle ltalT
e x l e r i o r , t h i c h i s a l l i n t i n c a s h l a r ' S r tu r r ' : l J malkcd alcadinc uhich is Pisan rather tb'ttt
EchoesofLombardl in Liguria (GenoaCathedral, twelfth to thirteenth centurv)and Sardinia. (Uta, twelfth centur-v)areslight' In Rome itself SS. Giovannie Paolo(about rr55) is the onl-v exexample;howeret' in the regionnear by' show often thel' and nurnerous trrnples are more interestingcombinations'
Lombard Anagni CathedraF+has a strong chalacter' e"terio-r,but the interior is of Roman Vassalletto' possessinga throne of lz63 b1' of St John cloister the in met *ho- *J have e' (parish the'Pier Arezzor5 At Rome. in Lateran whilethe Pisan' is Jrt.fti rttt tt exteriorwhich and a ba1's double with is Lombalcl, i;i";
+o4
L A N D S A S S O C T A T E DW T T H T N T H E H O L y R O M A N E M p I R E
raised choir. Ancona Cathedral (dedicated in rr28, largely linished in rr89) has a crucifbrm plan with apsidal ends on the transept, and zebra-work masonry, all of which recalls pisa, but the general feeling of the superstructure, with its lion-backed portico, is Lombard. The fine church of Santa Maria di portonuovo near
dated about ro8g-gg, and three later 511n." a b o l e . { p p a r e n f l )f h e r ew a sa s o r to l . u " r , " , * r r a n s e p rw i r h s o m e r h i n gl i k e a . t t . t n , t , r u r l aboreit. The surviring constructions ar..1.r,i-, simplein fblm and Lombardin lecling. \ ,xi_
[:H:ll, ;ffil::J;"i,,::'1il:;., ll;,hi
Ancona is Lombard
be rewarding.
though there is now, once more, a monasterv e s t a b l i s h e da r r h e p l a c e w h e r e r h c f a m o u s C o n _
At Spoleto the f'agadeof San pietro:; (trrcl{ih to fourteenth century) is rich with ".cldiug "nJ sculptured panels, somewhat in the manncr of. San Zeno in Verona. Over the main door is an e x c e p t i o n a lh o r s e s h o e - s h a p e d tympanum. .[.hs three portals are flanked by proiecting bcasts. but without the Lombard columns and hood.
(twelfih century, some_ times dated earlier) with a dome, but arranged in plan like a Norman church. Farfa (Fara Sabina):o is a disappointment,
suet'udinary of ro43 was tbund. Architecturallv t h e r e i s n o r h i n g r e c o g n i z a b l vC l u n i a c i n u . h a t remains. There is a single old tower, with three Clarolingian lower store1.s.an intermediate staee -;l-;. Tuscania,San Pietro, clcvcnthand twcllih centuries
A,{ost attractive and best known among this gloup of churches are San pietro and-.Sanra
NORTHI,RN TTALY
-. ,:^ Messiore at Tuscania (formerly called T ' - ^ ^ - " t t " t . ' o S a n P i e t r o I 3 I 5 | a p p e a r s( o b e t h e ^"a archaisms have led Riroira to irii"r, of it to thc eighth centurr ' It is a irtrn otro .a, wooden-roofed col umnar basilica' ilr.""-;tf There is an interesting crypt of t t bJt, of on.' eleventh centur)' supporttng a o f t h e e n d the triapsidal raised sanctuary' arell-proportioned dates from iog3 Conbaldacchino The main the church continued to a on work structional 'I'he the west front' conclusion about rzoo at r e m i n i s c e n c c so f f a g a d ei s o v e r w r o u g h t . w i t h and even Lombardy, Tuscany, Burgundy, perhaps Spain in the rose window and its flanking ajimez windows. The best effects at San Pietro are in its powerful nave, where the p r o t r u d i n g v o u s s o i r so f t h e a i s l e g i v e a s i n g t r rr6. Tuscania,SantaN{ariaMaggiorc, and tower ilenenthce.turv-rzo6, l'agade
+o5
larly vigorous effect, and the view to thc raiscd sanctuary is indecd imprcssrve. Santa Maria Maggiore [116], with a frcestanding square Lombard tower, has a similar though simpler and finer fagadewhich has been much copied in modern times. It has a rathcr barn-like nave with exceptional dw:rrf- transcpt arms at the head; beyond is the sanctuary, with a Moslem touch in the cusped arches of the baldacchino, and a Byzantine touch in the extensive painting above the chancel arch, which matches the transept arches and thus suggestsa centralized scheme. Santa N{aria was begun, it is believed, in the eleventh centur]'' and finished in rzo6. Influences projected forth from Lombardy' and Tuscany, which engendered the interesting
i+oo
LANDS ASSOCIATED WITHIN
THE IIOLy
local works iust reviewed, also operated across the Adriatic Sea, and thcre produced a number of interesting churches in mixed style, but (as in ltaly) with strong Lombard emphasis.
Croalia and Hungury In the period which concerns us thcse two areas wcre architectural provinces of I_ombardy- and eastern Iraly. Architectural influence fiom Burgundy began with the Cistercians, in r r4z, but monuments earlier than rzoo har,e not survived. Villard de Honnecourr had r,isited Hungary by r235, and French Gothic influence doubtless came in with him. Some German architectural influences had come durine the reign ol King .{ndrew and eueen Gerirude (d. rzr3), but with a srrong Lombard imrrrint upon them. Influcnct:s flowed naturallu alons the Danube, and later through Croatia. We have heard of'the Hungarians before, as unwelcome pagan r,isitors to Burgundy in 937 and 954. In g55 Emperor Orto the Great ad_ ministered a crushing defeat to them, and thev were converted to Christianitl,- as a rcsult of stipulations in the peacc treatv of g73. The reigning Duke was baptized, and the Church was organized under his son Stephen, whose reign began in 9g7. Pope Svlvcster II (Gerbert. whom we hare followed from Reims to Catalonia, to Otto III's entourage, and finallv t o R o m e ) ,r e c o g n i z c dS r e p h e na s K i n g i n , o o , ' . S t e p h e n d i e d i n r o . 3 U ,a n d w a s c a n o n i z e t l i n Io83. In his time ten dioceses wcre created. a n d a n i n t e r c s t i n g s . v s t e mo f c r o s s r o a t lc h u r c h e s was instituted, with ten villages responsible for each church. A palatine church was built at Sz6kcsfehdrvdr (Alba Regalis, or Stuhlwcissen_ burg,
south-west of Budapest) for Kine Stephen. His great sarcophagus no* hr, , place of honour in the museum there, but all his buildings have been destroyed. The kine_ dom. which mighr hare hecn conquerecl for the
NOR'T'HERN
ROMAN EMpIRE
Empire but for the struggle over the Inrr:sti_ tures, was able to abstract itself lrorn 11. troubles by becoming a ficf of the Holv S,.., under Gregory VII (ro76). and,o.onq,,.1Croatia - thus acquiring a stretch ol. 16i Dalmatian coast during the ensuingconfusign ( r r o . z ) .L a t e r r h e k i n g d o m a l s o included'l r,rn_ sylvania, and it extended almost to Craco$ in the north, almost to Vienna in the west. In this great region the Hungarians constructed, uirl a local savour, buildings basically relared t6 Lombard, German, Burgundian, and other. French models. The plans, however, er,en in ambitious buildings, remained relatively simplc. 'fhe mounrain barrier hasaluavs forbidtlin,:_ ly hlocked off rhe inrerior of Croatia from rhc Adriatic, but the coastal region was alrcacll u n d q r L o m b a r d a r c h i t e c t u r a il n f l u c n c ee r e n in the Carolingian period, as already noted. .I.hc stream of Lombard influence continued to flo\i. in the mature Romanesque period, when it was augmented by that of Tuscany, as in the case, already considered, of middle and southern Italy. The Croatian area, though theoreticallr 8 1 z a n t i n e . w a st h e n t o o r e m o t e r o b e i n f l u e n c e j by Byzantine architecture, except through the Exarchate. Easy navigation of the Adriatic en_ couraged contacts with all of eastern ltal\.. D e f i n i t e A p u l i a n i n f l u e n c e( i t s e l f p a r r l r T u s c a n and Lombard) can be rracedalso,especiallrin t h e b a l d a c c h i n o so f r h e c h u r c h e s . There is a succession of striking cathedral towers on the islands and mainland of the coast. which mark it as the twin sentinel towers mark the coast of Apulia. Thev are Lombard in general character. One of the best known o1' these towers was built beside the mausoleum of Diocletian at Split (Spalato), rhen, as now, the cathedral; another, in the Ravennate stvle, was constructed at Zadar (Zara) Cathedral in r r05.
St Mary, the cathedral of Zadar, has a Lombard east end, but the west end is pisan.
ITAL\
+o7
in artistic orientation befbrc -"rking a change i n r 2 8 5 ' S a n C ' r i s o g t ' n o^ t T a d n r ' Tli.ai.trio" is a more c.nsistcnl Lombard l' rt juf ifor ,n . 't n I t 7 5 . Rab i \rhc) pl.:t"ntt anolhcr amwith an ambulalor\ .*^-Plt lluor, century.). inspired perhaps from iri."."tn at Verona (qgo)' ln general thc [.nro S,.funo m c l h o d s a p p e a rt o b c L o m h a r d ilnraru.,ionut material is good ashlarslone and ii. Uu;faint '-There rubble'
are rich doorwavs also, more or less 'I'he finest of them, though Lombard in form. is essentiall-vtardv leafage, Gothic ,o-. i h., r z4o This is the of eclectic Romanesque ('Irair) Cathedral Trogir of doorta-v i.rt..n The door has sculptor' Slav a Radovan' bv p r o l e c t i n gl i o n s . b u t . a s a t S p o l e l o i n l t a l r ' t h e r -l he t)mpanum' h.ne no columns abole them The rough work' Venetian recalls r Nativity, a execution and thc late date makc it essentiall-Y in place; its in piece of folk art. It is charming -l'rogir is a place ol enchantiaa the island of ment.30 Turning now to the properlv Hungarian monuments,rl we note that the Benedictines came in ggg ancl afterwards as genuine agricultural colonists, and greatly improved thc economic basis of the still distracted countr-v' The rvestern connexions oi these monks arc archirecturallvacknowledged in the oldest ol' their abbeys, Vdrtcsszenkereszt (or Vdrtes, west of Budapest ; r r 46), and in the second cathedral of Kalocsa (suuth of Budapest; alier r r5o)' where tracesof ambulator-v and radiating chapels h a v eb e e n r c r c a l c d b r e r c a r a l i o n s ' The Cistercians, welcomed and much favoured beginning about rr8o, did their usual part, as in western L,urope, and the other orders 'l'he ('istercian olclest surviving ioined them. 'fransl'lwork. at Kcrcz (fbundecl in rzoz; in vania, now a ruin), is of the usual tvpe, except that the church apse is polvgonal; Apitfalva (founded in r z3z) is normal Cistercian work'
St George' I r4z fl 3r7. Prague(Bohcmia).
A curiositl' of the region, from the eleventh ions' c e n lu r \ o n . a n d k n o w n P a r t l \ f r o m e r c a r a l pol-vand round of is a relatively' large number and Ibil churches, often with Lombard detail, usualll' connected with local courts' Romanesthese que architecture has an eastern fringe of wal'ot by extends, which central-plan churches Bohemia. as far as Bornholm' prcLombard influence shows strongl]'in the lhc n e a r ( F i i n l L i r c h e n ' s e n l c a l h c d r a lo l ' P d c s Croatta) of boundarl. old the Drava River and in ro64, restored [3I8]. The church was burned ,r5o' and in r8[Jr gr' The plan is tri(br the "boo, aosidal. with seven big ba-vs three fbr the ,".,",urr,n and Lombard cry'pt, three vestibules open nave, and one, at the west' lbr like that of and a tribune.'I'his plan looksrather but Cathedral' Modena or Bari at San Nicola
4o8
L A N D S A s S O C T A T E DW T T H T N T H E H O L y
Later
ROMAN EMpTRE
NORTil[RN
through papll interlention' bccame
in r3o8' f,ngevin T h e c a p a b l cH u n g r r i a n a r t h i s t o r i a n G . E n t z
it is said that a Frcnch master, John, son ol' '-flno of Saint-Di(', was at work in r287. Villard
from the upper Rhinclancl, identifies influences fiom South Germanv in the and flep Alsace, 'l'hc principal latcr and times. centurv twelfth
de Honnecourt's visit was in rzt<.
lrnrrtu,
existing architecturaI examples showing a tincflrre ofthese influences in our period arc a series of important Beneclictinc anrl Prcmonstratensian abbel' churches, almost all near the rivcr' These with their dates arc : L6b6n1' (not r er-vf ar fiom Vienna, rrgg rzr2, tzlzfr'.),JMk (orJik,
Lctter
almost south of'Vienna, near the fionticr, r : t o portal 56, with an elaboratehalf-Romanesquc dated about I z5o), f iirje (south o1'L6b6nv, near Lake Balat6n I about I 24o), and Zsirnb6k (ncar
atl d.itiitrt-,
3rll. P6csCathedral,r. r r5o li-.
without the rransept and wirhout columns be_ tween the piers. It is a fbur_tower chtrrch rhat is to say, a church with a to\r.er on each of its four corners. There are rwo towers attached o u t s i d e t h e a i s l e sj u s t w e s t o f t h e a p s e s , and two flank rhe main fronr in a similar vrav. (This arrangement looks ocldly. like an augmentation
s 9 F+!+-]-.|-+= \) 25
lsxr. - 5 ( )F f . .
b u i l t t h e p a l a t i n ec h u r c h ) a n c lE s z t e r g o m( G r a n . $herc St Srcphennas htrried; it lics nc,,r rlr,. grcat bend in the Danube norrh of Butlancsr. a n d i t s R o m a n e s q u cc h u r c h i s k n o r * , r l i . , , n , excavations). At Szdkesf-eh6rYdrand F,sztersonr t h c t o w e r sa r e u i t h i n t h e r c t . t a n q l eo f thc nl;rrr. 'lhe l ' o u n d a t i o no f t h e s c c h u r c h t r i s a s er i b , i t l 1 , , G i i l t t r r o 3 o ( r o .b u r i t i s c e r r a i nt h r r r h e rcrLr,rl. existing structure)- rverenot begun earl1., or scion linishcd. Though we ma\.recosnlze the sourccs of Hung'arian Romanesque, we are alwirr s c o n s c i o u so l i t s r i g o u r a n d i t s l o c a l t b c l r n e . Esztergom Cirrhetlral, ltrr instlncc. oa, ,.btrilt under Bela I I I ( r r 7 3 9 ( r )a n d l a t c r . a n c lh r t i a portal lvith columns on the backs ol' lions (rzoo-g), showing a confinuation ot Lomb:rrrl
of the scheme for the west front of.the Ottonian cathedral built afier 994 ar Augsburpi, nor lar from the Danube. euite unusually for Ger_ many, this building had a pair of square belfrv t o u c r s s c t n o r t h a n d s o u t h ,r c s p c c t i v e l r . ofrhe wesr fagadc, with a rvestern apse terminating the nave between. The similaritl, between Augs'_ burg and P6csmay be fortuitous.) In t h e c h u r c h a t I ) e c sh a s m a n r . l e a l u r e s " n u . i . . which are Lombard, even to the raiseclchoir. The westcrn i n f l u e n c c . I n c o n t r a s rt h e r e i s B e l a I I I , s n a l a t i n e gallery, however, is characteristic in the Hun_ c h a p e l ,w i t h t n o p o r r l l s o l B u r g r r n c l i : r.n. h u r . , . plarianRomanesque. 'fhe tcr. Burgunclian componcnt, n.hich clnrc 'I'he striking scheme of fbur rolr,ers was uscd c a r l v t o f l u n g a r i a n a r c h i t e c r u r c . w a s \ . e r \ .D e r _ also at Sz6kcsleh6n.dr (whcre St Stephcn hacl s i s t e n r . ' l h e a p s c o l t h c c h a p e l ,l l n r r . r . r , i , j n
+og
r2+2 was not rapid. It was still under q'irr in r287, and one feels that bv then thc Gothic of Hungary, likc its Romanesque, had become a sort of folk art, delightfullv local in feeling. Yet
Gothic. and rcminds ttsthat Queen ransirional F r e n c h : l i k ew i s e , l a t e r . Q r e c n l \ l a r * r , Ann. q u e r i t e .a s i s t c r o t ' P h i l i p \ u g t r s t u s . l n d e r : d ' t h e
a dditi otts
tTAr.\'
(-1tptr Burgund.),and Neighhouring '!re as (S a.-o.1,,S n,i t zerI a n d) -I'here
is a special charm to the mountain chur-
c h e si n t h e n o r t h o f L o m b a r d y ' a n d o n t h c A l p i n e slopeswhich descendtowards the north. The region had treen a part of thc old Kingdom ol' A r l e s o r o f B u r g u n d l ' , w i t h b o r d e r i n g a r e a si n Italv and Swabia. Here, as in Catalonia, -\ndorra, and rural Burgundl', the fbrms ot the F i r s t R o m a n e s q u e p r o v c d t e n a c i o u s ,a n d t h e l
B u d a p e s t ;b e f b r e I z 5 8 ) . l ' h e s e w e r e ' S i p p c n ' l/oster' (nobles' toundations). Thcv and their
still give ch:rracter to thc countr]'sidc. On thc 'barn' church with r upland slopcsthe modest
d e r i v a t i v e sa r c b a s i l i c a ni n p l a n . s i n g l e a p s e d o r -l'he triapsidal at the east. with no transept.
singlc toll'cr. as wcll as thc navc-and-chancel church lrith a similar to$er, eonlinue in ust, and are adrnirable in silhouette against thc 'f gigantic mountain masses. he steep rool-s
w e s t e r nt o w e r s a r e p a i r c d , a n d s e t o v e r t h e c n d b a y s o f t h e a i s l c s ,w i t h o p s n i n g s i n t o b o t h t h c n a v ea n d t h e a i s l c s .a s a t t h e c a t h e d r r l o f ' S t r a s s burg and its extensire related group in middle Germany.
necessitatcdb1' screre wcather give thcm a s h a r p l v i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t er . T 1 - p i c a l l v , t h e , nd thcl c h u r c h e sa r e w e l l c o n s t r u c t o do 1 ' s t o n c a
The cathedral of G1'ulafl'hirvir (Karlsburg or Alba Julia in l'ransllvania) rvasfinished in its original forn-r shortll bc{bre the Taltar in-
:rre often vaulted, though in manv crrses the l a u l t s w e r e b u i l t a f t e r t h e R o m a n e s q u ep e l i o d . 'fhe towers. also, often reprcscnt ir latcr mo-
vasionof r24r 2. It lrs partlv rebuilt altcrwards, but the new work does not disguise a Romanesque plan, Lombard and German. The sanctuarl has becn lengthenecl, but the tw<.r
nent.
semicircular trrnscptal absidioles reniain as before. 'l'he sancturrr bal, crossing, irnd trvo t r a n s e p ta r m s a r e c o l e r e d b v s q u a r e r i b r a u l t s ; the nar.e has threc double ba-vs,with alternatell'
f o r t h c s o u t h - G er m a n a n d A u s t r i a n 'fhc Baroque flourishcd in Switzerland too. belfl'ics of the mountain churches ofien hare ver!' prettv rncl cffcctire Baroquc silhoucttes. -\part liom the mountain churches,thc rcgion -l'he hardll' has an architccture of its own.
stout and slcndcr strpporlsil\ro big $(stern towers rise boldll' wirh a high open sqtrare
towns wcre not large, :rnd no great movement was centrcd here. The abbcl' of Allerheiligcn' SchallhausenIr361, was undcr (]luniac infltrence, and, lvith Cluniac Pa-v*erneI r 3-sI and
E r o i n - r ' a u l t c dp o r c h s p r u n g b e f r v c e t rt h e m , a n d a s t i l l h a l f ' - R o m a n e s q u cp o i n t e d m l i n d o o r w a v is set in the f'aqadcwall. 'l'he re construction afier
R o m a i n m 6 t i e r , r e p r e s e n t st h e t r a d i t i o n a l C ' l u n i a c l b r m s . r h o u g h w i r h G r : r m a n i ct l i t l e r e n r i a t i o n s i n s u l ) e r s t r u c t u r ca n d t l c t a i l C i ' r r r t i c o 'r t
+ro
L A N D S A S . ) ^ O C I A T E tDv t t i l r N
TilE HOLy
mounrain church rvith paintings (r.. r roo), is strongly Lombard. T h e c o m b i n : r t i o n o f i n f l u e n c e si n t h i s c r o s s _ r o a d s a r e a i s e a s i l yo b s e r y e da t t h e l a r g e s to f ' t h c Romanesque cathctlrrls ol' thc rceion, thltt o,. Bascl,r: at thc border of'the old Kinedom ol. \r'lcs or ol Burgundr. 'l his chrrrch hls the general f'eeling of a Rhinelancl church. which indecd it is. ln it thcre arc somc remlrns of a lireat church consecratcd in thc prescnce of H c n l u I I i n r o r g ; l b r r h i s e d i E c er h e l , r m o u s golden altar fiontal now in paris was made. flut
ROMAN Et\IptRE
t h c b u i l d i n g l r a s r e p l l t . e da l i e r a f i r c r,1I 11_ and the ncw intcrior is raultcd.poinr.,l ,,,,.1,"t h c i n g u s ed , a s i r ) n e r r - h \ . B u r g u n d . v . f Li. j,,.i'
22 QHAPTER
ilff 'l;*|.".':'"'j..",T,ili..i:.l,',: Iil,,li
t i o m S t r a s s b u r ga. l i t t l e l a r t h c r d o u n t h . , r r, , r r n The elaborate ,Grllusptbrte' ., hql f;.,r.li Cathedral is named fbr St Gall, th. pi,,n.,.',, m i s s i o n l r t o f ' t h e r e g i o n ; b a s i c a l l , rg, u r g u n , l ; a ; i n d c s i g n , i t i s a h a n d s o m eb u t r a r h e r u n i n s p i r c 4 twelfih-centurv work, somewhat rebljll 1nj augmented.
GERMANY'
WITH THE NETHERI,{ND.S.\ND
part of this I olunle we have gir en In rn earlier of the chief monume nts of German dl account up to the end of the Iiranconian Romanesque new Hohenstaufen dynastv, the Under rule. which ruled fiom rr38 to rz(r8, the country rchieved greater maturitv in political matters, rnd embarked upon a large programme of expansion, colonization, and elangelization. There was a regularly authorized crusade against the Slavs in rr47, followed by- a long processof expansion at the expensc of these neighbours which rvas onl,v-undone rvhen the Third Reich fell. Frederick Barbarossa(rr5z go) considercd himself the heir of Constantine, Justinian, and Charlemagne; and he did something after the manner of each to make German-v powerful and prosperous.His son Henry VI ( r rgo-7) brought the Holv Roman Empire to its maximum idealll. 'lhese rnd territorially. two great nloments are faithfully reflected in architecture. But the Emperors had dreams ofgeneral union lnd universal dominion which could not be realized becauseofirreconcilable Italy, and the competing, mutuallv exclusive ideals of the papac1,,cspe_ c i a l l yu n d e r P o p e I n n o c e n t I I I ( r r 9 8 - r z r 6 ) . The diverse architectural influences which had been interwoven to fbrm German Romanesque became mature in the course ol' the eleventh century and wcre brought to a fuller maturitr.in the twclfth. under ir new irnd lbr.cc_ ful plal' of influences from L,ombardv and Burgundl. We find the powerful Carolingian architectural strain continuing. Proot'of this is the Beneraldesign, comparable to Saint-Riquier, of tlany ofthe greatest churchcs in thcir larcr lirrm Mainz, Worms, and Spel,cr C-athedralsamong
FLANDERS
them. There are mrnv other e\anrples
none
more imposing than St Gertrude at Nrf-els or N i v c l l e s r l j r g , 3 z o l , n o w h ' i n g 1u i t h i n t h c B e l gian borders, vct related, perhaps (through its massi'r'e lagade) to r group of churches in Sl. The building was burnt out in the last war. It has a great wooden-roofed nirle (now handsomelv restorecl), an interesting
Saxonl, [1":
vaulted sanctuarv,and an imposing westwork, dating basicallv fiom thc eleventh century. Thc Palatine Chapel at Aachen also served as an inspiration in this period; the octagonal Ottmarsheim in Alsacc (dedicated ro49) is an example i n t e r m e d i a t ci n d a t e i N i j m e g e n i s o f t h e t w e l f t h , t Gcrtrudc, 3 r g . N i v e l l c sS elercnth century tnd latcr, liom the south-uest, as restoredafter rvirrdamage.
4I2
L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I ' I H I N
T T I I ,T I O L Y R O M A N E M P I R E
centurl'. Something of the influence of Aachen survives in thc two-storel' opcn-rvcll churches a n d c h a p e l so f t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r r ' . The Lombarcl international First Romanesque component of the old architectureopcncd the wav for mature Lombard influcnces. The influence of Clunv continued, thoush with diminished force. It had comero Germanv
the handsome two-storev church of Schwarzrheindorf," ncirr Bonn (crucifbrm, trefbil' rvith a central well,,. rr5o), hrrsrvhat is said to bc
tion continued unril r r27 or later. Paulinzclh a little later still, shows some influencc f10nr Clunl'III.r 'I'he special influence o[ Burgundl, caq. strongilv to Germanv with the Cistercians bejbr"
t h e m i d d l e o f t h e t w e l l t h c e n t u r v . +K a m p , n e a r K r e l ' e l d , r v a st h e f i r s t C i s t e r c i a n f o u n d a t i o n r n G c r m : r n r ' ( r r z 3 ) , a n d i t s p l a n a p p e a r st o h i r \ c been thc simple earll' plan used by the Oldet
h o u s e si n S w i t z c r l a n d a n d G c r m a n v , v e t e \ . e n t h e n t h e s p e c i f i c a l l va r c h i t e c t u r a l i n f l u e n c e h a d not been strong. The 'Hirsauer Schule', based partlv on Clunl II, is reallr, German in manr w : l v s ,a n d , a c c o r d i n g t o r e c e n t o p i n i o n , p e r h a p s
t e c t u r e o l t h c G e r m a n C i s t e r c i a n s$ : t s o l t ( n l o c r l i n t r p e . \ { ; r u l b r o n n ( r r - 1 67 8 ) | r \ + m a r k e d a n e w e r a b v l b l l o w i n g t h e t u l l r , 1 .' c l -
not sumcicntl)'closc-knit to be callcd a School.l M e n t i o n s h o u l d , h o w e r - e r ,b e m a d e o f t h e h a n c l -
o p c d , w c l l - e s t a b l i s h e t . l .s t r o n g l \ B u r g u n , l i . r n C i s t e r c i a nm o d c l s , t h o u e h $ i t h G e r m a n u t i r :l t l -
s o m e c h u r c h o f A l p i r s b a c h , a s s o c i a t e dg e o -
i n e s si n m a s sa n d d e t a i l .
B u t f o r s o m c t i m e . i n t h e e a r l vp c r i o d ,t f t s r l r , l r i -
'+r3
ot'it as arrangcd st'herntttelongohurdiwt.5Richcr mouldings and greatcr elaboration of parts resultcd liom Lombard influence. lior cxample,
graphically, ecclesiastically, and stvlistic11l,. with Hirsau; the date of foundation is r095, and after a preliminary dedication of r ogg const..s-
-i:o. Nir ellcs,St Gcrtrude, interior ol sancturrr'. declicrtedro-16 u n d e r t h c a u s p i c e so f t h c E m p e r o r H e n r v l I , Bishop i\Ieinwerk ol' Paderborn, and Abbot \l'illiam of Hirs:ru, who refbrmed about r lo
GERMANY. WITH TIIE NETIIERLANDS AND FLANDIRS
a n e a r l v G c r m a n e x a m p l eo f t h e f u l l l - d e v e l o p c d e a v e sg a l l e r l o f L o m b a r d c h a r a c t c r [ 3 z r l , a n d
3zI. Schwarzrheindorl.tloublc church. r. rr5o
q z z .I l u r b a c h , a b b c l c h u r c h , t \ c l f t h c e n t u r r( n l r e d e s t r o r t c l l
In France, meanwhile, Cistercian architecture absorberl the somewhat inert rib lault of the Burgundian half-Gothic' which was repre-
thc motif had been used on the \'{inster at Bonn b e f b r e t h e d e d i c a t i o n o f I I 6 ( r ' - \ t t h e s a m et i m e t h c r i h r ' ; r r - rul ta s m u k i n g i t s p r o g r e s s : u i t n e s s St Patroklus, Soest, belbrc the dedicrrion ol-
s e n t e db y a b o u t r r 6 o a t C l a i r v a u x , a s w c h a v e seen, and the authoritv of this design brought ribbed construction into German1.. Concurrcntly there u'as an influx of nlaturc Lombard Romanesque motif-sto German.v. The trefoil plan has becn thought (doubtfully') to be a casein point; at any rate the medicval description of the trefbil of'Klosterrath (Rolduc) speaks
rr66i Worms Cathedral, after rrTr ; Schwarzr h e i n d o r f, i n t h e e r t e n s i o n o f r r 7 3 ; M u r b a c h ; onlr d liagmenl ol l . l z , z l .r u e l l i h c e n l t r r \ n o u thc beautifirtll proportioncd lireat church which rich fbrmcrlv existed at this historic sitc with lo lhosc c o m p a r a h l e t o n c r s p a i r c d a n t l arcatling, ol sant'{bhondio in Como l.iool'
114
L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I T I I I N
THE TIOLY RoMAN ['MPIRE
-l'he
Romancsqucthus matured is characteri s t i c a l l y ' w e i g h t v ,s o m e t i m e sa l m o s t t o t h e p o i n t of' clumsiness. N[any' of' the examples sufl'ered greotly from over-rcstoration in the nineteenth centurv, but thc mass of' accomplishment in Romanesque belbre the true Gothic bccame d o m i n a n t i n G e r m a n y -( n o t b ef b r e r 2 q o , t h o u g h Magdcburg Cathedral, begun in rzog, shou.s the first Gothic lbrms) was verl grcat: so llreat i n d e e d a s t o i m p r i n t i t s c h a r a c r e ro n I h e c o u n t r y . It is no accidentthat St Gcorge at Limburg on rather likc Laon Cathe-
the Lahn" is in*ardll
dral, whilc extcriorly it is a notablc example of Gcrman Romanesque, elegant and beautilully composed
and its dedication date is rzj5. In order to deal untlcrstandabll with such a
large number and variety of buildings over so extended an arca and chronological scale,it will
The important south-German churchr. 1y,, b a s i l i c a ni n l b r m . b u t t h e r c a r e m a n t s m r r l 1l . n _ t r a l i z e d s t r u c t u r e so f t h e t w e l f r h a n d t h i r t c r l l S cenluries. Some are chapcls satellite t,r l,1p*. churches. Others. well reprcsentetl br .r 1;n. example of rzro, with an apsidal elemcnt, 11 Hartbcrg in Styria, are cemetery chapels61 charnel houses. Still others are palace and casrle chapels. These latter are tvpicallv of two storcr,5, 'Ihe l i k e S c h w a r z r h e i n d o r f[ 3 2 r ] . i d e a g o e sh n s f t to thc Rhineland and Aachen, where, as regularh. in chapels of this sort (including the SirinteC h a p e l l e i n P a r i s , t h e C h a p e l a t V e r s a i l l c s .1 1 6 St Stephen's Chapel in London), the ruler and his suite are provided fbr at thc uppcr lcrcl. Thcse south-Gerrnan churches are smaller than the eramplcs iust mentioned. Thcy often consist of nine compartments, with the middlr one the ground floor up through thc second level, and carried, above this opcn
be necessary to dir,ide the subject geographicallv and morphologically. 'I'he a r c a sa t t h e e a s t a n d n o r t h o f G e r m a n y within thc Empire have relativcll little to con-
open fiom
tribute to our studv; we therefbre all but omit Moravia, Bohemia (excepting Prague [rr7])
these ccntrllized chapels existed in Bavaria, thc 'l'hc Austrian provinces, and Bohemia. rlpc
and Prussia from our considcration, and dir,idc the remaindcr into (l) South Gern.rany, rvith
was represented in the castlc at Nurcmberg^. { s i m p l e r p l a n , t r i a p s i d a l , w a s r c p r e s e n t e di l S t
Baiaria and Swabia, inclucling Alsace; (a) 'f S a x o n y , w i t h W e s t p h a l i a ,E a s t p h a l i a ,a n c l h u ringia; (c) the l,ower Rhinc and the Nlain
George, Regensburg.
countrv
(Franconia, Upper
Lorrainc,
and
Lower Lorrainc).
ccntral space, upward to a dominant central towcr. It has been estimated"that over roo o1'
S t J a k o b ( o t h e r w i s ec a l l c d . f r o m i t s i b u n t l i n g by' Irish monks, the Schottenkirche), Regcnsburg (dated about rr8o), has a lateral port:rl, q u i t e u n u s u a l l y ' e l a b o r a t ef b r t h e e r a a n d t h e f c 'l'his church is a columnar basilica,sith groin-r'aultcd aisles and vaulted triapsidal sirncgion.
S O U T I IG [ , R M A N Y This region is traverscd by thc upper waters of the Rhine and thc Danube, natural connecting links with Lorraine and llungary respectively. Thc parts of the south-Gcrman rcgion which are most important architccturally lie in the e c c l e s i a s t i c a lp r o v i n c c o f M a i n z . T h e m c t r o politan archbishopric of' Mainz also includcd the important central and northcrn bishoprics of Speyer, Worms, Wiirzburg, Paderborn, and H i l d c s h e i m ; a l s oS t r a s s b u r g .
tuarv; there is, however,no transept: the buildi n g i s , s o t o s p e a k ,c o n t i n u o u s f r o m c n d t o e r r , l . l i k e t h e H u n g a r i a n c a t h e d r a l n f P 6 c s( w h i c h i r a p a r a l l e le r a m p l e . d a t i n g l i o m a b o u t r r 5 o , , r r r J possibly related to this German type). l)ccs. h o l r c v e r ,h a s p i e r s l a n d i t s h o u l d b e r e m a r ' L . J that simple piers lre of licquent occurrene. in t h e s o u t h - G e r m a n c h u r c h e s .1 o In Latc Romanesquetimes South G..*.nt p r o l u s e l yc m p l o y e d L o m b a r d d c c o r a li r e m o t i l ' 'fypical a r c a d i n ga n d b a n d s e n r i c h t h r c h u r t h
( ; E R N I A N \ " \ \ .I T H T T I } ,N } - T H [ , R I , A \ D S A N I ) I ; I ' { \ D F ' R S
as.at \ll Saints' Chapcl' Rcg-cnsburg exteriors. . . I | 5 0 ) , a n d C u r k C ' a t h c d r a l 't o iilso a trefoil: o n t " ,' * o a n l o n g a c o n s i t l t r a b l c n u m b c r [rnrion ' of examptes
+I5
r'ery often carried abo\ e them. This produces a tall, rather flat, but bulkl and strongh profilcd mass which tcrminates the church at the west in
largc r n o n u m e n t a l f a s h i o l l ,a n d , i t t h c c h u r c h i s a the silhouette in stronglv itself one, it cleclares hirvc of the whole citv. Somc ol the examples A N D N L I G H B O U R I N GR I I G I O N S mentioned, others rvill bt: tbund in been alread,v SAXONY t h e L o w e r R h i n e a r e aa n d i n S r v c d e n ' (with Wcstphalia' Eastphalia' and In Saxony At Wimplen im Tal,r: Iiranconia' the middle there arc several groups ofchurches iiuringit) is emphasizcd in that it is pl:rced as it structure \s in the south' thel arc basilican , inr.r.tt us. on a bridgt orer thc wcsl porchi lhi\ s e r c r a l r a r i e t i e so l r h e b a s i l i c a n 1 \ e r e in tryou,.with clateofarrangiement is cxccptional, but thc early give them great savour olan. Local variations Wimpfen (befbre 9q8, but rebuilt in the twelfth andcharacter' century) sugllcsts it as an intcrmediate cxample' is interesttng The'Saxon f'agade'in particular thc Gandcrsheimlr in Saxony' has pelhaps to the laqade tvpe and imposing. It is relatcd u'hich tlpe faqade thc of crample handsomsst (Strassburg, roI5) 'fhc o"i h,*o integrated towers church w e h a v e u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n[ 3 2 3 ] ' intermediate rn to prominence gives [7g], but between occurrcd was rebuilt atter a fire which to\ucrs' and is ,riu.tu." which is as dcep as the \\csl lrunl' 3 2 3 .G a n d c r s h c i me.h r t r c l t ' late eleventhcentun
rzr. \linden (lathctllirl, .l"i.nth and lwclfth centurics'fagade
f. m
f
4I6
L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I T H I N
THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
'l'here is a great show of'arcad1063and rog5. ing in the lower register, and abovc that a veritable precipice cut by simple horizontal string courses into fbur stages, bevellcd at the corners. These bevels arc carricd up into octagonal towers, each with a shaft, a bellry stage, and a pyramidal roof. Between the towers, and just below thc shali, there arr: three twin openings with mid-wall
colonnettes, admirably placed
with respect to the similar opcnings in the belfries and the tunnel-like
portal directly
below. The
N,linden Cathedral of ro6r had two
towers, betwecn which, in thc twellth century, a taller oblong belfry was built, forming a hand'Ihis somelv stepped mass [jz-1]. same process changed thc liont part ol'the Carolingian westwork of Corvcy on the Weser into somcthing likc a'Saxon faqade'.r' At St Patrolilus in Soestl5[325J the corner towers are reduced to the mcrest pinnacles b e t w e e n t h e g a b l e so f a s t o u t b e l f r v t o w e r w h i c h has a porch and gallerv wrapped around three sides of it. The eristing church wirs built, rvith groin raults, in the sccond half'of the twcllth century, and the astonishing great westcrn tower just mentioned is ascribed to the !'ear r zoo or thcreabouts. Freckenhorstr'' has an equallv astonishing f ' a g a d e ,d a t i n g f i o m r r 1 6 - z 9 . A p l a i n g r o u n d
Iully prolilcd great westworli the nave and aislcs o1'the church extend to the transept. bevontl w h i c h i s t h e s a n c t u a r vf l a n k e d b y t r v o t a l l s q u r r c towcrs.
flanked by the bases of'two cylindrical towors,
The evident love of towered masses rccrlls the primitivc examples of the type which *e h a v ee x a m i n e d i n S a x o n E n g l a n d . E v i d e n t l v t h c
each advanced slightly, and provided with an 'lhe entrance doorway. central mass rises sheer
same spirit informs thern all, allowing Ibr thc sophisticationsand outside influences in thc
to a tall hip roof, with thrce stagcs of bclfiy
mature Romanesque of Germany.
storer, with a single relatively small portal is
openings. Each stage has two twin mid-wall'l'he shali windows. cylindrical towers, enveloped at thc base by decorativc arcading, are plain through a part o1'their height, above which the cylinders (now disengaged by a sct-back of' the main belfry) rise to two stageswith twin midwall-shaft windows. Their conical rools are set upon eaves a littlc higher than the caves of'the main bclfry. Behind this imposing and beauti-
I t i s h a r t l t o d o u h t r h a t s o n r e t h i n go l ' t h e , r l t l s p i r i t u n d e r l i e s t h e w a r m y e t a u s t e r ec h a r m t , l the fine basilican constructions in Saxonr. Sinrp l i c i t y o f f o r m ; w e i g h t i n e s si n d e t a i l sl i k c m o u l d i n g s a n d c a p i t a l s ; e x c e l l c n t n r a s o n r y ,a d h e r e n c c to traditional even Carolinsian idcals: thcsc are the notcs of'the style. Hildesheim Cathedral (dedicated in I o6 r ) htts
325 (olposttt). Socst, St Pxtroklus, wcstern to$cr'' '
bcen rcbuilt, hur Sr Michael [84J, alrcrtl'
326 (ahrrce). Hildcsheim, St Godchard, r r.13 7z
i+
I2oo
GERMANY. WITH
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partly remodelled under Bishop 6escribed. recentlv' f , r 7 r-qo) and well restored il.log for the accomplishmenl ol'the school' iiandswell impressive' It had a woodenIt i, tingult.ly_ which is unusual. and a painted . p t . , ilfrd medieval date' Important among its . g i t i n g ,o f remarkable sculptured choirw ;ertures as a from Bishop \delog's period d a t i n g .oeen richlv decorated cuhical lr186). Examples of on the pairs of columns between Lpitals occ,.tt, pporl the na\ e u all in'l r ei u t hsi gem oierswhich su phrase has Stiitzennethsel,as the neat German common in it. This type of support is ol course (St Michael the German basilicaslT [82, 83]. last war.) in the severelY suffered S t G o d e h a r d ' a t H i l d e s h c i m( r r 3 . 3 7 z ) l . 3 z 6 l is a similar building, differing in that it has a masonrv apse vault, an ambulatorl.with radiating chapels, an octagonal crossing towcr' and paired western towers. It has preserved a stucco tympanum which is a notablc example of that sort of sculpture seldonrsecn at pr('senl. htlt
. l r 7 l n d . 1 2 8 .G o s l a r , t h c P f l l z , r c h u i l t r t t e r r r - i : , r c s t o r a t i o n s t u d J ' i s i n r . r r - 5 o l n c l c - r t c r i o r ; s c c a l s o ( r - 1
practisedimportantl-r'b.v the Germans fiom the ' timeof Saint-Riquier onwards. In Goslar, the old Imperial Dict town' the
Tt{E NETHERLANDS AND FLANDTIRS
qualities of' German twelfih-centur1. architecture may be discerncdhere.At the south end of the building there are imperial rptrtmcnts. which include the interesting two-storcv chapel of St Ulrich. cruciform in plan, and balancing the older Chapel ofour Lacll'sct near the north end of the palace. The cathedral boundcd the east side of the assemblv area A n o t h e r g r e a t h o u s e ,w i c l e h ' k n o w n t o o p e r a 'sangersaal', is the Wartgoers because of the burg, picturesquelv placed on a height near E i s e n a c h .A c t u a l l r E l i z a b c t h ' s ' t e u r e H a l l e ' w a s superposcd on thc original residence of-the twelfth centur--v[329] not long after the Iirst construction. It addcd grcatll'to the amenitv ofthe 'I'he structure rs first built had three building. spacious rooms in enlilade on each of'two levels, fronted bv a graceful arcaded galler-r of lighter c o n s t r u c t i o n , u i t h d i l ' c e t e r t e r i o r a c c e s sl i o m 'I'he main room on the ground the courtl'ard. floor (central and largcr than the others) was a kitchen, and the larEle room abole it was the 'fhe structurc was much rebuilt in original hall. r838 67.
cathedral (dating fiom about ro4o and later, destroyed in modern times) was vaulted, in a heavy manner, at a rather late date. Its rathcr archaic'Saxon tragade'stood svmbolicallv at thc
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foot of a long easterl-vslope which was used for vast offi cial assemblages. P l a c e dt r a n s v e r s e l va t t h e t o p o i t h e s l o p e ,t h e
u p p e rl e v e l ,i s a t r e m e n d o u s t w o - n a r e d r v o o d e n roofed afi'air with a central throne room marked offby parallel arcades, and communicating with a b a l c o n y .T h e t h r o n e r o o m a n d t h e l a t e r a l p a r r s o p e n u p o n t h e o u t d o o r a s s e m b l vp h c e t h r o u g h characteristic double and triple arches, now glazed, under enclosing arches. 'fhe sober bcst
l l
ii /-l\ tll
old Pfalz,'z0 dating originalll', asalreadv reportcd, f r o m a b o u t r o 5 o . a n d r e s l o r e da f t e r a c o l l a p s eo f r r 3 z , s l i l l e x i s t s( o v c r - r e s t o r e d ,r 8 7 3 ) [ 3 2 7 , j : 8 1 . The ground floor is enclosed, and could be 'fhe heated upon occasion. main hall, on the
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J2O
L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I T H I N
cERMANY, WtTH
THE HOI-Y ROMAN EMPIRE
I n T r i e r t h e F r a n k c n t u r m ( c l a t e da b o u t r o q o ) shows what the Romanesque tower-house was like, with single sup-erposedrooms. One is likell to fbrgiethow rvidelv distributed and horv important this cit_y-'t)'pc of rcsidence rsalll.was, becausc so f'ew er:rmples have sun ir,ed. In Saxony the vaulting ofchurch na\,escomes 'Ihe oltlcr vaults are hall'-Cistercian.
tardilv.
hall'-Lornbarcl, with domed-up rib vaults or.er double bavs, and thc churches thcmsclves, er,en l t a l a t e d a t c . a r c R o m : r n e s q u ci n c o n t . e p t i o n , with relativelv simple cxreriors, heavv wallwork, relatir,elv small windows, and 'mural v a l u e s ' i n t h e i n t e r i o r d c s i g n -M a g d e b u r g C a t h e dral, begun in rzog, counts as a true Gothic church, the first in Germanr,. Ycr ar Miinster in W e s t p h a l i a ,u h e n i h e c a t h c d r a l w a s v a u l t e d i n a
ing Gothic influence. Charming and ingenioLr5 translations ol the Gothic elements were ntl(lc
THELOWER
into brick and rerracotta fbr thc embellishnrtnt of the buildings, and srucco panels brightcntll t h c w a l l s w i t h n e a r - G o t h i c p a t t e r n s .T h e C i s r er _ cianabbevsof'Lehninand Chorin} (rz7j r.i.iqy are both good examples of this, as are rhc gr-r1r
l\leusc l\loscllc Rhinc rcgion. The Scheldt along the Nlain, is the oldextension its with part of Germanl', wherc Roman established and fine building has its traditions are stronger history' The distinguished most and longest ccclesiasticalproterritories lie in the venerable I n earlicr v i n c e so f C o l o g n c ' T r i c r . a n d ' \ l a i n z ' most important the man]'of volume this of parts
churches and town halls o1'Danzig and Liibe cl Bockstcingttil,is in fact the first reallr. succes,ful German Gothic lbr the imitatir.e works in stone of'the earl-vpcriocl invariablv I'all trrr shor.r oftheir originalsin the il.-d.-Frunce. 'l'eutonic The Knights logicalll' adoptccl the B uck s tei ng ot i k . r s t h e i r a r c h i t e c t u r e ,a n r l i m p o s ing monuments like X{arienburg (r276 ancl ,. rjzo l4oo) and Nlarienwerder(r. rj4o)r.t spcal,
t r a n s i t i o n a lc h u r c h e sl i k e t h e c a t h c d r a lo f : \ n g e r s (nave vaulted about rr5o) [zr5], though Miin-
mutely o1-their action. A large number of tht' Hansa cities were in north Germany, and in neighbouring rcgions subiect t
ster has aisles, and Germanic detail.rr Under Lombard inspiration and Burgundian
commonwealth ma1- bc said to have a national a r c h i t e c t u r e ,i t r v a st h e B , t c k s t e i n . q o t i k .
auspices, brick construction appeared in north G e r m a n r , a n d , l a r g e l v b e c a u s co t ' t h e p e n u r v o 1 '
In our iudgement the best of the Batksttitt{r/il is not surp:rssedbv anv but the finest of the late, mature, and charactcristically German 'fhe Gothic buildings. qualities which thr,' carlier Gcrman Gothic inherited through thc
r e b u i l d i n g o f r z z , . 16 5 , t h e r e s u l t r e c a l l sF r c n c h
g o o d b u i l d i n g s t o n e ,s p r e ; r da l l a l o n g t h e G c r m a n Baltic coast, into Poland, and cven to regions n e a r P s k o l i n R u s s i a ,b e f b r e r z z o . I ' I ' h e a v a i l able clar s burn to a fine red brick; good mortar is obtainable, and from thc beginning the German bricklavers possesseda map;nificent sense of their craft. The church at Jcrichow, not lar fiom tr{agdeburg^and on the borders ofBrandenb u r g , w a s b u i l t a b o u t r r , 5 o ,w i t h m o s t a d n r i r a b l l ' ser,ere lines and good proportions, fbr a Pre-
R o m a n e s q u ef r o m C a l o l i n g i a n b u i l d i n g d o n o t olien combine well with the G:rllic qualities ot Irrench Gothic. But the Germanic qualitics, under the limitations of brick-work, are at rn xdvantxge in the Backsteingotik. The winccoloured precipices ofbrick breaking into sharp spires and pinnacles of copperl green arc irt
m o n s t r a t e n s i a nh o u s e o f A u g u s t i n i a n c a n o n s z r 'l'he building is wooden-roofcd. I r 8 2 , r 8 - j] .
every wa!' as fine as the massive stone \a'allsol t h e R h e n i s h c a t h e d r a l sa n d a b b e l ' s . T h e e x c c l -
b a s i l i c a ni n p l a n , a n d r o u n d - a r c h e d .
l e n t p r e s e r v a t i o no f t h e b u i l d i n g s a f t e r p e r i o c l s lrom 6oo to goo years should also be countc.i
Brandenburg Cathedral, onll ab6s1 16111' miles lrom Jerichow, hrrd bricli construction u n d e r w a - yi n r r ( r 5 , L i i b e c k C a t h e d r a l i n r r 7 3 . It was natural that the pointed arch should soon appcar, and with it the name of Bucks t e t n q o t i k ;t h e r i b r a u l t w a s i n t r o d u c e d ( L c h n i n , t. r2oo 70); tracery motifs came with incrcas-
heavily in their favour. Symptomatic is the lict that great architects of the twentieth centurl like Ragnar 6stberg, Josef Olbrich, and Dominikus Boehm have drawn on the Backsteingotil' stvle, sensing its elemental force and authentic grandeur.
RHINE-l\'tAll
because firstLuildings have been mentioned, Nlaturitl' rate works appear earl.v in the region' Laach, Maria as well' here is early of style d e s cribed; h a s a l r e a d l ' b e e n I o g 3 , i n founded and the church (largely built bctween Ir3o a u s tere t h o u g h rr56) [92, 931 is accomplished mature as parts have, latest the and in style, has, a Lombard German Romanesque generall,v'. dnge.
33o.Trier Cathedral, eleventhand twelfih centurics'from the west' Ia"rgely Liebfrauenkircher. r21o-53
THE NETHIIRLANDSAND !I-ANDr'RS
!+2I
What remains is to show how in the pcriod ot full Romanesque maturitr the architccture hcre 'Carolw a s ,a s S i r A l t r e d C l a p h a m s o l p t l l ' s a i c l . ingian (brms clothed in Lombard guise'' Son.rehow the placid spirit of Hersf'eld and Limburg on the Haardt, along rvith thc frank grancleur of' Wiirzburg Cathedral and St Gertrudc at Nivelles[3rg, 120], was transmitted to theselater buildings. 'l'he Franconian cathedrals ofT'rier Ij3ol and 'Lomb:rrd guisc' onl-v in Speyer acquired their the latcst works of' construction' Worms and Mainz were more profbundll. affected b-v the new morement. ()f The earll elerenth-centtlr\ calhedral ' l i v e p r e s e nt i n t h e on' Worms:(,[33 r j is said to A conthe same are lbundations one, in that the s e c r a t i o no f r r 8 l m a r k s a s t a g eo f t h e r c b u i l d i n g at the east; the polygonal westernchoir was be-
422
L A N D s A S S O C I A T E DW I T H I N
THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
centur-1(Kautzsch) restorrlionstutly as in the tweltih -^ '!{ainzCathedral, tt"' much rebuilt alter r r8r , .., Mainz Cathedral,ele'enth ccnrury' 4nu rrt JJJ
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3lr. Worms Cathcdral, eleventh, tu'clfih, and thirteenth centuries, fiom the south-west
gun in r 234 in Lombard half-Gothic. The nave
about equal to Speyer Cathedral in magnitudc,
has five very sturdy clouble bays with rib vaulting above an arcade s]-'stemrather like that of
stone gives it warmth;
Speyer. Tie-rods have been neccssarv in order
twelfth-
but the effect is rather different. The red sandthe richness of' thc
have never been built for them. The belfiy of
and thirteenth-century articulation givesit movement [3J3, 334]. This work on the building was done between rr8r and rz.l9,
the north-west tower is frankly Gothic, but the architect respected the old scheme, which called
t h o u g h a c r u a l l ] t h e e a s t e r nc r o s s i n g f o \ ^ c r \ \ J : carried up in Gothic and then replaced In
for round towers of equal weight flanking an
Romanesque Revival style, the top of the western crossing tower having meanwhile becn -l rebuilt in Troubadour Gothic (I769-74). *tt o l d r o u n d t o w e r s d a t i n g f r o m t h e c a r h e d r a l, ' f
to keep these vaults secure, as flying buttresses
octagonal tower of larger girth
but inferior
height. These round towers are on a transverse axis, flanking a sanctuary bay with (exception-
are one bay east of the transept and its corres-
roog j2 at Nlainz terminate the axis of the western transept, which with its central octagonal tower and western apsemakesan imposing
ponding octagon. The apse is included within a
front. At the easl there are a more impo:i:tg
straight east wall, and the towers are tanpient to
transept and octagon, with a trelbil sanctuir-)bel'ond, accentuated bv a pair of slender octagonal towers, all enriched by arcading and
ally) an octagonal tower over it, whereas those at the east are staggered, for the round towers
the line of this wall, which again is unusual. 1'his arrangement results in a very successful tower system.
g a l l e r i c s .T h e h u g e b u l k o f t h e c a t h e d r a l s t a n r l :
Mainz Cathedral,rt the grand old metropolitan church of middle German-v [78, 332], is
up grandly abore the town, and is visible iot' ''ts man-v miles in the valley of the Main, which'
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424
L A N D S A S S O C T A T E DW t T H T N
THE HOLy
RoN,rANEMpTRE G E R M A N Y , W I ' I H ' T H E N E T H E R I , A N D SA N D I L A N D F , R S
it approachesthe confluence with the Rhine. flowsncarly straighttowardsthe church.
tion ofthe
1-he interior, covercd bv rib vaultine in d o u b l e b a . v sa h o r e a g e n e r o u s c l c r e " t o r r . . h L r sa frementlous aquetluct-like arcatleon cach side of-the nave, with vaulted aisles beyond. The efl'ect is overwhclming because of its vast scale, which makes one fbrget the rarher dry design. The trefbil which has just been _.nrion.ji, sometimes thought to have replaced an earlier one; at any rate the trefoil motifwas established in the Rhineland by the eleventh ..n,u.y, ,nJ rt underwent a special development ihere. Supposedly the trefbil scheme came fiom Lom_ bardy - Early Christian Lombardy _ ro the region.?8
church by Pope Leo IX in ro4g was
to a wooden-roofed nave antl aisles ,rached ro-1o. Befbre the definitive conabout [egun Io69 the old apse had been replaced s!crationin by a new chevet, consisting ot a vaulted apse 1nd a transept with crossing tolver and vaulted lpses. The nave rcmainccl unvaulted, but groin-vaulted aisles were carried all around the 'l'he f'agade, building, except at the west end. with its projecting tower ancl lateral stair turrets, r e c a l l st h e P a l a t i n e C h a p e l a t A a c h e n . W i t h t h e construction of this fagade St Mary became an example of the old church type with two axial towers. Like a Lombard church, it has a vast crypt, which, however (unlike a Lombard crypt), is closed at the west - being approached
In the Rhineland the key church of trefoil plan is St Mary in Capitol at Cologne:e [::S_Z]. A sanctuary which was the scene ofthe dedica_ jJ5 to .].]7.Cologne,St Mart, in Capitol. .. ro4o 12r0 tlrl
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I
-i
'o, -
.la[ ll'
tt fi'
f
uI
T2<
t h e ( n o w l r r r g e l vr e b u i l t ) c h u r c h o f ' S a n L o r c n z o i n \ l i l a n . T h c r e t h e m a i n s p : r c ei s . s o r o s p c a k , u n i f i c d , r o u n d e d , a n d c e n t r a l i z c d .S t \ I a r v l a c k s g a l l e r i c s ,w h i c h i n S a n L o r e n z o a i d i n b i n d i n g in the central space; St Nlarv has a strong axial movement, both longitudinal and transYcrsc, w h i c h i s l a c k i n ga t S a n L o r e n z o . S t M a n , i n C a p i t o l b e c a m cm o r e L o m b a r d i n charactcr during a reconstruction at the end o[ the trvellth ccntury or the beginning of thc thirteenth : the exterior, formerly-rather austere, -l'he vaulting of'the was enriched with arcading. transept and sanctuary was completed at that time, and thc nave then receivcd the first serpartite \,ault in Germanl' ( r z r g).
by narrow stairways liom the transept arms. Actually the e{l'ect at St Nlary in C:rpitol is
T'he church of the Apostles in Cologne is a r,ariation on the theme ol St Mary. in Capitol, dated about r rgo and laterr" [j38]. In spite ol'
very different from that of its supposed model
its tartly date.the chevet is rich with Romanes-
426
fi8 (belon,). Cologne, Church ol the Apostles, r. r rgo and later, fiom the east (small cupola and castern spir.esnot replaced in post-war restoration)
t t to' chcret t t65 r^,rrnai Cathedral' narc
3.1r.Andcrnach,church, r' Iuoo
cenrur)' narc r aultmodcrn ill ,io;;-'n
( right ) . Tournai Cathedral, nar.e and rranscpr fi'om the south-west, rrro, rr65 fi.
y9
que arcading and Lombard eaves galleries. The trefbil does not have an ambulatory. Its main apse is flanked by a pair of slender cylindrical stair towers which are carried high above the crossing tower. At the west a deep bay under and behind the axial entrance tower ioins thc western transept in making a sort of angular t r e l b i l . ' l ' h ee a s r c r np a r t o l t h e c h u r c h i s r a u l r c d like that of St Marv in Capitol, in the Romanes_ que manner; the nave has sexpartite vaults and the west cnd quadripartite
and seven_Dart raults. rather iike those of thc much earlier church ofSainte-'lrinitd at Caen. The axial tower and the eastern stair turrets have each individual f'ace finished ofi' with a sharp triangular gable, as is usual in Gcrmanv al this rime. Ridgcs risc sharpll. to the apex oi
the tower from each gable. Sometimes therc is only a single roof--slopebetwcen adjacent gables, as in the western tower of the church of thc Apostles; otherwise there is a vallcv betwcen. . { p a r t i c u l a r l yo u r r a g e o u se x a m p l eo l ' t h i s I l r r u r sort of roofing was built over the central octagon of' Charlemagne's palatine Chapcl rr Aachen [7, 81. The facets are carried up in .r curve to a central pinnacle. '_fhis type o1'rool is little admired and rarely imitated outside Gcrmany. 'fhe trefoil had a much happier historv. Ir was used in other churches at Colosne Gross S t M a r t i n 1r r 8 5 f f . ) . a n d ( o n e m i g h r m e n r i o n i n passing) the Romanesque St Gereon,3rwhcrc the sanctuary extended eastward from a oolvfbjl n a r c h a l t - G o t h i ci n s t y l e( r r 9 r ) .
THENETHERLANDS From Cologne the trefbil passed b1. wa-v of Flanders to a number ofcathedrals that ofthe former Merovingian capital cit-v of Tournai on the Scheldt (then iust o\rer the border of the Empire, in France, and flourishing with textile prosperity) and also Cambrai, Th6rouanne' Noyon, and Soissons. The cathedral of Tournai32[33g, 34o] deserves especial mention fbr its remarkable Early Gothic development of the trefoil. As at St Mary in Capitol, an old nave 'l'he n a r c i s a n a s to n w a sa u g m e n te d t o t h e e a s t . ishingly consen'ative round-arched wooden'Ihis nave, which roofed construction of r I Io' still exists entire. has aisles, gallery, trifbrium p a s s a g e( a l t h e l c r e l o f t h e r o o f - s p a c c o \ e r t h e
gallerl'), and clerestory. All lbur of these levels rIb5 were carried into the trclbil begun about Earlv with rib vaulting a good example of the Gothic fbur-storev interior elevation 'lournai is also notable Ibr its exterior dereltrefbil by means of towers' This the of opment miles is not surprising, lbr it is only seventy-five which countrv a in b-v air lrom Saint-Riquier days has loved its towers ever since Carolingian 'Iournai reproduccd the Rhenish two-towsr end of apsidal f'agadein tall proportions at each of thc root the at presumably the transcpt and t h ert'ts r z 4 z : i n d c s t r o y c d w a s w h i c h main apse thus the also a lantern tower at the crossing: Moreovcr' trefoil was planned lbr scven towers' were rntowers two that signs there are clear pinnacles' at existing thc than rather tendcd,
428
LANDS
ASSOCIATED
WllHlN
TIIE HOLY
t h e w e s t c n d o f t h c n a v c . T h u s w a s c r e a t e d ,w i t h true logic of placc, the pattcrn of the ninetowered cathcdral which lvas in the mind of' more than onc great French designer o1-the thirteenth centur]-, but never lull1, realized. (I-ujan Cathedral. in Argentina, lacks but one spire.) 'l'his
excursion lrom the Rhincland has in a
way pointed out a lack which one f'eels,in the cnd. in German Romanesquc a lack of sophis'adresse'. tication and what the French call
ROMAN
EMPIRF,
intcriors in the Rhenish style of' rhe r$'cllih centurv, with Gothic vaulting. The Ntiinsrcr 11 Roermond is a more active, Gothic-r,aulrrd v e r s i o no f t h e A p o s t l e s ' C h u r c h i n C o l o g n e ( . r l r 1 r twelfih ccnturv); Rolduc2s (rr69) makcs ong think of Speler, with its substantial picrs .rnd heavy Romanesque vault. St Peter at Utrecht a n d t h e f b r m e r a b b e y a t S u s t e r e n h a \ - es o m r ( ) t ' the savour of Hildesheim, for both are in 1 simple German stvle, both date back in origin t9 about ro5o,and both areunvaulted.3-t
W h e n o n e r e a c l st h e c o m m c n t s o f ' G e r m a n c r i tics on the great Gcrman works, it is clear that
N{uch reconstruction in the prosperous (iothic period has left us only a few great Romancs-
their overwhelming simplicity and strength call
que monumcnts in the Netherlands and Fl;rnders, beyond the examples already mentioncd.
forth thc deepest response.Therc is a sip;nificant 'l difi'ercnce between ournai Cathedral and the fine Romanesque church at Andcrnach (dated
but there are a number which merit a passinr
about rzoo) [34tJ.tt Andernlch is a fbur-tower church strikingly silhouetted, but basicalll
ref'erence, such as the church of Soignies, neru. Nivclles,r(' which like the great church at the latter place, alreacly mentioned, stands up
naivc in arrangenent. Tor.rrnai CathetlraI also
glandlv with its bold towers.
has the lbur towers, which are contempor-
LidgerT was important in Romanesque timcs, and notable for two churches in particular St John thc Evangelist (a rotunda of g8z inspircd
a n e o u s ;t h e y , l i k c t h e t o w e r s o f A n d e r n a c h , a r e built up ofmany stages,but are subtly arranged to cmphasize the vcrtical florv of their line, and thcy break more easily into the sky. They are composed within the indir,idual tower, and in respect to a ref-ercncepoint, the crossinpltower, which by contrast makes thcm appear taller and more graccful still. G r a n d c s t , p e r h a p s , a m o n g t h e c a t h c d r a l so f t h c N e t h e r l a n d s i s S t S e r v a a sa t N l a a s t r i c h t . s l Like thc other churchesto be mentioncd, it re-
lrom Aachen, but quite made over) and SainrBarth6lemy.'l'he interior of Saint-Barth6lemr has been rebuilt, but the exterior has retainecl its '-f Romancsque character. he church was fbunded in I o r o ; however, the present basilica is much 'I'here '['lie later. is an imposing westwork. i n t c r i o r p r c s e r \ c si t s o r i g i n a l a r r a n g e m e n tn i r l r t r a n s e p ta n d t h r e e a p s e s . In various places,like Huv (near Lidge), thcrc
flects the twclfth-centurv
prosperity in the Rhine country. I t has an apse rvith paired towers,
a r c G o t h i c b u i l d i n g s w h i c h p e r p et u a t e R o m a n -
as is so frequent in the Rhine country; the west end has a spacious narthex with an elaborate 'fhe c h a p c la b o v c i t . w e s t w o r k , h e a v va t t h e b a s e l i k e t h a t o f S t P a t r o k l u s a t S o e s t ,b l o s s o m se n e r -
a c t u a l R o m a n e s q u cr e m a i n s - T h c v a r c a t r i b u t c
e s q u e s c h e m e s ,o f t e n b J ' t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o l ' to the influenccs which the area received fronr Carolinp;irn Saint-Riquier and thc impcriai Rhine, rather than evidence oflocal creativeness.
getically into three towers. Our Lady at N{aastricht (largely r. rr.5o) has, similarly, an apse bctwecn two towers, and at the wcst a remarkablc precipitous westwork of blocky form datcd about rooo, which is flanked bl anorher,
b y t h e H o l l ' R o m a n E m p i r e . A s r v er e m r r k e d i n
rounded. Drir of towcls. Both churchcs haye
the beginning, it has been a view ofan architec-
With this we close our exrrosition of thc Romanesque architecture in the broad lands controlle(l
GF.RMANY, WITH
'Ihat vel'y tact rs ot coursc an $ral kaleidoscope' of lhe essentiall) heterog(ncou5 a*pra.tion r h . E m p i r e . a n d t h c g r o u In g d i r c r ' ihrrr.t.t uf r v h i c hm a d c c o i t n . u l t u r l l a r c a sw i t h i n i t "iv L n itr in :rrchii m p r r c t i c a b l e ' i t s e l l ,i. f-pit. cultural unity' Cultural unitl o f . o . . . ,..,ur. ofcourse, but it lvasnot in the Church existed' to hold the European arel enough inclusive in the Church had.its tog.th... Exclusivism ot declslvc movements effect in putting new ecclcsiastical pale; the the outside importancc
THI
Nl]THERLANDS AND FLANDIlRS
'+29
l n morc and more in n e w a c t i v i t i es w e r c c ; r r r i c c o '.rnd thus the Empire thc vernacular language, olIost its eommon L:rtin fonguc' l hc strength in t h a n d e x p r c s s e b c t t e r the Empire is nowhere t h e i m p o s i n gc h u r t h e s l r h i c h r ' r ch a r e i u s t r i s i t porvcr ec1in the Rhine country, rvherc its basic 'l'hese m o n u m c n t s can g r c a t residcd alwa)s. o f the g r a n d e u r t h e u n d e r s t a n d u s t o still help meclieval imperial ideal, and to lbrgct thc n.risfbrtunes which prcvented the ideal fiom being realized.
PART
SEVEN
MATURE ROMANESQUEARCHITEC'['URE IN SCANDINAVIA, BRITAIN, AND NORTHERN F.RANCE
C H A P T E R2 3
SCANDINAVIA
Referencehas alreadv been made to the remarkable framed wooden churches of Scandinar,ia, pre-Romanesque in style, though showing Romanesquc influences. In Sc:rndinavia rvood has continued to be an important building material for structures of all sorts, and, as in Russia, solid log-wall construction was developed and widcll used for both sccular and e c c l e s i a s t i c aslt r u c t u r s s , e s p e c i a l l vi n t h e n o r t h . The advent of Romanesque architecture is marked bv the use of masonry, at first almost exclusivell fbr church buildings. Its coming c o r r e s p o n d sw i t h a n e r a o f - i n t c n s c a c t i v i t v a n d wide foreign contacts, including thc temporarl' political unity achieved under Cnut.l An ineffaceablecharacter was given to Scandinavian R o m a n e s q u ea r c h i t e c t u r e b 1 . t h e h e a v y w a l l s , steep roofing, and simple fbrms necessitated bv the climate, and bl thc fict that carlv masonw o r k w a s c a r r i e r l o u t v e r l ' l a r g ; e l yu , nclernorthEuropean infl uence. Indeed Gothic architecturc i n S c a n c l i n a v i as h o w s s t r o n g s t r r v i v a l s o f R o m a n e s q u ef i r r n - r sa, n d s u c h s u n i r a l s a r c e a s i l l recognized in Rentissance and modern work also. Scandinavian critics lre right in safing
and vigorously characterizcd art. During the fbrmatir,e medieval pcriod, Den_ was in thc ecclesi:lstical l)rovince of'
mlrk
H a m b u r g - B r e m e n ( f r o m a b o u t 9 . 5 or l n t i l r r o . j ) , and thus was basically- influenced fiom Germany. The Norwegian Church was set up ab.ut gg5 lrom England, and the architcclulq qh6\,1.5 t h i s , t h o u g h e c c l e s i a s t i c a l l rN o r r v a r , r v a su n d c r Hamburg-Bremen,
and then ul)der Luncl (I ro3 5z). Swedcn, untler Lund (rro1 64),rvas i r r { l u e n e e dl i o n r G e r m a n r , l n d a l . , y ,r h r o u g h 'l'he N o r w l r r ' , b 1 -E n g l a n d . re arc sulliclsnldi6e1cnces in the architectule to iustif'v considering t h c S c a n d i n a v i a nc o u n t r i e s s c p a r a l r l v .
DINN,lARK]
T h e m o n u m e n t a l m a s o n r l -t r c h i t e c t u l c 6 f f ) . r m a r k b e g i n sa t t h e s a m e p e r i o d a s t h l i n 6 l t r a r i o n o f ' N o r r n a n R o r n a n c s q u ci n t o E n g l 1 n 6 . A s * i t h L , d u l r d t l t c ( . o n l e s s o r ' s\ \ ' c s t m i n s t ( . rh, . * e r e r , 'l thc buildings have becn replaccd. he carliest Danish group centred in and abonl Roslildc, near (irpenhagen, on the isleof Ze1lnnl1.'1'hs1s
that, while the elements tiom abroad bccome s i m p l e r < . r t t e nr u s t i c , : r n d i n t h e c a s co f ' s c u l p -
the cathedral, duc to the labour 61 llishops \iilhelm(ro6o 7.1)andSvendNordnancl(ro7+ 8 X) .s h o s c c lG e l m : rn i n J lu e n c er i n i t , 3 1 , 1 r 'nq1l r 1 . ,
ture, crude
i t s a i s l c l e s sc h i r n c e l , a r r d i t s s q u a r g $ c s t c n d ,
thel'are combincd to nrakea nerv
432
S C A N D I N A I , . i A ,B R t T A t N , A N D N O R T H E R N F R A N C E
ScANDTNAVIA
4-l.l
jqz ( htlon ) tnd 3+1 ( rieht ). Lund Cathcdral, consccrared r r46, much rebuilt later; c\terior, and interior btrbre nrodcrn ,restoratron' t++ (Jir rr,glrJ. Qsrcrlar, Bornholm, church, twclfth ccnturl. ( i)
.aa,::..,...:.aa.)a::a,,:a::::..),: :.. ;a..,...,.
projecting berwcentwo rowers..l.hc rcbuildinq o l - R o s k i l d ci n h r i c k G o t h i c , b " g u n aborr , ,7i o n a m u c h l a r g e r s c a l e ,s h o u , sa c o n t l n u a t r o n of G e r n r a n i n f l u e n c c ,t h o u g h t h c i n t e r i o r is French in spirit. Venge church, Benedictine, is bclievcd to shon'English influcnce because of.its small tr:tnscpt lvith narrow entrances, and its square chancel.
I l c c t i o n so f D a l b y a n d t h e w e s t w o r k t h e m e. I l i i r e (,. rrio) recallsthe Romanesquc ofColognc. but with an echo of the old pagan art in rhe carvings of the porral. Viborg, latest of. rlrc group, and built in granite,reflects Lund (rhcn, and ibr a long time atlcrward, still Danish). .l.he Luncl is a complcx building [342, 34:J schemc of r. ro8o was augnented a f i e r the Germ:rn and Lombard influence became church becanrethe seatof a metropolitan ( r r o.j ) l paramount in the constructionof.the cathcdrals Donarus,presumablv a L o m b a r d , w a s t h c a r c hi , o 1 ' D a l b _ (v, . r o 6 o ) a n d L u n d ( c . r o g o ) , in Skine tect. J'hc altars of a rcmarkable crvpt in Lonr_ ( a c r o s st h e S u n d f r o m Z e a l a n d , now in Sweden), b a r d s t v l e w c r c d c d i c a t e di n r r z 3 , r r z 6 , a n t i of \,'iborg (in northern Jutlan
w er c b u i l t b e l b r e r z 5 o . S i n c c t h i s i s a p e r i o d o l '
arbitrarily, in thc nincteenth centurJ, when there was a gencral restoration. l'he westcrn pairoftowers, begun about r r 50, werc finished
strong German influence, there is a marked German Romrncsquc imprint on the ecclesi-
in Lombard st1.le during the restoration. Old photographs make one rsgret thc simplcr, more
astical architecture o1'the whole country. A Dutch nuance is introduced by steppcd gables
austere,and obviouslv provincial building which lost so much of its local savour at that time.r
in brick. Netherlandish fhshion.
T h e s m a l l c h u r c h e sl i e q u e n t l ) ' h a v e t h e t r a d i tional northern barn-like nave anclchancel fbrm.
i n g e p i s o d ei n t h e m e d i c v a l a r c h i t c c t u r c o f ' D e n -l'heir plan may perhaps be :r result of m:rrk.5 King Sigurd's great pilgrimage to Jerusalem 'Ihere (r lo7 r r). are lbur important and char-
oftenaugmented b1'a tower. Manv rre in brick, which Dcnmark owcs to Germanl' and ultimately to Lombardl. Brick architecture $as introduced into the Danish church under Waldcnrar the Great (rr57-8:) and Archbishop Absolon (d. rzor). Good examplesof this pcriod exist on the isle o f Z e a l a n d R i n g s t c d ,S o r o , \ b b c l s ; a l s o V i t s k o l ( i n _ J u t l a n d ,( , i s t e r c i i r n ) . r I t i s s a i d t h a t o f 2ooo Darish churches in Dcnmark, ovcr I8oo
A series of'round churches mrkes an interest-
a c t e r i s t i cD a n i s h r o u n d c h u r c h e s o n t h c i s l e o f Bornholm, dated betwecn Io5o and r3oo N-v, N 1 ' l a r , S t O l o f . O s t e r l a r [ 1 4 4 1 .T h e s e b u i l d i n g s har,e single central piers and annular vaults, apsidal extensions, and upper stages (now covered by conical roofs) which were fitted for def'cnce. Others are more elaboratc. At Horne 'I'orsager (on l-ven), (of brick, in Jutland).
\ scANDlNAvlA 434
435
scANDINAVIA, BRITAIN' AND NORTHERN FRANCE
their of the sanctttaries and
Biernede, near Soro (on Zealand), and Store Heddinge (octagonal, on Zealand) the churches
barn-type nave and chancel church with 5o;,1 Iog walls.-
have interior piers, an upper stage,and a central tower. They would be like the German palace
As in Denmark, there is an interesting florr.,,1 influences lrom abroad in the masonr\ archi_ tecture. The work is often rrther crude hut
chrpels but fbr the fact that the central area is vaulted at the level of the lorver aisles. Ledoje o n Z e a l a n d ,h o w e v e r ,h a s a n o p e n w e l l . K a l u n d -
novel, eff'ective, and energetic cornbinatil;n, w e r e m a c l e ,a n d t h e p r e v a i l i n g s i m p l i c i t r o f 1 6 , ,
borg on Zealand has the most monumental
works gives them an austere charm.
example, fbr there are four tangent octrgonal
The coming in of foreign influences is pe1Ibctly exemplified on the isle of Gotland, which
towers on the major axes in addition to the central tower.6
S WE D E N Nledieval Sweden aroselrom a union of Scandinavians and Goths. 81-the year rooo there was a strong kingdom established in and about 'fhe Uppsala. first xpostle to Sweden was St Ansgar (d. about 865) who laboured in the
was Swedish from about the year rooo, and centred in Visby, one of the Hansa cities.' \'isby had active relations with all Scandinaria, ths Westphalia, France, Englancl, 'I'he Russia, Byzantium, and even Persia.
Rhineland,
Russians had a church there. and Russian in'icon fluence may account for the churchcs', with carved exteriors (like those ofthe School of
r e g i o n o f L a k e M i l a r w i t h e p h e m e r a lr e s u l t s . I t
Vladimir). which once existed on the Island. Its h e r o i c a g e e n d e d w i t h D a n i s h c o n q u e s ti n I t 6 r .
was two centuries later that St Siglrid and others
Visbv Cathedral, the finest of all the manr old
from England established here the first Christian settlements of importance in Sweden, not f'ar north of'the prescnt Stockholm.
c h u r c h e so n G o t l a n d , i s t h e o l d G e r m a n n l t r o n r l church ofSt N{ary, first built in the twelfih cent u r y ' , r e b u i l t a n d d e d i c a t e di n t z z 5 . I t s w c s r e r n
-{s in Norwav, there wcre wooden churches,
t o w c r a n c l i t s p a i r o f ' s l e n d e r e ' re a s t e r n t o \ \ c r s
but none has come down fiom the earliest period. S c i d r aR : i d a ,t l a t e dl b o u t t j o o . s u r r i r e s : i t i s a
flanking an angular sanctuarv now h:lve Baroque bclfries, but tlre (brm of the building, dcspitc
Romanesque'the screening-off is unmistakably ^^rhicwindows, with an anguur weightirheHotvSpiritis a norelinrer- ;;;;;;d,,osether of examples' Anglo-Saxon recall flll'.i'"t.n - n t oinu .plan, a ness of the motifof Schwarzrheindorl" Sigtuna to the,old ]j:;;i"t f r o m r r j 5 a b o u t pt?li''t"n. nearLake (old) Uppmtinrand'Sigtuna'whichis centre of Uppsala' now Gamla
t:*rj, r-,ri,.l :, ""rr r"::T: il"ill:'il:
rovrl
archiepiscopal In rt6.+: mi" ,tt. .". b.."*t the prn"".l .. were still held as late as ro84 in iansiatanr tt:: tnt t":1:Ln 'glistening with gold" which was Il"r"it*stt"ainar oiir.-pr. cathedral the same site, by thc ne w i.pf"..a,'o" t rutns' church S t Peter' L i k e two the , r 3 4 - - 5 o r ' rI f + 2 , : + S l in t"i"ttrt but The stone-workis vigorous' "bout and transepsanctuary had church the Sigtuna, of compartments with ,"i"l
wtt in from Lnglano
o'l1::':-::lT:: i',i"'r"' l:i: )."JHl'
(r I roo-3s) [345' ;;t. ambitiousSt olaf ' still preserved' towcr crossing the has ;f ;rt; side of. it cach ii.r. ,r. tg'o archesuncler nave'tnosc short a upon giting thoseat the west equal nearlv of sanctuarv a upon at the east to$er thc under Lngth, whilc thoseat the side bound the takl tfreir placesin the arcadeswhich entranccs' lateral The aisles' the inner sidesof
il;
"r" "i
but the st slitia rna his companions'
cornes in the period church, clateciabout Irqo' strong' The westwas influence *h.n G"r-r" a common lagade' Saxon a rvork looks like Skine'11 in esPeciallY feature .have Abbey,12where excavations ,t,Vrrttt,.conventual the of brought the substructures
fbundations' a. Na.c. aisles. transcpt
, t O l a l ,r . r r o o 3 r 3 , 1 .a5n d 3 4 6 .S i g t u n aS
crthcdral' 3+7and 348.Gamla Lppsala' former t. Ir34-5o, thirteenth centur]'
traced bl excarations still usctl rs a church t,.'ntr"ni p"*, ut tathcdral' to closc tn i. -{delitions, largcll medicral' rnrl augment thc Present church 't lburd br c\ci\ ations i sce 3fr t..:.. of t..pl", ).
SCANDINAVIA 436
437
FRANCE scANDINAVIA, BRITAIN' AND NORTFIERN
examplcs' both augRingcbu and I'om are elements Ut'tog-wall or vertical planked '""nlli;"..tnd -..,,.a
I n t h e s m a l l e rc h u r c h e st h r o u g h o q rnl r , . , r ;
b-vtall GothicspiresUrdal'
Sr+edenthe same charactcristic\ ,t.
n;:r::i' E r e n a s l a t e a s l h c f o u r t c c n t h c e n ru r r . . i , r r . i , l
twice lengthened also thirteenth-century'was becamecruciform and 1684), in i l. "n."*r RingebuandLom) in rTzo' iiti.,i. '"Wt.n;-po'tant ""r-"nted churchbuilding in stonebethe Norse Wcst ean in Norwav about rroo' "-..*"i tt t derivatire Anglo-Norman style' is fbund at St NlagnusCathedral' i..i*..u thc thirtecnth cenKirkrvall, Orknerl (r r17 to similaritiesto understanclable turvL which has piers' square nur'iu. Cathedral (c1'lindrical CatheStavrn-ger .hrp.t, castof the transcpt)' Anglo-Norman aisled large r l.ul ..."-blt'
o l R o m a n e s q u ec h a r a c t e ru e r e h e i n q L , , ; t r ur, matter of course, rnd ther fit bt.autitirllrinrn the northern landscape.1'hev usuallr 1n1.., round apse, a higher sanctllar\, comp,lrtmrnt, a still higher nave, and ordinarilv a lairlr tall tower. Except lbr the towers, thc morcment 6i the designs is strongly horizontal, and surpris_ r e c a l l s s u c h t r a d i t i o n a l b r . r i l t l i n g sx 5 Aurbche (tenth century) in the Loirc countrr l . z o o l ,1 h e i n t e r i o r r a u l t i n g i s h e a r r , ' r r , , n g i r
ingly
r e m i n i s c e n t o f R o m a n e s q u e ,a n d n c i c r c a r r i e 6 r c r r h i g h . s o t h a t t h c i n t e r i o r p r r ) l ) ( ) r l i r l \a r ! 'lhis description applics to the filurspacious. teenth-century church at Lrirbro on the isle ol' G o t l a n d , l s a l r e a d y ' c i t e d a s p o s s c s s i n gs t i l l a Romanesque-t)'pe \.ault with its centcrins ;ntact [ : 5 o , J S t ] . I n s u c h l a t e b u i l d i n g s t h e v i r u l t i n gi s at most half-Gothic except in metropolitan 'Ihc ornament is sparc lnd sobcr, a examples. fblk alt. T h e S w e d c st o o k t h i s s t y l c t o F i n l a n d . a st h e l expanded their power on the eastsholc ol the Baltic. The oldest Finnish churches il) nr;rs()nr) come after I2oo, but in man-v wr)'s thc\ lre stlll 'f R o m a n e s q u e . l| h c s t y l e l i v e s o n u n r c c o g l . l l r c d l 349.Husaby, Skaraborg,church, r. rr5o
but really unforgotren. in much of tlrt l;rtcr architecturethroughout Scrndinavia.
buildings to light south ofthe church, the monastcry was lbunded about r r5o b1'a colony from .\lrastra, the first Cistcrcian monaster\ in S w e d e n ( r r . 1 j ) . T h e c h u r c h . d a t e d , . r 2 3 5- 6 o ,
NOR\4'AY]5
smallcr in is a kind of Northern Pontigny s c a l e ,b u t r e l a t i v e l y h e a l i e r a n d s i m p l e r . In Ostergbtland, Vrcta monasterv churchr: was begun aftcr r Ioo as a simplc littlc basilica with transepts;befbre r r6z a small royal burial chapel of centralized plan and a nerv crucilbrm east end had becn addecl. In the ycar mentioned a Cistercian monasterv was fbundcd here, and the monks doubtless fbund thc austerity of thc church to their liking.
It is to be remcmbered that the Shcrl'rrrd:' Olknels, and northern Scotland $er( r'lll(l(r Norse control in thc elerenthcenturr. trr lilrt t h e B r i t i s h I s l es s e e m e d l e s s r e m r t t c f r o r n \idaros ol Trondheim than Denmark rrr'l lhc cnC o n t i n e n t .H e n c et h c c o m i n g o l ' E n g l i s hc h L t r men lo Norr.rar in the middle ol lhc tttttn conc e n t u r ] ' . I t i s d o u b t f u l i i a n v s t r u c t r r r e so f tt55' f c f i r r c s e q u e n c cw e r e b u i l t f b r t h e C h u r c h r'tttr l i t l r u s e , i n c o n t i n u c d c h u r c h e s \{ast a t i o n s . e v e n i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r f i r n c ll ' t t c : '
*'-i"1f"iin'."-11 .il-- +f iil..i,0., -'thanamplc 'il:Y]^:.:.:1t' (about^rr5o; rl 'l. ', . lt '* ". 1 fn io',*n"o' ornanking':"':" H ;;";;ih'" pair
i
[ ' [ ]I" < ^ ^:{ ' ' " -1 = ,6=Ji{ .. . \--l
" " 'Bcrgen cathcdrll'
1:]-':l t h e so1e1 r h a t t h r t h e r t o .. .r:-htl\. earlie(
earrier a srightrr roharebeen ."*:;;;;; rt,)r \ rrrL but uur the -fff:-.ffit lntluence' examplc of \nglo-Norman .'"-i"'.Ji^::,t-:-i".fl1l,il,tli'"*' ,$ i'rl.{ i FIl,;I E .,*' l rs centur\" ^'to ,, .:.tF vault is of the thirteenth
1r
.i-]"'";; il;"'
(Trondheim) "'T"ll-:n::'hll.1 of st olaf bl olaf the tomb
o.;;;;;;;;r'er
it.'. i' "uoq:)'Thcsee^was :ilYj,: i::i:': Ldrb*r.c:llT1:u..cnrh 35oand35r. cenru^. il;;;i;;'';: ] :,:-,.1fflil::',;:i:.* \\asIhcnbtrr chrrreter Norman :llfl#:fU**lill',1;""il;o'ismut
"n'"ing
,t.
at least partll' t'o-U-.t'urch' This was
transeptal onc of the existing Thc corrcst l 6 r ' i n c o n s e c r a t e d .ito"t. \\its ga\e wa]'to a never completed' O 'Cothic"construction' o"ai"g navei was and the tomb-church
i"'tri.i-
iti"i"il. ;;;;;;"'
*n."
Gothic *t thirteenthcentur'bv ir
of.the rotunda of complcted bv r3zo'
ititi-tie.tr*,
been Diion' as has alreacl-v
it was a great place of noted I like Saint-Benlgne'
"' nilsrimage' operating t hrough (perhaps ""li""r". t.n "ence England)wasf.cltin thc ii;"t No'ma" H;;;, liom Norwav' whereinfluencc ."uitr r"a "",'of Dcnmark was necessarill-rcrl' and ;;;;;; King Sigurd wrs Jt""* *n." the pilgrim wasalrcad-'Cathe
438
S C A N D T N A V T A ,B R r T A r N , . 4 , N DN O R T H E R N !RANCE
central tower, sanctuarv, and apse with flankinE c h a p e l s ;H a m a r C t t h e t l r - a l .b u i l r a t i e r .r r S : . , ra l a someu har similar builtling u.irh ge'nerous c v l i n d r i c a ln a r . ep i c r s , a n d r w o * . r , . . , i ,o*.rr. Both these buildings are in ruins. More fbrtun_ a t e i s R i n g s a k e r( r r r 3 3o and later), an unusual building, with quadrant-\.aulted aisles, tunnel_ v a u l t e d n a v e ,l o n g n a r r o w t r a n s e p t , d e e ps a n c t u _ ar.r, and crossing touer. Hcrc ,rnd clsewhere, w . h e nr a u l t i n g i s p r c s c n t .i t i s n o r ca.rie.l,ertl high. so rhar the inrerior proporrions ,.. broud and spacious. NIanv rustic churches dot the Norwesian 'fher countrJ'sidc. a r e o l s i m p l e r n n r o n r r .. o n _
slructlon, ordinaril,v wootlcn_roolerl t i m e s * i t h r i m b e r g a b l e s .B a s i c a l l r ;1,,,,:^. t, b a r n - s h a p e dn a \ c . w i t h a s m a l l c r b"__.'.' chancel berond a narrou chanccl ,r.1,'r1l,d .o o l i e n i n S a x o n E n g l a n d .I n c o n t r a s r ,,,,u .l] c h u r c h c s ,t h e s ed e s i g n sh a ' e a srrongh ,;.;:"i: molemenl. To thcir brri. .lemcnr, .,.,]"10, added a barn-liLe wcsrernporch, a ,"rni; ;::,.,t. a p s e ,a w o o d e n p i n n a c l e. T h e orieinal ,,,;;:1" w e r c n e i r h e rl a r g en o r n u n l c r o u . l" i",.,.::;lJ cxample ol ,. ro5o or a little lrt"l.,,,irr."rl Hlaler, with trusses of Ro:
membering; it is more "Jii:T::'1"3::rl: slope.
24 cflLPTEB'
F . R A N C EA N D N O R \ I A N E N G I , A N T ) N9RTHERN
E OF ROMANESQLT 9RENCH Uott' OR RHI\FL{\D O,""U
FR{\('E
rre still uithin thc F]1n:t In Rhineland ".: the old Cirrolingian {ustrasia The o f bord.r, i t s -a r c h i t c c t t r r e a s t h c l-od.rn .l.ttifr.alionot F ' a s ld o e s n o t d i s g u i s et h e t h c o t irench S.hool in uorks of the Rhinelantl' f o r c e f u l n e s s b.rarn itself felt f'ar towards the \\est' snd this made -l less emphasis' hc progressivell' though with 'douhle-endcr' scheme' lbl inrtance' German of \rerdun' penetratedas lar as the cathcdrals 'B"rrngon, and Nevers, the westwork as far as Chitillon-sur-Seine. However. there is earlier French precedent for both the schemes u'hich have iust been cited as examples, and it is sometimes diflicult to judge whether Rhenish influence u'irs direct, or whether it merelv rcinfbrced local tendencies' This is the case with the motif of paired towers flanking an apse. traced (as round stair towers) a sf a r b a c k a s S a i n t - R i q u i e r . B e c a u s eo f ' t h e u n doubted power ot'the Rhenish stvlc, it is reasonableto admit its influence in this matter, even as far away as Pirris. In Alsace, the Rhcnish st,vle dominates; Neuweiler, Rosheim, Andlau, the examples previousl,t cited, and others' are evidence of this.r
THERoyAL DoMATN (ir-n-or.-nnaNct) A N DC H A M P A G N E Farther west, near the borders of Carolingian Neustria, a morc French touch is disccrniblc in the designs. In Champagne, for example, Nlontier-en-Der (,'. q8z) and Vignory (,'. Io5o [92]; with lalse triforia re sembling Carolingian
screens between the nave rnd aisles) have a Frcnch talltrcss ol nale proporlions and are casill grouped u'ith Saint-Remi at Reims ( r o o 5 f f . ) [ r r r ] l b r t h a t r e l s o n , a n d b e c a u s co t an rches' t h c r e l : r t i r e l rl o u a i s l e a r c a d e s a n d s c r c e The ambulatory and radiating chapels of Vignory are of the French type, as already noted; indeed Vignor.v was a priory of Saint-B6nigne' Dijon. Champagne ancl the ile-de-France in Earll' Romanesque times fbrn-recla sort of bridge between the Rhenish and the Loire regions l'he area included Reims, Laon, Beauvais, SaintParis, Melun, Sens' Orl6ans, and Bourges, with Chartres and'lours at no great d i s t a n c e .S o m e i m p o s i n g C a l o l i n g i a n b u i l d i n g s s u r v i ' r ' e c lt;h e o r d e r l v g o v e r n m e n t a n d g r o w i n g power of the early Capetians had showed itself
Denis.
in the construction of hrge and important churches, and as a result. no really notable works appear to have been needed, or built, in the late eleventh century, when the architectural ' developments llrere so intercsting elsewhere ot' s h r i n e s t h e The problem of nrodernizing r h e i l c - d e - l t r a n c ed i d n o t b e c o m e a c u l e u n t i l the tnclfth centur]' uhen the breath of ner'l intellcctual lif'e was drawn in Paris' Then the same t)pe of intellect which created scholasticism waslbcuscdon thc problemsofgreat church l r c h i r e c t u r e . V t ' h ; r rb e r r i n l s a l o c a l d i f l e r c n t i ation of' the Romanesquc stvle in ordinarv builclings with a clever t1'pe ofrib vaulting, bec a m e i l n e \ \ s t r l e t h r o u g l r t h c r c a s o n e d 'n o r e l ' ol a n d s r s l e m a ti c d e r e l o p m e n ta n d e x p l o i t a t i o n u' n e S u g e r ' s o f m o m e n t such vaulting. From the o t l a c e t h e ( a b o u t r r 3 5 ) design fbr Saint-Denis ' r r [ ' c s t e r na r c h i t e c r t r r eb e g a n t o c h a n g e
44O
SCANDINAVIA, BRITAIN,
AND NORTHERN T,RANCE N O R T H E R N T I R A N C EA N D N O R M A N E N G I , A N D
The Romanesque schoolofthe ile_de_France h a l l ' - C o t h i cu . a sl c f t b e h i n d lbund thc wav to maturity _ ancl tt oncc; it, r,,,, immortality were ol-rough stone l'ith thicl_ rnor,r'. i,,,,1]'r throughthe patientwork of rh. ma.on, irr-ih. and rhc ribs ofienendedapologe,i.ri,,"'il'. region bounded by Reims, provins, ' '--" ' rn Sens, r t t . t e i l uo r h e r c l o r c r r the oier.i Etampes,Mantes,Gournay, Saint_euen;in,;;; W h i l e r c r t I i t t l c rcmain, ol the work I.aon.They-discovered or rr: the bestur.-oi tt.'in. c r i t i c a . lt i m e , o u i n g t o u . a r s , a r r d local stone - cut to shape r".on.,r,,.l,u so that the mortar a l e w ' . l,,' ], . buildings merit our attention_ lornrs and the vaulting.cellscould U. ,m", I n P a r i s .S a i n r _ G e r n r a i n _ d e : _ p r i s . slightlyswelling,and built _ I ti: r .,;,, up of.rr.h"r..rting s h ows,amid much on. rather than engaged Gorhic *Urifa;"nlr.),f uith. the ,rnp.r;;;; s e \ e n t e e n r h _ c e n r u r \ .p s c u d o _ C o r h i . rib strucrurel.lzq.juot. rl.,tr irl when rheo";,:;;;:; o,o a\ral enlrance to\rer was introducedabout rr25 ol.q(ro lor.{, t.o..,h:,: chiefl,y 30, under w i r h r h e n a r c a n d a i s l e s Burgundianinfluence,this ol.a .hrr.h .l;,i,;;l,r::: tlpe of-r.aultbecame 'fhe y e r h a p s _ t oa b o u t r o 5 o . nave f,.a berter.anclcapableot.morc rp..*u_ l-.-.Tlr.lt bays, with semicl.lindricai ""1,i,., r a rd e l e l o p m e n rt h , a na n v o t h e r interior brr,i;.;;.; f t p e i n , , r an , between larple clercstorl lvindows, tr.n..,un'l the time- Since under Norman,-;. ;.;;;; wooden roof. It in.o.po.ute, Lombard inspiration, reproclucrions of. el"-"nt t" ;; carred capirals (lhe originals ;:; "n rvasprovidedfbr eachrib are norn in rh. ofthe urutr,,t. ion Llun-v Museum) uhich u a so p c n e df b r a s p c c r a c u l a r need to be studir,i in a e s r h e r di ce r e t o f _ connexion with the contemporary ment based on linear and Gcrnran symbolic ,O*"la revival ofsculpture. .fhe movement.1'hisexplains church haj a transcpr whv the Bureundiu; e n d i n g in absidioles, Pitit, Srinr_Gcrmrin_des_pres,
iii: e lc\enth and twelfth ccnturies
a n d a n a p s ei c h e l o n . T . h c r e was a pair of towers flanking th. *ni.l a g a i n r e c a l l sG e r m a n p r a c t l c e . "ps., 'Ihe samc tower arrangemcnt _ occrrrs tt N , l o r i e n r . a ln, e a r C o m p i d g n e , d a t e da b o u t r o i o . ; e\cept lbr the famous a m b u 1 2 1 6 1a. c1t d e . t ; r r ' r 1 , , .l.he E a r l y G o t h i c s t , \ , l ea b o u t r rz.:. interior h.rs a,Car.olingian fl,yinfi screen across thc nalc, ilr)(] t h e _ a i s l e sa r e g r o i n - r . a u l t e d . It was pionn.:d ,o build a tunnrl vault over thc sanctuarr lr:rr b c l w e e n l h e t o w e r s ,h r t r rrbrr"or;r,l;n, ,,,i, was erectedinstead. In this bridge-territorv b e t r v e e nt h e R h e n i , j r and the Loire regions, o n " r n u 1 .c r t e o t h c r . i n _ s t a n c e s0 1 ' e l e m e n t sw h i c h fbllow a German n:rr_ t e r n a s i n t h e p r e t t 1 ,n, a r t h e x at L rcel but ri,. luture ot rhe Schoolof.rhe i l c _ d e _ F r ; r n t .rcr . r . not bound up with Germanv. It was fo flolcr. as Gothic, in the glow of'gJrcat Norman Romirnesque, lnsplrsd at an carlr. periotl fiom thc [ , o r r ec o u n t n - .a n d d e r e l o p e t l in rheDrrchr ;ut,l rn Lngland;meanwhile, t h c r e u : r sm u c h h c sj r , r _ tion. The plain little church of Sainr_Loup_cle_ Naud (r. ro5o rr5o)isanaptillusrration_.I.hcrt,
+4r
vault. lnrihbcd at the cirsl. chrnges the high g x p e r i m e n t a l l rl i o n t b r t r t o b a r . h e i n g t i n i s h e d r a u l ts I t h e r e i s a l s o a G u t l ri c p o l t a l *iih tbur rib under a charactcristic rib-vaulted sheltered j p o r c h .C e r n ] - e n - L a o n n a i s [ . 1 5 l h a : d i a p h r : r g m rrches oler tne na\-c' Another church of-the period, honest rather
towers:rre picturestluc f'eaturesoi-the lrrndscape, irncltheir pretn' design docs much to rcdcem
than inspiring, is Saint-Etienne at Betuvais a i s l e d b u i l d i n g o f r ' . r r z 5 . 1 ow i t h a n BS+1,^n ungainly later sanctuar)-. The building has a rich lateralportel, and a famous reprcsentation
a s a t I l o r i c n r a l . S r r i n t - R e m i ,R e i m s , h a s a p a i r o f ( a g a d et o $ e r s , o r r a t h e r t u r r e t s , o t ' R o m a n 'fhe csquc origineastern towcrs of Nlorienl'al
of the Whecl of liortune about thc circular window of the north transept. There is perceptible progrcss between thc archaic aisle
arcading over a square plan. In the regions of B c r r u c c ,B r i e . r h c . S o i s s o n l r a i s; ,r n t l t h e i l e - d e -
v a u l t so f , . r r z 5 a n d t h e h i g h r : r u l t o 1 ' r ' .t r 4 o . " In plan, the small churcheswhich remain to us generallv have nrres with aislcs; thc transepts have absidioles; the sanctuar!' rnav tcrminatein a straight wall, or with an apse.The
the churches. Some towers arc at the fagade (this is thc case at Nlorienral), others rt the c r o s s i n g( a si n t h c c a s eo f ' S a i n t - l v o u l , P r o v i n s ) , o r f l a n k i n g t h e c h o i r - s i n g l c , a s i n t h e c a s eo f T'rao'-le-Val (an exceptionaloctagon), or plired,
a r e t v p i c a l , b e i n g b u i l t u p s t a g eu p o n s t a g ew i t h
lfrance, the opcnings arc flankecl br flat buttresses, but such buttrcsses are not clrarac'fhe teristic in Champagnc, Bar, and Lorraine. workmanship is mediocrc in the older building;s, and the ornament (chelrons, frets, stars, and geometrical designs, together with corbel
portals are columnar, but their sculpture is 'l'hc simple; there arc porches occasionalh.
tables) is lar from inspired. How difcrent rvas
353.Cerny-en-Laonnris,church,r
1 5 . 1 .B e a u r a i s , S a i n t - E t i e n n c , L . t r z s + o
the future I
442
SCANDTNAvIA, BRITAIN,
_{ND NORTTIERN !RANCE N O R T H L - R NF R { \ L L
N o R N t AN o y r o 'l'he
work all had a dramaric fururein N,,,* c h u r c h a r c h i r c c t u r eT. h c nn. U_..,,,,1.t0n C a e n .w h i c hi s u n s u r p a s s e t l , r".,,.,,,"i',]1,-1, r r e r c a d v a n t a g e ohuesi:n g s k i l l a d r, *.,,.,,,.,1.t p o r t , ( h e N o r m a n sm a d e t h c m F . " _ r r l l , ,';\,a: r: :l -; rOf f n e b u i l d i n g . r . n i n E n g l r , " '" .41 Ethnic connexionsu.ith D.n_rrl, .n..n,,,. ,..,, communrt.ations and engender.cl nrr lrint,.,,,.1-" t r m ea n d o r h e rc o n l a c r a s l o n gr h e i " , ; r r . , , : " : s h o r e sa n d r i v e r s . i n c l u d i " * .""rr.',r]l R h i n e l a n d . 'hl ep o w e rut l O r ", r o n i a nr r . h ; , . , ,; , , 1 : of'rhar regionundoubredly i"fl ,";.;.i;l: \:ll mansro someextent in their feelingfbr gra14 scalc,and rheirpredilectionlbr .cu bical,ca;i l;f;* Through Maine the No
Northmen, once settled (9rr) and converted.to Christianitv, undertook to builj a stafe. As usual, there are faces of.this in the architecrure. Jumicges, a grear abhcl lbuntled rn o)-+ bJ -\r philibert, whore namc \rc hare neardso often.had declined during rheperiod of the in'asion, but Duke Willir_'Long.;;;; i r ( q 3 4a n d l a l e r ) . r r' l he*"r, .nj of,t,l l:ttot.d o , S a j n r _ p i e r r e .t l i r l . r . wcll pr.escncdin ',n,,r:l the abbe]. ruin, rvhile it is small ir, ,.uf., ..f._ sentsthis morirent, and a l r e a c l y. h o * , , f r . . r * mistakable r.err.e which Norn_,rn R";;;;; architecture was to possess so abunAanrlv 1j551. Thc ruo n.csrern fo*err (menrion..t in'u'a-. totheLoilrc cou^; ;';; ;:1;;::r*l ;, :l#: n o u r u r n o u s ) .t h e t r i b u n e h e t $ e . e n, f , . , o * . ' r l , architectural heritage, the the trifbriunt passage, lbrcc of *.fri.f, ,rls, and the excellent ashla; s o m e h o u . c o m m u n i c a t e dt o the Norman". Bur_ t 5 5 ,J u m r c g e sr.u i n o l r b b c r c h u r t . h u l S i r i n t - l , i c r r c, .. q . t +r n d larc.
A\D
NORMAN ENGLA\D
+4.J
3 5 6B . e r n a l ,a b b e l ' c h u r c h r. o r T . . r o . 5 - 5
gundian architectural influence came to Nor-
built of better masonrl', and morc elaborate in
mandy in rooz, when, at the invitation of Duke Richard II, William of Dijon sent monks from
certain details, such as oblong piers aug;mentcd
Saint-Bdnigne to reform the Nornran monasteries. It was doubtless in this waJ' that the schemeof Clunv II became one of the themes o(' Norman Romanesque architecture, beginning with the abbev church ot'Berna1.. B e r n a l , ' , r 2u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n l i o m
rorT to a b o u t r o 5 5 , w a s g r a n d e r i n s c a l et h a n C l u n l ' I I ,
357.Jumidges, abbeychurch of Norrc-Dame, ro.;7 6(r
b1' engagedcolumns, a decoratire arcade suggestive of a triforium, and sculptured capitals 'I'he o f a r a t h e r c r u d e b u t i n t e r e s t i n gs o r t [ 3 5 6 J . latter have some relationship to carh' Clunirc sculptured capitals. One of'them is signed T s E M B A R D U SM E F E C I . ' . L a t e r , h O w e v e r ,t h c Normans preferred the Germanic and Lombard'cubical'capital and simple fbrms from the
NORTHERN FRANC[, AND NOR]\IAN ENGI,A\D
The mouldings have some conLo:r.e tea,. thoseofthe crypt ofAuxerre lr rzl, w i t h nexion perhaps through the Loire region. Bcrnal s t a n d sa r t h e h e a d o f a w h o l e g r o u p o t t i n e parish churches. f,nglo-Norman abbey and A second great group was soon filrmecl. Beforc ro37 an ambitious cathcdral with apse, ambulatorv, and radiating chapels in the stvle of the Loire countr]' was begun at Roucn. It w a sd e d i c a t e d i n r o 6 3 . r ' r Into this ambicnt canle the great Lantianc ( r o 3 g ) a n d o t h e r l - o m b a r d e c c l e s i a s t i c so, p e n 35g.Interior elevations:(r) -lumregcs, ebbeychurcho{ \otrc-Dame, to37 6(i, nave, (n)Durham Cathcdral, rog-i 9, choir
358.Jumiiges,abbe.rchurch ol \otre_Dame, ro37 6(r
+45
ing thc wav fbr influence fiom their rerv int e r e s t i n gp a r t o f ' t h c w o r l d . A t t h e a b b c v o f B e c i n r o 4 . 5L a n i r a n c s e t u p a s c h o o l w l i i c h s o o n achiered international imDortancc.'lhc chiet' Norman monasteries became important organs of the flourishing ncw feudal state. Thus lvr: understand thc grand scale and noble dcsignof thc latcr abbe\,churchofNotreDame at Jumiiges'r [:SZ ql. 1-his church wrs begun in ro37 and finished in ro6(r. but not d c d i c a t e c lu n t i l r 0 6 7 , b c c : r u s eD u k e \ [ ' i l l i a m , whosc prcsencc ltas dcsired at the ccremonv, had an errand in England. 1'he liqatle ol'the abbel' church is madc up o1'tuo substantial squ:rre to$ el.s with octagonll upper sterges ( d o u b l e o n o n c s i d e , s i n g l e w i t h b u r t r c s s c sa n d
s t a g eo n I h e o t h e r ) . a p r o i c c t i n g p o r c h nc.ilcular antl the narc uall uith irs gable. litttiuun". begun in ro5z. hirs lbttr gcnerou: n r n . . ii. d i m c n s i o n c d t l ou h l e h a r: s i t h , r r dh r n d t o r n " l t . supports and crouped iterm.diate _.:l.uTntt which intern:rl bultres\cs l'ormerlr f t o m nia6 'l ht'lislct lntl t o p o l t . h en a r e s a l l r o s a t ot h a (opening through triplct arches on the tribunes b a v s u p o f s q u a r e d irided bl n r a d e a r e t h en a v e ) and sroin-r'aulted without arches, trensverse ribs. The tribunes were continLlecl, supportcd similarlv, as platfbrm chapels, one in each ,rrm o f t h e t r a n s e p t ra n d t h e n c e e a s t s a r d o r e r p i e r s llanking the sanctuarr to a small gallerv around the apse, which had an ambulatorv without 'lhe nave and transcpt radiating chapels. perhapsalso the sanctuar.t- had wooden roof-
30l
\lont-Saint-Michcl,:rber
church, r. r roo
ing, and at the crossing there were fbur grcat arches,supporting a nragnificent lantern tower of two stages, also rool'ed in wood. Roofing in wood permitted encrg'etic tall proportions and a -l'he stout walls of fine large vast clerestorl''. ashlarblocks arc one of the beautiesofthe building, which is harmonious in proportion and verv simple in detail. Capitals of a good rudimentarr' Corinthian shapc receired painted decoration. The Norman Romanesque was now matllre, except for the problem ofthe high vault, which w a ss a t i s f a c t o r i l l s o l r c d i n a g e n e r a t i o nm o r e . Jumiiges w:rs onll' one of a notable scrics ol' c h u r c h e sb u i l t a t t h e t i m e ; t h e a b b e v so l ' N l o n t S a i n t - M i c h e l ( r o z 4 t l 4 ) 1 3 6 o ,3 6 r I a n d B c c ( , . t o 6 6 i l ) t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c a t h c d r x l so f R o u e n (c. ro37 63), Coutances (r. ro3o t;r), Barcur ( b e f o r er o 4 t 1 ,t o 1 0 7 7 , r e b L r i l tw i t h a n e l a b o r a t e a r c a d ei n t h e t w e l l t h c e n t u r ] ' , a n d t h c n a g a i n i n the Gothic sn,le), and Erreur (to ro76), rvcre t h e c h i e f a m o n s t h e m . B e c a u s ca l m o s t a l l t h e s c buildingshnr.-b..n lost, it is dil}culr to lbllorv t h e g r o w t h o l t h e N o r m a n R o n . r a n e s q u cs t r l e ,
\{ont-Saint-\Iichcl
,{bbcr., tozq
tzz6 and later, air view
andto know exacth,what fcatrrres particularh' ofvaulting - had bcen dcrelopcd at the time when the Conquest gar,c to Norman architects t h e i r s t u p e n < l o r r so p p o r t u n i t v i n E n g l a r - r d . 1 l
l liet$o grertabber, rf'(,acnshou adltncing . s l S t r so f n r a t u r i t v . - I ' h t r v e r e f i r u n t l c r l b r \ \ ' i l liurll1ni \tlrildl in:xpiarion ,,1 rheir unc a r 1 1 ; n i c 1m[ a r r i a g e ( r r r h i n t h e f b r b i d d e n c l e Brtcs; later dispensed':rnd arc stock examples of the Norman Romar:sque on thc Continent. Sainte-'I'rinit6rl [3(,:, .i6il, the church conn c t t e c lr v i t h . \ I a t i l d a ' s . b b i r v c - au r - D a m e s , w x s b(tju.t in ro6z and hiJ a prelinrinarr,dedicati(,n in ro6f). -I'he Qrecn uas buriecl in its s a r r c t u i l r li n r o 8 3 , b u t r h i s v c n l i a n d s o n r cp a r t o l t h e c h u r c h u n d o u l ' c ' c l l rr c p r e s c n t sa n i u g I"Il,rntationof' the ori:inal schcmc, su!igestc(l ptrhaps bv the roval jrandeur ol l,divard tirc ( ) , n 1 ' e " . o r ' ' "W c s t m i n , : r r ( r . r o - 5 o 6 5 ) . S l i n t e -
NORMAN ENGLAND NORTHERN FRANCE AND 448
449
SCANDINAVIA, BRITAIN, AND NORTHERN IRANCE
T r i n i t 6 h a d : r n a p s ed c h e l o n . o f ' w h i c h t h c d c c p northcrn chrpels have been restored, but not t h e s o u t h e r n p a i r . T h e m a i n s a n c t u a r r .h a s t r v o g r a n d b i g b a v s o f ' u n r i b b e d g r o i n v a u l t i n p ;a b o l e a c l e r e s t o r va n d w a l l p x s s a !i epj l u s a h a n d s o m e
a p s e u i t h a f i c e - s t a n d i n qa r c a d ei n t r \ , , \ r ( , r . , . u h i c h s r s p r o b a h l l i n s p i r e db v S a i n r - l t . n i s n j 'l'here at Diion. i s a b r o a d t r a n s ep r . , , , . r " . . 1 h. quadripartite rib vaulting (rvith doublerl cc1;. at the cnds, making two ingenious cincripl1.1111 raults), then a long naveof'which thc aislr rirll. a r e a r c h a i c ( o f r o 6 6 ? ) . l ' h e a i s l e sa r e c o \ r r r d b\ a ( r e s t o r e c l )c o n t i n u o u s t u n n e l I a u l t * i r l t p r n t trations; the grouped picrs are unifbrnr. , { b o l e t h e n a r . c a r c a d e t h e r v o r k i s l i r r c r i.n date and more elaboratc in dcsign. lr hrs a d e c o r a t i r e t r i l i r r i u m , a n a r c a d c dc l e r e s r o r .ur i t h a l r ' : r l l p a s s a g e ,a n d a p s e u d o - s c r p a r t i t e r 1 1 1 1 1 dated perhaps trr-5 or earlicr (corrso.rirrirclr, rr2s). This rault is likc:l scricsof hig tlLr.rtlripartite ribbed groincd doublc bars \\rrh rhc addition of'a trans\ersc diaphragnr irrcll{)nlhc a x i s o l e a c h ,s o t h a t e a c ho f ' t h c b a l s h a s s i r r r r c l s o f v a u l t i n e s u r l h c e .S u c h a v a u l t i s c a l l e c p l ieudos e x p a r t i t e b e c a u s et h e t r u e s e \ p a r t i t e r , t L r l t r n u b a l h a s o n e a c h s i d e ( i n s t c a d o f ' a l a l g - cl r r r c l r l b a r b i s e c t e db v t h e r e r t i c a l d i a p h r a g n . r r) rr r ' , r n s Y e r s cr i b a n d t w o l a t e r a lc e l l s o f r a u l t i n g . ' l ' h e c h u r c h h a s a q u a d r i p a r t i t e b a 1 o r e r t h c l r i s tu n j t o f t h c n a r e p r o p c r , a n d a s e x p a r t i t eh l t ' b r t r i c e n
J6z and -tb-]. C.rrcn, -\bba1'e-aur-l )ames, Sainte-'l'rin it6, bcgun ro{r.:
the western tower pair, originallr open on the g r o u r r d s t r r g c ,b u t s 1 ' r o i l e d subscqucnth br leb u i l c l i n g . I n t h c r o o f - s p a c e o l c r t h c a i s l c st l i c p u r l i n s o f t h e r o o f ' a r cs u p p o r t e d b 1 l i g h t , r r c h e s
The aisles its structure is vaulted at the sides transverse w i t h b a 1 . s s q u r r e i n arc groin-r'aulted with quadrant-r'aulted' is gallerv th. lrr.li"r; This iustifies the transverso arches in each case' lrom the rises which interior buttressing a r c a d e ' ' f h e profeca i s l e t h e o t p i e r s grouped alternatclv complex (a half-column iion. "..with a dosserct) and a simplc half--colum.n' passageot th.e $ hich stopped belorv thc arcaded -l'here between thts passage a was clcrestorl'. an ccho' wall clerestorv arcadc and the window ol Ouislreham and Berniircs'r' Sainti n p a s s a g e -l i'"i rt .i n r. t- E t i . n t t e ' : s i m i l a r evidentli, of the con! . 1 t r - 17 l ' t h c c h u r c h bccame.a p a s s a g e s S t t c h D i i o n a t Bdnignc -l'he \\ illiam's \bbare-aux-Hommes' neJieawith reeul"a,(eat.,re of the Norman clcrestories' the outskirts ol'('lcn' o n g r " ' r n d l r u p onen uPon on r"nat airlcs and gallerl ol saint-Etienne its mcdierel con\entual strucorders' trvo in Jough b.r"ri ot arches uniform through the nave in r o67 or r o68 ; there was a tr.r. t, was begun has been rebuilt to clerestorv ofthe arcade The in roTj' and othcrs masonrv oratit;ntrt consecralion rcceive the thrusts of, and to support' rotlt ln ro85 o5 thc a n d ' o 7 7 i n vault iotto*.a rib sexpartite a nlve vaulting in the alreaclr' building a similar but ronk, *.r. fbur big in out set Gothic) to (transitional of Saint-Nicholas smaller church fbr the parish doubie ba1''s. that of Clunllike plan basicalll. a on in Caen,ls with 'I'he nate is extcndcd (b1' a square ba-v chevet' the II and Berna-v' lt Saint-Nicholas two betwcen side) western its on thrce cclls on tht: exwith corridor chapcls squrre-ended torvers, Iinished with quite western magnificent through t e r i o r ,a n d o p e n i n g t r p o n t h e s a n c l u i r \ At the crosslorcly stone spires in Gothic times o1'Sainttwin arches, is belielecl to repeilt that with,an lantern is a there ing of S"int-Etienne -fhe Etienne itself. irnd so it is with tlre transept transept nas adjacent vault' rib octopartite absidioles. were oblong rib-taulted bals''fhc sanctuartcs nale' long mrrgnificent a has Saint-Etienne characancl bcrrutiful replacecl in tzoz b1' I which was plannecl for rvoodcn roofing' though
,nnn iii:i"Il:ilill];: :i::l ::::[:':
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IITH
CENTURY
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iq [Fe'Snsffils i'trnt qha4 @firo 364.Caen,Abbrle-aux-IIonrmes,Saint-Eticnne' begunr. io68
zo
6oFT
45O
SCANDINAVIA, BRITAIN,
AND NORTTIERN FRANCF,
Saint-Etienne'begun ' roti8 Caen,Abba-ve-aux-Hommes' 365and366
452
SCANDINAVIA,
BRITAIN,
AND
NORTHERN
Gothic design, of fulh {gveloped character and local savour. It is easl'to compare the typical Gothic r a1111-
exampleis Saint-Georges .he rnostimportant tl'.^i",-Hl"t,in-de-Boscherville-' { 368' j6q l'
ing of the sanctuary with the transitional rrol1 in the nave [f66]. The big double nave bars lyg
rr2i' ratner c dated about centur) ', nineteenth :- +L- I ofrib raulting is, ProEressachier ed rn tne a r r of v i e w o t t h e g e n e r a lh i s t o r v fr";,";;;;1";"l achievement the most important ar"afrir"",".", "of-rh" style' How did the Nor-u" Romanesque is one of the most The.question t ,U""t.. O"tt" to propose un.*"t, but we venture iin"rn,o our solution' ' ^ - r tl 'lrat the French archiFirst of all, we record accept John Bilson's now historians 'i#"trt"ito tectural rib-
teristic Norman
handsome, but the sexpartite vaults are uncis\. in design. Nevertheless, due to the prestigr of the grert Norman works, the sexpartite vault was widely used in Early Gothic work of imthe cathedrals of Sens, No1on, portance Notre-Dame in Paris,and Laon among othcrs, with two square bays ol'vaulting in each aisle flanking each great sexpartite bay of the high v:rult. There were also experiments, as in thc little church o1'Bury,le with square rib-vaulted nave bays, each with a narrow oblonp; rib i'atrlt in the aisle to either side. E ventualll, the superior 'processional effect'ofunifbrm nave ba1.slecl to the sexpartite rault being giren up, excepl .tl Bourges, where magnificent bavs rvere built over the nave in the lourteenth centurv' not ro be repeated on that scale until the construction jn of the nave of St John the Divine, New York, the twentieth. The normal High Gothic nalc has, like the Gothic sanctuary of Saint-Etienne, square bays in the aisles and oblong bavs in the high vauit. In Normandy the construction of notablt buildings continued in the twelfih centur'\, which was prosperous there, as elsewhcre A b o u t r r o o , H e n r v I B e a u c l e r cb u i l t a f o r m i d able donjon within. and olherwise grcrtlr strengthened, the chiteau begun by Willirnr the Conqueror in Caen.r0It is now modillcd' but still recognizable as a first-class militart work. in the tradition of Beaugencv, Lochcs [ z o 8 l . a n d F a l a i s e .T h e a g e i s , h o r v e r e r . m t t < l r better represented b1 fine churches. Less,rr ( r . r o g o r r 3 5 ) , C e r i s y ' - l a - F o r !t , 2 :a ( i c r I l i o (rvhich may have had diaphragm arches), ano Saint-Vigor, near Baveux2r (which most ccr'tainll' had diaphragm arches across the narc' 367.Crren,Abbaye-aur-Hommcs,Saint-Etiennc, r r p p l i c a t i oonf v a u l t i n g r, . I I r 5 ( i )
ENGLAND AND NORMAN NORTHERN FRANCE
FRANCF-
l i k eC e r n y - e n - L a o n n a i s l . 1 5 3a l )r.ea b b e r si n t l r c reeion of Caen which built well. Near Roucn
453
1',, ffi: ::.lT;[i]:-:,:',..1' "r"i,.r."'"11.'
dateof Io93-Iro4 for the andchancelaislesat Durham ;;i;;.;;tt.,^rv far-northernEngf,unt, ir6] in [^JitiJ i'u't havea Normanbackffi.il;;;rk vastchurch theConfessor's ti"t.u,lit ui*ard inroo5) dedicated ro45-5o' it W"stminsttt(c' tnan importxnt more were ]-butbothbuildings
ille' t 6 8 r n r l 3 o o .S a i n t - M a r t i n - d e - B o s c h'e r rr t z3 I Saint-Gcorges' of i"..", ,itt.t church spireGothic
;"il'.* "; :I.ll"lTJ.):'"T,'JJ,,tii[ PerhaPsin the creatrono grandeurwascommunlsome,park of imperial 'un o"lv suess'throush *e *hich *"t ;;;;;;i" " Engllnd and the historic contacts of Saxon and that countrY' Rhine with the il;';;;;t the assessing in account tnto must be taken powersol the stlle'ru aboul "i.'N"t*,"tt' t'om tht Loirecountrr' in the middle auxilirrr'r'ribs of ,"r" ."*. * ";e u"ult'd baYs(St Martin ;;:;;;tAoi""'1 "t ro5o [rr5]l a*er chamber'about i""tt tower north-west the of Srn.u", grounclstore-v in the abbe-vof Ba1-eux' 'o771' ii;i. "tii.o'"l, of di:tphragms iri",-Vit.t, alsohad an example knorvledge when that '.".- 1trr.6stieve "".,,n. f,o*Uurd rib raults canre late in the oi-,ft. themthe Norman builders ;i.;;;,;;;""r'v' traditions' three the tiit"t'itt"ot""d ideasfrom
""'*i,".t."o'i': T""f i'ff:lj',::;T.ff nay (ror7) had beenat n nale "f
vault ofthe ft * int pseudo-sexpartite lbr' and accounted in Caenis i"i",.-f'l"it6
45.t
sc.{NDINAVIA. BRITAIN, AND NORTHERN FRANCE
t h e r r u e s e x p a r t i t ev a u l t o f S a i n t - E t i e n n e c o m e s as a natural, inventive devclopment, llreadl suggesteclb1'the cincopartite r,aults ofthe transept ends at Sainte-Trinit6. The navc vaults r,rf' S a i n t e -l r i n i t e a n d S a i n t - E r i e n n e h a r e l o n g been dated about rr4o and rr3,5 rcspectivelv, but the dates were proposed when the datc o{' r r z8 li fbr the high vault of the nar e of Durh a m r v a s n o t \ e t a c c e p t e d . r tT h e e l d e r g e n e r a tion of French historians worked out a consistcnt s\stcm ol'relationships, and a relatit:e chronology which must be maintainecl, but the enscmble ofthcir dates has been pror.ed to be as 'l'he
much as twent), or thirtv years too late.
d u c e d t h e h i g h l v n a t i l e d e s i g n so f C o r m a c \ 1 1 . Carthv's Chapel at Cashelof the Kings in {rgl a n d ( . r r 2 4 3 - + [) 2 9 ] a n d S t R c g u l u s( S t R t r l c l at St Andrervsin Scotland (r. r rz5 3o).:' I.,rch one is r steep-roofed narc-and-chancel church. vaulted, built of improved masonrl prescnrins \ o r m a n d e t a i l a n d a s l e n d e rs q u a r eI o $ e I r i l l r c r than thc traditional round lbrm. But the *'riring o n t h e w a l l f o r t h e o l d s n l e a p p e a r e da s e , r r l , , 1 . Edward the Conl'essor's Westminster {bber. ( r . r o 4 5 - 5 o ,d e d i c a t e d i n r o 6 5 ) . r 0E x c a r a t i o n s s h o w t h a t i t w a s l i k e a t 1 ' p i c a lN o r m a n l b h c r , g r a n d e r t h a n a n v t h i n g t h e n e x i s t e n ti n E n g l nn d I
n e c e s s a r \ c o r r e c t i o n g ; i r , e sd a t e s n e a r r r o 5 r 5
thev show that the conventual buildings lcrc l a i d o u t o n a C l u n i a c p l a n , ' , r n dt h a t t h e s p i l i r c d
lbr the high vaults which replaceclwooden roof-
rcpresentation on thc Blveux tapestr\ con\ c\ s.
i n p i o v e r t h e t r a n s e p t sa n d n a v e s o f t h e a b b e y s in Caen.rf .{.fter this, (urther influcnce liom
i n d i a g r a m m r t i c l b r m , a g o o d i d e ao l t h e c h u r c h . It had a $estern tower pair, six double bars in
Burii-undr brought in the decisitelr important
the narc, a transept with a tall crossingto$cr, and a sanctuarv separated liom two paral)cl
pointed arch, usedin the rib r ault oler Durham navc (rrz8 j:) lS16,:llJ.In the end. after hesitation because ol the prestige of Norman
c h a p e l s ,a l l w i t h a p s e s .E v i d e n t l v t h e r e w a s n o m o r e o f S a x o n i n i t t h a n w a s o b l i g a t o r l -b e c a L r s e
w o r k w i t h i t s d o u b l e b a 1 , st,h e l o g i c o f d e s i g n e r s
o f c r a f t c o n d i t i o n s ,a n d t h i s b e c a m ei n c r e a s i n 3 - l r
in
t r u e a s t h e v e a r sp a s s e d .
the ile-de-Frirnce
established the more
b e a u t i f u l s 1 ' s t e mo f u n i f b r m o b l o n g b a 1 ' si n t h e high lault, unilbrm square bars in the :risles, and light, thin ashlarvaulting cellsfor them lll.
h-ORMAN
ENGI.AND
W i t h t h e C o n q u e s t ,s o c i e t y ,t h e g o v e r n m e n t ! t h e E N G L A N D :T H E S A X O - \ O R N T AO NV E R L A P 'lhc
eleventh centurl fbund a rather decadent
England,
better
integrated
because of the Danish conquest, but not progressing in the rh1'thm ol-the Continental countries. \orman influcnce began to plav strongll on the Island -I'he
with Edward the Conf'essor(ro+z 66).
name Saxo-Norman or.erlap is applied to thc period during which Saxon surr-ivals wcre modifiecl br.the nerl flow of influcnccs. -{.ticr the C o n q u e s t o f r o 6 6 t h e c e n t r e s b e c a m ee l e r m o r c m a r k e d l r N o r m a n , b u t r e { u g e e s ,g o i n g t o t h e north of England and to Scotland,took the old stvle with thcm, and it was thcre onh,graduallr. brought up to datc. A lelated phenomcnon pro-
Church, and the architecture rapidly becarnc Norman. The Duchv had been clererlr organized irs an ellective f'eudal statc, and this proccss proved to be but a dress rehearsal lbr England. As in Normandr', a group of great Benedictinc abbevs became an instrument of polict in thc pacilication and development of the countr\. T h e g r e a t n e s so f t h e o p p o r t u n i t _ r - ' r r ntdh e a b u n d a n c c o l r e s o u r c c sb r o u g h r i t a h o u t t h a t t l r r most splendid oi Norman churches are to bt (bund in England. Therc s'as a surge of great churchcs rr ;rll ecclesiastical England was renewed and trirnsl b r m c d . F o l l o u i n g C o n t i n e n t a lm o d e l s ,t h e t l i a p s i d a lp l a n a l r e a d ve x e m p l i f i e da t W e s t m i n s t c r . \ b b e - v( r o 4 5 ) u a s u s e d l b r t h e n e s c a t h e d r a lo l
rranscPt'ittet to77 37o.St AlbansAbbe)'
456
s c A N D r N A V r A , B R T T A T N ,A N D N O R T H E R N F R A N C E
Canterbury (ro7o),r1 Lincoln (ro7z),32 Old Sarum (ro76),rr Rochester (to7i),ro and the a b b e y s o f B u r y S t E d m u n d s ( r o 7 o ) , 3 5a n d S t Albans (ro77) [j7o].," Battle Abbel'(ro67), the
:+57
first built, prcsentecl lew These buildings, as p r o b l e m s . a n d s i n e e .t h e r h l r c ' r l l ' u h e r e new bc'en ctrnsiderahh motlitied bv ,,itt .*;tting. their dcscription antl rnrlrsis i: ilter adr'lition," lcli to the r olume ol thc Pclr"rrr p r t t m o t t g o rt h . ,4' 4rt uhich is entirelr tleroted to Histurl lr architecture Yet thel'must f,nglishmedieval fbr the tremendous here' noticc ,aaaiua aorn. and castle building in o f c h u r c h undertaking onc of the most striking theConqueror'stinlc is
Conqueror's own lbundation near Hastings, was colonized bv monks from Marmoutier, near Tours, in the 'ambulatory country' and naturally carried onward the Jumidges Rouen group of Norman works, which now grew bv the addition o f S t A u p ; u s t i n e ' sa b b e y a r C a n t e r b u r ) . ( r o 7 3 ) , , t the cathedral of Winchester (ro79),rn and that o f W o r c e s t e r ( r o 8 4 ) . 3 eT h e s e b u i l d i n g s w e r e
ol medieral :lrchitcclure' e p i s o d e si n t h e h i s t o r v a ll ertraordinarilr bold' r r e w o r k s g r e a t The i n s t r l e ' \ p e u s cc a m e i n u n i l b r m a n d simple, (tti5 the Great Anarchl of-Stephen's reign o r n a m e n t cd latc m u c h w l r n t , a which 5 4 ) ,a f t e r Cistercian nerv the with rvas used, stvle i.lor-rn ln architecture as a becoming foil antl contrast
begun under the Conqueror, who died in ro87. Other great cathedrals followed immediatelv G l o u c e s r e r (r o 8 7 ) [ 3 7 r] . r " a n dN o r * . i c h 1r o g o . 1 , " with the ambularorv plan; Elv (i. rogo) and D u r h a m ( r o 9 3 ) 1 3 5 9 n ,3 7 2 , 3 7 5 7 l w i t h t h e t r i apsidal plan, and every one of them on a magnificent scale.a2 37r. Gloucester Cathcdral, begun roo7, nave
372. Durham Cathedr:rl,Galilee,c. r r75
NORTHERN FRANCEAND NORMAN ENGLAND
the grealuorks nol onlt scrc the tlimcnsions rrerntndouslr long prucessional imposing naves,extended transepts' relativell dcep sanct u a r i e s b u t t h e s c a l eo f t h e s m a l l e r p a r t s w a s g e n e r o u s ,p a r t i c u l a r l ] s o i n t h e t h i c k w a l l s , t h e stout piers (olten cvlindrical), and the wellturned arches. Churches befbre Durham were not specificalll'planned for vaulting' ercept perhaps in the apscs,aislcs,and gallcrics' which means that the clerestorics and galleries could be generous irntl open under thc trussed navc r o o f s .I n t h e n a v s sp a r t i c u l a r l ] ' t h e r e w c r e h a n d some effects of arcading, stalie upon stalie' enriched bl' archivolt mouldings ancl shafting' T h e b c a u t i l u l b u f l : r n d u h i t e l i m c s t o n c( m r r c h o l ' i t t r a n s p o r t c d l i o n l ( a c n ) h . r s r c r : r i r t c t li t s o r i g i n a l t i e s h n c s s .a n d i s a g r c i l b e J t l l \ o l l h c s c interiors.Abuntlant light liom thc clerestories plays upon the boldll' articulated architectural forms, sometimes in simple rhvthms, some'l'his t i m e si n d o u b l e b a l s , w i t h t a l l p r o p o r t i o n s i s e s p e c i a l l yt r u c o f E l . v ( r . r o g o r r 8 o ) [ j 7 4 ] 1 1 a n d o f P e t e r b o r o u g h( r r r 8 r . r z o o ) [ 3 7 3 ] , w h i c h has an original painted ceiling. At Ely, Malmesbury, Rochester, and Kilpeck there is t)'mpanum sculpture. .{t Exetcr Cathedral one finds two rich towers(of r'.r r 5o)marking thc transcpt
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j ; . 1 . P c t c r b o r o u g h ( . r t h c d r a l ' h c gU N I I I i '
ot a church now memorabh rcbuilt in Gothic' Legendarl' Glastonburl perished bv lire in r r8z. and was rebuilt in overwrought tardy Romcncsqueand prorincial Gothit. but it nou r u i n et 1 . -I'here
w a s a c t r n s i d e r a b l er e n c u a l o f . p a r i s h churches,manl of'them verl' simple. and not rcn clill'ercnt in plan and scale from Saxon uorks. Thc nlrc-and-chancclttpe cotttinttetl in urc, lnd \{ils trrnsnlilted to Cothit lrclrit ( c ( u r c . T h e c h u r a c t e r i s t i c\ o r m a n m u s o n r r i s eis\ to recognizc. and Norman enriclrments' parlicularlv the chevron,areeflictivclr used' St Peter at Northampton alld Iftlev church near Orlbrtl arc uell-Lno$n tramPles' N l l n v c a s t l e sw e r e b u i l t i n E n g l a n d i n R o thc most notable bcing' ot manesquc timcs -l'owcr in Lonclon' rvhich coursc. the \\l-rite w a s built (ro7tt q71' i t a s p r a c t i c a l l v stands later' though the satellite buildings are much h ottsc t o r r c r r t i s E s s c n t i a l l rt h c k e c p o t d o n i o n t o r m at r e d u c e d v e r v I i n such:rs we hare seen
458 NoR THIRN
.;7.1.Ell C-arhedral, rcstorafionstefch ol' fiEade, f wcllilr ccntur.rand later
c a s t l e - b u i l d i n g c o n t i n u e du n d e r F I e n r - \ ,r35); r 5 a - t i g ) , $ ' i t h a c o n s t a n t l li n c r e a s ^ i nugs g ( r tl circular. anclconcentric firrrrrs 9; 5emicircular, br' (,rtrsadcr lr>rl and (rthcr lbrt;suggested ficationsin the Near East. In connexion llith residentialwork. il e shou lcl n o t e h o u s e s , l i k e t h e J c w ' s } J o u s ei n L i n c o l n . which recall arcaded houseson thc (.orrtincnt, s u c ha s w e h a r e s e e n a t C l u n r . A s w i t h t h e c a s t l e s ,s o r r ' i t ht h e c h u r c h e s :i t i s the earliest great bllildings l.hich arc unlorglctt a b l e .T h e C a n t e r b u r t o l l , a n t i a n c1 r o 7 o 7 ) a s l u g m e n t e d b r P r i o r s L r n L r l p ha n d C o n r a d ( , - . IO97-rI3o) rvas an crtraordinarr picce
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N o r n t i r n c l r ' ,a n d C l u n v I I . L i l c i r s c l d e r c o n tcmporar\. (.luni III, I)urhrrrt*ls planned f i o n r t h c b e g i n n i n g t o b c c n t i r c j r r a u l t e d ,a n c l $as broup;ht t() completion in the coursc of t h i r n ' - f i r e u r l c l r t r l e a r s ( t r r r r r S 0 l ' I r 1 . 3 )r v i t h o n l r o n c p c r i o t l o t h e s i t a t i g n . ( . h d n g e ss i n c e t h c n h a r e f b r t h e n r o s t p a r t l r e c l rk i n d l r I t h e c l o r n i n a t i n g l i r r c c o t t h e R o n r u c s q t r ed c s i g n c a s i l r c i r r r i e s G o t h i c a c l t l i t i o n sl i l c t h e C h a p c l o l N i n c A l t a r s ( t h c e i t s t e r n r r i r n s e p ta) n t l t h t ' 'l'lie c r o s s i n gt o r r ' e r . \ ' . r s tb u i l ( i l n g 5o l t h c c a t h c dral monastcrr. still complercon thc south ol' t h e c h u r c h , r ' c t r c t i r i n t h e i r . R o n r r n c s q u cp l i r n , t h o r - r s ht h c c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r c n 0 $ h r g c l r o f ' G o t h i c c i a t e. D u r h l m i s o n c o f t h e n t o s t m ; r s c u l i n co f 'l c h u r c h c l e s i g n s[ . ; ; - i , . ; S q s l . h c n r o d r t l a lu n i t
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o r , r c ro l D o r l a U r r a c a a r L . o r i r r r u b i i r s ., l . h c s t r t ' l ) g t h c n c ( lb , r q u o i n i n r : - l r n c l r c s i d e n t i a lp a r t s o f ' r h c p i l i r s t c rs t r i p s o f \ [ ' h i r e . l . o r r . e ra r c t i a n r e c l a s h l a r uhich cmphasizc the rn uood, u-irh srout lire_rralls i u r g - u h r . i t ro l t i r e clir.idingit into b t r i l d i n g .' l ' h e w a r c l i s irrcgslar, bul rrrLrslrtr thrce rectilincar srctions, c a c h ivith fbur lcr cls. 'l oblong. I fbnc inclu
Romanesqu. a r c h i l c c t u r r c d n o H ( . r . i| ) u r h r r r n Lathedral uas h l r d h s u r . p r r s r ci d n irs rlrrr.antl i r r h r : a i r r r f s c r t . n rf i n : r l i r r u . h i c h h c r i g h t t o t h e B f ( a r e \ t r n a . r e r p i . . t . c r .l 1 tepresents a s u m m i l o f r e h i . r c m c n t ;l l t s ( ) D cr ) l rne,noblest i n s c a l eo l R , , m i n ( s q u ( m . ,nunrcnts tnd one o i l h e m u s r b e a r r r i t u l hs .e t . in _ , E e F u n r o r t . l ,D u r h i r me r e m p l i f i r .r l r t . s i n t P l e rc a t h e d r a l p l a n t h r t r . c l l l r c lt o B t . r n ; r r i n lt"bor, t o n g so f
'l'nrr i s t h c o l c l n o r t h e r n . r / / / i i l r ,( s c \ c n 1 c ' e t ) . douhle bars fornt thc choir'. irntlthrce tnot'c. p l u s n r o o b l o n s b d r s , l b r m t h e r r l r c 1 3 , 7 6.,3 7 7| I c a c h l r m o f t h c t r a n s e p t h r r s r r t l o L t b l ca n d a a l l n r a g n i f i c c n t l . rl m p l t i n p r o p o r -
single har
t i o n . ' l ' h c r a s t g r o r r p e < lp i e l s r r n t ll r c h c s l r c r i c h l v a r t i c u l a t e d , u h i l e t h c s u b s t . r n f i . rcl , r l i n d r i c l l i n t e r m c d i : r f e p i e r s l r e b o l t l l r m i r r L e t lu ' i t h fluting, cherrorr, lncl quadrtllt rork {ll the
EN(;LAND NORTHERN FRANCE AND NORMAN
Cathedral, and 377.Durham I o9.3-r I3J
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'cubical'tvpe (that is,trimmed c a p i t a l sa r c o f ' t h e at the clown fiom a cube to a circular shape r r g orous b l t h c i l n o t h i n g l o s e r s t r a g r r l )a , n c lt h e l rvith handsome verv ' is g:rtler-v 1'he . .i*pii.it1 cach t w o a r c h e s ,e a c h e n c l o s i n g t w i r r l r c h e s ' i n -l'he b avs' d o u b l e t h e s e Iaults of double bar. s e v e n part a r e a r c h c s ' s e p a r a t e db v t r a n s v c r s e their units, well but not pert'ectlvadapted to -I'hel arc irctuallr much like sectlons supports. o f t u n t t e l r ' : r t r l t i n gc u t h r r i b h e d p e n c t r J l i ( ) l l s 'l'hus the vault is lirr thc clcresttrrl' winclorvs' c a r r i e c lb u t l i t t l e h i g h e r t h a n t h e w i n d o u o p e n ings, anclis lbutted bctwcen irnd bclo* thcm' at instead ol' above them, as (prccariousll') C l u n - vI I I . It n'as Durhanr flathedral' therefirrt" which the made (.lun1 III obsolete b1 shouing' on g r a n c l e s ts c a l c , t h a t r i b b e d h i g h r a u l t i n g l w a s p o s s i b l ea n c l p r a c t i c a l o v e r w i d c s p a n s l n b o t h ('lun1' buildings therc was partial f'ailure -\t lvhich e ' n a r i n t h e v a u l t i n g o f f a l l w a s a ( r r z5) it flring was not stable until thc addition ol the l)urb u t t r e s s e sr l h i c h r v c h a r e m c n t i o u e d { t b c ret o h t d r r o ' 1 r o g t l o f ham the choir rault p l a c e d n o t . a s a t C l u n ) ' I I I ' b c c a u s co f ' f a u l n sustarn design the samc sturdl old rlalls still o l ' i n cxpert b c c a t t s e but t h c s u c c e s s t >Irl u l t t h e m sclres' r v c b s v a u l t i n g t h e i n constructioll stoncs w h i c h w e r e h e a ri l r b u i l t o f r o u g h l l i r t t i s h ' l ' h i s l rcr' w i t h I r r i t l e m o r t i u i o i l l t . s t t t c c o e co sttpwas massirc virult constructl()n: tt was a n d ' as c o n s t r u c t i o n ' r v a l l m a s s i r c b l ported ('lunv III' s u c h , i t w a s l c s s s o p h i s t i c a t c dt h a n -l'o is be surc, the gallerv at Dtrrham, which a r c h e s o n c r r r r i c c l p u r l i n s t h c h a s lvooden-rtroled, (rtrund in thc choir, scgmcntal ilr tlrc nrtrc) r v er e w h i c h s r . r g g c sftl v i n g b u t t r c s s e s 'b t t t t h e r i nner t h e s i n c e s u c h ' a s eviclentll not conceivcd to lbut u p c a r r i e c l o r i g i n a l l v n o t w e r e spanclrels qreat Imperial the nalc rvall. L)r.rrham. like ir m r s s firt' strength German buililing, relied on crcirting the ln donc bc to \\'hlt rt'ntainecl thc llrcttakc tct u'ls it knou rve as sttlc Gorhic
462
S C A N D I N A V T A ,B R I T A I N , A N D N O R T H E R N F R A N C E
portion and sophistic:rtionof' Clunl' III. its relatively thin vaulting, its IIJ'ing buttresses, j o i n i n g t o t h e m t h e r i b v a u l t i n g o 1 ' D u r h a m .a n d d e r e l o p i n g t h e e f f i c t i r c f ' e a t u r e so f e a c h . T h i s was done in the ile-cle-France, where the masons became accustomed to build ribbcd r , a u l t sw i t h t h i n w c b s o f c u t s t o n e .a n d w e r e d i s posed to carrv lurther the erploitation of rhe p o i n t e d a r c h , a l r e a d y - s u g g e s t e da t C l u n l a n d Durham. Gothic architecture was achier.ecl.in intcnt i o n , b y a n o t h e r g r e : r ta n d b o l c l ,f b r u : r r d - h r o k i n g projcct, namcly-thc plan ofAbbot Suger,abour
the church uas to hare becn a dorrhlq._;1.1,., c o l u m n a r b a s i l i c al j 7 8 l . w i r h t h c i n r , r , , , ' . , , , ^ " p o r l s . e \ c e l ) t l b r t b u r p i e r sa t t h e c r o s . i n - . in,i't b r m o l ' l b u r f i l e s o f s l c n d e r c r l i n d r i , , r l, h r r , . o n l v a t b o t a n d a h a l f i n t l i a m e t c r .a n t l l { , , r 1 1 . 1 n I 'fhe aspcct. e n c l o s i n gw a l l r v a s t o h , r r . b q . n relatir,elv thin, and pierced lvith l,rrgt l.rncet w i n d o w s , a b o r . er v h i c h ( i f w e m a r j r , d S " h r . t h . e x i s t i n g a b s i d i o l e s )i t w a s t o [ r a l e b c c n l o a d g 4 to thicken and strcngthen it, making a sorr of. c o l l a r t o r c c e i v ea n d c o n t a i n t h e r , a u l t i n gr h r u s t s . E x c e p t i o n a l l y , f l r i n g b u t t r e s s c sa r e r c p o r t c d0 n the chord of the apse by r r45. Originll r:rulting. still in pllce in the nlrrher, amhullrr,1r.116
r r i,5, to rcbuild Saint-L)cnis unfortunatclv not r e a l i z e d ,n o r , i n f a c t , e n t i r c l \ - c a p a b l co 1 ' r e a l i z a - r a d i a t i n g c h a p e l s ,h a s l i g h t r i b s , w h i c h r r c e a s v tion. But it was an astonishing dcsign, as the I o c o n s l r u e rw i t h s i m p l c c e n t c r i n g it h t . t r r . l r r t t . c x c a r , a t i o n sh a l e s h o w n .+ ' , o f t h e s e v e r i e sa r e s l i g h t l l ' s w e l l i n g , s o t h r t t h c r B e h i n d t h e h e a r ' l . w e s t r v o r kr v h i c h s t i l l c r i s t s c o u l d b e b u i l t u p c l e v e r l v , a r c h b r r r r c h .b r (substantiallvbuilt, and crcnellatedto make it tween thc ribs, with little if anl.auxiliarr firlseseniceable as a fbrtress),ancl abovc the subr v o r k . - \ l l i n a l l , t h i s m o d e o { r ' a u l r i n g .m r i n s t a n t i a l ,a l m o s t R o m a n l m b u l a t o r y o l ' t h c 9 1 y p 1 ,
s p r i n g o f ' t h e G o t h i c s t v l e ,w a s a m o s t a d m i r a b l e
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378 ( uhoxe) - Saint-Dcnis, abbo' ch urch, { . r I l5--l+ and thirteenth centurv, rvith predecessor churchcs Plan largell' bascd on Crosbl''s excavations. Later excavations scem to show that the apse was round irt the upper lerel, and that the transept had an elenrent on the east, here shown h,vpothetic.,tlll'
technical tlelelopnrent |.]29, .itiol ('rnd illustration r4o right, tbr the apse at \i6zclal' built about rr7o, resenrblesthc design of Sxint-
37gt c (opposire/. Saint-Dcnis, abhev church, r,aulting in narthex, .. r r15 4oi section ofchevet (K.-1.( and east elerirtion, showing llving buttrcsses (K..1.c.) (p. 49r, Note 47). Sens, r. r r5-5, had the firsr scts flanking a nave
D e n i s i n i m p o r t a - n tr c s P e c t s ) ' srll The clesiiner' itr thus ration'rlizing his R o m lnb e l o n d w e n t and vault constructiol)'
of thc conrcntional e s c l u cp r o c e d u r e s . l n s t e a c l fabric, so wcightv that it rcquircd "n.toring lvts n r a s s i r ca n d o b s t r u c t i v e p i c r s ' S a i n t - D c n i s g l irss' a n d s t o n c o t s h e l l p l a n n c c lt o h i r r c a t h i n i n t c g r a tcd a m a z i n g h s o r ' e t f i r e ' irronf ,tgainrt intcriot'sttpm o r c n o r e q u i r e t o a s d i s p o s e c l and
464
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port rhan the r.ulnerable woodcn_roof-ed L,arl\ C . h r i s r i a rhr a s i l i t . a . ' . \llhilc the support s,\stent w:ts thus much s i m p l c r f h a n i n R o m i r n e s q u e: l r c h i t c c t u r c . thc a r t i c u l a t e dr . a l l a n d r . a u l tw e r c r c r v m u c h more drnanric and complex. 'l'hc original c l e s i e no f . S a i n t - D e n i s , \ ai t h u n l r t w o f l ) . i n gh u t r r . r r . . . * . u r ; too bold; it was nevcr finished, and onl1,a frae_ ment survives, but the new mode ner.erthele.ss had revolutionary conscquences. In well_char_ acterized Gothic structure, the strcsses are much more focalized and dcfinitc than in Runran_
t h a t o r d e r c c li n t c l l i s e n c c w h i c h f l o * e r c r l i n rhr: Gothic centuries. Reims (.athedral, rhe p;rr.rr_ digm of Gothic, is almost an abstrtction. loti\ and aborc tl'eling. W h e r e t h e G o t h i c c l es i g n s : l r c m o r c h u n r , r n h I el r . i r i s p o s s i b l el o 5 1 . 1 . .l 1 h5 x tg t h e c r c h i t t . r r r r r , rn union with the pasr.In the scrcnifi,of rht.in_ t t ' r i o r o l . { m i c n s ( . u t h e d r , r lt l r e r . . , , g , . , i r . . . , c l a s s i cn o b i l i t r I i k e t h a r o I ' r h e f i n e s t G r c c l . r n r l Roman work; in heacllongBeaur.ris tlrc irlpetuous spirit tlf (-entula ancl rhe rhircl (.lrrnr
I i r e s a g a i n ; i n 5 ^ c n sa n c l o t h e r g r e t t s o u t i r ! r . n csquc; thc\- need to be nruch more dellnitelr b u i l d i n g s , o n c i s c o n s c i o u so l t l r c u n l i ) r g o r r c t L n o r r n a n d t r n d c r s r o o dF. , r e n i n c r e l s r . i n t . o m _ g ^ e n i a l i t ra n d a n r p l i t u d e which camc ro thc lioprchension,as time $,ent on, led to nrorc firllr m a n s s q L i ea s o n e o l i t s m o s t v a l u e d l e g a c i c sf i o n r c h a r a c l t ' r i z r dh u i l d i n g s ,c s p c c i ; r l h r r l l t . rr h c i n _ Rtiman architecturc. Not thc least precioLrsrrstroduction of' perlicted flving buttresscs abour pect ol the Rontancsquc is its afier_lile in ;r 'I'hcn I r75. the impress of traineclintellcct on multitutle of' Gothic buildings chcrish",l ji,r. the dcsigns becamcever strongcr. t h e i r v a r i e f i , t h c i r r v a r m t h , a n c l t h e i r g r a c ef i r l \ \ h r n c c r h e l i r c t r h : r rr h t . p r r r . e Corhit.i, Iikc conlbrnritv to rcgional traclitions which ucr.c a theol'em, anci thc ker. fo u n d c r s t r r n c l i n gi t i s t l ' t r r ( c J l r r R o n r l n e : q t r cg c n i u : .
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