Brain Bee 2013 Study Guide Chapter 1: Brain Basics 1. What is the largest part of the human brain and what is its function? 2. The cerebrum is divided into ___________ hemispheres, bridged together by a bundle of fibers called the ____________. (6) 3. Covering the outermost layer of of the cerebrum is is the __________. (6) 4. What are the functions of the four lobes? (6) 5. What is the amygdala responsible for? (6) 6. The ______ controls movement and cognitive processes that require precise timing. (6) 7. What is the difference between gray matter and white matter? (7) (7) 8. What are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system and what are their functions? (7) 9. How many neurons neurons are in the mammalian mammalian brain? 10. The three main components of a neuron are the cell body, dendrites, and axon. What are the functions of each component? (7) 11. _____________ are the contact points where one neuron communicates with another. (7) 12. Many axons are covered with a myelin sheath, which ___________ the transmission of electrical signals along the axon. This sheath is made by specialized cells called ________. (8) 13. Nerve impulses impulses involve the opening and closing of ____________. (8) 14. An action potential occurs as the neuron switches from an internal _____ charge to a ____ charge. (8) 15. When these voltage changes reach the end of an axon, they trigger the release of ____________. (8) 16. NAME THE NEUROTRANSMITTER (pgs 9-11)
a. The first neurotransmitter identified, it is release by neurons connected to voluntary terminals. It is implicated in myasthenia gravis, a disease characterized by fatigue and muscle weakness due to t o the blocking of receptors for this neurotransmitter. b. This amino acid neurotransmitter INHIBITS the firing of neurons. n eurons. Its activity is increased by benzodiazepines and anticonvulsants. c. This amino acid neurotransmitter acts as excitatory signals, activating NNMethyl-d–aspartate (NMDA) receptors which have been implicated in learning and memory. Overstimulation by this neurotransmitter of NMDA receptors, however, can cause nerve cell damage or cell death. d. This catecholamine neurotransmitter is involved in movement, cognition/emotion, cognition/emotion, and the endocrine system. Deficits of this neurotransmitter in the substantia nigra is implicated in Parkinson’s disease whereas blocking receptors of this neurotransmitter is the main action of many antipsychotic drugs. e. This catecholamine neurotransmitter is secreted by the sympathetic nervous system to regulate heart rate. Acute stress also releases this neurotransmitter from the adrenal medulla. d. This neurotransmitter is present in blood platelets and is involved in sleep, mood, depression and anxiety. Drugs that alter this neurotransmitter’s activity have been useful to relieve depression symptoms. e. This neurotransmitter is a gas (two possible answers). 17. _______ convey the chemical message of a neurotransmitter from the cell membrane to the cell’s internal biochemical machinery. (12) 18. When norepinephrine binds to receptors on the surface of the neuron, the activated receptor binds a G protein which causes _________ to convert ATP to _______ the second messenger. (12) Chapter 2: The Developing Brain 1. The three stages of neuron development are induction, proliferation, and ______. (13) 2. During embryonic development, three layers emerge – the endoderm, the ectoderm, and the __________. (13)
3. ________ _______, _______, enlargements on the axon’s tip, actively explore the environment as they seek out their precise p recise destination. (15) 4. Some signaling molecules are netrin, _______, and ephrin. The first netrin was discovered in a ____ and shown to guide neurons around the _____’s “nerve ring.” (15) 5. _______, the wrapping w rapping of axons by extensions of glia, increases the _____ at which signals may be sent from one neuron to another by a factor up of to 100x. 6. In between the myelin are gaps, called nodes of ______, that are not covered in myelin. 7. _______, programmed cell death initiated in the cells, allows paring back. Chapter 3: Senses and Perception A. Vision 1. Light passes through through the _____, which does ¾ of the focusing, and then the ____, which adjusts the focus. (18) 2. On the back of the retina is a sheet of _____ which absorb light and send electrical signals to other retinal neurons. These neurons send signals via the _____ nerve to other parts of the brain. 3. Some fibers of the optic nerve cross over at the optic ______, allowing both sides of the brain to receive signals from both eyes. 4. Two major types of photoreceptors are rods and cones. ____ allow us to see in dim light. _____ work w ork under light conditions and are responsible for color vision. 5. The human eye contains three types of cones (red, _______, and _______). 6. The central part of the retina where light is focused is called the _____. 7. The area around the fovea, called the ______, is critical for reading and driving. 8. Visual information from the retina is relayed through the lateral _______ nucleus of the thalamus to the primary visual cortex in the ______ lobe. 9. Strabismus is a condition in which the eye are not properly _____ which each other. It is also termed _______ , crosseye, or walleye.
B. Hearing 1. Our hearing system separate complex sounds into in to their component _____ or frequencies. 2. Sound waves are collected by the external ear – the ______ and the external auditory canal – and funneled to the tympanic membrane (eardrum) to make it vibrate. 3. The ______ (hammer) is attached to the tympanic membrane. It transmits the signal to the _____ (anvil) which passes the vibration on to the stapes (stirrup. 4. The stapes pushes on the ______ _____, which separates the air filled middle ear from the fluid filled inner ear to produce pressure waves in the cochlea. 5. The basilar _______ of the cochlea is tuned to different frequencies. 6. On top of the vibrating basilar membrane are _________ cells c ells topped with microscopic bundles of hairlike ________. 7. Hair cells covert mechanical vibration to electrical signals which excite fibers of the __________ nerve. n erve. Auditory information flows to the auditory cortex of the _______ lobe. C. Taste and Smell 1. Taste is focused on distinguishing chemicals that have a sweet, salty, _____, bitter or ______ taste. 2. Tastants are detected by taste buds which are embedded in _______. 3. Odorants are detected by sensory neurons lining the roof of the nose. Axons of these sensory cells pass through perforations in the overlying bone and enter two elongated olfactory _____ lying against the underside of the _______ lobe of the brain. D. Touch and Pain 1. Sensitivity of touch is determined by measuring the patient’s ____ point threshold. 2. Sensory fibers that respond to stimuli that damage tissue and cause pain are called ________.
3, _______ enhance the sensitivity of receptors to tissue damage and induce more intense pain sensations. 4. The condition in which w hich innocuous stimulus can produce pain is known as ________. 5. Pain and itch messages are transmitted transmitted to the spinal cord via small, small, myelinated fibers and small, _________, C fibers. Chapter 4: Learning, Memory and Language 1. H.M. underwent surgery that removed the medial regions of his ______ lobes to treat his epilepsy. What was the result of the surgery? (25) 2. The temporal lobe includes the _________ and the parahippocampal region in plays a critical role in converting short term memory to long term memory. (25) 3. The cortical areas are important for long term _________ of memory. (25) 4. Our ability to learn and consciously remember everyday facts and events is called __________ memory. memory. (25) 5. _____________ memory, the knowledge of how to do something, often called procedural memory, is expressed in skilled behavior and learned habits and requires processing by the basal ganglia and _____________. (26) 6. _____________ is a long lasting increase in the strength of synaptic response following stimulation. (26) 7. Following LTP, calcium calcium ions activate activate cAMP which activate activate ______ which activates a series of genes that direct protein synthesis. (27) 8. Damage to different regions within the ______ hemisphere produce language disorders known as _______. (27) 9. In _______ aphasia, damage to the left _______ lobe causes speech production abilities to be impaired. (27)
10. In Wernicke’s aphasia, damage to t o the left ______ lobe causes comprehension of heard speech to be impaired. (27) 11. Rare mutation of a gene called _______ impede i mpede learning to make sequences of mouth and jaw movements that are involved in speech. (28)
Chapter 5: Movement 1. Activation of a given muscle can open or close the joints that it spans, depending on whether it is a joint _____ (closer) or an extensor (________). (29) 2. Each skeletal muscle is made up of thousands of individual _____, and each muscle fiber is controlled by one alpha ________ neuron in either the brain or the spinal cord (29). 3. An alpha motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it contains form a functional unit referred to as a ________. (29) 4. _______ are relatively fixed, automatic muscle responses to particular stimuli, (29) 5. Receptors in the muscle called muscle _________ send information to the spinal cord and brain about the length and speed of the shortening or lengthening of a muscle. (29) 6. The _____ organs detect the force applied by a contracting muscle. (30) 7. The flexion withdrawal that occurs when the bare foot encounters a sharp object. The leg is immediately lifted from the source of potential injury (_______), but the opposite leg responds with increased extension (known as ___________ ___________) so that we can maintain our balance. (30)
8. People with Parkinson’s Parkinson’s disease experience degeneration of subtantia ______ neurons in the basal _______. ____ ___. The supply of dopamine is _______, resulting in the hallmark symptoms of Parkinson’s Parkinson’s — tremor, rigidity, and akinesia, the inability to move. (31) 9. The cerebellum cerebellum is crucial for ___________ and adjusting adjusting skilled skilled movement. (31). Chapter 6: Sleep 1. Lack of sleep increases the risk of a variety of health problems, including diabetes, _____________ and heart attacks, stroke, depression, _____ blood pressure, obesity, and infections. (32) 2. Sleep stages were discovered through experiments using ______________ ___________ ___ (EEG) to examine human brain waves. (32) 3. Two stages of sleep-
a. slow wave: relaxation of the muscles and the eyes. Heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature all _______. (32) b. rapid ______ movement (REM): atonia, or paralysis of the body’s muscles occurs. Only the muscles that allow breathing and control eye movements remain active. Active dreaming takes place. What happens to heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature? (32) 4. During the night, these cycles of slow wave and REM sleep alternate, with the slow wave sleep becoming less ______ and the REM periods more _________ until waking occurs. (32) 5. Obstructive sleep ______ occurs as sleep deepens and the airway muscles in the throat relax to the point of collapse, closing the airway. (33) 6. Narcolepsy is attributed to loss of nerve cells in the lateral hypothalamus containing the neurotransmitter ___________. Individuals with narcolepsy have sleep ______ during the day in which w hich they suddenly fall asleep. What are these attacks of paralysis known as? (33) 7. During this _____ wave sleep, there is active suppression of arousal systems by a group of nerve cells in the ______, called the ventrolateral preoptic (VLPO) nucleus. 8. The circadian system that that sets the pace for daily cycles of activity activity is controlled by the supra_________ nucleus. (35) Chapter 7. Stress 1. Stress is defined as any external stimulus that threatens __________— the normal equilibrium of body function. (36) 2. A stressful situation activates three major communication systems in the brain: (36) a. voluntary ______ system (sends messages to muscles) b. ________nomic nervous system (made up of para_________ and an d sympathetic branches) c. neuro__________ system (maintains body’s internal functioning) 3. In response to signals from a brain region called the hypothalamus, the adrenal glands secrete ___________, hormones that produce an array of effects in response to stress (36) The glucocorticoid _______ promotes p romotes energy replenishment and efficient cardiovascular function. (37)
4. Glucocorticoids also affect food intake during the sleep-wake cycle. Cortisol levels, which vary naturally over a 24-hour period, peak in the body in the earlymorning hours just before waking. This hormone helps produce p roduce a wake-up signal, turning on ______ and physical activity. (37) 5. Overexposure to glucocorticoids leads to weakened muscles. Elevated glucocorticoids and epinephrine contribute to _____tension _____ tension (high blood pressure), atherosclerosis (hardening of the _______), and abdominal obesity. (37) 6. Corticotrophin ______hormone (CRH) is released from the hypothalamus and travels to the ____ gland, where it triggers the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (____). ACTH travels in the blood to the ____ glands, where it stimulates the release of cortisol. (38) Chapter 9: Kinds of Research NAME THE IMAGING TECHNOLOGY (pgs 44-46) Know both full names and abbreviations! a. Measures a. Measures blood flow or energy consumption in the brain based on the detection of radioactivity emitted when positrons, positively charged particles, undergo radioactive decay in the brain. b. Provides a high-quality, three-dimensional image of organs and structures inside the body using magnetic fields. c. This technique compares brain activity under resting and active conditions by detecting increases in blood oxygen levels when brain activity brings fresh blood to a particular area of the brain — a correlate of neuronal activity. d. This is a recently developed developed technique that reveals the source source of weak magnetic fields emitted by neurons. Chapter 10: Childhood Disorders 1. ______spectrum disorders (ASD) are characterized by impaired social skills; verbal and nonverbal communication difficulties; and narrow, obsessive interests or repetitive behaviors (49). 2. Characterized by excessively inattentive, hyperactive, or impulsive behaviors, _____affects an estimated 5 to 8 percent of school-age children. (49) 3. ADHD is commonly treated with parent education, school-based interventions, and medications such as ________ (e.g., methylphenidate).
4. _____ Syndrome, the most frequently occurring chromosomal condition, occurs when, at the time of conception, an ______copy of chromosome chromosome 21 — or part of its long arm — is present in the egg or, less commonly, in the sperm. An individual with ______ syndrome is likely to possess, to various degrees, some of these characteristics: mild to moderate _____ disabilities; low muscle tone; an _________ slant to the eyes; a ______ facial profile; an enlarged _______; and an increased risk of congenital _________, (50). 5. _______, a specific reading disability, is the most common common and most carefully studied of the learning disabilities, affecting 80 percent of all those identified as learning disabled. (51) Chapter 11: Addiction 1. ________ use is the leading preventable cause of death in the United States (53) 2. ______, the addicting substance in tobacco, acts through through the well-known acetylcholine nicotinic receptor. (53) It stimulates the ______ glands, releasing epinephrine which results in an increase in blood pressure and heart rate. 3. The first non-nicotine prescription drug, _______, an antidepressant, has been approved for use as a pharmacological treatment for nicotine addiction. (53) 4. ______, the active ingredient in alcoholic beverages, reduces anxiety, tension, and behavioral inhibitions at first. (53) 5. ______ alcohol syndrome, affecting about 1 to 3 of every 1,000 babies born in the United States, is the leading preventable cause of mental retardation. (53)
6. Alcohol’s interaction with the gamma -aminobutyric acid (______) receptor can calm anxiety, impair muscle control, and delay reaction time. (53) 7. ______, the active ingredient in marijuana, binds to specific receptors called cannabinoid receptors, many of which coordinate movement. The ______, ___ ___, a structure involved with memory storage and learning, also contains many receptors for THC. (54) 8. Scientists recently discovered that cannabinoid receptors normally bind to natural internal chemicals termed _____________. (54) 9. ________ increase the amount of dopamine released in the brain reward system and mimic the effects of endogenous opioids. (54)
10. Naloxone and _____ are available medications that act as antagonists at opioid receptors; that is, they can curb the allure of opiates by blocking the opiate receptors so that opiates produce no pleasurable effects when they are taken. (55) 11. The _____________ class of drugs includes cocaine and amphetamines. (56)
12. Ecstasy, herbal ecstasy, rohypnol (“_______”), (“_______”), GHB (gamma hydroxy-butyrate), and _____are among the drugs used by some teens and young adults as part of raves and trances. (56) 13. Rohypnol, GHB, and ketamine are predominantly central nervous system _________. (56) Chapter 12: Degenerative Disorders 1. Microscopic examination of brain tissue from people who died from _________ shows abnormal accumulations of a small fibrillar peptide, termed termed beta ______, in in the spaces around synapses. These accumulations of tissue are referred to as neuritic _______. Another abnormal clump of proteins, called neurofibrillary tangles, have been identified as a modified form of the protein _____, which is found in the cell bodies of neurons. (57)
2. What are some genetic mutations associated with Alzheimer’s? (57) fects neurons that control 3. Commonly known as Lou Gehrig’s disease, ______ af fects voluntary muscle movements such as walking. For reasons that are not completely understood, motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord begin to disintegrate. (58) 4. Potential causes or contributors to ALS include an excess amount of the neurotransmitter _____. (59) 5. Scientists have now identified several genes that are responsible for some forms of ALS. The most common and well-studied of these are mutations in the gene that codes for superoxide _______. (59) 6. The most recognizable recognizable symptoms of __________ disease include involuntary involuntary jerking movements of the limbs, torso, and facial muscles. It is now considered one of the most common ________ brain disorders (60) 7. ___________ disease di sease is characterized by slowness of movement, muscular rigidity, and walking and balance impairment. iIt s the result of the loss of ______producing cells in the region of the brain called the ______nigra. (60)
8. A successful treatment for Parkinson’s patients is the drug ________ ________ (LDOPA) which is converted to dopamine dopamine in the brain. (60) 9. One common rodent and nonhuman primate model uses the neurotoxin _____ to mimic Parkinson’s symptoms. (61) Chapter 13: Psychiatric Disorders 1. Anxiety disorders include obsessive-_______ disorder (OCD); panic disorder; phobias, such as acrophobia, or fear of _____ and; agoraphobia, or fear of _____ spaces; social anxiety disorder; generalized anxiety disorder; and post-______ post- ______ stress disorder (PTSD). (62) 2. People with ______ become trapped, often for for many years, in repetitive thoughts and behaviors, which they recognize as groundless but cannot stop. But _____ is not limited to people either. Scientists have recently discovered that certain breeds of large dogs develop ____ lick syndrome, severely sore paws from compulsive licking. (62) 3. Patients with ______ experience an overwhelming sense of impending doom, accompanied by sweating, weakness, dizziness, and shortness of breath. (62) 4. What does PTSD stand for? (63) 5. Treatments for PTSD block the neurotransmitter _______, such as prasozin (an _____1 blocker) and propanolol (a ____ blocker). (63) 6. ____diazepines, a treatment for anxiety, bind to GABA receptors and enhance responsiveness to endogenous GABA. (63) 7. _______ is an inherited disorder marked by symptoms such such as motor and vocal tics. _____ are affected three to four times as often as females. (63) 8. Stimulant medications such as ______ and dextroamphetamine, which are prescribed for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), have been reported to improve attention and decrease tics in Tourette syndrome. (63) 9. Experiments with positron emission tomography (PET) imaging have implicated a region of the anterior ___________ gyrus within the prefrontal cerebral cortex in depression. (64) 10. Currently, approved antidepressant drugs increase levels of norepinephrine n orepinephrine or ____ in synapses. (64)
11. What does SSRI stand for? (64) 12. People with _______ _____ __ disorder, previously known as manic-depressive illness, usually experience episodes of deep depression and manic highs. (64) 13. Individuals with bipolar disorder benefit from taking ______ or anticonvulsants such as valproate. (65) 14. Patients with schizophrenia demonstrate disturbances in thinking, cognition, emotional reactions and show enlarged _______ (fluid filled spaces) and reduced sizes of certain brain regions. (65) 15. The first antipsychotic drug, _____, was discovered by accident in the 1950s and shown to reduce symptoms of schizophrenia. (65) 16. The first generation of antipsychotic drugs acts by inhibiting certain ______ receptors. (65) 17. These drugs may result in an irreversible movement disorder, _____ dyskinesia which is marked by aimless, uncontrollable movements, such as grimacing or rapid eye blinking. (65) Chapter 14: Injury and Illness 1. ______ brain tumors t umors arise within the brain, whereas metastatic (also called secondary) brain tumors spread from other parts of the body through the bloodstream and enter the brain. (66) 2. Gliomas, typically malignant brain tumors, release the neurotransmitter ____________ at toxic concentrations. (66)
3. _______ is an autoimmune disease in which the body’s natural defenses attack the myelin sheath covering the axons of neurons in the central nervous system. (67) 4. MS can affect many brain areas, including bundles of myelinated nerve fibers ____ matter) and areas rich in neurons (gray matter), so symptoms may also include slurred speech, weakness, loss of coordination, pain, uncontrollable tremors, loss of bladder control, memory loss and other cognitive problems, depression, and fatigue. (67) 5. In general, patients p atients who arrive in the emergency room and are diagnosed with a severe head injury are monitored for pressure on the brain from bleeding or
swelling. Treatments for increased intracranial pressure include the removal of cerebro_____ fluid, moderate hyper____ to t o temporarily decrease blood volume, and the administration of drugs to reduce cellular ______ or to remove _______ from the injured tissue. (68/69) 6. _____is the only FDA-approved treatment for spinal cord injury. (69) 7. _______ refers to the t he loss of pain sensation. The four types of analgesics, or painkillers, are nonopioids, which refer to aspirin and related nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, opioids (morphine, codeine), antiepileptic agents (gabapentin, topiramate), and antidepressants. (69) 8. NSAIDs work by inhibiting the ________ (COX) enzymes that make the inflammatory and pain- ______ chemical prostaglandin. (70) 9. A _____ occurs when a blood vessel bringing oxygen and nutrients to the brain bursts or is clogged by a blood clot or some other particle. (71) 10. Use of the clot-dissolving bioengineered bioengineered drug, tissue _____ activator (tPA), is now a standard treatment in many hospitals for stroke. (71) 11. ______ is the chronic neurological disorder characterized by the occurrence of unprovoked seizures. (71) 12. Generalized seizures typically result in loss of consciousness and can cause a range of behavioral changes, whereas during _____ _ ____ seizures the individual maintains consciousness or has altered awareness and behavioral changes. Unfortunately, partial epilepsies are generally more difficult to treat. (71)
