DAMPAK PEMANASAN GLOBAL TERHADAP TERUMBU KARANG
KARYA ILMIAH
Oleh
ANJAR TITOYO
FAKULTAS BIOLOGI UNIVERSITAS NASIONAL JAKARTA 2008
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FAKULTAS BIOLOGI UNIVERSITAS NASIONAL
Karya Ilmiah, Jakarta Agustus 2008
Anjar Titoyo
Dampak Pemanasan Global Terhadap Terumbu Karang
xi + 55 hal, 2 tabel, 10 gambar Terumbu karang merupakan hasil asosiasi antara polip karang dengan Zooxanthella yang seluruhnya terbentuk dari kegiatan biologis. Terumbu karang dapat tumbuh baik di perairan tropis yang dangkal dengan kedalaman sekitar 30 0 meter pada suhu di atas 20 C. Pola penyebarannya terbatas pada wilayah dangkal di paparan benua dan gugusan pulau-pulau di sekitar wilayah katulistiwa. Terumbu karang merupakan tempat tinggal bagi 25 persen seluruh spesies laut. Beberapa tahun belakangan ini terumbu karang sudah mengalami tekanan ekologis yang begitu hebat. Ada dua penyebab utama penyebab terjadinya degradasi ekosistem terumbu karang, yaitu akibat kegiatan manusia ( anthrophogenic causes) dan akibat alam ( natural causes). Meningkatnya suhu rata-rata di seluruh permukaan bumi akibat dari meningkatnya konsentrasi gas rumah kaca di atmosfer disebut pemanasan global. Akibat dari pemanasan global, diperkirakan dalam jangka waktu 100 tahun ke depan akan terjadi penigkatan permukaan laut, kenaikan suhu air laut dan kenaikan radiasi ultraviolet yang nyata sehingga berpengaruh terhadap penurunan komunitas laut secara drastis termasuk terumbu karang. Peningkatan suhu akibat pemanasan global merupakan salah satu penyebab pemutihan karang hingga kematian pada karang. Upaya untuk menanggulangi terjadinya pemanasan global sungguh sangat dibutuhkan saat ini. Mulai dari menggunakan bahan-bahan energi yang ramah lingkungan, penanaman pohon. Selain itu juga melakukan konferensi dan perjanjianperjanjian internasional. Semua itu harus selalu dilakukan agar bumi beserta isinya tetap lestari dan terjaga dari kepunahan. Daftar bacaan : 60 (1963-2008)
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DAMPAK PEMANASAN GLOBAL TERHADAP TERUMBU KARANG
Karya Ilmiah ini diajukan untuk un tuk memenuhi persyaratan MATA KULIAH SEMINAR
Oleh
ANJAR TITOYO 0162010024
FAKULTAS BIOLOGI
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Judul Karya Ilmiah : DAMPAK PEMANASAN GLOBAL TERHADAP TERUMBU KARANG
Nama Mahasiswa
: Anjar Titoyo
Nomor Pokok
: 0162010024
Nomor Kopertis
: 013112620150024
MENYETUJUI
Pembimbing Pertama
Pembimbing Kedua
Hasmar Rusmendro, Drs..
Sri Handayani, Dra, MSi.
Dekan
Tatang Mitra Setia, Drs, MSi.
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KATA PENGANTAR
Puji dan syukur kehadirat Allah SWT penulis panjatkan atas rahmat, berkat dan kuasa-NYA sehingga penulis dapat menyelesaikan Karya Ilmiah ini yang berjudul “Dampak Pemanasan Global Terhadap Terumbu Karang”. Penulisan Karya Ilmiah ini disusun untuk memenuhi persyaratan mata kuliah Seminar Fakultas Biologi Universitas Nasional, Jakarta. Segala daya dan upaya dalam penyelesaian Karya Ilmiah ini dilakukan atas bantuan, dukungan dan kerjasama yang baik dari berbagai pihak. Untuk itu penulis mengucapkan terima kasih yang sebesar-besarnya kepada : 1. Bapak Tatang Mitra Setia, Drs, MSi selaku Dekan Fakultas Biologi Universitas Nasional. 2. Bapak Hasmar Rusmendro, Drs selaku Pembimbing Pertama yang telah memberi saran dan bimbingan sampai Karya Ilmiah ini selesai. 3. Ibu Sri Handayani, Dra, MSi selaku Pembimbing Dua yang telah membantu dan menyempurnakan Karya Ilmiah ini. 4. Ibu Yulneriwarni, Dra, MSi selaku Pembimbing Akademik atas segala doa restu, saran, dan motivasi yang diberikan kepada Penulis. 5. Ibu, Bapak tercinta yang selalu memberikan kasih sayang, mendoakan, memberikan dukungan dan motivasi, baik moril maupun material kepada penulis.
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7. Almarhum Drs. Benny Djaja yang telah memberikan banyak inspirasi atas kegigihan, keteguhan, dan keyakinan untuk setiap hal yang dijalani. 8. Teman-teman angkatan 2001; Ahmad Saleh Suhada SSi, Wisnu Wijiatmoko SSi, Ady Kristanto SSi, Dewi Suprobowati SSi, Devi Asriana SSi, Fitriah Basalamah SSi, Astri Zulfah SSi, Puji Sri Wahyuni SSi dan lain-lain yang selalu memberikan sumbangan pikiran, semangat, keceriaan, kebersamaan, serta rasa persahabatan dan persaudaraan. 9. Keluarga besar Kelompok Studi Ekologi Perairan (KSEP) tempat Penulis menimba dan berbagi ilmu, pengalaman, serta kebersamaan. 10. Seluruh Civitas akademika Fakultas Biologi Universitas Nasional atas semua bantuan, saran serta kebersamaannya selama ini. Penulis sangat menyadari bahwa Karya Ilmiah ini masih banyak kekurangan, oleh karena itu segala saran dan kritik yang bersifat membangun sangat diharapkan dari semua pihak. Semoga Karya Ilmiah ini dapat bermanfaat bagi Ilmu Pengetahuan.
Jakarta, Agustus 2008
Penulis
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DAFTAR ISI
Halaman
KATA PENGANTAR…………………………………… PENGANTAR…………………………………………………………..… ……………………..…
v
DAFTAR ISI……………………… ISI…………………………………………………………… …………………………………………..….. ……..….. vii DAFTAR TABEL………………………………… TABEL………………………………………………………………. …………………………….... ...
x
DAFTAR GAMBAR………………………………… GAMBAR……………………………………………………………… ……………………………
xi
BAB I.
PENDAHULUAN…………………………………………………………….
1
II. BIOEKOLOGI TERUMBU KARANG……………………………………. KARANG…………………………………….... ...
4
A. Morfologi Karang….………………… Karang….…………………………………………………. ……………………………….….. …..
4
B. Reproduksi Karang…………………………. Karang…………………………...……………………… ..…………………………... …...
7
C. Zooxanthella dan Peranannya Dalam Terumbu Karang ..……....……….. ..…….... ………..
10
1. Zooxanthella…………………………………………………………...
10
2. Simbiosis Karang (Anthozoa) dengan Zooxanthella…….…… Zooxanthella…….………….... ……....
12
D. Proses Kalsifikasi pada Karang………………………… Karang…………………………………………... ………………...
13
E. Distribusi Terumbu Karang…………………………
15
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III. PEMANASAN GLOBAL……………………………………… GLOBAL………………………………………….………… ….…………
22
A. Definsi Pemanasan Global……………………………… Global………………………………………………... ………………... 22 B. Faktor-faktor Penyebab Terjadinya Pemanasan Global…………………. Global…………………...
22
1. Karbondioksida……………………………………………………….
23
2. Metana…..…………………………………………………………….
27
3. Nitrogendioksida………………………………………………………
27
4. Chlorofluorocarbon……………………………………………………
28
5. Hidrofluorocarbons……………………………………………………
29
6. Sulfurheksafluorida……………………………………………………
29
C. Proses Terjadinya Pemanasan Global……………………… Global…………………………………….. ……………..
30
D. Dampak Pemanasan Global………………………… Global………………………………………………. …………………….
32
1. Mencairnya Es di Kutub……………………………… Kutub……………………………………………… ………………
33
2. Terjadinya Pergeseran Musim…………………………… Musim………………………………………... …………...
33
3. Peningkatan Permukaan Air Laut…………………………… Laut…………………………………….. ………..
34
4. Dampak Pada Sektor Kelautan dan Perikanan………………… Perikanan……………………….. ……..
35
5. Dampak Perubahan Iklim Terhadap Suhu dan Pola Hujan…………...
36
E. Upaya-upaya yang Dapat Dilakukan untuk Mengurangi Pemanasan Global 37 IV. KERUSAKAN TERUMBU KARANG AKIBAT PEMANASAN GLOBAL A. Faktor Penyebab Kerusakan Terumbu Karang…………………………
40 40
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2. Peningkatan Pertumbuhan Karang……………………………… Karang…………………………………… ……
43
3. Pemutihan Karang…………………………… Karang……………………………………………………. ……………………….
43
V. KESIMPULAN……………………………………………………………….
50
DAFTAR PUSTAKA………………………………… PUSTAKA……………………………………………………………. ………………………….
.51
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DAFTAR TABEL
TABEL
Halaman
Naskah
1. Sumber Pencemaran Gas CO 2 ………………….....………………………….
24
2. Jenis dan Rata-rata Umur CFC di Atmosfer………………………… Atmosfer………………………………….. ………..
29
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DAFTAR GAMBAR
GAMBAR
Halaman
Naskah
1. Morfologi Karang………………………………… Karang……………………………………………………………. ………………………….
4
2. Struktur Polip dan Kerangka Kapur Karang………………………… Karang………………………………… ………
5
3. Struktur Dinding Polip Karang………………………………… Karang……………………………………………… ……………
6
4. Reproduksi Seksual Karang……………………………… Karang…………………………………………………. ………………….
8
5. Reproduksi Aseksual Karang………………………………… Karang………………………………………………… ………………
9
6. Siklus Karbon…………………………… Karbon………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………
25
7. Persentase Pemanasan Relatif Gas Rumah Kaca…………………………….
30
8. Skema Profil Ozon Secara Vertikal………………… Vertikal………………………………………….. ………………………..
31
9. Mekanisme Terjadinya Pemanasan Global………………………… Global………………………………...… ……...…
32
10. Karang yang Mengalami Pemutihan………………………… Pemutihan…………………………………………. ……………….
46
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BAB I
PENDAHULUAN
Terumbu karang merupakan hasil asosiasi antara polip dengan Zooxanthella. Terumbu karang dapat tumbuh baik di perairan tropik yang dangkal dengan kedalaman sekitar 30 meter pada suhu di atas 20°C. Pola penyebarannya terbatas, yaitu pada wilayah dangkal di paparan benua dan gugusan pulau-pulau di sekitar wilayah katulistiwa dan menempati 0,17% dari dasar samudera. Terumbu karang merupakan tempat tinggal bagi 25% seluruh spesies laut (Hardianto dkk, 1998). Fungsi dari terumbu karang adalah sebagai komponen habitat alami (sebagai pembentuk ekosistem laut), gudang keanekaragaman hayati biota-biota laut, tempat
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terumbu karang antara lain: penambangan karang, penangkapan ikan dengan menggunakan alat serta metode yang merusak, penangkapan yang berlebih, pencemaran perairan, kegiatan pembangunan di wilayah pesisir dan kegiatan pembangunan di wilayah hulu. Degradasi terumbu karang yang disebabkan oleh alam antara lain oleh predator, pemanasan global, perubahan salinitas, bencana alam seperti angin taufan, gempa tektonik, letusan gunung berapi, banjir dan tsunami , , sedimentasi yang tinggi serta bencana alam lainnya seperti El-Nino dan La-Nina (Westmacott dkk, 2000 dan COREMAP, 2001). Pemanasan global mulai muncul sejak abad ke 18 ketika dimulainya revolusi industri di Inggris yang ditandai dengan munculnya pabrik-pabrik, pembangkit listrik, kendaraan transportasi dan pertanian. Industri telah berkembang membuat wajah
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paling rentan terhadap kerusakan, sebab terletak paling dekat dengan garis pantai dan dekat dengan permukaan laut serta bersifat sesil (Wafar, 1990). Terumbu karang membutuhkan suhu yang stabil untuk tumbuhnya, maka kenaikan suhu sedikit saja dapat menyebabkan stres. Peningkatan suhu akibat pemanasan global merupakan salah satu penyebab pemutihan terumbu karang atau bleaching. Bleaching adalah suatu penurunan jumlah simbiotik Dinoflagellata
(Zooxanthella) atau penurunan pigmen klorofil yang terdapat pada jaringan endodermis karang (Brown dan Ogden, 1993). Jika tekanan atau stres ini bersifat sementara terumbu karang mungkin dapat bertahan, tetapi jika tekanan ini berlangsung lama dan terus menerus, maka kehidupan terumbu karang dan alga yang ada di dalamnya akan terganggu. Lambat laun alga yang terdapat dalam terumbu
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BAB II
BIOEKOLOGI TERUMBU KARANG
A. Morfologi Karang
Menurut Suwignyo dkk (2005), karang termasuk ke dalam filum Coelenterata, kelas Anthozoa. Karang merupakan hasil asosiasi antara polip dengan Zooxanthella (Hardianto dkk, 1998). Karang berbentuk tabung dengan mulut berada di permukaan oral yang juga berfungsi sebagai anus. Di sekitar mulut dikelilingi oleh tentakel yang berfungsi sebagai penangkap makanan. Mulut dilanjutkan dengan kerongkongan yang pendek
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Hewan karang batu merupakan koloni yang terdiri atas banyak individu berupa polip. Untuk tegaknya seluruh jaringan, polip didukung oleh kerangka kapur sebagai penyangganya. Kerangka kapur ini berupa lempengan–lempengan yang tersusun secara radial dan berdiri tegak pada lempengan dasar. Lempengan yang berdiri ini disebut septa yang tersusun dari bahan anorganik dan kapur yang merupakan hasil sekresi dari polip karang tersebut (Gambar 2) (Nontji, 2002).
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Dinding polip karang terdiri dari 2 lapisan yaitu ektoderma dan endoderma. Ektoderma merupakan jaringan terluar yang terdiri dari berbagai jenis sel, antara lain sel mucus dan sel nematocyts. Lapisan paling dalam disebut endoderma yang sebagian besar selnya berisi sel alga yang merupakan simbion karang (Gambar 3) (Suharsono, 2004). Mesoglea merupakan lapisan yang terletak diantara ektoderma dan endoderma yang berupa lapisan seperti jelly. Di dalam lapisan jelly ini terdapat
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Jaringan otot terdapat di antara jaringan mesoglea yang bertanggung jawab terhadap gerakan polip untuk mengembang atau mengkerut sebagai respon perintah jaringan syaraf. Sinyal dari jaringan ini tidak hanya di dalam satu polip tetapi juga diteruskan ke polip yang lain. Kontraksi otot berpengaruh terhadap cairan di dalam rongga gastrovaskuler yang berlaku sebagai suatu rangka hidrostatik, sebagaimana mesoglea. Gerakan pada polip biasanya terbatas pada merayap atau meliuk-liuk
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duanya (hermaprodit ). ). Namun menurut Suharsono (2004), karang yang hermaprodit jarang yang mempunyai tingkat pemasakan antara gonad jantan dan betina matang pada saat yang bersamaan ( protandri protandri). Pembentukan polip baru dapat terjadi melalui dua cara yaitu pertunasan (aseksual) dan larva (seksual). Pada reproduksi seksual (Gambar 4), pembuahan terjadi di dalam ruang gastrovaskuler induk betina, sperma dilepaskan ke dalam air
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Koloni karang dapat bertambah besar dengan jalan reproduksi aseksual, yaitu pembentukan polip baru dengan jalan pertunasan. Pada tipe reproduksi ini karangkarang yang dihasilkan sangat identik dengan induknya. Tunas dapat tumbuh baik secara ekstratentakuler maupun intratentakuler (Gambar 5) (Tomascik dkk, 1997).
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Pertumbuhan panjang dari karang mempunyai hubungan yang erat dengan kalsifikasi yang terdiri dari tiga proses, yaitu: 1. transport material yang terasimilasi, 2. produksi material organik dan 3. deposit kalsium karbonat (Stromgren, 1987). Menurut Muchlis dkk (1998), pertumbuhan karang dapat ditinjau atau diukur dari pertumbuhan panjang koloni, pertumbuhan panjang cabang, pertumbuhan jarak antar cabang, dan pertumbuhan cabang baru.
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simbiotik alga secara tradisional disebut Zooxanthella bila warnanya coklat,
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hidup di dalam sel, berada di antara sel-sel, di dalam jaringan pengikat atau di
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kekurangan nutrien. Taylor (1973), menemukan bahwa hasil metabolisme dari
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membentuk terumbu dan mendeposit kapur (CaCO3 ) dibandingkan karang
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hari dan pada pusat pendepositan CaCO3 lautan pada siang hari dimana proses
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DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Achmad R. Kimia lingkungan. Andi. Yogyakarta. 2004. Andri. Pemutihan karang. Fakultas Biologi Universitas Nasional. Jakarta. 2003. Ardiansyah AA. Pemanasan global, efek rumah kaca dan perubahan iklim. Http://www.kotakediri.go.id/news/artikel/index. 2007. Brown BE. Worldwide death of corals natural cyclical event or man-made pollution. Mar Pollut Bull. 1987: 18: 9-18. Brown BE, Ogden JC. Coral bleaching. Scient. Amerika. 1993: 268: 64-70. Buchheim J. Coral reef bleaching.htm. 2003.
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Chair R. Pemutihan karang: pengaruhnya terhadap komunitas terumbu karang. Jurnal Hayati Biosains. 2001: 8: 205-243. Connel JH. Population ecology of reef-building corals. Biology and Geology of coral reefs. Academic Press II. 1973. COREMAP. Kebijakan nasional pengelolaan terumbu karang di Indonesia. Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program. Jakarta. 2001. D’Elia CF, Wiebe WJ. Biogeochemical nutrient cycles in coral reef ecosystem. dalam: Ecosystem of the world. Coral Reefs. Amsterdam. 1990: 25: 49-74. Droop MR. Algae and invertebrate in symbiosis. Symp Soc Gen Microbiol.1963: 13: 171-199. Effendi H. Telaah kualitas air bagi pengelolaan sumber daya dan lingkungan perairan. Kanisius. Yogyakarta. 2003. Fankboner PV. Intracellular digestion of Symbiotic Zooxanthella inang amoebocytes in giant clams (Bivalvia: Tridacnidae), with a note on the nutrional role of the
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Glinder WV, Phipps D, Pardy RI. Localization of symbiotic Dinoflagellate cell within tentacle tissue of aiptasia pallida (Coelenterata, Anthozoa). Trans Am Microsc Soc. 1980: 99: 426-438. Glynn PW. Coral mortality and disturbances to coral reefs in the tropical eastern pacific dalam: Glynn, PW. 9ed). Global ecological consequences of the 19821983 El-Nino Southern oscillation. elsevier. Amsterdam. 1990. Goreau TF. Mass expulsion of Zooxanthella from Jamaican reef communities after hurricane Flora. Science. 1964: 145: 383-386. Guldberg HO. Climate change, coral bleaching and the future of the world’s coral reefs. Mar Freshwater Res. 1999: 50: 839-866. Guldberg HO, Smith GJ. Influence of the population density of Zooxanthella and the supply of ammonium on the biomass and metabolic characteristics of the reef corals Seriatapora pistillata esper and Seriatapora hystrix Dana. Exp Mar Biol Ecol. 1989: 129: 279-303. Guldberg HO. Jones R. Photoinhibition and photoprotection in symbiotic Dinoflagellates from reef-building corals. Mar Ecol ProgrSer. 1999: 183:73-86. Hadi S. Pertumbuhan karang hermatypic akibat pemanasan global di perairan Indonesia. Fakultas Biologi Universitas Gadjah Mada. Yogyakarta. 1997. Hardianto D, Krishnayanti Krishnayanti I, Supyani T. Terumbu karang keindahan alam di ambang kepunahan. Konphalindo. Jakarta. 1998. Hidayati R, Asiati S, Samiaji T, dkk. Analisis dan pemetaan ozon troposfer di Indonesia. LAPAN. Jakarta. 2004. Http://www.reef.crc.org.au/aboutreef/coral/coralbleachingbiology.html. 2000. Http://www.terangi.or.id/images/pictures/bleach_crl.jpg. 2008. Http://www.wikipedia.org.id. 2007. Huston M. Variation in coral growth rates with depth at discovery bay jamaica. Coral Reef. 1985: 4: 19-25.
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IPCC (Intergovernmental panel on climate change). impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Summary for Policymakers and Technical Summary of The Working Group II Report. WMO-UNDP. 2001. Lesser MP, Stochaj WR, Tapley DW dkk. Bleaching in coral reef Anthozoants: affects of irradiancs, ultraviolet radiation, and temperature on the activities of protective enzymes againts active oxygen. Coral Reef. 1990: 8: 225-232. Levinton JS. Marine Ecology. Practice hall inc. Engloweed Cliffs. New Jersey. 1982. Manahan dan Stanley, Stanley E. Environmental chemistry. Lewis Publisher. Boston. 1994. Manuputty AEW. Karang lunak salah satu penyusun terumbu karang. Jurnal Oseana.1986: 11: 131-141. Mapstone GM. Reef corals and sponges of Indonesia: A video-based learning module. Division of Marine Science. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization. Netherlands. 1990. McLaughlin, Zahl JJA, Nowak A. In vitro analysis of nutritional requirements and population dynamics of some free living Phytoplankton and symbiotic algae (Zooxanthella). Proc Int Bot. Congr. Edinburgh. 1964: 242. Meiviana A, Sulistiowati DR, Soejachmoen MH. Bumi makin panas ancaman perubahan iklim di Indonesia. Pelangi. Jakarta. 2004. Muchlis, Bachtiar I, Karnan. Laju petumbuhan karang pada ekosistem terumbu karang Teluk Kombal Lombok. Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan Universitas Mataram. Mataram. 1998. Muscatine L. Productivity of zooxanthella. The Plenum Press. New York. 1980. Nontji A. Peranan Zooxanthella dalam ekosistem terumbu karang. Oseana. 1984: 3: 74-87. Nontji A. Laut nusantara. Djambatan. Jakarta. 2002. Nybakken. Biologi laut. Gramedia. Jakarta. 1988.
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Ramlan M. Pemanasan global (global warming). Jurnal Teknologi Lingkungan. 2002: 3: 30-32. Ratag MA. Perubahan iklim basis ilmiah dan dampaknya. Lembaga Penerbangan Antariksa Nasional. Jakarta. 2002. Romimohtarto dan Juwana K, Juwana S. Biologi laut ilmu pengetahuan tentang biota laut. Djambatan. Jakarta. 2001. Stromgren. The effect of light on the growth rate of internal Acropora pulchra from Phuket Thailand. Journal of Coral Reef. 1987: 6: 43-47. Stan dan Debbie H. What is coral bleaching and why does it happen. Http://saltaquarium.about.com/library/weakly/aa0703300.htm. 2000. Sudariyono. Ozon tak kenal maka tak sayang. Serasi. 2005: 9: 4. Suharsono. Jenis-jenis karang di Indonesia. Pusat Penelitan Oseanografi LIPI COREMAP Program. Jakarta. 2004. Susanta G, Sutjahjo H. Akankah Indonesia tenggelam akibat pemanasan global?. Penebar Swadaya. Jakarta. 2007. Suryono CA, Irwani, Indarjo A. Coral bleching sebagai bioindikator peningkatan suhu air laut. Universitas Diponegoro. Semarang. 1998. Suwignyo S, Widigdo B, Wardiatno Y, dkk. Avertebrata air Jilid I. Penebar Swadaya.. Jakarta. 2005. Sya’rani L. Karang : Determinasi Genus. Universitas Diponegoro. Se marang. 1982. Taslim A. Kajian perubahan iklim terhadap pengelolaan wilyah pesisir (Studi Kasus Bleaching Terumbu Karang). Http://www.ataslimar.htm. 2002. Taylor DL. On the regulation and maintenance of ilegal number in Zooxanthella Coelenterate symbiosis, with a note on the nutritional relationship in Anemonia Sulcata. Sulcata. J Mar Biol Ass. United Kngdom. 1969: 49: 1057-1065. Taylor DL. The cellular interactions of algae invertebrate symbiosis. Adv Mar Biol.
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Wafar MWM. Global warming and coral reefs. 1990. Wardhana WA. Dampak pencemaran lingkungan. Penerbit Andi. Yogyakarta. 2004. Westmacott S, Teleki K, Wells S dkk. Pengelolaan terumbu karang yang telah memutih dan rusak. IUCN. Switzerland. 2000. Yonge CM. Aspects of productivity in reefs. Proceedings of The Symposium on Coral and Coral Reefs. 1972.