Baking Science & Tech Vol. 1

VOLUME I: Fundamentals & Ingredients

FOURTH EDITION

BAKING Science & Technology

E.J. PYLER AND L.A. GORTON SOSLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY

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Copyright © 2008 by Sosland Publishing Company. All rights reserved. Library of Congress Control Number: 2008934285 ISBN 978-0-9820239-0-7 Baking Science and Technology, Technology, Volume Volume 1 ISBN 978-0-9820239-2-1 Baking Science and Technology, Technology, 2 Volume Volume Set

No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, or graphic, including photocopying, taping, or recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system without the prior written permission of Sosland Publishing Company unless such copying is expressly permitted by federal law. Printed in the United States of America Sosland Publishing Co. 4800 Main St., Suite 100 Kansas City, MO 64112 Telephone:: (+1) 816 756 1000 Telephone Fax: (+1) 816 756 0494 049 4 Web: www.bakingbusiness.com

Every effort has been made to ascertain the owners of copyrights for the selections used in this volume and to credit and/or obtain permission to reprint copyrighted information and graphics. Sosland Publishing Co. expresses its gratitude for permissions it has received. Sosland Publishing Co. will be pleased, in subsequent editions, to correct any inadvertent errors or omissions that may be pointed out.

Baking Baki ng Science & Technology Technology 

Foreword “Baking Science & Technology, Technology, 3rd edition” stayed in print for nearly 20 years, but as the industry approached the 2007 International Baking Industry Exposition, it became clear that a new edition was needed. Much had happened, especially on the nutrition side as well as with process automation, and the industry now encompassed many new aspects not covered in the text. The 4th edition was announced at that i nternational trade show, and this book is the first of two volumes comprising the new version. “Baking Science & Technology Technology,” ,” was first published in 1952, then again in 1972 and 1988. That this book stood the test of time and continues to be used as a textbook by the industry’s leading baking schools and as a daily reference for thousands of bakers worldwide is testament to i ts original writer’s insight and writing ability. For the 4th edition, Sosland Publi shing approached Laurie Gorton, executivee editor of  Bak in executiv ing g & S na nack  ck . She has nearly 35 years experience covering the technical, scientific and business aspects of the grain-based foods industry. The grain-based foods industry and baking in particular face as many, if not more, challenges t han 20 years ago. Today’s issues involve involve nutritional content, food safety and the demands of the health-and-wellness shopper. But every era brings its own concerns to the table, quite lit erally. We intend “Baking S cience & Technology” to move into the future through this new edition and, later, digital formats. As developments occur, the book will be updated using emerging electronic technologies. We We encourage readers to comment on this edition and its contents and to recommend topics and changes for futur e inclusion. Mark Sabo President, Sosland Publishing Co. August 2008

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Table of Contents Foreword ................................................................................................................ ii Chapter 1: Basic Food Food Science ........................................................................... ........................................................................... 1 Carbohydrates ........................................................................................................ 2 Sources of carbohydrates used used in baking ...................................................... 2 Carbohydrate synthesis ................................................................................... 2 Simple vs. complex......................................................................................... 3 Physical and chemical differentiation ............................................................. 4 Monosaccharides ............................................................................................ 4 Sugar: Disaccharides and trisaccharides......................................................... trisaccharides......................................................... 5 Starch .............................................................................................................. 7 Dextrins ........................................................................................................ 11 Gelatinization of starches ............................................................................. 12 Retrogradation of starch ............................................................................... 14 Acrylamide formation .................................................................................. 15 Glycemic index vs. glycemic response......................................................... response ......................................................... 16 Pentosans ............................................................................................................ 17 Sources of pentosans in baking baking .................................................................... 17 Structure ....................................................................................................... 18 Physical and chemical differentiation ........................................................... 18 Functions and effects during baking ............................................................. 18 Fiber ..................................................................................................................... 20 Sources of fiber ............................................................................................. 21 Definition of dietary fiber ............................................................................. 21 Structure ....................................................................................................... 26 Properties of fiber in food ............................................................................. 27 Probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics ............................................................ 27 Proteins and enzymes enzymes .......................................................................................... 28 Proteins ......................................................................................................... 29 Sources of proteins ....................................................................................... 30 Amino acids .................................................................................................. 31 Classification of proteins .............................................................................. 34 Structure of proteins ..................................................................................... 39 Properties of proteins .................................................................................... 41 Proteins of wheat .......................................................................................... 43 Enzymes ....................................................................................................... 47 Sources of enzymes ...................................................................................... 47 Classification and nomenclature of enzymes ............................................... 49 Lock-and-key,, induced fit of enzymes .......................................................... 51 Lock-and-key

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Properties of enzymes ................................................................................... 51 Lipids ................................................................................................................... 55 Source of lipids ............................................................................................. 55 Nomenclature ............................................................................................... 56 Chemical composition .................................................................................. 57 Fatty acids ..................................................................................................... 57 Fatty acid naming protocols ......................................................................... 58 Saturated vs. unsaturated .............................................................................. 58 Cis vs. trans .................................................................................................. 62 Short- and medium-chain fatty acids ............................................................ 63 Mono-, di- and triglycerides ......................................................................... 63 Sterols and stanols ........................................................................................ 64 Other lipids ................................................................................................... 64 Physical aspects ............................................................................................ 64 Liquid, plastic and solid forms ..................................................................... 64 Melting point ................................................................................................ 65 Crystallinity .................................................................................................. 66 Hydrogenation and interesterification interesterification .......................................................... .......................................................... 66 Oxidation ...................................................................................................... 68 Autoxidation mechanism .............................................................................. 68 Antioxidants ................................................................................................. 69 Hydrolysis and polymerization ..................................................................... 70 Physical chemistry ............................................................................................... 71 Acid-base reactions ...................................................................................... 71 Electrolytes ................................................................................................... 71 Titration ........................................................................................................ 72 Active acidity ................................................................................................ 73 The pH concept ............................................................................................. 74 Buffers .......................................................................................................... 75 pH determination .......................................................................................... 76 Role of pH in baking .................................................................................... 77 Buffering action of proteins .......................................................................... 78 pH in chemically leavened product .............................................................. 79 Oxidation and reduction ............................................................................... 80 The redox potential ....................................................................................... 81 Estimation of redox potential ....................................................................... ....................................................................... 81 Role of oxidation in baking .......................................................................... 82 Role of pentosans ......................................................................................... 83 Role of thiols and disulfides ......................................................................... 84 Role of flour lipids ........................................................................................ 85 Dough physics: colloids and rheology ................................................................. 86 States of matter ............................................................................................. 87

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Molecular forces ........................................................................................... 88 Colloidal systems.......................................................................................... systems.......................................................................................... 89 Emulsions ..................................................................................................... 90 Foams............................................................................................................ 92 Colloidal character of dough ........................................................................ 92 Colloidal aspects of flour particles ............................................................... 93 Starch ............................................................................................................ 94 Dextrins ........................................................................................................ 96 Pentosans ...................................................................................................... 96 Water solubles............................................................................................... solubles............................................................................................... 97 Flour proteins................................................................................................ proteins................................................................................................ 97 Role of polar flour lipids ............................................................................... 98 Chemical bonds ............................................................................................ 99 Water in dough dough.............................................................................................. .............................................................................................. 99 Adsorption vs. absorption ........................................................................... 100 Cell structure in dough ............................................................................... 101 Dough rheology .......................................................................................... 103 Chapter 2: Bakery Ingredients ....................................................................... 113 Part A: Major Ingredients Ingredients .............................................................................. 113 Wheat flour ........................................................................................................ 114 Structure of the wheat kernel ...................................................................... 115 Components of wheat flour ........................................................................ 119 Flour treatment ........................................................................................... 136 Flour quality ............................................................................................... 141 Flour absorption.......................................................................................... absorption.......................................................................................... 144 Flour storage ............................................................................................... 145 Flour milling ...................................................................................................... 147 Flour types .................................................................................................. 152 Pastry,, cake and cookie flour ...................................................................... 152 Pastry Germ and bran as flour components and ingredients ................................ 159 Whole-grain flour ....................................................................................... 160 Non-wheat flours ............................................................................................... 165 Rye .............................................................................................................. 165 Soy flour ..................................................................................................... 170 Masa (nixtamalized corn flour) .......................................................................... 175 Sweeteners ......................................................................................................... 176 Sucrose ....................................................................................................... 177 Corn syrups and dextrose dextrose ........................................................................... 183 Honey.......................................................................................................... 187 Malt and malt syrups .................................................................................. 189 Lactose ........................................................................................................ 191

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Table of Contents

Sorghum and maple syrups......................................................................... syrups......................................................................... 191 Role in breadmaking ................................................................................... 192 Role in cakemaking .................................................................................... 195 Role in cookies and crackers ...................................................................... 197 Shortenings ........................................................................................................ 198 Sources and composition ............................................................................ 200 Physical characteristics ............................................................................... 210 Shortening processing ................................................................................ 213 Categories ................................................................................................... 217 Bakery applications .................................................................................... 223 Frying fats ................................................................................................... 227 Recent issues involving bakery bakery shortenings ............................................... 232 Water .................................................................................................................. 236 Chemical nature of water ............................................................................ 236 Sources of water ......................................................................................... 238 pH variability .............................................................................................. 238 Mineral constituents ................................................................................... 239 Water treatment ........................................................................................... 242 Water’s functions in dough and batter ........................................................ 247 Ice as an ingredient ..................................................................................... 253 Chapter 2: Bakery Ingredient Ingredientss Part B: Minor ingredients ............................................................................... 271 Leavening........................................................................................................... 272 Yeast ........................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................... 272 Bacteria ....................................................................................................... 296 Chemical leavening leavening .................................................................................... .................................................................................... 303 Air and steam .............................................................................................. 311 Dairy .................................................................................................................. 312 Milk’s composition ..................................................................................... 312 Commercial forms of milk ......................................................................... ......................................................................... 316 Cheese......................................................................................................... 322 Whey products ............................................................................................ 324 Storage stability .......................................................................................... 327 Nonfat dry milk’s functionality .................................................................. 327 Practical aspects of milk products in baking .............................................. 329 Eggs ................................................................................................................... 330 Structure of eggs ......................................................................................... 331 Processing of eggs ...................................................................................... 337 Commercial forms of eggs ......................................................................... 340 Functions in baking .................................................................................... 346 Recent developments .................................................................................. 348

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Starch ................................................................................................................. 349 Wheat starch ............................................................................................... 350 Supplementary starches .............................................................................. 351 Properties and functions ............................................................................. 355 Starch’s role in bread baking ...................................................................... 356 Cake, cookie, cracker and other applications ............................................. 359 Recent developments .................................................................................. 361 Fiber ................................................................................................................... 363 Composition ............................................................................................... 364 Fiber ingredients and their processing ........................................................ 366 Bakery applications .................................................................................... 371 Bulking agents ............................................................................................ 375 Prebiotics and probiotics ............................................................................ 376 Chapter 2: Bakery Ingredients Part C: Micro ingredients ingredients ............................................................................... 391 Oxidation, reduction, yeast foods and buffers buffers ................................................... 394 Oxidation and reduction ............................................................................. 395 Reducing agents.......................................................................................... 399 Yeast foods and buffers ............................................................................... 401 Enzymes ............................................................................................................. 402 Amylase in dough ....................................................................................... 402 Cereal proteinases ....................................................................................... 403 Malt............................................................................................................. 404 Exogenous enzymes ................................................................................... 405 Gluten ................................................................................................................ 412 Nature of gluten .......................................................................................... 413 Gliadin ........................................................................................................ 414 Glutenin ...................................................................................................... 415 Glutenin-gliadin ratios ................................................................................ 417 Glutenin interactions during mixing ........................................................... 417 Sulfhydryl and disulfide groups .................................................................. 418 Protein-lipid interaction .............................................................................. 420 Vital wheat gluten ....................................................................................... 421 Proteins .............................................................................................................. 423 Concentrates and isolates isolates ........................................................................... 424 Allergens..................................................................................................... 426 Salt .................................................................................................................... 427 Salt sources and processing ........................................................................ 428 Sea salt ....................................................................................................... 428 Forms and grades ........................................................................................ 429 Specific applications ................................................................................... 432

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Salt functionality ........................................................................................ 433 Improvers ........................................................................................................... 437 Emulsifiers and surfactants ......................................................................... 438 Compounds ................................................................................................. 442 Functionality of improvers improvers ......................................................................... ......................................................................... 449 Antioxidants and antimicrobials ........................................................................ 452 Antioxidant ingredients .............................................................................. 454 Antimicrobial ingredients ........................................................................... 456 Spoilage organisms ..................................................................................... 459 Gums (hydrocolloids) ........................................................................................ 466 Sources ....................................................................................................... 466 How they work ........................................................................................... 477 Functions in baking .................................................................................... 478 Enrichment and fortification .............................................................................. 480 Mandatory vs. voluntary ............................................................................. 483 Contemporary issues .................................................................................. 483 Technical Technic al considerations considerations............................................................................. ............................................................................. 485 Storage and handling .................................................................................. 486 Beyond vitamins and minerals ................................................................... 487 Chapter 2: Bakery Ingredient Ingredientss Part D: Characterizing Ingredients Ingredients ............................................................... ............................................................... 499 Fruits .................................................................................................................. 500 Fresh, canned and frozen fruits .................................................................. 500 Dried and dehydrated fruits ........................................................................ 503 Glacé and candied fruit ............................................................................... 509 Nuts .................................................................................................................... 510 True nuts ..................................................................................................... 511 Seed nuts ..................................................................................................... 514 Flavors................................................................................................................ 519 Natural, artificial and mixtures ................................................................... 520 Flavor components...................................................................................... 521 Extract processing ...................................................................................... 521 Vanilla ......................................................................................................... 522 Storing flavor extracts ................................................................................. 526 Spices ................................................................................................................. 526 Sources ....................................................................................................... 527 Processing ................................................................................................... 533 Colors ................................................................................................................. 534 Color additives vs. colorants....................................................................... 535 Certifiable vs. exempt ................................................................................. 536 Dyes and lakes ............................................................................................ 539

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Caramel color ............................................................................................. 540 Spice blends ................................................................................................ 541 Reactive colors............................................................................................ 541 Cocoa and chocolate .......................................................................................... 542 Chocolate .................................................................................................... 545 Cocoa powders powders ........................................................................................... ........................................................................................... 548 Confectionery coatings ............................................................................... 550 Bloom ......................................................................................................... 551 Fabricated particulates ....................................................................................... 552 Chapter 2: Bakery Ingredients Part E: Ingredient Systems Systems ............................................................................. 557 Ingredient components....................................................................................... components....................................................................................... 560 Ingredient handling ............................................................................................ 561 Processing .......................................................................................................... 562 Mixing equipment ...................................................................................... 562 Blending methods ....................................................................................... 563 Packaging ........................................................................................................... 565 Chapter 3: Crops and their processing .......................................................... 567 (By C.E. Walker and J. Li)

Eight principal cereal grains of commerce ........................................................ 569 Barley.......................................................................................................... 569 Corn (maize) .............................................................................................. 571 The millets .................................................................................................. 574 Oats ............................................................................................................. 576 Rice ............................................................................................................. 577 Rye .............................................................................................................. 578 Sorghum (milo)........................................................................................... (milo)........................................................................................... 579 Wheat .......................................................................................................... 581 Minor and pseudocereals and special wheats .................................................... 584 Amaranth .................................................................................................... 584 Buckwheat .................................................................................................. 585 Coix (adley, Job’s tears).............................................................................. tears) .............................................................................. 586 Emmer and spelt ......................................................................................... 587 Kamut ......................................................................................................... 587 Quinoa ........................................................................................................ 588 Tefff.............................................................................................................. 589 Tef Triticale ....................................................................................................... 589 Pulses and oilseeds ........................................................................................... 590 Non-grain oils ............................................................................................. 590 Coconut....................................................................................................... 590

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Olive .......................................................................................................... 591 Palm ............................................................................................................ 591 Oilseeds ...................................................................................................... 592 Canola (rape) .............................................................................................. 592 Flax ............................................................................................................ 592 Peanut ......................................................................................................... 593 Poppy .......................................................................................................... 593 Safflower..................................................................................................... 594 Sesame ........................................................................................................ 594 Soy .............................................................................................................. 595 Sunflower .................................................................................................... 597 Pulses .......................................................................................................... 598 Lentil........................................................................................................... Lentil ........................................................................................................... 598 Lupin........................................................................................................... Lupin ........................................................................................................... 599 Crop improvement ............................................................................................. 600 Chapter 4: Quality Laboratory ...................................................................... 613 (By T. Cogswell)

The bake test ...................................................................................................... 614 Physical dough testing ....................................................................................... 615 AlveoConsistograph ................................................................................... 616 Extensograph .............................................................................................. 618 Farinograph................................................................................................. 619 Mixograph .................................................................................................. 621 Rheograph................................................................................................... 622 Dough quality controller systems ............................................................... 622 Research Extensometer .............................................................................. 623 Maturograph ............................................................................................... 624 Oven-Rise Recorder ................................................................................... 624 Flourometer method ................................................................................... 625 Dough shock test test ........................................................................................ ........................................................................................ 626 Firmness test ............................................................................................... 626 Physiochemical tests .......................................................................................... 626 Near-infrared reflectance analysis .............................................................. 627 Flour color .................................................................................................. 628 The slick test ............................................................................................... 629 Colorimeter instruments ............................................................................. 629 Ash determination ...................................................................................... 630 Moisture measurement methods ................................................................. 631 Direct (or chemical) methods ..................................................................... 631 Indirect (or physical) methods .................................................................... 632 Flour moisture determination ..................................................................... 632

Baking Baki ng Science & Technolog Technology y

The vacuum oven method ........................................................................... 633 The air oven method ................................................................................... 633 The air oven aluminum plate method ........................................................ 634 Protein determinations ................................................................................ 634 Kjeldahl procedure ..................................................................................... 634 Biuret method ............................................................................................. 636 Crude gluten ............................................................................................... 636 Sedimentation tests ..................................................................................... 637 Acidity determinations ............................................................................... 638 pH determination ........................................................................................ 638 Total titratable acidity (TTA) ...................................................................... 639 Free fatty acid titrations .............................................................................. 639 Iodine value ................................................................................................ 639 Enzymatic activity methods ............................................................................... 640 Diastatic activity of flour ............................................................................ 640 Amylograph method ................................................................................... 641 Rapid Visco Visco Analyzer method .................................................................... .................................................................... 642 Falling Number method .............................................................................. 642 Proteolytic activity ...................................................................................... 644 Determination of sugar ...................................................................................... 644 Gas production methods .................................................................................... 645 Miscellaneous determinations ........................................................................... ........................................................................... 646 Lipid content ............................................................................................... 646 Crude fiber .................................................................................................. 646 Dietary fiber ................................................................................................ 647 Bread scoring ..................................................................................................... 647 External characteristics ............................................................................... 648 Internal characteristics ................................................................................ 649 Flavor factors .............................................................................................. 650 Scanning systems........................................................................................ systems........................................................................................ 651 How to set up a bakery laboratory ..................................................................... 652 Testing Te sting of raw materials ............................................................................. 652 Flour ........................................................................................................... 652 Sugar ........................................................................................................... 653 Shortening, fats and oils ............................................................................. 653 Measurements during processing processing ............................................................... 653 Finished product monitoring ...................................................................... 653 Moisture ...................................................................................................... 653 Weight ......................................................................................................... 653 Dimensions ................................................................................................. 653 Salt and fat content ..................................................................................... 654 Suggested laboratory equipment ............................................................... 654

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Equipment for general use .......................................................................... 654 Equipment for specific tests........................................................................ 655 Chapter 5: Sanitation and Regulations.......................................................... Regulations.......................................................... 661 (By R.F. Stier)

Sanitation: A prerequisite to safe food ............................................................... 662 Sanitation, food safety and foodborne illness .................................................... 663 Elements of a good sanitation program ............................................................. 663 Sanitation as a system ................................................................................. 664 Areas your sanitation programs should address ......................................... 665 Regulating Sanitation ......................................................................................... 666 Sanitation regulations ................................................................................. 666 Regulatory inspection ................................................................................. 670 Preparing for inspection inspection ............................................................................. ............................................................................. 670 The inspection ............................................................................................ 671 Developing sanitation systems ........................................................................... 675 Sanitation SOPs .......................................................................................... 676 Good manufacturing practices .................................................................... 677 Preventivee maintenance .............................................................................. 680 Preventiv PM programs .............................................................................................. 680 Establishing preventive preventive maintenance programs ......................................... 682 Training and education ...................................................................................... 684 Why educate and train? .............................................................................. 685 Understand your audience .......................................................................... 685 Educational needs ....................................................................................... 688 The final element ........................................................................................ 689 Assuring water quality and safety...................................................................... 689 Ice ............................................................................................................... 692 Water quality analysis ................................................................................. 693 Water quality and its effects on process operations .................................... 694 Cleaning and sanitizing sanitizing .............................................................................. .............................................................................. 695 Plant water systems systems .................................................................................... .................................................................................... 695 Condition and cleanliness of food contact surfaces ........................................... 696 Constraints in cleaning dry processing operations ..................................... 696 How to clean ............................................................................................... 697 Personal hygiene and employee health .............................................................. 701 Hand washing ............................................................................................. 703 Disease control ........................................................................................... 704 Uniforms and garments .............................................................................. 705 Hair restraints ............................................................................................. 706 Jewelry ........................................................................................................ 706 Personnel facilities ...................................................................................... 707

Baking Baki ng Science & Technology Technology 

Product protection programs.............................................................................. programs.............................................................................. 707 Sanitary design of equipment ..................................................................... 708 Building design and maintenance ............................................................... 708 Floors .......................................................................................................... 709 Drains ......................................................................................................... 709 Walls ........................................................................................................... 710 Ceilings ....................................................................................................... 710 Lighting ...................................................................................................... 711 Doors .......................................................................................................... 711 Traffic ......................................................................................................... 712 Warehouse design ....................................................................................... 712 Grounds ...................................................................................................... 713 Glass and brittle plastic .............................................................................. 714 Allergen control .......................................................................................... 714 Vendor certification .................................................................................... 715 Receiving and storage ................................................................................. 715 Control in batching and blending ............................................................... 715 Production control and scheduling ............................................................. 715 Control of rework rework ....................................................................................... ....................................................................................... 716 Tracking and traceability ............................................................................ 716 Cleaning ...................................................................................................... 716 Education .................................................................................................... 716 Chemical handling and control .......................................................................... 717 MSDS sheets .............................................................................................. 717 Chemicals ................................................................................................... 718 Lubricants ................................................................................................... 718 Pest management ............................................................................................... 719 Premises for program building ................................................................... 719 Pest exclusion ............................................................................................. 720 Monitoring .................................................................................................. 721 Chemicals for pest control .......................................................................... 721 Documenting the program .......................................................................... 723 Verification and recordkeeping .......................................................................... .......................................................................... 724 Forms .......................................................................................................... 725 Proper recordkeeping .................................................................................. 725 Appendix: Append ix: Molecular Drawings ..................................................................... 729 Index: Volume Volume I ................................................................................................ 733

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Baking Baki ng Science & Technology Technology

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CHAPTER 1

Basic Food Science INTRODUCTION

A working knowledge The basic components of baked foods number in the thousands, even millions. Plants, animals and mineral sources provide the raw materials for baking’ baking’ss ingredients. Entities such as bakers yeast and bacteria contribute their lives and by-products to baked foods, while inert minerals provide nutritive and functional attributes. At their most basic, the plant and animal compounds are classified as carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. An understanding of the basic food science aspects of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids will help bakers and other practitioners of the baker’ baker’ss art in their work to develop products and manage the processing of baked foods. The ability to identify such compounds and recognize their differences goes a long way when solving formulating and production problems.

of the science of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and fibers will help any practitioner of the baker’s art.

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BASIC FOOD SCIENCE

1.A. Carbohydrates 1.A.1. Sources Of all the compounds composing baked foods, carbohydrates predominate by sheer quantity, typically accounting for 67% of wheat flour. Qualities that consumers associate with freshness such as keeping quality, crust and crumb texture, along with firmness, result from the condition of the carbohydrates in the product. In nature, plants store much of the energy supply for their seeds in the form of carbohydrates and also warehouse these compounds in their stems and roots. Carbohydrates make up the bulk of the white, starchy material found in the interior content of seeds and roots. Typical sources for the t he carbohydrates in baked foods include wheat kernels, of course, but also corn and other cereal grains and legumes, along with sugar cane and sugar beets. When considering complex carbohydrates and fiber, sources become even more diverse, including tree exudates, seaweed colloids and fruit pectin as well as root and stem materials from a wide variety of plants. Glucose, the simple sugar that forms the basis of all carbohydrates, is fundamentally important to life. While mammals derive energy from the glucose they consume, plants put it to additional use. They can transform carbohydrates into lipid substances, and when making proteins, plants combine the hydrogen, carbon and oxygen from its glucose stores with the nitrogen, occasionally sulfur and sometimes phosphorus that it gets from the soil in the form of inorganic salts. The results are complex protein molecules.

Figure 1.01. During the Calvin cycle, enzyme-mediated reactions split water to release the oxygen and reduce the carbon dioxide to create carbon-carbon covalent bonds and to accept hydrogen, thus forming carbohydrates.

1.A.1.a. Carbohydrate synthesis How do plants make glucose? Through the pr ocess of photosynthesis, the chlorophyll in the green leaves of plants, as well as some algae and bacteria, absorbs electromagnetic radiation from sunlight. This is transformed into chemical energy that acts on carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), turning it into glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2). The process can be expressed by the equation:

three molecules

CO2

1C

three molecules ribulose 5-phosphate

six molecules 5C

3-phosphoglycerate

3C

3 ADP 3

ATP

6

6 ADP

three molecules ribulose 5-phosphate

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2 ATP

six molecules

5C

3C

1,3-diphosphoglycerate 2

Pi

�ve molecules glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

three molecules of  CO� �xed give a net yeild of one molecule of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate at a net cost of nine molecules of ATP and six molecules of NADPH

glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

one molecule glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

3C

H

C

O

H

C

OH

CH2O Pi

SUGARS, FATTY ACIDS, AMINO ACIDS

NADPH

6

NADP *

6

six molecules 3C

6

3C

Pi

The energy component of the process is quite complex and involves highly specialized cells, or chloroplasts, within plant leaves. In cyanobacteria and prochlorobacteria, photosynthesis takes place within the folds of single-celled organisms’ membranes. Known as the Calvin cycle (Figure 1.01) 1.01) (other names include Calvin-Benson cycle and Carbon Fixation cycle), it resembles the Krebs cycle in its use of the t he electron-transport molecules adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+). During the Calvin cycle, enzyme-mediated reactions split the water to release the oxygen and reduce the carbon dioxide to create carbon-carbon covalent bonds and to accept hydrogen, thus forming carbohydrates. These compounds,

Part A: Major Ingredients 

CHAPTER 2

Bakery Ingredients Part A: Major Ingredients INTRODUCTION In practice, bakers tend to group ingredients into three categories based on their level of usage in formulations: major, minor and micro. Major, also termed “bulk,” ingredients make up the majority of the formulation. Flour, for example, constitutes around 55 to 60% (formula weight) or more of bread’s raw materials. Minor ingredients typically range from 5 to 10% (formula weight), and micro ingredients are those added at 5% or less.

High-quality baked foods demand use of high-quality ingredients.

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BAKERY INGREDIENTS

This classification came about when bakeries started installing automated ingredient handling systems. Return on investment came rapidly for capital spent on the silos, scales, sifters and control systems suitable for storing, portioning and dispensing bulk ingredients. The payout for automating the handling of ingredients used at lower rates was not as fast, so installation tended to lag. Manual scaling and hand-add delivery usually characterize the handling of minor and micro ingredients. A good number of large bakeries do automate their ingredient systems through the micro level, but it is far more common to find only the bulk materials dispensed through computerized systems. For this reason, the discussion of bakery ingredients will follow a major, minor, micro format. Also presented will be coverage of characterizing ingredients, and ingredient systems such as bases, concentrates and mixes.

2.A.1. Wheat flour

Wheat is the No. 1 cereal in the world in terms of area planted. Corn’s production numbers are higher, and more of the planet Earth’s people eat rice, but wheat remains the premier food cereal grain. T he reasons for this preeminence are many many.. Wheat is well adapted to the soil and climatic conditions that prevail in the large temperate regions across the globe. The wheat plant is high-yielding and relatively easy to cultivate. The mature grain possesses excellent storage stability and exceptional food value. Its yield of suitable flour upon milling is relatively high, and there is practically no waste since the by-products of milling are used as animal feed.

Table 2.A.01. US Wheat Classes and Principal Uses Class Hard red winter (HRW)

Soft red winter (SRW)

Hard red spring (HRS)

Hard white

Soft white

Durum

(Atwell 2001)

General characteristics High protein, strong gluten, high water absorption Low protein, weak gluten, low water absorption Very Ve ry high protein, strong gluten, high water absorption High protein, Strong gluten, high water absorption, bran lacks pigments Low protein, weak gluten, low water absorption, bran lacks pigments High protein, strong gluten, high water absorption

Principal uses Bread and related products

Cakes, cookies, pastries, pie crusts, crackers, biscuits

Bread, bagels, pretzels and related products

Bread and related products

Noodles, crackers, wafers and other  products in which specs are undesirable

Pasta

Part B: Minor Ingredients 

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CHAPTER 2

Bakery Ingredients Part B: Minor Ingredients

Ranging from 5 to 10% on a formula weight basis, minor ingredients encompass

Although minor ingredients typically range from 5 to 10% (or sometimes less) on a formula weight basis, they can make or break product pr oduct success. Within this category, category, we nd leavening systems — microbial cultures of yeast and/or bacteria, chemical leavening, air and steam. Other ingredients used at this level include dairy products and eggs, added starches and ber enhancement ingredients.

leavening systems, dairy, eggs, starch, fiber and other components.

Bakers yeast shows budding scars. (Min-Dak Yeast)

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2.B.1. Leavening Leavening lightens doughs, enhancing the volume, texture, eating quality and often the avor of baked baked foods. The word “leaven” “leaven” can be tracked tracked through Middle English’s English’s “levain” to the Latin “levare,” meaning “to raise.” The function of leavening agents is to aerate the dough or batter and make it light and porous. When baked, the porosity translates into the crumb of the nished product. Leavening, Leavening, thus, also tenderizes the crumb and contributes to the esthetic enjoyment of the nal product by giving it uniform cell structure, bright crumb color, soft texture and enhanced palatability. The process of leavening involves creating and enlarging the gas cells in dough or batter, cells that expand under the in uence of time and heat to increase the overall size of the dough piece before its starch-and-protein matrix gelatinizes and sets. Mixing incorporates air into the dough mass, thus nucleating the bubbles essential to every style of leavening. Batters cannot create their own cells, only mixing does. Without the bubble nuclii, any gas generated by biological or chemical means would merely dissolve in the free water of the dough. The tiny air bubbles formed during mixing collect the gaseous products of leavening. leavening. The more the nucleation nucleation sites, sites, the ner the texture of the nished product. While such air bubbles are enough to leaven angel food cakes, nearly every other formulation requires additional leavening gases. The ingredients that contribute leavening effects often provide other functional properties and add to, or detract from, the product’s nal texture, avor and appearance. Leavens such as bakers yeast, barm or a portion of fermenting sponge consist of living microbes that generate carbon dioxide, ethanol and other volatile organic compounds that ll and in ate the air cells created by mixing. Another category of ingredients leavens by chemical action. This process combines alkaline baking soda with an acid material such Table 2.B.01. Leavening Action of Yeast and Baking Powder as buttermilk or leavening acids Yeast Baking powder* Leavener based on flour 2.5% 6.0% to generate carbon dioxide, which Leavener based on dough weight 1.47% 3.42% aerates and expands the batter’s CO2 evolved per g leavener 0.5 g** 0.15g*** volume before the heat of the oven CO2 evolved per 100 g dough 0.735 g** 0.513 g*** sets its structure. CO2 evolved per 100 g dough 350 ml** 214 ml*** Not all leaveners are alike in their gassing power, as noted in Table * A double-acting baking powder containing 30% NaHCO3 2.B.01.. While chemical leavening 2.B.01 ** CO2 evolution per hour releases its gas relatively quickly, *** Total CO2 evolution (Reed and Nagodawithana 1991) there is no further leavening action as with yeast. But yeast may not be ef cient in all baked foods. 2.B.1. a. Yeast 2.B.1.a. Yeast Biological processes interact with physical and chemical reactions during baking in a highly complex fashion. Of these, these, fermentation is the most fundamental, in uencing avor,, texture and organoleptic qualities of the nished product, as well as its leavening avor performance. Most bakery fermentation processes are initiated and sustained by the life forces of a unicellular plant, a fungus actually: the microscopically small yeast. A number of bene cial lactic and acetic acid bacteria also contribute contribute their lives and by-products to the fermentation of baked foods.

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Used at less than

Part C: Micro Ingredients

5%, down to parts per million, micro ingredients play vital roles in finished product

When formulation quantities and weighments enter the realm of parts per million (ppm), you know you have reached the micro-ingredient category category.. Typically used at 5% or less and usually at 0.1% or less, these materials can be difficult to measure accurately and so are often combined with other ingredients in packets or as ingredient systems such as bases and concentrates. Some oxidation and fortification ingredients, which are important to achieving proper baking activity and nutritional quality, are added at the flour mill, using specialized equipment that streams the ingredient at a controlled rate directly into the flour. With all micro ingredients, accuracy is essential. Consider the example of fortification

quality and shelf life.

Folic acid, shown recrystallized in this photomicrograph taken under polarized light, became a mandatory enrichment in 1998. (Molecular Expressions: Michael W. Davidson, Florida State University)

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Table 2.C.01. Encapsulation Examples Encapsulated ingredient Sodium bicarbonate

Bakery application Frozen and refrigerated doughs; batters Frozen and refrigerated doughs; batters Soft pretzels Tortill ortillas as

Leavening phosphates   Salt Fumaric acid

Vitamins and minerals Hydrocolloids Cinnamon Highly aromatic seasonings (onion, garlic)

Fortified bakery products Muffins Yeast-raised doughs Frozen and refrigerated doughs; batters

Sodium aluminum phosphate

Frozen and refrigerated doughs; batters

Natural flavors and colors Enzyme

General use General use

Reason Prevent premature release

Prevent premature release Prevent premature dissolution Prevent premature carbon dioxid dioxidee release; prevent formation of translucent spots Prevent off-flavors and loss of viability Prevent sticky doughs during mixing Prevent inhibition of yeast Prevent softening of dough during processing; mask strong odors during storage Prevent premature release; prevent graying of dough during storage Prevent fading Prevent dusting and exposure of allergens to workers during scaling and addition

(Rask 2003, Rask and Tongue 2006)

ingredients. Calcium and folic acid illustrate the physical conundrum of dosing. The US Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) for calcium is 1,000 mg, but for folic acid, it is 0.4 mg. A slight miscue in dosing will not affect calcium, but it can really throw off the delivery of folic acid. In a certain sense, micro ingredients represent the baking industry’s equivalent to applied nanotechnology nanotechnology.. The definition of nanotechnology pegs it as the applied science and technology of controlling matter at the atomic and molecular physical level and employs chemistry, engineering, physics and microfabrication techniques. It involves scales of 100 nanometers or less. (A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter, or 10 -9 m. In comparison, a micron, or micrometer, is one-millionth of a meter, or 10-6 m. Thus, 100 nm equals 1 mcm, or 1 µ.) Although bakers do not measure ingredients to parts per billion (ppb), the concept is being studied. Food nanotechnology is attracting increasing attention among formulators (Tarver 2006), and the Institute of Food Technology issued a Scientific Summary on the topic (Weiss (W eiss et al. 2006). The T he authors noted that food’s carbohydrate, protein and fat molecules interact through nano-scale participation of their sugar, amino acid and fatty acid components. They suggested the future may see use of nanotechnology for biosensors and functional improvements such as association colloids, nano-emulsions, biopolymers and controlled-release delivery systems. Controlled release is the whole point of micro-encapsulation micro-encapsulation,, a method of managing ingredient functionality. Encapsulation is the general term covering the enrobing of one material in another at the microscopic scale, and microencapsulation describes an even finer degree. Ingredient suppliers can count the

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Bakery Ingredients Part D: Characterizing Ingredients Baked foods appeal to consumers in far more ways than as simple remedies for hunger. The influences leading a person to select one food over another involve the senses of taste, smell, sight and touch. Even an auditory crunch sends signals to the part of the brain that controls appetite. Some foods we eat to assuage hunger, but others we consume to satisfy a craving for specific taste sensations. In this more or less discretionary consumption, food selection usually ranges beyond staple products and follows more freely the dictates of hedonism. Characterizing ingredients provide numerous attractive attributes. The appeal of many baked foods is enhanced by this class of ingredients. Prominent among the group of discretionary foods are items such as sweet goods, cakes, cookies, confections and pies. Because the appeal of many of these foods is to a large measure determined by their

Nuts, like all characterizing ingredients, add eye appeal and flavor to baked foods.

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highly flavored ingredients, the nature and selection of these ingredients play a significant role in determining the level of the acceptability of these foods. In other words: fruits, nuts, spices, flavors, colors, cocoa, chocolate and other such ingredients add value to baked foods.

2.D.1. Fruits Fruits are the jewels in the baker’s crown. Their bright colors and pleasing flavors make them natural partners for the more subtle taste of grain-based ingredients. Bakers can avail themselves of an encyclopedia’s worth of fruits in fresh, frozen and processed forms. While this discussion looks at several of the most economically important fruits used by bakers, lately several “new” fruits have found a home in the bakery formulary, including acai, banana, guava, mango and pomegranate (Berry 2006). They are worth exploring for their emerging appeal to consumers. Growers’ federations, boards and councils manage marketing and promotion of many fruit and nut crops grown in the US. These groups generally provide a wealth of information and application resources concerning their crops. They often sponsor research into crop improvement as well as consumer preferences, and some offer grants to support academic-level research about the dietary, nutritional and physiological effects and benefits of consuming these crops as food. The most recent edition of Dietary Guidelines for Americans, released in 2005, recommends that adults eat 2½ cups of fruits and 2½ cups of vegetables every every day. Bakery foods can contribute to this.

Figure 2.D.01. Native to North America, blueberries from the highbush variety are large in size and sweet-tart in flavor. (US Highbush Blueberry Council)

2.D.1.a. Fresh, canned and frozen fruits The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) sets quality grades for fresh, canned and frozen fruits. Handling of fresh fruits is critical to the quality of finished baked goods. Care must be taken to avoid bruising, which opens the flesh to spoilage microorganisms. Apples   are the pomaceous fruit of the apple tree, species  Malus Apples domestica and a member of the rose family Rosaceae. It is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits, and in the US, the largest producer is Washington State. Roughly 55% of the apple crop enters the retail fresh market. Bins of apples destined for processors such as bakers are kept in cold storage or controlled atmosphere rooms until needed. An atmospheric content low in oxygen (1%) and carbon dioxide (1.5%) drastically retards the apples’ natural respiration and ripening processes (Deuel 1986). The most popular varieties for bakery use include Granny Smith and Jonathan. Blueberries   are commercially harvested from highbush varieties (Vaccinium Blueberries corymbosum  and V. ashei) and “wild” lowbush varieties ( V. angustifolium). The plant is native to North America and grows throughout the northern US and Canada but is now also cultivated in Australia, New New Zealand and some South American countries. It is related to the bilberry of Europe. About 60% of the commercial blueberry crop comes

Part E: Ingredient Systems 

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Bakery Ingredients Part E: Ingredient Systems

The inefficiencies of hand-weighing ingredients, some in quantities measured

Using and managing ingredients ef ciently presents constant challenges challenges to bakers. Some formulas like classic French bread are simple, requiring only four ingredients ( our, water, water, yeast and salt), while others like cake cake doughnuts are quite complex, complex, with 12 to 15 ingredients and sometimes as many as 25 (Smith 1991). Additionally, production schedules often include products such as multi-grain bread that are made in relatively low volume yet need ingredients unique to that formula. Both wholesale and retail retail bakeries, then, are faced faced with two sources sources of inef ciency:

in milligrams, prompts bakers to use bases, concentrates and mixes.

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Figure 2.E.01. Biofermented flavor systems, another style of ingredient system or concentrate, come in liquid form such as this sourdough system. (Puratos)

the necessity for weighing out a large number of ingredients for a product and warehousing and handling many ingredients in relatively small quantities. To overcome these inef ciencies, bakers turn to the ingredient systems systems known as complete mixes, mixes, half-and-half mixes, bases, concentrates and pre-mixes. A complete mix contains everything needed to make a product except water, yeast and sometimes liquid eggs. This is handy in retail shops, where the product may require a special type of our not readily available available to the baker. Many wholesale bakers bakers also use complete mixes for certain products, especially cake doughnuts and Danish pastry. Half-and-half products are mixes that contain all the additive ingredients required plus part of the formula’s our, usually a specialty our such as rye, rice, oat, corn or whole-wheat. The baker supplies the rest of the our from the bakery’s own bulk bulk our stores. Bases incorporate all formula ingredients except those readily available in bulk to the baker — usually bread or cake our, sugar, yeast and water. water. Bases are offered in liquid (Figure (Figure 2.E.01), ( Figure 2.E.02) 2.E.01), paste, plastic (Figure 2.E.02) or powdered form. For example, a roll base may look like shortening, while a sourdough base is often liquid. Concentrates resemble bases but contain fewer ingredients. The active ingredients are blended onto a base ( our, soy, soy, dry milk solids, etc.) for a dry concentrate or creamed into a shortening or oil carrier creating a paste or plastic material. Usage is generally low: low: 1 to 5 lb per 100 lb of our. Pre-mixes, which contain blends of oxidants, yeast foods, enzymes, enrichment vitamins and minerals and/or and/or additive additive ingredients, ingredients, nd wide acceptance. Formulation accuracy improves tremendously tremendously because the addition of such micro ingredients is no longer a matter of many weighments but the addition of a single packet or pouch to

Table 2.E.01. Mixes and Bases for Bread: A Comparison Ingredient

Figure 2.E.02. Bases are often blended with other materials to form a plastic or paste-like material, shipped in cubes. (Caravan Ingredients)

Flour (spring) Flour (winter) Sugar Salt Nonfat dry milk solids Mineral yeast food Shortening Emulsifier Calcium propionate Vital wheat gluten Whey Potato flour Soy flour Blend weight

Scratch (lb) 70.00 30.00 8.00 2.00 3.00 0.50 4.00 0.25 0.25 – – – – 118.00

Mix (lb) 73.00 27.00 5.00 2.00 – 0.35 4.00 0.50 0.15 1.00 2.00 2.00 1.00 118.00

Base (1:1) (lb) 41.00 – 5.00 2.00 – 0.35 4.00 0.50 0.15 1.00 2.00 2.00 1.00 59.00

Base (2:1) (lb) 21.00 – 5.00 2.00 – 0.35 4.00 0.50 0.15 1.00 2.00 2.00 1.00 39.00

Yeast Waterr Wate Flour Total dough weight

3.00 65.00 – 186.00

3.00 65.00 – 186.00

3.00 65.00 59.00 186.00

3.00 65.00 79.0 186.00

(Smith 1991)

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CHAPTER 3

Crops and Their Processing By C.E. (Chuck) Walker, Walker, Ph.D., and Jian (Jane) Li, MS Department of Grain Science & Industry, Kansas State University, University, Manhattan, KS 66506-2201. Phone (785) 532-6161; e-mail [email protected] and [email protected]. Published as contribution No. 08-272-B by the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.

INTRODUCTION In addition to the ubiquitous wheat ours, bakers use many other grains and seeds in their baked foods. They add them not only for ingredient functionality but also for avor avor,, texture, appearance and a healthy image. Strictly speaking, a “grain” means the seed of the botanical family Gramineae (now renamed Poaceae), usually called the grasses (Morrison and Wrigley 2004). These are the principal cereal grains. In practice, there are several other plant seeds with similar properties that are used by bakers and considered by them as “grains” also and sometimes referred to as “pseudocereals.” “pseudocereals.” And nally, there

A thorough understanding of the grains suitable for baked foods is critical for formulation and nutrient claims.

Bakers work with many cereal grains: (from left) oats, wheat, millet, barley barley,, quinoa, rye and corn. (Getty Images, Christel Rosenfeld)

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are seeds that do not resemble the cereal grains but that are added to provide unique characteristics (Table (Table 3.01). 3.01). In addition to incorporating these other grains and seeds into the main dough or batter, batter, they are frequently used as toppings and llings. This chapter provides a listing of the grains and seeds most commonly used by bakers. For simplicity, we will use the term “grain” for all items discussed. They are listed in alphabetical order, and each in turn is discussed, providing information on the basic grain

Table 3.01. Principal Cereal Grains and Oilseeds of World Importance Import ance Worldwide grain production (2006-07 July/June crop year) Grain

Worldwide rank Corn (maize) 1 Wheat 2 Rice 3 Barley 4 Sorghum 5 Oats 6 Rye 7

Production Top producing (mmt*) country and share 704.28 US 37.9% 593.19 EU** 21.0% 418.24 China 30.6% 137.35 EU 40.9% 56.99 Nigeria 18.4% 23.11 EU 33.4% 12.38 EU 52.8%

Oilseeds (2006-07 crop year) Soybeans 1 237.27 US 36.6% Rapeseed 2 46.80 China 27.0% Cottonseed 3 45.82 China 30.4% Palm oil 4 37.02 Indonesia 44.8% Peanut 5 32.41 China 45.3% Sunflowerseed Sunflowers eed 6 30.15 Russian 22.4%   Federation Palm kernel 7 10.27 Indonesia 43.3% Copra 8 5.28 Philippines 41.6%

Next five leading producing countries

US share

China, EU**, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico China, India, US, Russian Federation, Canada India, Indonesia, Bangeladesh, Vietnam, Thailand Russian Federation, Ukraine, Canada, Turkey urkey,, Australia India, US, Mexico, Sudan, Ethiopia Russian Federation, Canada, US, Australia, Ukraine Russian Federation, Belarus, Ukraine, Canada, Turk Turkey ey

37.9% 8.3% 1.5% 2.8% 12.3% 5.9% 1.5%

Brazil, Argentina, China, India, Paraguay 36.6% Canada, Germany Germany,, India, France, UK1.30% India, US, Pakistan, Brazil, Uzbekistan 14.6% Malaysia, Thailand, Nigeria, Colombia, Papua New Guinea *** India, US, Nigeria, Indonesia, Burma 4.8% Ukraine, Argentina, France, India, Hungary 3.2% Malaysia, Nigeria, Thailand, Colombia, Papua New Guinea *** Indonesia, India, Vietnam, Mexico, Papua New Guinea ***

* million metric tonnes ** EU: Austria, Belgium/Luxembourg, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, The Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia,  Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom *** No domestic production of these crops in the US Table 3.01. While corn leads the world’s crops in production, wheat comes in a close second, and soybeans lead among oilseeds. (USDA 2008a, USDA 2008b)

properties, where and how it is produced, and how and why it is used by bakers. Refer ences are provided to lead the reader to more detailed discussions on each of the grains. It has been suggested that the habit of nomadic peoples to gather seeds from wild grasses led to the establishment of permanent settlements, agriculture and civilization (Ziehr 1987). At any rate, cereal grains today provide a major portion of our calorie needs, either directly or through feeding them to animals. There are eight cereal grains that are usually listed as widely used for food and feed. They are, in order of world-wide production: corn (maize), wheat, rice, barley, sorghum, oats, rye and the millets. The naked kernels, or caryopses of the cereal grains with the hull removed, have many similar characteristics in their structure and composition (Figure ( Figure 3.01). 3.01). The lengths (diameters) for the various species will vary from about 1 mm to about 10 mm and their individual seed weights from about 1 mg to about 350 mg. Their structures and compositions all share many characteristics.

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CHAPTER 4

Quality Laboratory

Bakery laboratories

Introduced and updated by Theresa S. Cogswell BakerCogs, Inc., Olathe, KS 66062. Phone (816) 820-5364; e-mail [email protected].

well as instrumentation,

require good staffing as supplies and good

INTRODUCTION

documentation to accomplish their tasks.

From specifying the our, to mixing the dough and through nishing the loaf of bread or any other baked product, it is wise to use objective data to validate consistency and quality to assist production and product development. Maintaining adequate control over composition and functional properties of the ingredients used in the process is an important requisite for producing any type of baked food.

Members of the Interstate Bakeries R&D team evaluate a new formula. (Baking & Snack , Matthews Communications)

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Quality Laboratory

Change is inevitable. Analytical procedures and methods can detect, monitor and track small changes, unseen by the human eye, over time. Maintaining a history of these changes can help make sure you are receiving the quality you are paying for from your ingredient suppliers. But this data can also assist in an investigation to validate a complaint or document a decline in product quality. Typically, our is the main ingredient on the ingredient legend of any baked food. This key ingredient deserves more attention than simply documenting limits or ranges on an ingredient speci cation to be recorded in a database or stored in le drawer. drawer. Flours from different wheat blends, mills and geographic origins can uctuate considerably in their content of protein, ash, moisture, absorption, mix time and functionality. It is essential for the baker to be aware of any changes that may occur in these characteristics before using the our in production. In the automated bakery bakery today, today, knowing the consistency of our functionality before the mixing process is essential. If the mix time and absorption of each lot of our is not optimized, then the resulting product will not achieve achieve the consistent high-quality product consumers deserve. Evaluating and approving test methods pertaining to our and other ingredients used by the baking and other cereal-based industries has historically been taken on by AACC International (previously American Association of Cereal Chemists) and AOAC AOAC International (previously Association of Of cial Analytical Analytical Chemists). Both organizations organizations publish their approved methods in volumes titled, respectively, “Approved Methods of the AACC,” whose 10th edition appeared in 2000 and was updated as of September 2004, and “Of cial Methods of Analysis” (AOA (AOAC C Methods), whose 18th edition was published in 2004-05. This chapter will attempt to survey survey the more pertinent tests relating to our and dough evaluation as they appear in these volumes. Methods that are gaining acceptance in cereal and baking laboratories will also be described brie y even though they may not have gained “of cial” status. status. All laboratory work requires precision, especially when handling such a naturally variable ingredient as as our. Timing and technique technique must be impeccable impeccable … and reproducible. For this to happen, howev however, er, temperature and humidity conditions within the laboratory and its storage areas must be consistent. Whether lab tests support production or product development, reproducibility is critical, and that precision cannot occur when the lab’s ambient conditions vary day-to-day. Climate control is essential. Remember a short pencil beats a long memory any day. Maintain records of your test results. Data and facts will provide the information needed to run a successful grainbased food company company..

4.A. The bake test

By far, the most useful test in the baker’s repertoire is to actually bake with the material being examined, especially our. Various physical and physiochemical our testing methods will report useful information, but ultimately, the bake test yields the most reliable index to the our’s potential performance in production. Although the bake test takes place under standardized and controlled laboratory conditions, its results must still be interpreted according to the variables that normally enter into largescale commercial production.

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CHAPTER 5

Bakery Sanitation and Regulations By Richard F. Stier Consulting Food Scientist Phone (707) 935-2829; e-mail [email protected].

INTRODUCTION There are some people who equate sanitation with a bakery looking, smelling and feeling clean. Sanitation is more than that. It is a state of mind and a means of ensuring the products that come out of each and every bakery, whether breads, cookies, cakes, meat pies, pizzas or any one of the myriad of specialty products, are safe, wholesome and t for human consumption. Commitment to good sanitation starts with management and ows down down through the plant hierarchy. hierarchy. Management must provide the tools, nancial support and leadership to establish and sustain such commitment. Sanitation is an i ntegral part of the whole quality system, which consists of every operation needed to ensure t he

A complete understanding of sanitation — its program, procedures, systems and tools — is required to maintain a safe and secure bakery operation.

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manufacture of safe and high quality baked foods.

5.A. Sanitation: a prerequisite to safe food The US seafood and juice HACCP (Hazard Analysis, Critical Control Point) regulations state that a HACCP plan should include certain “Prerequisite Programs” (FDA 1995, 2001). These programs may be grouped into six basic categories. These are: • Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOP) • Good Manufacturing Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) • Training • Preventiv Preventivee Maintenance • Product Identi cation and Coding • Recall Programs The HACCP concept was developed in 1959 (although it was not called so at the time) to help establish the potential risk of salmonella in foods and to control that risk. This work was conducted by the US Army Laboratories in Natick, MA, and the National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA) in collaboration wit h the Pillsbury Co., who was a major supplier to the space program. These pioneers realized that existing inspection systems based on nished product testing did not provide the necessary degree of safety. safety. They would need to conduct too much nished product testing to provide that assurance, so the decision was made to develop a system in which safety was built into the pr ocess. At that time, there were only three HACCP principles. HACCP has grown through the years to seven principles. It is, as noted above, mandated for certain industries and has become a standard for the whole food industry. It is not yet mandated for the baking industry, but for all intents and purposes it is. Most buyers require that companies from whom they purchase foods or ingredients have a functioning HACCP system. Even though this chapter is entitled “Bakery Sanitation,” mentioning the two regulations is germane since they formalized the concept of prerequisite programs. When preparing the regulation, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) clearly stated that HACCP is not a “stand alone” program. This position is not limited to FDA alone. The US Department of Agriculture (USDA), which regulates meat and poultry processing, also mandates the adoption of prerequisite programs as part of ensuring food safety.. Since there are many bakery items that contain meats, these companies fall under safety the jurisdiction of USDA. Regulatory agencies and food safety professionals the world over also have taken this stance. HACCP with its prerequisite programs are mandated in the European Union and in many other parts of the world. Finally, prerequisite programs are an integral part of the Codex Food Hygiene guidance document and of the ISO 22000 standard. Codex Alimentarius Recommended International Code of Practice: General Principles of Food Hygiene not only includes HACCP guidelines but emphasizes the importance of prerequisite programs pr ograms (UN/FAO (UN/FAO 1997). Codex documents are not standards, however. They are guidance documents for international harmonization. After several years of work, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) issued its ISO 22000 document (ISO 2005). This document is entitled Food safety management systems — Requirements for any organization in the food chain. The