AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES: Experi Experiences ences and Lessons Lesson s Lea L earned rned in i n Mt. Banahaw, Banahaw, Hanunuo Mangyan and Some Connunity-based Forestry Forestry Proje roj ects
Cecilia N. Gascon Antonio Anto nio F. Gascon Gascon Kazunori Takahashi akahashi (Eds.)
Japan Japan Internation International al Resea Research rch Center Center for f or Agricul Agr icultural tural Sciences Sciences Southern Luzon Polyt Polytechnic echnic College University of the Philippines Philip pines Los Baños
AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES: Experi Experiences ences and Lessons Lesson s Lea L earned rned in i n Mt. Banahaw, Banahaw, Hanunuo Mangyan and Some Connunity-based Forestry Forestry Proje roj ects
Cecilia N. Gascon Antonio Anto nio F. Gascon Gascon Kazunori Takahashi akahashi (Eds.)
Japan Japan Internation International al Resea Research rch Center Center for f or Agricul Agr icultural tural Sciences Sciences Southern Luzon Polyt Polytechnic echnic College University of the Philippines Philip pines Los Baños
Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences 1-1, Ohwashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8686 Japan TEL +81 (29) 838-6340 FAX +81 (29) 838-6656 Southern Luzon Polytechnic College Brgy.Tinaman, Brgy.Tinaman, Lucban, Quezon, 4238 Philippines TEL +63 (42) 540-7007 FAX +63 (42) 540-7650 University of the Philippines Los Baños Institute of Renewable Natural Resources (IRNR) College, Laguna, 4031 Philippines TEL +63 (49) 536-2557
1st Printing March 2006 ISBN 4-906635-10-5 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this book may be reproduced in whatever form or manner without permission in writing from JIRCAS.
Contents Page List of Figures List of Tables About the Authors Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Glossary of Terms Abbreviations Review of the Reforestation Approaches and Experiences in the Philippines ············································································ 1-11 Biological and Physical Characteristics of Mt. Banahaw ······································································································ 12-23 Growth Performance of Reforestation Species in a Grassland Area of Mt. Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon ···································· 24-36 Characteristics of Some Indigenous Tree Species Planted in Mt. Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon ······················································· 37-53 Simplified Pre-germination Treatments and Improved Direct Seeding Methods for Reforestation ························································· 54-71 Agroforestry Systems in Mt. Banahaw Quezon Province, Philippines ··········································································· 72-86 The Hanunuo Mangyan Agroforestry Systems And Associated Farming Practices ································································ 87-111 Typical Agroforestry Systems in the Philippines ······································ 112-119
List of Figur es Figur e No. 1 2a 2b 3a 3b 3c 3d 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
14 15 16 17 18 19
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Page The forest cover in the Philippines in 1900 and 1999 1 Geographical location of Mt. Banahaw 13 Contour map of Mt. Banahaw with the municipality location in the vicinity 13 3-Dimensional map of Mt. Banahaw facing to the northeastern side 14 3-Dimensional map of Mt. Banahaw facing to the southwestern side 14 Perspective of Mt. Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon 15 Typical views of Mt. Banahaw; forest, grassland and farm 15 Watershed map of Mt. Banahaw National Park 17 Sources of water in Mt. Banahaw 18 Vegetable field and fruit plantation, the agricultural areas at the foot of Mt. Banahaw 20 Distribution of floristic growth forms 21 Grassland and the reforestation site in Mt. Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon 27 Leucaena + timber species combination at Mt. Banahaw reforestation site 28 28 Pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus 28 Leucaena leucocephala Average height growth of various reforestation species in Mt. Banahaw 30 Average diameter growth of various reforestation species in Mt. Banahaw 30 Hot water treatment and sowing test on study of germination enhancement 56 Germination monitoring of Parkia roxburghii on study of germination enhancement 57 Difference of seed germination rate and seedling growth on hot water seed soaking experiment 59-62 Experiment of direct seeding by grass burning 65 Germinated seedlings from seeds soaked in hot water 65 Germination rates of leguminous tree seeds on comparison of hot water soaking treatments and fire heatings 68 Seedling growth performances of Leucaena species on comparison with the recovering grasses 69 Seedling growth performances of timber use legumes on comparison with the recovering grasses 69 Procedure flowcharts for leguminous direct seedings 70 Before and after of direct seeding reforestation by 70 Leucaena leucocephala Cropping calendar of upland farmers in Mt. Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon 74 Marketing scheme of farm products 77 Average relative humidity in Mt. Banahaw, Dolores, Quezon 79 Average monthly rainfall in Mt. Banahaw, Dolores, Quezon 79 Average temperature in Mt. Banahaw, Dolores, Quezon 79
29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
39
Coconut + vegetable crops farm Coconut + fruit trees farm The land use systems of the Hanunuo Mangyan The newly prepared area of the Hanunuos The newly burned site for kaingin of the Hanunuos Vertical and horizontal profile of a Hanunuo Mangyan’s Rice farm, Sitio Dangkalan, Bulalacao, Oriental Mindoro The swidden farm of the Hanunuo Mangyan The multistory farm of the Hanunuo Mangyan Average infiltration rates in the three agroforestry systems in Sitio Dangkalan, Oriental Mindoro Monthly runoff in the three agroforestry systems in Sitio Dangkalan, Oriental Mindoro Monthly sediment yield in the three agroforestry systems in Sitio Dangkalan, Oriental Mindoro
82 83 88-91 95 96 99 100 103 106 107
109
List of Tab les Table No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Page Quarterly height growths of various reforestation species in Mt. Banahaw 31 Quarterly diameter growths of various reforestation species in Mt. Banahaw 32 Tree heights of top ten species planted in Mt. Banahaw 33 Stem diameters of top ten species planted in Mt. Banahaw 34 Seed germination enhancement on hot water treatments and fire heatings 63 Agroforestry crops commonly planted under coconut trees 81 Cropping calendar of the Hanunuo Mangyan in Sitio Dangkalan, Bulalacao, Oriental Mindoro 97 Species of plants found in the kaingin site before planting rice and corn 101-102 Infiltration rates in the three agroforestry systems in Sitio Dangkalan, Oriental Mindoro 105 Total runoff (liter) of the three agroforestry systems in Sitio Dangkalan, Bulalacao, Oriental Mindoro 107 Total sediment yield (tons/ha) of the three agroforestry systems in Sitio Dangkalan, bulalacao, Oriental Mindoro 109 Average sheet erosion of the different farming systems from August to December 1996 111
About the Author s
Dr. Cecilia N. Gascon is a Professor at the Southern Luzon Polytechnic College in Lucban, Quezon, Philippines. She holds a Ph.D. degree in Forestry from the University of the Philippines Los Baños. Her specialized fields include Agroforestry, Silviculture, Forest Influences and Environmental Science. She is at present the President of the College and the Director of Mt. Banahaw Development Program.
Dr. Antonio F. Gascon is an Associate Professor of Silviculture and Forest Influences of the Institute of Renewable Natural Resources, College of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of the Philippines Los Baños. He worked as a research counterpart of the collaborative projects on reforestation between JIRCAS and CFNR-UPLB with Mr. Osumi, Mr. Okuda and Mr. Takahashi. He is presently the division head of the Environmental Forestry Division of IRNR.
Mr. Kazunori Takahashi is a researcher of the Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Japan. He worked as a vistiting scientist from JIRCAS assigned in the Philippines for 4 years. He managed a collaborative research project entitled “Studies on the Establishment of Cover Forest for the Logged-Over Tropical Forests in the Philippines” in 1999 in order to promote the technical development of reforestation methods for the marginal and degraded mountainous logged-over area. This project was conducted in close collaboration with the Institute of Renewable Natural Resources of the College of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) and Southern Luzon Polytechnic College (SLPC) in Lucban, Quezon.
Dr. Ar tur o S.A. Castillo is the Director of the Institute of Renewable Natural Resources in the College of Forestry and Natural Resources. He is a Professor of Silviculture and Agroforestry.
Forester Marife
Abuel works as a Community Organizer at the Kaunlaran ng
Mangagawang Filipino (Workers Fund) .
Forester
Lorelie delos Santos is a Forester and a community organizer at the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources in Region 5 (Bicol region), Philippines.
Forester Fernando Alibuyog is a Forestry Specialist at the Department of Environment and Natural Resources in Quezon Province, Philippines.
Forester Gar r et D. Ruiz is a university student of MS course in Canada after the graduation of CFNR-UPLB. He worked as the JIRCAS project staff as the visiting term of Mr. Takahashi.
Foreword Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS), University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) and Southern Luzon Polytechnic College (SLPC) jointly publish this book on Agroforestry Systems in the Philippines: Experiences and Lessons Learned in Mt. Banahaw, Hanunuo Mangyan and some Community-based Forestry Projects in an effort to introduce the research works conducted in reforestation and agroforestry in the Philippines.
JIRCAS had initiated a collaborative research project entitled “Studies on the Establishment of Cover Forest for the Logged-Over Tropical Forests in the Philippines” in 1999 in order to promote the technical development on the strategies for reforestation and agroforestry in the mountainous area of the country. The project was conducted in close collaboration with the Institute of Renewable Natural Resources of the College of Forestry and Natural Resources of the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB). Southern Luzon Polytechnic College (SLPC) also joined us by offering the grassland area at the foot of Mt. Banahaw de Lucban where we established an experimental tree plantation for reforestation.
This publication contains some practical studies that deal on the rehabilitation of the country’s degraded forests mainly as products of our research project data. The important objective of this book is to provide technical knowledge about reforestation and agroforestry to new foresters, aspiring farmers and the ordinary citizens engaged in forestry activities. Agroforestry must be closely weaved with forest management to cultivate ruined fields and the environmental improvement to sustain farming production.
We intend that this book be used by many concerned people who would like to do their share in the effort toward the development of the forests in the Philippines.
Shozo Nakamur a
Director JIRCAS Forestry Division
Preface Agroforestry is considered as a strategy to rehabilitate the denuded uplands and at the same time improve the socio-economic condition of upland farmers. In the Philippines, the oldest agroforestry system studied was swidden cultivation locally termed as “kaingin”. This system was believed to be ecologically sound and was practiced mostly by indigenous people. However, because of population growth of the country, even the lowlanders engaged farming activities in the uplands that resulted to more pressures and upland degradation. At present, to deal with those circumstances, several agroforestry systems are being practiced by the indigenous people and lowlanders who depend their living to the upland areas of the country.
This book presents the review of the government efforts and approaches on reforestation, agroforesrty systems of the lowlanders in Mt. Banahaw, Quezon, Philippines, the indigenous people of Oriental Mindoro (Hanunuo Mangyan), and the community-based agroforestry projects in some areas of the country. Moreover, this also presents the result of research in rehabilitating the grassland area of Mt. Banahaw with the use of indigenous species, the characteristics of some of the species that were used in the research and a technique to hasten germination of leguminous seeds using direct seeding. The information on the different agroforestry systems came from primary and secondary data. The one year exposure of the authors to the Hanunuo Mangyan gave them the opportunity to be familiar and understand the agroforestry system of this indigenous people. The experimental site in Mt. Banahaw gave the authors the concrete information on the growth of some indigenous tree species that are potential in upland rehabilitation and agroforestry activities.
It is the hope of the authors that this book provides rich information to understand the agroforestry systems in Mt. Banahaw, Hanunuo Mangyan and community-based agroforestry areas.
Cecilia N.Gasco n
Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their thanks and deepest gratitude to the following persons and institutions for extending their support in the realization of this book:
Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS) through their President, Dr. Shinobu Inanaga for offering the opportunity of the collaborative research project between Japan and the Phillipines.
Dr. Shozo Nakamura and Dr. Katsuhiro Osumi for sharing his expertise in agroforestry and facilitating the publication of this book.
Dr. Motoaki Okuma, President of Forestry and Forest Product Research Institute for offering the opportunity of scientific communication with Japanese scientists
Dr. Joselito B. Jara and the late Dr. Cornelio D. Esquieres, past presidents for allowing the conduct of this research in SLPC reservation.
SLPC Board of Trustees through Commissioner Saturnino Ocampo Jr. for allowing Dr. C.N. Gascon to visit Japan and work on this book.
Dr. Ramon Razal and Dr. Arturo S.A. Castillo for supporting Dr. A.F. Gascon as counterpart researcher of IRNR in this collaborative research project.
Mr. Douglas Peña, Mr. Mario Nañola, Mr. Bernabe Obmerga, Mr. Primo Javen and Mr. Rolando Juarez for their assistance in data collection.
Mr. Garret Ruiz, Rodrigo Lapitan, Rodel Santos, Delfino de Chavez ,Ver Calica, Rodelito Lapitan and Renato Niem for the technical support to Mr.Takahashi while he worked in the Philippines.
Ms. Aurora Sumague, Forester Amalia Almazol and Mr. Gilbert Andaluz for their assistance in the data analysis and preparation of the book..
Mr. Mon Mojica for the assistance of book compilation.
Forester Marife Abuel for her assistance in photo documentation.
Families of authors for their moral support and love.
C.N. Gasco n A.F. Gascon K. Takahashi
Glossar y of Ter ms
1.
Agroforestry – it is a system of land management wherein annual and perennial crops are combined in the same piece of land sequentially or simultaneously with the twofold goals of enhancing the productive and protective capacity of the land by improving the socio-economic condition of the upland dwellers and rehabilitating the denuded condition of the uplands. Recently, livestock raising has been included in the system as an additional source of income and protein for the people (Lasco, 1992, Bene at al 1977 as cited by Gascon 1998).
2.
Community – based forest resource management – refers to people-managed, grassroots development of forest resources including allocation, decision-making, implementation, enforcement, benefit-sharing and conflict management among community members.
3.
Cr op rotation – sequential arrangement of crops in time and space
4.
Exotic species – species which are introduced to a locality
5.
Fallow – a condition wherein the soil is allowed to rest for a certain period of time
6.
Home gardens – composed of fruits trees, herbs, shrubs, grasses and vegetables planted around the house of a farmer
7.
Indigenous agroforestry – it is a system of land management developed and practiced by the local people since time immemorial. It includes simultaneous or sequential planting of agricultural crops and trees, and in some cases livestock raising.
8.
Indigenous community – refers to a group of people regarded as the original inhabitants of a place; also refer to as the ethnic or tribal group.
9.
Indigenous species – it refers to the species found native in the site (e.g. in the Philippines).
10.
Productive function of agroforestry – it refers to the net output of a valued product per unit of resource input. A common measure of productivity is yield or net income per hectare.
11.
Protective function of agroforestr y – refers to the ability of the system to minimize soil erosion, improve soil fertility and prevent the occurrence of pests and diseases.
12.
Recalcitrant – seeds with short viability period
13.
Reforestation – it is the act of planting trees on bare or open land which used to be covered with forest growth (DENR-FMB 2003). It includes “ecological reforestation” and “economic reforestation”, new plantings, assisted natural regeneration, and enrichment planting (RMPFD 2003 as cited by Fernando 2005).
14.
Rehabilitation – it is a type of reforestation done using some of the original and exotic or introduced species to reforest the site. Its objective is to bring back the forest to a stable and productive condition. Rehabilitation involves forest tree planting, agroforestry, adoption of soil and water conservation practices and physical site improvement. Through rehabilitation, the protective function and ecological services maybe regained.
15.
Silvical characteristics – this refers to the characteristics of the species with particular reference to the environmental factors such as light, humidity, water, and soil.
16.
Silvicultural requirements – it refers to the requirements of the species in terms of treatments or activities such as application of fertilizer, thinning, pruning, weeding, watering, liming, light requirement.
17.
Uplands – refer to the hilly or mountainous landscapes of steeply inclined surfaces (18% and above) including table lands and plateaus lying at higher elevations which are highly dependent on precipitation and are not normally suited to lowland rice unless some forms of terracing and ground water source exist.
Abbreviations
C BFM
Community-Based Forest Management
CFNR
College of Forestry and Natural Resources
CFSA
Community Forest Stewardship Agreement
CO
Community Organizing
CSC
Certificate of Stewardship Contract
CSD
Comprehensive Site Development
DENR
Department of Environment and Natural Resources
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organization
FAR
Family Approach to Reforestation
FFPRI
Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute
FLMA
Forest Land Management Agreement
FM B
Forest Management Bureau
IRNR
Institute of Renewable Natural Resources
ISFP
Integrated Social Forestry Program
JIRCAS
Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences
LO I
Letter of Instruction
NFP
National Forestry Program
NGO
Non-Government Organization
NIPAS
National Integrated Protected Area System
PAMB
Protected Area Management Board
PO
People’s Organization
PROFEM
Program for Forest Ecosystem Management
SALT
Sloping Agricultural Land Technology
SLPC
Southern Luzon Polytechnic College
SMP
Survey, Mapping and Planning
UNDP
United Nations Development Program
UPLB
University of the Philippines Los Baños
Review of the Refor estation Appr oaches and Exper iences in the Philippines
Antonio F. Gascon and Arturo S.A. Castillo
Introduction The Philippines has a total land area of 30 million hectares and about 52% or 16 million ha are classified as forest lands (DENR-FMB 2005). In the early 60s, there were about 6 million ha of grasslands found in these uplands. Recently, reports showed that grasslands had increased to 12 million ha. Natural forests were logged and consequently, logged over areas were encroached by
shifting
cultivators. There is only about 0.8 million ha left as natural forests. The rest had become secondary forest and abandoned grasslands.
Fig.1
The for est co ver in th e Phi lip pin es in 1900 and 1999. Note: The green portion indicates presence of forests. (Source: Environmental Science for Social Change 1999)
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The grasslands have become important resource for shifting cultivators and ranchers. Gradually, because of destructive practices of burning, cultivating up and down the slope, free grazing, planting of erosion-enhancing crops like sugarcane, rice, corn, pineapple and others, these areas had become marginal and degraded. In fact, grasslands have become the target of blames of the calamities like landslides, accelerated erosion, long drought, flash floods and poor water yield. These are the reasons why they need to be rehabilitated by planting of forest trees and perennial agricultural crops. The process of forest rehabilitation involves planting of forest trees, putting up of soil and water conservation structures and application of sound soil management practices.
Historical Background of Reforestation in the Philippines Reforestation is synonymous to forest tree planting in open areas which were previously covered with forests. In the past, reforestation was done mainly for environmental protection. However, for private individuals or group, it was done to ensure economic benefits. The earliest reforestation activities in the Philippines started in Mt. Makiling, in time with the establishment of the first forestry school (now the College of Forestry and Natural Resources of the University of the Philippines Los Baños) in 1910 (Fernando 2005).
However, records show that reforestation
activities by the Philippine government started in 1916 at Cebu (Alli 1991) using teak (Tectona grandis) and other exotic species. Subsequent reforestation activities followed in the provinces of Laguna, Cebu and Zambales. With the creation of the Bureau of Forest Development (BFD) in 1972, reforestation became one of the government’s major programs. In 1976, the Program for Forest Ecosystem Management (PROFEM) was launched under Letter of Instruction No. 423 which mandated all government agencies to actively participate in reforestation. In 1977, government reforestation programs were further strengthened through the enactment of PD 1153 which required all Filipino citizens 10 years and older to plant 12 trees a year for 5 consecutive years. Through Letter of Instruction No. 1260 in 1982, the upland dwellers were given importance
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as partners in reforestation with the creation of the Integrated Social Forestry Program. This was aimed to uplift the socio-economic conditions of the upland farmers, and at the same time, protect and improve the quality of the environment. The Philippine government claims that reforestation programs had been successful,
but in reality, these were considered as failures (Fernando 2005).
Realizing the failures of the past reforestation efforts, the National Forestation Program (NFP) adopted the contract reforestation strategy.
Government Programs on Reforestation Even up to the present, the Philippine government still adopts the same programs, also modified and improved some for the establishment of forest trees during rehabilitation. The Forest Management Bureau (FMB) of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) of the Philippine government implement these programs.
1.
The Integrated Social Forestry Program This program started in 1982 as an approach to give upland farmers the security of tenure over the area they occupy and cultivate. Marginal and degraded grassland areas, which are under various forms of cultivation or upland farming, can be rehabilitated using this approach. A farmer occupying and cultivating a portion of a public forestland (5 to 25 ha) may apply for consideration with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources’ (DENR) local office. Upon evaluation and approval, the farmer, group of farmers or farmer’s organization, are provided with Certificate of Stewardship Contracts (CSCs) or Community Forest Stewardship Agreements (CFSAs). They are entitled to long-term tenurial arrangement of 25 years, renewable for another 25 years. The farmers are subject to community organizing activities and are provided assistance on how to practice agroforestry and soil and water conservation practices. The programs address the problem of alleviating rural poverty and ecological stability in occupied forest lands. The Sta. Catalina Integrated Social Forestry Project in Atimonan,
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Quezon is an example of the pilot ISFP project funded by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nation’s Development Program (UNDP). The project was aimed at assisting the government in the development of
upland areas and communities by training farmers for
improved farming practices, enhancing learning experiences through farmer-tofarmer visits, adopting appropriate soil and water conservation technologies, establishment of 3 ha demonstration farm for soil and water conservation measures, sloping agricultural technology, establishment of small water impounding dam, establishment of forest nurseries and adoption of appropriate and sound agroforestry practices. The project adopted 12 species of forest tree species to be planted in the area such as narra ( Pterocarpus indicus), mahogany (Swietenia mahogani ( L.) Jacq.), yemane (Gmelina arborea), giant ipil-ipil ( Leucaena pulverulenta), malapapaya ( Polyscias nodosa), acacia ( Acacia auriculiformis), apitong ( Dipterocarpus grandiflorus), bitaog ( Callophyllum inophyllum), bagtikan (Parashorea
malaanonan),
makaasim
( Syzygium
nitidum),
kakawate
(Gliricidia sepium) and kalantas ( Toona calantas). Seven out of 12 species are indigenous reforestation species. The forest trees were planted for wood, fodder, green manure and charcoal and, these are sometimes established either as boundary trees for farm lots, live fences, windbreaks or fire breaks. In agroforestry farms, fruit trees like jackfruit ( Artocarpus heterophylla), mango ( Mangifera indica ), avocado (Persia americana), santol (Sandoricum koetjape), dalanghita (Citrus commanes) and kalamansi ( Citrus spp) are planted. The most common agricultural crops planted are coconut ( Cocos nucifera) and kawayan tinik ( Bambusa blumeana ).
2.
National Forestation Program (NFP) In 1988, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) implemented the National Forestation Program with three major components such as reforestation, watershed rehabilitation and timber stand improvement. The reforestation component is concerned with planting of indigenous and exotic species including fruit trees, bamboos and species producing minor
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forest products in denuded forestlands. In NFP, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) enters into contract with organized upland settlers or people’s organizations
(POs),
community
and
civic/religious
organizations,
entrepreneurs, local and other government offices and non-government organizations (NGOs). These groups may be contracted for survey, mapping and planning (SMP), community organizing (CO), monitoring and evaluation (M and E), actual comprehensive site development (CSD) using the practices of planting indigenous and exotic tree species and the agroforestry integrating fruit trees, bamboos and species producing minor forest products in the whole forest landscape.
3.
Forest Land Management Agreement (FLMA) Program When the contractor of the reforestation activities has terminated his contract with the DENR, he/she may still apply for another contract called Forest Land Management Agreement (FLMA) upon attaining an 80% survival and properly maintaining the whole area. This program provides long-term tenure to the people who planted and cared trees in newly reforested areas. The area should be at least 100 ha. The contract or agreement has a tenure of 25 years and renewable for another 25 years. The contractor may also plant cash crops while the forest trees are still young. Vegetable rice, corn and root crops can be planted in the vacant spaces in between the trees. The contractor may harvest, process and sell timbers following the sustained yield forest management practices. The DENR gets a 30% share of all the proceeds obtained from the area. The contractors are assisted by the non-government organizations (NGOs) and Community Organizers hired for the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) in the aspects of forest management like silviculture, timber valuation and harvesting.
4.
Community Forestry Program (CFP) This program is designed for the protection, management and
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rehabilitation of abandoned and cancelled residual and fragmented growth forests in harvesting, processing and marketing of forest products. This makes upland dwellers stewards of residual forest areas. Organized upland farmers or people’s organizations can avail of this program which upon approval may be granted 25 years tenure and renewable for another 25 years. The farmers may enter into contract reforestation and other comprehensive site development projects. The DENR through its local offices may train farmers in resources inventory, preparation of forest management and conservation plans, development of livelihood opportunities, community organizing, resource management, harvesting and processing of forest products.
5.
Community-based Forest Management (CBFM) The Community-based Forest Management (CBFM) by virtue of Executive Order No. 263 was adopted by the Philippine government as its national strategy for attaining sustainable forestry and social justice. It provides that “the CBFM shall apply to all areas classified as forestlands including allowable zones within the protected areas”. It integrates all people-oriented forestry programs of the government, namely Integrated Social Forestry Program (ISFP), Communal Tree Farming (CTF), Family Approach to Forestation (FAR) and others which incorporates the experiences generated and learned from the past efforts to ensure sustainable resource management (Sarmiento 2005). CBFM is the Philippine government’s response to institutionalize the transfer of management responsibilities to the communities who depend on these forest resources. The objectives of CBFM are to: 1) rehabilitate the degraded or denuded forests by establishing forest trees in the upland landscape; and 2) to improve the socio-economic conditions of the people by integrating agricultural crops in their forestation activities, not withstanding the fact, that they are the ones who are contracted for tree planting and other soil and water conservation activities. In the province of Samar in the Visayas, through the CBFM concept of watershed rehabilitation, the people organizations in partnership with the DENR were able to reforest and develop 2,433.95 ha of formerly logged-over and
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degraded areas. Of this area, about 1,263 ha or 51.92% were established with toog (Combretodendron quadrialatum), an indigenous tree species, mahogany (Swietenia mahogani) and narra ( Pterocarpus indicus) while 632.44 ha were developed into agroforest plantations using agricultural crops such as coffee (Coffea robusta), cacao (Theobroma cacao), abaca ( Musa textiles), jackfruit ( Artocarpus heterophylla), mango ( Mangifera indica), black pepper ( Piper nigrum) and pineapple ( Ananas comosus) (Sarmiento 2005).
The farmer communities in Northern Samar, benefited from the participation in CBFM activities in terms of increased income and improved quality of houses and enhanced capability to acquire household assets (Sarmiento 2005).
Reforesta tion Pr actices 1.
Choice of Species for Reforestation The forest tree species used for reforestation should be carefully selected. The factors to consider in choosing the right species for a particular area are as follows: a.
Site factors The
site
factors
include
climatic
and
atmospheric
factors,
physiographic factors like elevation, steepness and orientation of the slope, soil factors like soil texture, soil depth, soil pH and soil fertility. The present vegetation and prevailing pests and diseases in the area should also be considered in selecting a species to be planted. b.
Genetic factors These include the heritable characteristics of the species like acid
tolerance, drought tolerance, fire tolerance, diameter size, rotation age, yield potentials and rate of growth among others. For example, in the rehabilitation of grassland areas, we should use acid tolerant, drought and fire tolerant species like ipil-ipil ( Luecaena leucocephala ), narra (Pterocarpus indicus) and banuyo (Wallaceodendron celebicum). c.
Socio-economic and cultural factors
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Most of the upland farmers consider the economic benefits that can be realized from the trees planted. Leucaena leucocephala was considered the best choice for planting in the uplands because aside from its lumber, it can be used for charcoal, fuelwood and the leaves for feeds and fertilizer.
2.
Selecting and preparing the site for planting The different areas or sites for forestation are mentioned in PD 705 (Forestry Reform Code). These are: a) bare or grasslands areas with at least 50% slope; b) bare or grass-covered tract of lands with 59% slope with soil that are so erodible as to make grass cover inadequate for soil erosion control; c) brushlands or tract of forestlands generally covered with brushes which needs to be developed to increase productivity; d) open tract of forestlands with slopes or gradients generally exceeding 50%, interspersed with patches of forest each of which is less than 250 ha in area; e) denuded or inadequately covered areas considered as forest resources, reservations as crucial watersheds, national parks, game refuge, bird sanctuaries, national shrines and national historical sites; f) inadequately stocked forestlands not covered by the above; g) portions of areas covered by pasture lease or permits having a slope of at least 50%; and h) riverbanks, easements, road-right-of ways, river deltas, swamps, former river beds and beaches. Generally, these areas can be classified as grasslands, brushlands, inadequately stocked forestlands, critical watersheds, pasturelands and reclaimed areas. However, majority of these areas are grasslands and brushlands.
3.
Strategies dealing with degraded grasslands Marginal and degraded lands subject to forestation can be dealt with using the following strategies: a.
Restoration It is an attempt to re-create or bring back the original forest ecosystem
by reassembling the original composition of plants and animals that once occupied the site. The intention is to recreate an ecosystem as close as possible to the original, with most of its structure and productivity matching that of the
-8-
original biodiversity. In time, ecological processes and functions will match those of the original forest (Fernando 2005). Restoration is considered the most ambitious, technically challenging and expensive reforestation option but also it is the most ecologically appropriate (Lamb 1994 and Rebugio et al. 2005 as cited by Fernando 2005). Restoration short-cuts the long process of successional development in the area and will more likely become productive and stable. If done in a widescale, restoration can provide more ecological services than other forms of reforestation strategies (Fernando 2005). b.
Rehabilitation It is done using some of the original and exotic or introduced species
to reforest the site. Its objective is to bring back the forest to a stable and productive condition. Rehabilitation involves forest tree planting, agroforestry, adoption of soil and water conservation practices and physical site improvement. Through rehabilitation, the protective function and ecological services maybe regained. c.
Reclamation In this strategy, one or more exotic species is used to achieve stability
and there is no attempt to restore the original biodiversity of the site but there may be economic and socio-cultural advantages or functional gains as in soil conservation and watershed protection.
Rehabilitation techniques 1.
For cogonal areas which are acidic and low in nitrogen and phosphorus a.
Proper site preparation - to eliminate the rhizomes by exposing and drying them during primary tillage or cultivation. Subsequently, second plowing and harrowing can effectively control cogon ( Imperata cylindrica ).
b.
Planting of adaptable tree species at closer spacing to establish early cover and dominance. Cogon does not tolerate shading. Hence, early establishment of cover eliminates them. Ipil-ipil ( Leucaena leucocephala) can be broadcast or sown in furrows in well-prepared land in order to enhance the establishment of early cover. High density planting of other
-9-
leguminous and locally available species can be adopted to accomplish early cover and promptly eliminate cogon. c.
Prevention of grassfire. Fire is a disclimax factor in grassland. After fire occurrence, cogon immediately dominates the process of
vegetation
succession. Green breaks of 2 to 3 rows of densely planted kakawate (Gliricidia sepium), Flemingia sp. and other leguminous trees can prevent the occurrence of escape fires in newly established plantations. d.
Application of booster fertilizer during planting and other dosages on the second and third year.
2.
e.
Use of Rhizobium and mycorrhiza inoculated and hardened seedlings.
f.
Early planting during rainy season.
g.
Liming the soil to increase the soil pH to favorable levels.
For areas with lahar or ash deposits a.
Use of adaptable species like Acacia auriculiformis, Camachile, Agoho and Eucalyptus.
b.
Soil amelioration or putting garden soils in dug holes.
c.
Application of organic fertilizers such as compost and animal manure.
3. For Rocky, Coral Limestone and Highly Eroded soils a.
Mulching in dry areas. Mulch regulates water losses through evaporation. When decomposed, it can also provide organic matter to the soil. Mulch helps prevent the detachment process during soil erosion.
b.
Planting of drought tolerant species like ipil-ipil, Yemane and Molave.
c.
Carving out the soil or niche planting. This is done by digging holes and putting a soil rich in organic matter.
4.
For poorly drained sites a.
Putting up drainage canals to get rid of excessive water.
b. Planting of forest trees in raised soil or mound to enhance soil aeration. c.
Use of adaptable species like Kaatoan bangkal ( Antocephalus chinensis), Kalumpit ( Terminalia microcarpa ), swamp mahogany and agoho
- 10 -
(Casuarina equisetifolia).
5.
For very steep slopes with Chromolaena odorata, and areas affected by landslides and creeps a.
Use of structures like nailed fascines, wattling and cordons.
b.
Use of locally available brushwoods like Muntingia calabora, Gliricidia sepium. Morus alba, Lantana camara and Leucaena leucocephala.
c.
In the areas affected by creep, grass sodding helps stabilize the slopes.
d. Planting of bamboos also help stabilize stream banks and gulley heads.
6.
Overgrazed and compacted areas a.
Discing and subsoiling using plow and tractors
b. Proper range management practices c.
Planting of acid tolerant grasses.
References Alibuyog, F.B. (2004) Agroforestry systems adopted by the upland farmers in barangay Sta. Catalina, Atimonan, Quezon, Southern Luzon Polytechnic College, Lucban, Quezon. Alli, R.A. (1991) An evaluation of selected reforestation projects in the province of Iloilo, MS Thesis, University of the Philippines Los Baños. Fernando, E.S. (2005) Restoring the Philippine rainforests for biodiversity conservation, environmental protection and livelihood security of the people, Haribon Policy Paper No. 2, Haribon Foundation. Sarmiento, C.C. (2005) An evaluation of the community-based forest management project in catubig, Northern Samar using criteria and indicators,. University of the Philippines Open University.
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Bio Biologi logical cal and an d P hysical hysical Cha C harr acter act eris istics tics of Mt. Bana Bana haw
Cecilia N. Gascon
The Phys Ph ysic ical al Featur es of Mt. Banah aw 1.
Geographical Location Mt. Banahaw-San Cristobal National Park lies between 13°55' and 14°10'
latitude and 121°26' and 121°35' longitude. It is bounded on the north by Laguna Lake, in the south by Tayabas Bay, in the southeast by the Bicol Peninsula and in the east by the tail end of the Sierra Madre Mountains. It rings through the municipalities municipalities of Dolores, D olores, Candelaria, Sariaya, Tayabas, Lucban, Rizal, Nagcarlan, Liliw and the city of San Pablo (Fig.2a and 2b). It is about 120 km southeast of Manila and straddles the borders of Quezon and Laguna. Mt. Banahaw-San Cristobal National Park has a total area of 11,133.3 ha, 2,754 ha of which is part of the province of Laguna while the remaining 8,379.3 ha is part of Quezon province. Mt. Banahaw could be reached via San Pablo City, Lucena City and Sta. Cruz, Laguna.
2.
Topography The topography of the entire National park is rough. The slope ranges from
moderate to steep. Mt. Banahaw de Dolores (Durungawan) has an elevation of 2,155 m, Mt. Banahaw de Majayjay (Susong Dalaga) is about 2,160 m, Mt. Banahaw de Tayabas is 2,140 m, Mt. Banahaw de Lucban is 1,875 m, and Mt. San Cristobal is about 1,470 m (Fig.3a, 3b, 3c and 3d). The summit caldera is 600m deep and has a diameter of 2 km. The caldera caldera opens southward in a 4km long canyon of Mt. Banahaw. The crater is also called "Ilalim". The old crater was occupied by a lake until 1730. At that time, a violent eruption breached to the southwestern rim, pouring out water, incandescent lava and huge rocks towards the town of Sariaya. A deep canyon, which was formed during that 1730 eruption, was enlarged by subsequent erosion activity. It now extends from the summit crater down to the 800 m elevation. An eruption similar to that of 1730 was reported in 1743.
- 12 -
Fig.2a
Fig.2b
Geographical Geographical l ocation of Mt.Banaha Mt.Banahaw. w.
Contour map of Mt.Banaha Mt.Banahaw w wi th the munici pality location in the vicinity.
- 13 -
3.
Climate From December to January, an airmass called the northeast monsoon
(habagat ) reaches Quezon province from the northeast and east direction. From February to March, the northeast monsoon is joined by another airmass called the North Pacific Trade winds, which is characterized characterized by a strong subsidence inversion of about 1 km above the Earth's surface producing abundant rain at the lower levels. In April, an easterly wind oriented north to south approaches Quezon province from the east giving equal distribution of rainfall from North to South. The month of May is a transition period between trade winds season and the monsoon season prevalent from July to September. From June to October, the southwest monsoon (amihan) reaches Quezon province from the west and southwest. The southwest monsoon and the South Pacific Tradewinds are very moist and can rise to great heights. They bring rains which increase in volume as the altitude increases. November is a transition period between the southwest and northeast monsoon bringing increased rainfall in the north. n orth.
Fig.3a
3-Dimensional 3-Dimensional map facing t o the north eastern eastern si de.
Fig.3b
3-Dimensional 3-Dimensional map facing to the southw estern estern s ide.
- 14 -
Mt. Banahaw is considered as a rain mountain, although the rainfall characteristics vary with sites. For example, the Nagcarlan side has an average annual rainfall of 2,350-2,400 mm while Lucban side has an average annual rainfall of 4,470 mm with an annual average of 262 rainy days.
Fig.3c
Fig.3d
4.
Perspective of Mt.Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon.
Typical vi ews of Mt. Banahaw; Forest, Grassland and Farm.
Watershed Mt. Banahaw watershed sustains water for the creeks, rivers, and falls
draining to Laguna de Bay and Tayabas (Fig.4). This mountain is blessed with abundant water thus it is called "Vulcan de agua" (Fig.5). Seven rivers traversed the park namely: Balayong, Maimpis, Liliw, Dalatiwan, Malinao, Nagcarlan and San Diego. These river systems directly provide water for domestic, irrigation and recreational purposes. Aside from these, some river systems are believed to have
- 15 -
medicinal value. An example is the Kinabuhayan river in Dolores, Quezon believed to have "healing power". People from all walks of life take a dip into the water of Kinabuhayan with the belief that their illnesses will be cured. Even the Katipuneros in Banahaw cleansed themselves in the waters of Kinabuhayan before going into major battles. Aside from rivers, Mt. Banahaw is also rich with falls. Sta. Lucia, Suplina and Kristalino falls are all found in Dolores, Quezon. These are believed to have medicinal values. Pilgrims and devotees take a shower on these falls especially during Holy week. In the crater of Mt. Banahaw, several falls could also be found. The most famous of which is "Talong Ambon" visited by pilgrims even during ordinary days. A recent tourist attraction in Banahaw is Taytay Falls located at Sitio Taytay, Majayjay, Laguna. Before and after the Pahiyas festival and even during ordinary days, local tourists from other parts of Quezon and nearby provinces enjoy the cool, clear and unpolluted waters of the falls.
- 16 -
Fig.4
Watershed map of Mt.Banahaw National Park.
- 17 -
Suplina falls at Dolores, Quezon.
Taytay falls at Majayjay, Laguna.
Talong-Ambon falls (Along the trail going to crater, Sariaya side). Fig.5
Sources of water in Mt. Banahaw
- 18 -
5. Land uses Mt. Banahaw is primarily used as a watershed. It sustains the water needs of at least 1 million people in the provinces of Laguna and Quezon. As a watershed area it supports the Botocan Hydroelectric Power Plant situated in Majayjay and Luisiana, Laguna which has a capacity of 22 mega watts. It also supports the water needs of hundreds of farmers who plant rice, vegetables, root crops, fruit trees and coconut at the flanks of the mountain (Fig.6). The commonly planted vegetables are Baguio beans ( Phaseolus vulgaris) , tomatoes ( Lycopersicum esculentum ) , chayote (Sechium edule Jack. Swartz), radish ( Raphanus sativusLinn.) , cabbage ( Brassica oleracea Linn. Var. capitata Linn.), and squash (Cucurbita maxima Dutch), citrus ( Citrus grandis) , Lanzones ( Lansium ) , Banana ( Musa sp.) , Santol domesticum ) , Rambutan ( Nepphelium lappaceum (Sandoricum koetjape) and Avocado ( Persia gratissima) are the common fruit trees planted. Mt. Banahaw differs from other national parks in the country because of the presence of religious sects having a vital part in the use of the mountain. These groups are concentrated in Dolores, Quezon. They have designated "puestos" or sacred places in the mountain. During Holy Week, thousands of pilgrims go to these places and perform religious rituals. These sacred places have been subjected to degradation as pilgrims cut small trees, branches, palms and bamboos, and leave significant amount of garbage.
- 19 -
Fig. 6
Vegetable field and frui t pl antation, th e agri cultu ral areas at the foot of Mt. Banahaw.
- 20 -
Biological Characteristics The Mt. Banahaw range supports high floral and faunal diversity and endemicity that ranges from 66 to 76%. The vegetation studies recorded a total of 102 families of plants represented by 358 species of trees, 19 species of vines, 15 species of palms, 39 species of ferns, 15 species of grasses and 42 species of fungi. The species of trees are representatives of 74% of the total species (Fig.7).
Herbaceous Ornamental 2%
Fern 6%
Grass 2% Vines 4% Palm 4% Herb 2%
Pandan 1% Shrub 2%
trees 74%
Fig.7
Distribution of floristic growth forms.
The rare species of trees found in Mt. Banahaw include pangnan ( Lithocarpus sulitii ), lansones-bundok ( Reinwardtiodendron humile Hassk.), kalamansanai ( Neonauclea calycina Bartl. Ex DC. Merr.), tabu ( Symplocos conchinchinensis Lour. S. Moor var. conchinchinensis) and taluto ( Pterocymbium tinctorium (Blanco) Merr.).
A total of 56 species were categorized as endemic and with limited range of distribution in the Philippines. Dungau-pula ( Astronia rolfei) of family Melastomataceae was categorized as endemic in Quezon province (Rojo 2000 as cited by Gascon 2004). Among the 15 species of palms identified, 5 were classified as endemic species, namely pugahan ( Caryota cumingii), ditaan ( Daemonorops mollis ), sumulid ( Daemonorops ochrolepis), tumalim ( Calamus mindorensis) and palasan
- 21 -
(Calamus merrillii). These palms are used as materials for handicraft, food, source of palm wine, for caulking boats, for ornamental purposes and for furniture making. Among the 100 species of ferns recorded in Lucban, Quezon, Sphaerostephanus productus (Kaulf.) Holtt. was classified as endemic to the Philippines while
pakong-buwaya or tree fern ( Cyathea contaminans Hook. Copel) was characterized as the largest tree fern in the Philippines (Gascon 2004). Mt. Banahaw also supports wildlife. A total of 226 species of birds were identified in areas of Lucban and Tayabas. Among which, 133 were categorized as endemic species to the Philippines or to Luzon Faunal Region. Eight species were categorized as endangered and 20 as rare. The endangered species include brahminy kite ( Haliastur indus intermedius), Philippine serpent eagle ( Spilornis holospilus ), Philippine falconet ( Microhierax
cuckoo
(Phoenicophaeus
Philippine
hanging
cumingi),
parakeet
guaiabero
( Loriculus
), scale-feathered erythrogonys ( Bolbopsittacus
), lanulatus
), crimson-backed philippinensis
woodpecker (Chrysocolaptes lucidus) and white-browed shama ( Copsychus luzoniensis ).
There were 62 species of mammals, 38 species of reptiles, 43 species of amphibians and 188 species of insects recorded in Lucban and Tayabas, Quezon. There were 76 species of butterflies recorded in Lucban, Quezon alone, among which is Troides rhadamantus classified as endemic and endangered species.
References Alviola, P.III. (1998) Annual report on biodiversity assessment project of Mt. Banahaw, Unpublished, Philippines. Fenix, V.M. (1977) Faunal diversity indicators for the conservation management planning for species and habitats at Mt. Banahaw de Tayabas, Unpublished, Philippines. Gascon, C.N. (2004). Mt. Banahaw: physical, biological and management features, Asean Regionl Center for Biodiversity Conservation, Philippines.
- 22 -
Lit, I.Jr. (1998) Insect biodiversity of Mt. Banahaw, annual report on biodiversity assessment project of Mt. Banahaw, Unpublished, Philippines. Mirand a, F.C. (1977) Altitudinal distribution of birds and mammals based on vegetative cover on Mt. Banahaw San-Cristobal National Park, Undergraduate Thesis, UPLB. Navasero, C.S. (1993) Upland farming systems in Lucban, Quezon and its ecological implications to the conservation and management of Mt. Banahaw de Lucban, MS Thesis, UPLB. Rojo, J.D. (1999) Revised lexicon of the philippine trees. FPRDI, College, Laguna, Philippines.
- 23 -
Gr owth Per for mance of Refor estation Species in a Gr assland Ar ea of Mt. Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon
Cecilia N. Gascon, A ntonio F . Gascon and Kazun ori Takahashi
Introduction The use of non-indigenous, non-native or exotic species in the rehabilitation of denuded areas of the country started as early as 1916 in the province of Cebu using agoho ( Casuarina equisetifolia) and teak (Tectona grandis). Through the decades, several reforestation activities across the country used exotic species in a more monoculture basis. In the 1970s, Leucaena pulverulenta (giant ipil-ipil) was considered as the panacea of the Philippine Forestry because of its potential to answer the problems of the forestry sector on soil erosion, soil nutrient depletion, fuelwood production and lack of forage for livestock. However, in the mid-80s, after more than a decade of existence in the country, the giant ipil-ipil posed a great threat because of the discovery of jumping lice ( Heteropsylla cubana ) that practically wiped out the giant ipil-ipil plantations throughout the archipelago. More so, the epidemic affected and displaced the native ipil-ipil. In 1994, the plantation of Gmelina arborea was infested by stem borer, Xyleutes sp. in Surigao del Sur and Cotabato (Lapis and San Valentin 1994 as cited by Gascon 2005). Another species of Xyleutes also attacked Tectona grandis (Wylie 1993 and Lapis and Valentin 1994 as cited by Gascon, 2005). However, through the decades, the Philippine Forestry still opted for the use of non-native species. The reasons include the following: fast-growing species rehabilitate the denuded areas faster than native species; exotic species have promising economic incentives to farmers at a shorter time; the availability of technology to propagate the species; the support of the national government on these undertakings like mass media or publication, funding and policy support to name a few. These resulted to more planting of these non-indigenous species in almost all reforestation efforts in the country, more researches on their silvical characteristics and silvicultural requirements and biological control of pests,
- 24 -
production of information materials, on-site and hands-on training on their propagation, management and maintenance. The use of these non-native species was also done in Mt. Banahaw. Giant ipil-ipil was planted in certain portion of the mountain in the mid 80s while large leaf mahogany ( Swietenia macrophylla), gmelina ( Gmelina arborea) and eucalyptus ( Eucalyptus deglupta ) were some of the non-native species planted in the mid 90s. This was done to rehabilitate the areas vacated by the upland farmers within the reservation of the Southern Luzon Polytechnic College, Lucban, Quezon. In the 90s, there were efforts to introduce the native species in the mainstream of reforestation efforts in the Philippines. This was in recognition of the harmful impacts of the non-native species both in the economy and ecosystem, the potentials of the native species to rehabilitate the denuded areas and bringing back the forest of the country.
Layout of The Study In 2002, a collaborative effort was initiated by the Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JIRCAS) and the Southern Luzon Polytechnic College (SLPC) to test the adaptability of 18 reforestation species in a grassland area of Mt. Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon. The purpose of the study was to assess the adaptability of 18 reforestation species under the conditions of Mt. Banahaw by determining the survival, early growth performance such as height, stem diameter and basal area. Native ipil-ipil ( Leucaena leucocephala), acid ipilipil ( Leucaena diversifolia) and giant ipil-ipil ( Leucaena pulverulenta) were used as nurse trees and were also monitored. All of those tree seedlings were planted at the site in April 2002. There were 18 main reforestation species tested of their adaptability in a grassland area in Mt. Banahaw. These were akle ( Albizia acle), lago (Prunus grisea), bagtikan ( Parashorea malaanonan), lamio ( Dracontomelon edule ),
Spanish cedar (Cedrela odorata), kalantas ( Toona calantas), magabuyo (Celtis luzonica), narra ( Pterocarpus indicus), kusibeng ( Sapindus saponaria), banuyo
(Wallaceodendron celebicum), makaasim (Syzygium nitidum), duklitan ( Ponteria
- 25 -
duclitan ), supa (Sindora supa), kalumpit ( Terminalia microcarpa), bani (Pongamia pinnata), rain tree ( Albizia saman), sampalok ( Tamarindus indica ) and
earpod ( Enterolobium cyclocarpum ). The study was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). Blocking was according to elevation in a slope. The indigenous tree species were planted in rows spaced 5 and 7 m apart. Nurse trees were planted adjacent to the rows and spaced 2 m within the line. Double rows (nurse trees side by side with indigenous trees) were laid on a contour strip, and trees within the row were planted 2 m apart. Potted seedlings were used as planting stocks and dug-hole planting was adopted (Fig.9, Fig.10 and Fig.11). The seedlings of reforestation trees and nurse trees were planted in April 2002. The monitoring intervals for the survival and growth of these species were set to 3 months. The measurements of tree height and the diameter at 0.1-m height were started from the time of seedling plantings, and the survivals of seedlings were also recorded. On this study, we analyzed the performances of species by the data of 1-year duration from October 2003 until October 2004. We obtained the quarterly growth values by subtracting the monitored quarterly data of height and diameter from the initial values. The values were taken for the whole year after the trees have survived and gained the establishments. These quarterly data were compared between all the species planted including the nurse tree species.
The R eforestation Site The study site had a total area of 3.5 ha. It was chosen because it was a contiguous grassland (cogonal and talahib) ecosystem and has no problem on illegal forest occupancy. The site was an open grassland (Fig.8) dominated by cogon ( Imperata cylindrica) and talahib ( Sacharum spontaneum). The soil was categorized as Luisiana sandy clay loam, and the average annual precipitation was 3,656.7 mm with pronounced rainy season from September to December. The o
average annual temperature and relative humidity were 23 C and 85%, respectively. The area was adjacent to agricultural areas cultivated by the farmers from Taytay, Majayjay and Laguna. The crops planted there include tomatoes
- 26 -
Fig. 8
Grassland and the r eforestation si te in Mt. Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon.
- 27 -
Fig. 9
Leucaena + timber s pecies combin ation at Mt. Banahaw reforestation site.
Fig. 10 Pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus .
- 28 -
Fig. 11
Leucaena leucocephala .
( Lycopersicum esculentum), radish, cabbage, sweet potato ( Ipomea batatas) and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). Based on records, the site was an abandoned farm previously used as grazing areas for farm animals like goats, cow and carabaos. These made the area so degraded and marginal.
Early Growth Performance 1.
Nurse trees Nurse trees were planted in the area to establish early cover to protect the main reforestation species from the adverse effects of strong wind and intense light in the open grassland. Three nurse tree species were tested. These were native ipil-ipil ( Leucaena leucocephala), acid ipil-ipil ( Leucaena diversifolia ) and giant ipil-ipil ( Leucaena pulverulenta ).
At the measurement in October 2004, which was 2.5 years after the planting, native ipil-ipil had attained the height of 276.40 cm and the diameter of 21.41 mm, respectively, followed by giant ipil-ipil and acid ipil-ipil which attained the height with diameter of 229.15 cm with 17.70 mm and 211.36 cm with 18.35 mm, respectively. (Fig.12 and 13). On the average of quarterly height growths from October 2003 until October 2004, the results showed that native ipil-ipil performed the best, and followed by giant and acid ipil-ipil, which were 20.85, 19.03 and 12.84 cm/quarter, respectively (Table 1). On the other hand, the averages of the quarterly diameter growths in the same duration, native, giant and acid ipil-ipil were 0.97, 0.92 and 0.51 mm/quarter, respectively (Table 2). These results were quite high, but were expected because the plantation was still on the seedling to sapling stage. The forest trees grow fast in diameter and in height during these stages (Kozlowski 1979). However, the tree species of genus Leucaena are generally very first growing, and favorable as for giving the
shades that will suppress the grasses and nurse some slow growing tree species.
- 29 -
Spanish cedar sampalok acid ipil-ipil kusibeng lamio rain tree
300
supa narra 250
bagtikan giant ipil-ipil duklitan
. m c , t h 150 g i e H 200
magabuyo lago bani makaasim
100
kalantas akle kalumpit
50
banuyo native ipil-ipil 0
Oct.
Jan.
Apr.
Jul.
Observation Period 2003
Oct.
earpod
2004
~
Fig.12
Average height growth of the various reforestation species in Mt. Banahaw.
Spanish cedar
25
sampalok acid ipil-ipil kusibeng
20
lamio rain tree supa
. 15 m m , r e t e m10 a i D
narra bagtikan giant ipil-ipil duklitan magabuyo lago bani
5
makaasim kalantas akle kalumpit
0 Oct.
Jan.
Apr.
Jul.
Oct.
banuyo native ipil-ipil
Observation Period (2003
Fig.13
2004)
~
earpod
Average diameter grow th of the various reforestation species in Mt. Banahaw.
- 30 -
k 0 1 6 9 3 8 4 3 6 2 7 0 1 5 9 2 8 7 4 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n 2 2 a R
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s e i c e p S
l i r l l i p a i i p d p i l e k i o i l t c m s i e p i n i o l i g n y n u e p l s p o i d h a a a p i r e t s a b a t e o i k o t i p b t i n e m y i a i a a l v p i i u t a o n d r n a u i n p r g a k g g n k l l l n t s m i a m i r p a c u a a u a a i u a a a a a k a a a a S S A K L R S N B G D M L B M K A K B N E
- 31 -
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. n a 4 1 9 6 3 1 2 1 4 5 J . . . . . . . . . . 3 . 7 . 4 . 1 . 3 . 5 . 9 . 9 . . 4 . 1 . 1 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 t c O
s e i c e p S
l i r l l i p a i i p d p i l e k i o i l t c m s i e p i n i o l i g n y n u e p l s p o i d h a a a p i r e t s a b a t e o i k o t i p b t i n e m y i a i a a l v p i i u t a o n d r n a u i n p r g a k g g n k l l l n t s m i a m i r p a c u a a u a a i u a a a a a k a a a a S S A K L R S N B G D M L B M K A K B N E
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2.
Main Reforestation Species Based from the latest measurements made in October 2004, the average tree height of the top 10 species are shown in Table 3.
Table 3
Tree heights of top t en species planted in Mt. Banahaw.
Local and Scientific Name Narra (Pterocarpus indicus) Earpod ( Enterolobium cylocarpum ) Banuyo (Wallaceodendron celebicum) Bagtikan (Parashorea malaanonan) Bani (Pongamia pinnata) Kalumpit (Terminalia microcarpa) Lago (Prunus grisea) Supa (Sindora supa) Akle ( Albizia acle ) Kusibeng (Sapindus saponata)
Height (cm) 211.1 199.5 144.8 137.5 129.0 128.6 119.9 117.1 116.5 103.5
Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
It can be noted that the top three species such as narra, earpod and banuyo were all leguminous species (Fig.12 and Table 3). These species have greater adaptabilities in poor sites (Agpaoa et.al. 1975) because they form root nodules that harbor Rhizobium bacteria which is able to fix atmospheric Nitrogen from the air. The woods of these leguminous trees are highly valuable for furniture, cabinet, and interior work, and are popularly used in the Philippines. Another high performing species in height was bagtikan ( Parashorea malaanonan ). This species belongs to Dipterocarpaceae, and also produce the good wood that is used for flooring and veneer. The species with low tree height levels which stayed less than 1m in October 2004 were sampalok ( Tamarindus indica), magabuyo (Celtis luzonica), Lamio ( Dracontomelon edule), kalantas ( Toona calantas), duklitan (Ponteria duclitan), rain tree ( Albizia saman), spanish cedar ( Cedrela odorata), and
Makaasim (Syzygium nitidum). Sampalok is well-adapted in open and dry areas (Agpaoa et.al. 1975). It found difficulty in establishing in the areas with cool temperature, humid air
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and high rainfall as in the grassland area in Mt. Banahaw. Spanish cedar is a low elevation species that cannot withstand cogon, talahib and strong winds. When the planted trees were assessed of their quarterly height growths (Table 1) the fast growers were narra, banuyo, earpod and kalumpit which gave an average value of 18.78, 16.70, 16.37 and 10.90 cm/quarter, respectively. The medium quarterly height growth were noted in lago, kalantas, lamio, supa and bani which were 6.98, 6.62, 6.51, 6.21 and 5.76 cm/quarter, respectively. The slow growers were sampalok, spanish cedar, kusibeng and rain tree which had only an average quarterly height growth of 2.75, 3.59, 3.64, and 3.75 cm/quarter. On the other hand, Table 4 shows the diameter of the planted reforestation species in October 2004. Table 4
Stem diameters of t op ten sp ecies pl anted in Mt. Banahaw.
Species
Narra (Pterocarpus indicus) Kusibeng (Sapindus saponaria) Duklitan (Ponteria duclitan) Earpod ( Enterolobium cyclocarpum ) Kalumpit (Terminalia microcarpa) Banuyo (Wallaceodendron celebicum) Rain tree ( Albizzia saman ) Bani (Pongamia pinnata) Lamio ( Dracontomelon edule ) Bagtikan (Parashorea malaanonan)
Average Diameter (mm) 16.93 15.80 15.77 15.18 14.07 13.01 11.60 11.46 11.37 10.31
Rank
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
It can be noted that the biggest stem diameters were noted in the species of narra, kusibeng, duklitan, earpod, kalumpit and banuyo which were 16.93, 15.80, 15.77, 15.18, 14.07 and 13.01mm, respectively.
The average growers
in stem diameters were noted with rain tree, bani, lamio, bagtikan, lago and akle which were 11.60, 11.46, 11.37, 10.31, 9.41 and 9.35 mm, respectively. Furthermore, the lowest stem diameters were noted in makaasim, spanish cedar, sampalok, magabuyo and kalantas which were 4.28, 4.93, 6.93, 7.03, and 8.57
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mm, respectively. When these trees were assessed the average of quarterly diameter growths (Table 2), it was found out that the fast growers were narra, banuyo, lago, kalumpit and magabuyo which gave values of 1.14, 0.90, 0.64, 0.49 and 0.47 mm/quarter, respectively. The slowest growers in terms of quarter diameter growth were earpod, sampalok, makaasim and rain tree which gave the values of 0.11, 0.12, 0.13 and 0.15 mm/quarter, respectively. It was noted in Fig.13 that there were some bigger trees which grew slowly as in the case of earpod, but there were smaller trees which performed better, as in lago and magabuyo.
Concluding Remar ks Based on this study, the three Leucaena species, Native Ipil-Ipil, Giant Ipil-Ipil and Acid Ipil-Ipil performed very fast growth and their heights had reached more than 2m within 3 years after the planting. These species are suitable as the nurse trees to prepare the mild environment for the slow growing trees planted together. For the main reforestation trees, Narra was the best species for the growing performances. This tree also exceeded 2 m on height, and showed the high diameter growth keeping high growth rate. Narra is one of the most favorable trees in the Philippines for the use of timber, furniture and flooring. Another reforestation species, which showed the fast growth on height, was Earpod. The height within 3 years reached almost 2 m. This tree is an exotic species from Central American region around Mexico and Venezuela, commonly seen in the Philippines, but considered as a lesser-used species. In the Mt. Banahaw grasslands, this tree will be still useful to establish the forest cover quickly, also the wood can be used for easy timber use. All of those species introduced above are leguminous trees and have greater adaptability to the conditions existing in Mt.Banahaw. The remaining trees planted were not growing very fast. On the height growth, their heights were lower than 2 m in October 2004 after 2.5 years planting. Some of them like Supa, Akle and Banuyo are the premium timber species in the Philippines, but the slow growers. The weeding maintenance and the nursing shade
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will be required for the early growth, which suppress the luxuriance of grasses around the seedlings. Those species suit to be planted with the grass control operation. Makaasim was also a moderate growing species, however, this tree naturally grows around the grassland area of Mt. Banahaw and the wood can be used for general construction works. The survivability of the seedlings was high enough at the site on our observation, so Makaasim will be a suitable planting tree to recover the natural forest environment in this mountainous region.
References Agpaoa, A., et.al. (1976) Manual of reforestation and erosion control for the Philippines, German Agency for Technology Cooperation, Ltd. (GTZ), Germany. Heinsleigh, T.E. and Holaway, B.K., (Eds). (1988) Agroforestry species for the Philippines, AJA Printer Inc., Metro Manila, Philippines. Kozlowski, T.T. (1979) Tree growth and environmental stresses, University of Washington Press, USA, 192pp.
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Characteristics of Some Indigenous Tr ee Species Plant ed in Mt. Banahaw, Lucban, Quezon
Antonio F. Gascon and Arturo S.A. Castillo
Bani (Pongamia pin nata ) Fabaceae Bani is a leguminous tree that attains a height of 6 to 25 m and a diameter of 45 cm. Its bark has a dull gray to pinkish-brown in color,
smooth
but
becoming
shallowly
fissured upon maturity, the inner bark smells like a crushed bean pod. Its leaves are compound, 20 to 25 cm long, the leaf shape is ovate, the terminal leaflet is larger than the rest and is pointed at the tip. Leaves are thickly coriaceous, purplish pink to whitish. This tree grows mainly in lowland areas and along the seashore. It thrives well in soils which are sandy to clay loam as well as in limestone-based areas. The species usually flowers from April to May and matured fruits are collected from July to September. The fruits of bani is a pod and can be collected from the tree by climbing or by using a long pole with a hook. The collected pods are sun-dried to let the dehiscent pods open. Pods can also be crushed using a hard object or a knife. Seeds intended for propagation are sun-dried for 2 to 3 days after which they can be kept in tightly-sealed containers for storage. Bani seeds require pre-germination treatments
to ensure uniform
germination. Seeds are drilled 3 cm deep in seedbeds at a distance of 4 cm between hills. Shoot emerges after one to two weeks. The germinants are transferred to
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polyethylene bags after attaining a height of 15 cm. Bani seedlings are ready for transplanting in the field when they attain a height of 50 cm. Outplanting or field planting is usually done in May to June. The recommended spacing in the field is 5 × 5 m. Bani is a good fuelwood species and is a medicinal plant. The flowers can be used to treat diabetes. The extracts from the crushed roots can be mixed with coconut milk and lime as cure for gonorrhea. Young shoots are used to cure rheumatism. The species can be used for soil erosion control because it has deep, widespreading roots. Although the research site is 700 m above sea level, bani performs well in the slopes of Mt. Banahaw.
Magabuyo (Celtis lu zonica ) Ulmaceae Magabuyo is a medium to large tree reaching a height of 30 m and a diameter of 90 cm in good sites. It has a straight bole and a distinctly wide spreading branches and deep crown. It has a smooth outerbark, yellowish to gray in color; the inner bark is light yellow. Magabuyo has simple leaf, coriaceous, glabrous, broadly elliptic to ovate in shape with 8 to 12 cm long and 5 to 12 cm wide, and leaf blade is entire. Petioles are one centimeter long, apex short and abruptly acute, the base is broadly rounded, paler beneath, grayish black when dry, alternate veins, spreading into 3 from the base. This tree is found in forests of lower elevations, thicket belts or edges and in forest gaps. It is found associated with other secondary species. However,
- 38 -
magabuyo has become depleted due to illegal logging and shifting agriculture. Magabuyo flowers in March and the fruits are available in July. The fruits are small fleshy drupes, widely dispersed and can be collected on the ground or standing trees. The fruits are soaked in water 1 to 2 days to soften the pulp. The fruits are then masked or rubbed against a wire. The pulp floats in water while the seeds sink. Seeds are sun-dried and can be stored in sealed containers for a year without losing their viability. The poles and lumber of this species can be used for general construction. The seeds can be sown in germination beds or boxes by row seeding. They have high germination capacities. When the seedlings reach 10 to 15 cm height. They are transplanted in polyethylene pots and raised there until they attain a plantable height of 50 to 70 cm. In the field, 2 × 2 m spacing is recommended as they are fast growing and readily establish cover. In the grassland area of Mt. Banahaw, magabuyo attains a good survival and better early growth performance as compared to other indigenous species.
Bagtikan (Parasho rea malaanonan ) Dipterocarpaceae Bagtikan is a prominent tree reaching a height of 35 to 40 m and a diameter of 70 to 100 cm. In a dense stand, its crown is flat and spreading with the tendency to become dominant as it matures. It has a straight and cylindrical bole. Bagtikan is widely distributed all over the country. It is found in places of all climatic types in the Philippines and in neighboring places in East Asia such as, Malay Peninsula, Malacca, Burma and Borneo. It is found from 100 and up to
- 39 -
800 m above sea level. It prefers a humid site with deep, fertile soil. In natural or primary forests, it is commonly found along gentle slopes near ridges. The leaves of Bagtikan are entire, alternate and flat, oblong or subelliptical in shape, pale green beneath, glabrous and shiny at the top, rounded at the base. The veins and midrib are very pronounced, with 5 to 8 pairs of equally prominent nerves. Bagtikan has yellow flower tinged with pink, falls off abundantly that almost cover the ground under the flowering tree. The petals are oblong, glabrous on the inner side, and the ovary is hairy. The fruiting calyx has 5 long wings but their bases do not tightly enclose the fruit as with those of the Shorea species. The fruits are small, less than 2 cm in diameter at maturity. The fruit development of bagtikan takes 3 to 4 months, however maturity and seed falls vary in different regions in the Philippines. The bark of bagtikan has broken ridges 3.8 to 4.3 cm thick. The main stem bark when cut gives a reddish color while the bark at the buttress when cut is whitish. In Bataan and Laguna the fruits fall off in July, June in Bulacan and Cagayan while in Cebu, Surigao del Norte, Camarines Sur, Misamis Oriental and Quezon, mature fruits fall off in August to September. Bagtikan is a tall tree and as such seed collection can be done using seed traps or on the ground.
Prompt
collection should be done because the seeds lose their viability shortly. The seeds can be packed in moist containers with mosses, coconut fiber and sawdust as media. Pulverized charcoal can be a suitable packing medium. The seeds are placed in wooden trays or boxes with a perforated side to allow ventilation. If a seed collector prefers to pick up the seeds on the ground, he should prepare the area near a plus tree by removing the grasses and litter. The winged seeds can be disseminated up to 60 m away from the mother plant. Bagtikan seeds are viviparous, they germinate even before they fall on the ground. Regenerations spring up densely as in the nursery bed. If a collector prefers to collect wildlings, the one with the first real pair of fully developed leaves with 20 cm tall are recommended. Lift them with the ball of soil attached firmly around the roots. Ten to twenty wildlings are wrapped in banana stalks or plastic bags with holes. Transfer the balled wildlings in a slightly shaded nursery. The newly transplanted
- 40 -
wildlings in the nursery should at least be watered once a day. They are allowed to develop in the nursery for 3 to 6 months before outplanting. Bagtikan can be planted in understocked secondary forest or brushwood as done in assisted natural regeneration. They prefer to grow in a moist soil and partially shaded sites. However, in open grasslands, bagtikan can also be planted, it only needs judicious partial removal of grasses by patch clearing. Planting stocks like wildlings or seedlings are set in dug holes spaced 4 × 4 m. Light fertilization of 20 to 30 g of 14-14-14 per plant is recommended. It can be applied by mixing it with the soil to enable them to cope with the rapidly developing grasses. Bagtikan is basically a fine-wood species for timber and veneer.
The
timber is generally used for rough construction, cabinet, furniture making, finishing material for interior flooring, boat planking and tramming. It is a good material for pulp and paper, mine timber etc. Bagtikan is a climax species, however, because of the cool climate in the grassland area along the slopes of Mt. Banahaw, it performed fairly as an indigenous reforestation species.
Narra (Pterocarpus indicus ) Fabaceae Narra is one of the best known trees in Southeast Asia. It is a national tree of the Philippines as it is commonly found in almost all parts of the country; it is tall, stable, tolerant to the extreme conditions of dry and rainy seasons and wind-firm. Narra is a large, nearly deciduous tree for a short time during dry season, that attains a height of 30 m or more, with high and large
- 41 -
buttresses. The crown is usually wide spreading but deep, occupying one-third of the total height. The trunk is frequently short, irregularly fluted or deformed however in natural stands or dense plantations they develop straight, clear and cylindrical bole that can be sawn into lumber for the manufacture of fine furniture. The leaves are compound, imparipinnate, 12 to 22 cm long, the petiole is 2 to 4 cm long, the rachis is 6 to 18 cm, sparsely hairy, glabrescent. The compound leaves are distributed alternately, composed of 7 to 11 leaflets, ovate to oblongovate in shape, smooth margin if it is of smooth narra, wavy if its prickly narra, the leaf apex is blunt acuminate, thin, glabrous, shiny, chartaceous to sub-coreacious. The bark surfaces are concolorous, grayish brown, sometimes greenish. The stipules are caducous, linear, 7 to 15 mm long, hairy on both sides. The flowers and fruits are borne in 5 to 7 branched panicle and sometimes with axillary racemes. The flowers are few to numerous, the calyx is 5 to 10 mm long, all the lobes hairy inside towards the top, corolla with a standard. The flowers are yellow, fragrant, profuse and usually occurs twice a year. The mature fruit is dry and indehiscent pod with membranous wings and orbicular or semi-orbicular in shape. It is brown to blackish, prickly narra is densely hairy, 4 to 6.6 cm in diameter. The seed-bearing part is 1.5 to 3 cm in diameter, 6 to 9 mm thick, more or less woody. The pod contains 1 to 2 pear shaped seeds, widest below the hilum. The testa is smooth and pale to dark brown. Narra can be propagated using seeds or stem cuttings, seedlings raised in the nursery (prepared as stumps, potted or bare-root) and wildlings. In the nursery, the seeds can be drilled flat in seed boxes. It should be covered with a thin film of soil. Dried cogon and other leaves can be used as mulch to maintain a moist soil during dry months. The pods can also be directly sown in 5 × 6 × 0.004 inch plastic bags filled with topsoil. The seed boxes and seedbeds are watered twice a day. Excessive watering should be avoided. Narra has higher germination ability of 80 to 100%. When direct seeding is desired, spot or strip clearing should be done and two to three seeds are dropped in the hole spaced 2 × 2 m apart. Narra seeds can be collected from standing plus trees and from the ground. Abundant seed falls occur in September to November and occasionally in January
- 42 -
to July. Pods should be free from abnormalities. Prompt collection of pods should be done to prevent contamination of microorganisms on the ground. The fruits are sun-dried for a week to reduce moisture content to 10% after which they are stored in sacks at room temperature. Before storing the seeds, small amount of moisture absorbing materials like calcium carbonate and magnesium oxide can be mixed to maintain its viability for a year. Narra can also be asexually propagated using stump sprouts and cuttings. The desired branches are severed off from the stem. Big branch cuttings about 10 cm in diameter and 2 m long are treated with IBAA or other rooting hormones in order to produce an instant tree. Stump planting of narra seedlings can produce good results in rehabilitating open grasslands. The upper shoots are cut leaving a part 1 to 2 inches from the root collar. The planting materials are prepared bareroot making them easy to transport and establish. Experiments done at the Ecosystem Research and Development Bureau (ERDB), Philippines shows that stem tissues of 6 months to 2 years old narra saplings can be regenerated using tissue culture technique. Other known techniques of propagating narra include grafting, budding, ground and aerial (marcotting) layering. Narra can be established in open grassland but it requires good site preparation by clear brushing or strip brushing the tall grass vegetation. Holes are dug about 15 cm in diameter and 15 to 20 cm deep especially if planting stocks are only 30 cm tall.
An initial spacing of 1 × 1 m can be adopted however for
landscaping, a wider spacing of 4 × 4 to 10 × 10 m can be used. A light application of complete (14-14-14) fertilizer can be done inorder to enhance early survival and growth. Ring weeding and cultivation for at least twice a year during the establishment period can improve survival and early growth. Narra tends to branch at an early stage and that it requires sustained pruning operations until a well defined bole is attained. Harvesting can be done after 15 to 20 years depending on the site quality. Narra grows in a variety of tropical climate however it performs best in fertile, deep soils along the bank of the rivers, immediately behind the mangrove swamps and areas extending upstream of watersheds. It thrives naturally in moist
- 43 -
sandy loam to clay loam soil, along gullies and stream banks of low to medium elevations, but it can tolerate areas up to 1,300 m above sea level. In natural stands, it associates with other leguminous trees in a molave forest. It is well adapted to Philippine temperature ranging from 22 C to 32 C and under an average annual °
°
precipitation of 2,366 mm. Narra is best known as source of timber for furniture.
The reddish
hardwood is used for cabinetry, cart wheels, carving, light to heavy construction, musical instruments, etc. It is recommended as an ornamental and avenue tree. In fact, a number of these trees are found in municipal plaza and urban parks. The whole parts of the tree have medicinal and cosmetic values. The young leaves and flowers are said to be eaten, the flowers are sources of honey, the leaf extracts are used as shampoo. Young leaves can be applied to ripen boils, ulcers and prickly heat. Bark exudates are sources of gums, a cure for dysentery and diarrhea. The red latex is used to cure ulcers and has diuretic properties. Based from initial assessment of the performance in Mt. Banahaw, narra as a leguminous tree species performed very excellent, both in survival and early growth.
Lago (Prunus grisea ) Rosaceae Lago is a small lesser known tree species reaching a height of up to 20 m and a diameter of 60 cm. In Mt. Makiling, the trees form the intermediate layers especially found in small gaps and forest edges. It is abundant in secondary forests but has gradually been depleted due to rampant illegal logging. The leaves are simple, coreacious and oblong-
- 44 -
entire, 10 to 25 cm long and 2 to 5 cm wide, broadly obtuse or rounded at the base, gradually acute or sub-acuminate apex, glabrous and with a pair of glands at the base. The midrib is brown to reddish brown with 4 to 6 lateral nerves, faint and exceedingly curved with obscure reticulations. The outerbark is brown to reddish brown and smooth. The flowers are born in a raceme or spike, axillary, soft and pubescent. The flowers are alternately distributed from the base, pedicel measured 3 to 5 mm long. The calyx are broadly funnel shaped, pubescent with small segments. The petals are similar to the calyx lobes but glabrous on the inner side, stamens are many, inserted below the hairy disk, pistil is glabrous. The fruits are born in a raceme or spike, small drupes. Mature fruits are available throughout the year and can be collected from the standing tree and on the ground. The seeds are extracted by mashing in a container filled with water. The seeds are recalcitrant and do not require sun drying. The seeds are only air-dried and shortly it is sown in nursery beds. Germination takes place within a week, but with lower germinations values. Seedlings are transferred to the medium-sized planting pots and raised under the shade until they reach plantable height of 50 to 70 cm. There are no records of extensive planting of lago in the Philippines. Lago poles can be used as fuelwood and for light construction purposes. In natural forest, Lago is found in Molave stands or Limestone forest. The indigenous tree species trials done in Mt. Banahaw revealed that lago has very low survival in grasslands. Many of the planted seedlings dried up until the base during summer. Resprouting takes place during the rainy season. However, based on overall assessment, it is a moderate grower in the site.
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Kalantas (Toona calantas ) Meliaceae Kalantas is a large tree which attains a height of 40 to 50 m and a diameter of 120 to 150 cm upon maturity. In a dense stand, it forms a straight, cylindrical bole which is more than half of its total height. The crown of kalantas is wide spreading, deep and rather open. The leaves are pinnately compound, rachis ranges from 5 to 18 cm long and expands 2.5 to 6.5 cm, the compund leaf is generally opposite, sometimes alternate.
The twigs are
branched at the end. The bark breaks into rectangular scale, sometimes fissured, slightly turning and raised outward. However, in young kalantas trees, the bark is smooth and with longitudinal lines. The bark looks similarly with that of tangile but can be distinguished by its distinct cedary odor especially when freshly cut. Kalantas can be found in primary forests from low to medium altitudes and abundantly distributed in the islands of Batanes, Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Negros, Leyte, Cebu, Mindoro and Palawan.
Kalantas grows fairly well in dry soils,
preferably clay to loamy with considerable humus.
Kalantas associates with
leguminous tree, molave trees and dipterocarps. Flowering of kalantas occur in March to April and the fruits are available after a year in May to June. In Quirino province, the fruits are available in November. The seeds are collected from the standing tree by climbing or by using the long pole. The seeds are stony and can be air-dried for two days. Seeds under normal conditions can be stored for 2 to 3 months with still 85% germination, decreasing to 47% on succeeding month. Under dry-cold storage in refrigerators, with a temperature of 10 to 23 C, seeds can be stored up to 7 months, after which °
germination values decline. Kalantas seeds are just soaked in tapwater in order to
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enhance germination. The seeds are sown in seedbed with ordinary garden soil. The sown seeds are watered once a day. Within a week, uniform germination is achieved.
When the germinants reach the height of 10 to 20 cm, they are
transferred in rearing beds or pots up to 7 months. The plantable height is 50 to 70 cm. Kalantas planting stocks can also be earthballed wildlings. They are further raised in the nursery, hardened before outplanting. Kalantas planting stocks are not tolerant to heavy shade. Partial removal of the vegetation such as grasses and broadleaved shrubs by patch and strip clearing can be made to ensure better survival. The whole site can be ring-weed, cultivated thrice a year and applied with moderate amount of complete fertilizer per seedling. Kalantas is fast-growing and attains maturity after 15 to 20 years. The wood of kalantas is light, durable and does not shrink too much making it a good material for constructing small boats and banca.
Its reddish brown wood is used for
sculpture work, furniture and cabinet. As an indigenous species, kalantas performs quite well in Mt. Banahaw. It has high survival but slow growth rate. It cannot compete very well with cogon ( Imperata cylindrica) and talahib ( Saccharum spontaneum). Likewise, it cannot tolerate open conditions with intense light and strong winds.
Akle (Albizia acle ) Fabaceae Akle is a medium-sized tree attaining a total height of 25 to 30 m and a diameter of 70 to 120 cm.
Its bole is
generally short and crooked. The crown is widely spreading and deep.
It is a
deciduous tree that sheds off its leaves during dry season, intolerant or sun-
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loving. It is commonly found in secondary forest. The leaves are bipinnately compound, opposite, usually with one pair of pinnae, each with 3 to 6 pairs of leaflets. The flowers are greenish white, bome on raceme on a small, rounded heads or globes. The seeds are contained in short and flat pods with 2 to 3 seeds. The trunk has lenticellate to smooth bark, no buttress but has swollen roots. The bark is brown to dark brown, brittle and the inner structure is creamy white when freshly cut turning to vermilion or reddish yellow after exposure. Akle seeds are available in May to June in Mt. Makiling. contained which dehisce at maturity.
They are
Seed collection from standing tree by
climbing should be done before pods naturally open. To extract the seeds, the pods should be sun-dried or hard and well ventilated surface. Akle seeds can be stored in dry bottles up to one year without losing much of its viability. It requires hot water treatment in order to attain fast and uniform seed germination.
Pre-germinated seeds are drilled or broadcast-sown in seedbeds.
Germination is attained after 7 to 15 days after sowing. Akle seeds have higher germination values and survival. Under natural forest, akle grows on gaps and stand edges. Balled wildlings can also be sued as planting stocks. In the field, akle can be planted in partially cleared round patches and in strips. It is a slow growing leguminous species. In our initial observation of growth performance at Mt.Banahaw, it is an moderate grower.
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Duklitan (Pouteria duc litan ) Sapotaceae Duklitan is a large tree up to 50 m tall and up to 100 cm in diameter. It has a straight, cylindrical bole that provides good amount of lumber. The tree is widely distributed in the Philippines and Southeast Asia. It is common in periodically inundated areas and on limestone forests but it is also common in secondary forests. It is seen in the lower slopes of Mt. Makiling. The leaves are simple, spirally arranged, evenly distributed in a twig, elliptic-obovate or elliptic-oblong with a distinct broadly obtuse base, the apex is acuminate, with a distinct reticulate to slightly transverse tertiary venation. The tree is glabrous on both side of the leaf, the petioles 3 to 5 mm long. The flowers are whitish green, small, in clusters or leafless or nearly leafless auxilliary shoots or in auxilliary clusters on slender pedicels 2 to 9 mm long. Duklitan flowers in March in Quezon, August in some other parts of the Luzon Island. The fruits are ovoid to obovoid or globose, 1.2 to 3.5 diameter, glabrous except at the base. It turns blackish green upon ripening. The seeds are straw brown and has a glossy texture. The fruits are fleshy that turn purple upon ripening. These are collected from seed falls which are abundant in February. The fruits are soaked in tap water for 2 to 3 days to soften the pulp and to macerate to extract the seeds. A fruit has 1 to 4 seeds. The seeds can be air-dried for 1 to 2 days however it can be sun-dried if it is intended for long storage. These are spread in plastic trays and stored at room temperature. Because the seeds are waxy or stony in texture, they require pre-germination treatments. The seeds germinate 17 days after sowing with a very low germination value of only 15%.
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Field planting is done 6 months after emergence when the seedlings reach 50 to 70 cm in height. Duklitan is a good source of timber for carving, making musical instruments, cabinet works, household implements, fan ribs and matchsticks. Duklitan has low field survival in Mt. Banahaw and establishes slowly because of strong wind and low soil moisture during dry season.
Supa (Sindora supa ) Fabaceae Supa is a small to medium tree reaching a height of 20 to 30 m and 150 to 180 cm in diameter, a stout but vigorous leguminous tree with drooping branches. The leaves are simple - compound, alternate and averaging 15 cm long measured at the rachis. It has usually 3 pairs of leaflets, elliptic, coreacious to leathery, 3.5 to 9 cm long and 2.5 to 5 cm wide.
It has very short petiolules, the terminal pair has acute and slightly
equilateral
shape,
otherwise
obtusely
rounded,
sometimes
submarginate,
reticulation fine but distinct. The bark is brown to nearly black, sheds off in a large rectangular scales. The white flowers are born in a terminal or axillary racemous inflorescence, 10 to 15 cm long, more or less densely olivacious and pubescent. The flower are pedicellate, 2 cm long subtended by 2 acute bracts; the calyx is short, 4-bolled, thick , 1 cm long and spinulose. The petals are 1 cm, as long as the calyx lobes, pubescent along the margins below; the filaments and ovary are hirsute. The fruit of supa is small pod containing 2 to 3 seeds, ovate, rounded at the base, somewhat beaked at the apex, 4 × 6 cm and covered with straight but stiff
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prickles or spines. In Mt. Makiling, fruits of supa ripen in July to August. They are collected from the standing mother tree by climbing or from seedfalls on the ground. The seeds are manually extracted from dehiscent pods upon sun-drying for 2 to 3 days. These can be sun-dried for one day and stored in dry, sealed bottles. Supa seeds have good keeping quality. They are still viable 1 to 2 years after collection. Supa seeds have fairly good germination values of 60 to 80% and they have good seedling survival. There are no records of extensive planting of supa in the Philippines but there are natural standing trees in limestone or molave forests. The sapwood is light-colored to pink, distinctly demarcated from the yellowish red heartwood when fresh, turning chestnut brown or russet with age, crossed-grains, with fine texture, very glossy, with distinct taste or odor, moderately hard, durable and moderately resistant to decay. Supa performs poorly to fairly in the grassland of Mt. Banahaw. It has very low survival and establishes slowly but the surviving seedlings pick up in vigor after 2 years.
Makaasim (Syzygium nit idum ) Myrtaceae Makaasim is a medium to large tree reaching a height of 25 m and a diameter of 60 cm or more. It naturally thrives well in well-drained forests of low or middle altitude, even up to 1,300 m above sea level. The tree has wide spreading, deep and fully developed crown. The leaves are simple, 8 to 14 cm long and 3 to 6 cm wide, elliptical
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oblong to broadly oblanceolate, rigidly coreaceous, bluntly acute apex, apex, lucid above and light green beneath, long petioles, base obtuse and subcuneate with 8 to 12 pairs of nerves, obtuse and finely interarching or wavy tips. The bark is brownish and slightly flaky which which sloughs off. It has a paniculate inflorescence; inflorescence; chiefly terminal, seldom lateral, 6 cm long, densely flowered, thick and rigid small stalks, yellowish gray, more or less angulate or ridge divarilate. Makaasim blooms in March to April and the fruit ripens in May to June. The flowers are white, subsessile, funnel-shaped calyx, 1 cm long with 4 broad rounded and punctate segments.
Petals are numerous, broadly broadly ovate, ovate, coarsely
glandular and dotted style. style. The flower flower has numerous stamens.
The fruits are
globose, 1.5 cm in diameter, crowded by the persistent calyx, hard and greenish, turns yellowish when they ripe. The small fruits are harvested from standing tree by climbing or with the use of hooks. Seeds are placed in small small sacks, soaked in water to soften the pulp. The fruits are mashed mashed to separate the seeds which settle down. Seeds are sun-dried and kept for storage. Seeds are sown in seed boxes, germinate after afte r 15 to 21 days. It has low viability viability values and survival. survival. Makaasim is a native species of Mt. Banahaw, the tree has very high survival and establishes establishes excellently excellently in plantations. plantations.
However, it grows grows slowly
during the seedling stage. The wood is very resistant to decay, durable and fine textured. It can be used for general construction.
References De Guzman, E.D., Umali,R. and Sotalbo,E. (1986) Dipterocarps and nondipterocarps, in guide to the Philippine flora and fauna, Vol. 3, Natural Resources Management Center and University of the Philippines, Quezon City. Fernando, E.S., Sun, B.Y., Suh, M.H., Kong, H.Y. and Koh, K.S. (2004). Flowering plants and ferns of Mt. Makiling, ASEAN-Korea Environmental Environmental Cooperative Unit (AKECU), (AKECU), National Instrumentation Instrumentation Center of Environmental Environmental
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Management, Management, Seoul National National University, University, Korea. Hensleigh, T.E. and Holaway, B.R., (Eds). (1988) Agroforestry species for the Philippines, US Peace Corps. Technology Technology Center, Manila, Manila, Philippines. Merril, E.D. (1926) An enumeration of Philippine flowering plants, Bureau of Printing, Manila, Philippines. Rojo J.P. (1999) Revised lexicon lexicon of the the Philippine Philippine trees, trees, FPRDI, College, College, Laguna, Philippines.
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Simplif implified ied Pr ee-ge gerr mination mination Tr eatments a nd Im pr oved oved Dir Dir ec ectt Seeding Seeding Methods for for Refo Refor esta esta tion
Kazunori Takahash Takahash i and Garret Garret D. Ruiz
Introduction The Philippines used to have wide forest acreage and had been a leading timber exporting country before, but at the present, the total forest area occupies only around 18% of the country’s land resource due to the long years of extensive harvesting of timber since the Spanish colonial period until the late 70s.
Its
share in forest acreage is now very low as compared to other Southeast Asian countries (Gascon 2002). The residual or remnant forest areas are continuously being devastated and these wide-spread destructions over the mountains sometimes cause serious floods and menace to the people living in lowlands. Reforestation is, therefore, one of the most important social tasks, not only to restore forest resources but also to protect the life of rural people (Gacoscosim 1995 Magdaraog 1998). The basic rehabilitation methods used in the tropics were historically introduced from advanced nations, but are they suitable enough? They need more nurseries to raise the seedlings, but nursery establishment may be too costly for the people of mountainous region. We may rather need to develop the methods more suitable for the domestic condition in the Philippines. The simple and easy methods with low cost will be important for the farmers and foresters in the rural areas who are the main keepers or stewards of the forests. The direct seeding may be an example of the useful method for the reforestation of those areas. Indeed, direct seeding method using leguminous tree seeds is a very popular way to establish the forest trees in the degraded grassland areas in the Philippines (Magdaraog 1998 and Tesoro et al. 1980) JIRCAS initiated a collaborative research project entitled “Studies on
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the Establishment of Cover Forest for the Logged-Over Tropical Forests in the Philippines” in 1999 in order to promote the technical development of reforestation methods for the marginal and degraded mountainous logged-over areas. Commercial logging or harvesting had transformed the forests into grassland, causing the regeneration of tree species to be very difficult. This project was conducted in close collaboration with the Institute of Renewable Natural Resources of the College of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) and Southern Luzon Polytechnic College (SLPC) in Lucban, Quezon. One of the important study components of this project was the establishment of simplified pre-germination treatments for the indigenous leguminous tree species useful for the adoption of agroforestry in the country. Hereafter, we introduced several experiments related to the simplified pre-germination treatments and the improved direct seeding methods for the leguminous agroforestry trees.
Pr e-ger mination Tr eatments by Soaking in Hot Water The trees of Fabaceae are generally highly tolerant to drought conditions and suitable for tree planting in degraded grassland areas. Those seeds usually have thick, water-blocking seed coat, requiring pre-germination treatments. Heating can be an effective way to soften the hard and waxy seed coat, and the soaking in hot water may be the most convenient way of pre-germination treatment for the private foresters and farmers. The required temperature and soaking time will be different according to the kind of species. Sometimes, we may find variations in the nature of the seed coat even among the populations of the same species, thus the experimental studies on pre-germination treatments should be carried out widely in areas where the species are abundant to gather precise information regarding their germination behaviors.
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Fig. 14
Hot water treatment and sowing test on study of germination enhancement.
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Fig. 15 Germination monit oring of Parkia roxburghii on study of germination enhancement.
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We managed the studies on hot water treatments for the common indigenous tree species of Fabaceae in Southern Luzon region. The most effective temperature and soaking time were studied using experimental trials o
by combining with the treatment using different hot water temperatures (40 C, o
o
60 C, 80 C) and extent of soaking time (0.5min, 2min, 5min) . We carried out this experiment using the seeds of common leguminous tree species, namely Acacia mangium, Albizia saman, Albizia acle, Parkia roxburghii, Leucaena diversifolia, Leucaena leucocephala, L. pulverulenta and Pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus ( prickly narra). The nine test courses by the different temperatures
and times and one non-treated seed course were examined. We prepared four sets of one hundred seeds for each test course. The seeds in the strainer were soaked in hot water inside the pot simultaneously setting the required temperatures by thermometer. We arranged ten pieces of lined 1 × 1m square seed bed for the seed sowings, sowed those hot water soaked seeds on the seed beds in mid-January of 2000, and monitored the germination parameters. We measured the height of the seedlings and marked them with numbers on the small wire sticks (Fig. 15). The monitoring was continued until 50 days after seed sowing with the interval of 5 days. The results showed that the seed soaking in hot water were effective for several species in enhancing the seed germination rate (Fig. 16 and Table 5). In our experiment, Albizia acle, Acacia mangium, Pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus, , Leucaena diversifolia and L. leucocephala showed Leucaena pulverulenta statistically significant effect on seed germination rate (Table 5). In all the species tested, the three species of genus Leucaena were especially important for the reforestation in the Philippines. We succeeded to find the suitable temperatures and times to gain the high seed germination rates of them. Generally, those o
Leucaena species need quite high temperatures of around 80 C, and the emerging
seedlings grow rapidly under the treatments (Table 5). The procedures of hot water treatments are very simple, thus we hope that the techniques of seed soaking and the data of the suitable temperature and time will be disseminated widely to the foresters and farmers.
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Experimental Species ; Albizia saman
Experimental Species ; Acacia mangiu m
Fig. 16
Differences of seed germi nation rate and seedling grow th on hot water seed so aking experiment.
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Experimental Species ; Parkia roxburghii
Experimental Species ; Leucaena deversifoli a
Fig. 16
Continued…
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Experimental Species ; Leucaena lecocepara
Experimental Species ; Leucaena pul verulenta
Fig. 16
Continued…
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Experimental Species ; Pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus.
Experimental Species ; Albizia acle
Fig. 16
Continued…
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. s g n i t a e h e r i f d n a s t n e m t a e r t r e t a w t o h n o t n e m e c n a h n e n o i t a n i m r e g d e e S 5 e l b a T
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Dir ect Seeding Method for Leguminous Tr ee Species Soaking in hot water is also a useful pre-treatment for the direct seeding practiced by the farmers or the land owners of grass-covered mountainous area. Some farmers sow the leguminous tree seeds before they burn the grassland area. The fire removes the grasses and heats the sown seeds to soften the water-blocking seed coat layer, but the heat of grass burning will not be always stable and may not give the suitable temperatures that the seeds need. So, we thought of comparing the seed germination rates between the conventional direct seeding method of burning grasses and the newly devised one of sowing the seeds soaked in hot water. This test to compare the conventional direct seeding and the newly devised one sowing the seeds soaked in hot water were carried out at the field in of Mt. Makiling located near UPLB campus. The germination rates of indigenous leguminous seeds were compared between the ones heated by the conventional way of burning grasses, the ones heated by suitable hot water soaking and the non-treated ones without heating. We used the eight leguminous tree species, namely Acacia mangium, Albizia saman, Parkia roxburghii, Leucaena diversifolia, Leucaena leucocephala, Leucaena pulverulenta, Albizia acle and Pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus.
The area of test field square was 3 ×10m for a species, and that was divided to 3 sections of 1 ×10m square. Each section was made up of lined 1× 1m unit. The dense grasses mixing with cogon, Imperata cylindrica , covered those test fields. We broadcast-sowed each 100 seeds on all the 1 ×1m units of a 1×10m section to test the conventional direct seeding by grass burning, cleanly weeded the grasses and burned them just after seed sowings. On the other hand, we weeded and burned the grasses before the seed sowings for the other two 1 ×10m sections each applied to test the direct seedings by hot water soaked seeds and non-treated seeds.
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Fig.17
Fig.18
Experiment of di rect seeding by g rass burnin g.
Germin ated seedlings f rom seeds so aked i n hot w ater.
The same amount of the seeds were broadcast-sown on the 1×1 m units of a 1×10m sectional fields after the burnings. For the seeds soaked in hot water, we gave the suitable treatments before the seed sowings by the temperatures and soaking times found in the studies of pre-germination treatment (Table 5). We carried out those seed sowings in early February of 2000. The monitoring of seedling emergence at the test fields was started subsequently
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with the seed sowings. We marked and measured the heights for all the emerged seedlings of the species tested using numbered small wire sticks. The interval of the monitoring was 5 days. That was continued for 50 days after the seed sowings. At the end of the monitoring period, we sieved the surface soils of the seed beds to collect all the seeds that did not germinate, and then counted the numbers of the sound seeds by cutting them to check the quartiles of embryos. We calculated the germination rate of the species by the proportion of the accumulated number of emerged seedlings to the sum of the number of those seedlings and the one of the sound seeds remained after the monitoring duration. On these comparative tests between the conventional method and the method to improve the conventional direct seeding combining with the hot water tresatment, we confirmed the advantages of our improvement. Fig.19 shows the comparison of germination rates between the conventional direct seeding method to burn the grasses after seed sowing and the method giving hot water soaking before seed sowing. The germination rates of the seeds sown without any treatment were generally lower than the ones of seeds heated, except for two species of Acacia mangium and Pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus. Acacia mangium did not give good germination rates even with heating. This
suggests that the seeds have not matured well. The seeds of pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus given the conventional fire heating also did not germinate at all.
The temperature by fire heating might be damaging the seeds, or not be effective by contraries. The other species statistically enhanced the seed germination rates by the both methods of fire heating and hot water soaking (by Mann-Whitney, U-test; Table 5). The seeds soaked in hot water showed the higher germination rates than the fire heated ones at the time after 50 days of sowing. The seeds of three species on genus Leucaena, Leucaena diversifolia , Leucaena leucocephala and Leucaena pulverulenta particularly showed the quite high germination rates
from the early stages and performed the high percentages of seedling establishments by the suitable soaking in hot water.
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Also, the seed germination rates of Albizia saman and Parkia roxburghii were highest on the seeds soaked in hot water 50 days after sowing,
but the initial seed germination rates 25 days after sowing were higher on the fire heated seeds. We could not find the valid explanation of the result, but that might be related to the large sizes of the seed as compared to the ones of other species we tested. We proved that the conventional direct seeding method could be improved combining with the seed soaking in hot water. On the procedure we devised, the leguminous tree seeds were initially soaked at the most effective temperature for the species. The grasses of the planting area should be burned before the seeds are sown. The pasture management often uses fire to burn cogon and grasses in order to supply the nutritious young shoots to animals, but if it is uncontrolled, the pasture burning may destroy adjacent forests and plantations (Valmayor et al. 1982). Generally, burning grasses in the mountainous area must be regulated or prohibited for the prevention of forest fire. If the grass burning is not appropriate, weeding can be an alternative way, and the seeds are sown on the ground after the removals of grasses. Those broadcast seeding need to be done with care, and the seeds should be in contact with the soil immediately after the sowings (Gacoscosim 1995). If the sowing area will slope steeply, the seeding in holes or in easy furrows will be recommendable to prevent the seed loss rather than the broadcast seeding.
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Albizia saman 100
Temp. & Time . 80c
Aib izia acle
Acacia mangium 0.5 min
Temp. & Time. 60c
Temp. & Time. 80c
1 min
Pterocarpus indicus (e) Temp. & Time. 80c
5 min
2min
80 60
e t a r n o i t a n i m r e g e v i t a l u m u C
40 20 0
0
25
0
50
Parkia roxburghii Temp. & Time. 80c
100
0.5 min
25
0
50
25
Leucaena p ulverulenta Temp. & Time. 80c
0
50
25
L. leucocephala Temp. & Time. 80c
0.5 min
50
Leucaena diversifoli a 5 mi n
Temp. & Time. 80c
2min
80 60 40 20 0
0
25
50
0
25
50
0
25
50
0
25
50
Hot w ater soaked seeds
Days after seed sowing
Fig. 19
Fire heated seeds Non-treated seeds
Germination rates of leguminous tree seeds on comparison of hot water soaking treatments and fire heatings . Temp & time : Temper ature and time on best hot w ater s oaking cours e.
After the seed germination monitoring on direct seeding tests, we continuously observed the seedling growth and the grass recovery of the fields. The grasses of the test fields fully recovered again in 150 days after the burnings and the average grass height reached to around 110 cm in that period. On the other hand, the growth performances of the tested leguminous trees were greatly varied in the period. The average seedling heights of Leucaena pulverulenta, Leucaena leucocephala and Leucaena diversifolia exceeded the
one of grasses, but those of Pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus , Albizia saman and Albizia acle, which were the quality timber species in the Philippines, were
lower than the height of grasses (Fig.20 and 21). Those results show that the grass weeding after direct seeding is necessary for the slow growing seedlings including the latter three species we tested. The species of genus Leucaena are generally first growing as shown on our observation. The shed stands of Leucaena covering the grassland will be
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simply established by our proposed method of direct seeding (Fig. 22). They are useful to eliminate grasses and offer the spaces for the varied agroforestry activities combined with the timber production. ) 10 0 % ( r 80 e v 60 o C n 40 o i t a 20 t e g e 0 V 0
) 20 0 m c ( t h g 10 0 i e H
30
60
90
120
150
0 0
Days after s eed sowing
30
60
90
120
150
Days after s eed sowing Grass species Leucaena purverlenta Leucaena leucocephala Leucaena diversifollia
Fig. 20 Seedling grow th perf or m ances of Leucaena species on comparison with the recovering grasses.
) 10 0 % ( r 80 e v o 60 C n 40 o i t a 20 t e g e 0 V 0
) 200 m c ( t h 100 g i e H
30
60
90
120
150
0 0
Days after s eed sowing
30
60
90
120
150
Days aft er s eed sowing Grass species Pterocarpus i ndicus f. e. Albizia saman Albizia acle
Fig. 21 Seedling grow th perfor mances of t imber use legumes on comparison with the recovering grasses.
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Improved Method
Conventional Method
Seed Collection
Seed Collection
Pre-germination Tre atment
Weedin g ( or Grass burning )
Direct Seeding ( Broadcasting , in Holes or Furro ws )
Broadcast Seeding
Grass Bur ning
Maintenance ( Weeding , Vine Cut ting , Fert ilizer )
Repeating B urning
Fig. 22 Procedu re flowcharts for leguminous direct seedings.
Fig. 23 Before and after of direct seeding reforestation by Leucaena leucocephala.
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Conclusion The trees of Fabacea are popularly used for reforestation in the Philippines (Valmayor et al. 1982), but the seeds are generally hard to germinate naturally because of the water-blocking seed coat. In our research, the suitable pre-germination treatments by the seed soaking in hot water have been found to enhance the germination to improve their water absorption capacities (Fig. 16, Table 5).
Although the farmers usually sow the seeds and
burn the grassland to heat the leguminous seeds, we found that the hot-water soaking treatments were more effective for maintaining high temperatures specifically needed for the seed germination enhancement of leguminous species (Fig. 19). Our improved method to sow the hot-water soaked seeds after removing the grasses, greatly succeeded in ensuring establishment of seedlings (Fig. 22 and Fig. 23).
References Gascon, C.N. (2002) Mt. Banahaw; physical, botanical and management features, SLPC, Lucban, Quezon, Philippines, 52-61. Gacoscosim, M.M. (1995) Philippine forestry in action, Phoenix Publishing House Inc., 1- 40. Magdaraog, G., (Ed.) (1998) Environment and natural resources, ATLAS of the Philippines, ECPF, Metro Manila, 225pp. Tesoro, F., et al. (1980) The Philippine recommends for Ipil-Ipil, PCARRD, Laguna, Philippines, 1-32. Valmayor, R.V., et al. (1982) The Philippine recommends for reforestation, PCARRD, Laguna, Philippines, 24-103.
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Agr ofor estr y Systems in Mt. Bana haw Quezon Pr ovince, Philippines
Cecilia N. Gascon, Marife O. Abuel, Lorelie D. Santos
Introduction Upland areas in the Philippines are faced with two conflicting needs, food production for the increasing population and the rehabilitation of the denuded areas used for food production. The government is encouraging the adoption of agroforestry technologies in the uplands that are believed to answer these two conflicting needs. Agroforestry is not a new technology because it has been practiced by our ancestors since the time immemorial and its knowledge has been handed down from generation to generation. In the Philippines, some of the conventional agroforestry systems are well known, namely the Naalad agroforestry system in Cebu, the Hanunuo Mangyan’s crop diversity system in Mindoro, the Ikalahan’s “gen-gen” in Nueva Vizcaya, the Ifugao’s “pinugo” in Mountain Province, the Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT) in Bansalan, Davao del Sur, home gardens and the multistory system in the provinces of Cavite, Laguna and Quezon.
The Agrofor estr y Systems in Mt. Banahaw There are two dominant agroforestry systems in Mt. Banahaw, namely vegetable-based and coconut-based multistory systems. The following will discuss the processes involved in each system and socio-economic conditions of people practicing the systems.
1.
Vegetable-based agroforestry system The vegetable-based system is predominant in the towns of Lucban, Majayjay, Liliw and Nagcarlan. However, the following discussion will present only the practices in Lucban, Quezon. a.
Land preparation and farm maintenance
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Farmers prepared their land by brushing. Debris are piled in one corner of the farm and allowed to decompose. However, the decomposed materials are not mixed with the soil in the entire farm. Burning as a means of land preparation is not practiced because the debris are moist due to regular rain occurrence and the local government does not allow burning as a method of land preparation. Generally, the household heads are the ones cultivating and managing the farm. However, there are some women who help their husbands during land preparation. Other family members also participate in harvesting crops. When a farmer has the money, he usually hires laborers specifically in brushing and clearing his farm. The hired laborer is also a farmer who is not so busy with his farm or is in need of immediate cash. Aside from family and hired labors, exchange labor or “turnuhan” is also prevalent in the area. Farmers have their own “turnuhan” group consisting of 3 to 8 members. Membership is dependent on the farmer’s circle of friends and relatives. Animals also played important role in land preparation. Carabaos are used in plowing and harrowing in preparation for planting radish and sweet potato. Making plots across the contour (up and down the slope cultivation) is observed in pechay ( Brassica napus) and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). This method is not ecologically sound as it enhances runoff and
leaching of nutrients. The farms are maintained by brushing, weeding, fertilizing and applying pesticides. In order to minimize soil disturbance created by uprooting the grasses, the farmers cut only the upper part. In effect, the grasses retard rainfall energy and reduce runoff. b.
Cropping patterns. Cropping pattern is the sequential arrangement of crops in time and space. The present cropping pattern in the site is influenced by the practices of their forefathers, practices of their contemporary farmers and some are results of learning from technicians visiting the area. The rainfall distribution and influence of middlemen affect farmers’ cropping pattern .
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c.
Cropping calendar Fig.24 shows the crop calendar used by the farmers. Eight crops were identified as commonly planted.
Fig.24
For
Cropping calendar of upl and farmers in Mt . Banahaw, Luc ban, Quezon.
the month of January, three crops were usually planted,
namely sweet potato ( Ipomea batatas), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) and radish ( Raphanus sativus). Sweet potato is planted either during the months of January, February, March, June and September. It is harvested during the months of April, May, September and December. To some farmers, sweet potato is normally planted after harvesting radish. The farmers claim that the soil is still fertile after harvesting radish and is still appropriate to plant sweet potato.
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Beans are planted 2 to 3 times a year, either in January, May or June. Harvest period are in March, July and August. The farmers do not plant beans during April because of too much heat that lead to wilting of leaves of new seedlings. Likewise, beans are not planted in August because of typhoons and gusty winds that destroy the crops. Radish is planted in January and harvested in April. This crop is not planted during rainy months to avoid washing out of seeds by heavy rains and rotting of crop by damping off. Pechay and mustard are planted in May and June and harvested in July to August. Like other crops, pechay is planted only once a year. The cropping calendar discussed above is dependent on the availability of capital, market condition or price stability, readiness of the land for planting and the readiness of farmer to plant. d.
Crop combination Crop combination refers to the various crops planted by a farmer in his farm sequentially or simultaneously. Crops planted include beans, chayote (Sechium edule), sweet potato ( Ipomea batatas), pechay ( Brassica ) and cabbage ( Brassica napus), tomato ( Lycopersicum esculentum oleracea). Beans is the crop commonly combined with others due to the
following reasons: 1) beans occupy lesser space for planting; 2) the whole year is suited for planting beans except for the months of April and August; 3) farmers realize the immediate return of investment because it can be harvested shorter than 2 months after planting. e.
Crop rotation Unlike the usual practice of shifting cultivators of rotating the field, Lucban farmers are practicing rotation of crops rather than shifting from one place to another due to limitation of land to till. Rotation of crops is based on the kind of crop in season. Fallow period ranges from 2 to 3 months and very seldom extends to 1 year and this is dependent on farmers’ readiness to plant. Farmers can not afford to have longer fallow period because of the limitation in land area.
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It is observed that the trees and perennial crops in a vegetablebased farm are concentrated on the farm boundaries that also served as protection from animals and intrusion of other farmers, delineating the boundaries between two farms and to some extent source of fuel wood while they stay in their farms. The trees and perennial crops planted by farmers as boundary crops include ipil-ipil ( Leucaena leucocephala), dapdap ( Erythrina orientalis), madre de cacao ( Gliricidia sepium) and banana ( Musa sapientum). Some farmers leave a narrow strip of natural vegetation along gulleys and head waters for soil erosion control and water conservation. f.
Crop yield The peak harvest months of chayote ( Sachium edule) are in April and May. During these months, a farmer can harvest 780 – 1,560 kg in 2 weeks in a half ha of land. These are also the months where vegetables command higher prices. From June to November on the other hand, a farmer can harvest only 560 kg in 2 weeks in a half ha of land. In one cropping, a farmer can harvest 8,320-11,050 kg in half ha. A half ha of pechay can harvest 550-1,200 kg in one cropping. For sweet potato and beans, the harvests range from 60-1,200 kg and 1,2001,680 kg, respectively. For radish and tomato on the other hand, the harvests are 2,800 kg and 600 kg, respectively.
g.
Marketing system of farm products The farmers do not have problems where to market their products. Farm products are highly accessible by horses or jeepney and are sold either to middlemen (87 %) or directly to the market (13 %). The 95 to 99 % of farm products are sold and only 2 % is used for home consumption (Fig.25). The prices of farm produce are dictated by middlemen, prices in Divisoria (a market in Manila) or supply of vegetables from other provinces.
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Fig.25
2.
Marketing sch eme of farm produ cts
The Coconut-based Multistory Agroforestry Systems in Mt. Banahaw This multistory agroforestry system is dominantly practiced by the farmers in Dolores, Sariaya and Candelaria, Quezon Province, Philippines. The following discussion will focus on how multistory systems are practiced in these towns surrounding Mt. Banahaw. a.
Multistory system in Brgy. Pinagdanglayan, Dolores, Quezon a.1
Physical characteristics of the site The study site was located in B rgy. Pinagdanglayan, Dolores,
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Quezon. It is one of the upland barangays at the foot of Mt. Banahaw. The slope ranges from 14 % to 20 %. The area is under Climatic Type II of the Coronas System of Rainfall Classification characterized by 7-month rainy season and 5-month dry season in a year. The temperature ranges o
o
from 24.2 C to 29.8 C. The annual precipitation is 4,014 mm while the average relative humidity is 86% (Fig.26, 27 and 28). The soil textural type is clay loam with 54% water holding capacity. The chemical characteristics of the soil under the multistory farm revealed that phosphorus ranges from 11 – 79 ppm; nitrogen value ranges from 2.2 3.5% while pH ranges from 5.4 - 5.9. The volume of soil erosion ranges from 1.53 tons/ha/yr to 3.54 tons/ha/yr. a.2
Species composition The multistory farms were composed of coconut ( Cocos nucifera)
+ Coffea robusta or Coffea excelsa + banana ( Musa sapientum) + agricultural crops and coconut + rambutan ( Nephelium lappaceum) + lansones ( Lansium domesticum) + Albizia procera + citrus + mahogany (Swietenia mahogani) + agricultural crops. The coconuts which are set at 10 × 10 m spacing serve as the overstory while coffee and other fruit trees serve as the intermediate layers. The species found in this multistory system are all perennial. The two forest tree species included in the system were akleng parang ( Procera excelsa) and mahogany ( Swietenia mahagoni). Akleng parang naturally
grows in the area while mahogany was planted by the farmers as future source of lumber.
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90 88 86 84 82 80 78 76
Relative Humdity
Jan
Feb Mar
Fig.26
Apr May Jun
Jul
Aug Sep
Oct Nov Dec
Average relative humidit y in Mt. Banahaw, Dolor es, Quezon.
1000 800 600 Rainfall
400 200 0 Jan
Fig.27
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Average monthly rainfall i n Mt. Banahaw, Dolores, Quezon.
35 30 25 max
20
mi n
15
mean
10 5 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Ju n Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Fig.28
Average temperature in Mt. Banahaw, Dolores, Quezon.
The understory layer is composed of 3 varieties of sweet potato ( Ipomea batatas) that command higher prices in the market locally termed as “sinuksok”, miracle” and tinrining”. Some farmers also planted corn ( Zea mays), baguio beans ( Phaseolus vulgaris), radish ( Raphanus
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sativus), ginger ( Zingiber officinale), string beans (Vigna sesquipedalia),
gabi (Colocassium esculentum), peanut ( Arachis hypognea) and cassava ( Manihot utilissima ). a.3
Marketing of farm products. Majority (90 to 95%) of farm produce are sold to San Pablo City
Public Market while the remaining 5 to 10% are either sold to other market outlets or consumed by the household. b.
Brgy. Mamala I, Sariaya, Quezon b.1
Physical characteristics of the site The town of Sariaya is 126 km south of Metro Manila. The study
sites are in Brgys. Concepcion Banahaw and Sampaloc, Bugon, about 2.5 km from the town proper and are accessible by jeepney. The place has an elevation of 300 m above sea level. The site is drained by 3 rivers, namely Balubal, Mamala and Keanuang. Sariya belongs to Climatic Type III, characterized by long dry season from November to April and wet during the rest of the year. The soil texture type belongs to the Sariaya series which is dark brown, deep to moderately deep, sandy loam and welldrained soil. b.2
Land preparation and farm maintenance The farmers prepared their farms by first brushing and removing
the grasses (locally termed as “gamas”). The debris are either piled (“patoto”) to form a dike that serves as barrier for runoff and soil erosion, burned during dry months or scattered in the farm and allowed to decompose as organic fertilizer. These land preparation and farm maintenance are normally participated by the whole family especially during Saturdays, Sundays and holidays. Aside from family labor, the farmers also practice “bayanihan” (exchange labor) with other farmers. The farm animals such as cow and carabao are used in land preparation particularly in plowing and harrowing the field for planting radish ( Raphanus sativus ), sweet potato ( Ipomea batatas ), pechay ( Brassica napus), carrot and cabbage ( Brassica oleracea).
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The farms are maintained by brushing, weeding, fertilizing and pesticide application. Lime was applied in the soil when farmers observed that the soil has become acidic. b.3
The species composition of a multistory system There were two types of multistory system in Brgy. Mamala I,
namely coconut + vegetable and coconut + fruit trees. b.3.1 Coconut + vegetable There were eight crops planted under the coconut, namely sweet potato, cabbage, cassava, pechay, carrot, peanut, radish and ginger (Table 6).
Table 6
Agroforestry crops co mmonly planted under coc onut trees.
Cr op
Plant ing
Har vesting
Sweet Potato (suksok) (tarlac) ( Ipomea batatas)
After 7 months After 4 months
2
January to February March and October After 6 months
2-3
After 45 days
3
After 80-100 days
3-4
April-June
1
Radish ( Raphanus sativus)
Any month of the year Any month of the year November to January August to January Any month except dry months Any month except dry months Any month except dry months December to February Any month
No. of Cropping 2
After 45 days
2
Ginger ( Zingiber officinale)
Any month
After 1 year
1
Cabbage ( Brassica oleracea)
Cassava ( Manibot esculenta) Pechay ( Brassica napus)
Carrot ( Daucus carota)
Peanut ( Arachis hypogea )
1
The farmers used two varieties of sweet potato, the “suk-sok” and “tarlac” that can be harvested 7 and 4 months after planting, respectively. The farmers preferred these two varieties because they give more yield and
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can be planted anytime of the year. Cabbage ( Brassica oleracea ) is planted during the months of January, August, November and December and harvested after 2 months. Cassava ( Manihot utilissima) and pechay are planted anytime of the year except during dry months. Carrots are planted three to four times a year while peanut is planted only once a year, from December to February and harvested March to May. Radish and ginger are planted anytime of the year depending on the farmers’ readiness to plant and the availability of inputs like seeds and fertilizers. These crops are normally planted in combination with other crops. The 85% of the farmers planted three to five crops in the farm simultaneously (Fig.29).
Fig.29
b.3.2
Coconut + vegetable crop s farm.
Coconut + fruit trees The fruit trees found in combination with coconut include coffee,
santol (Sandoricum koetjape), duhat (Syzygium cumingii ( L.) Skeels) and kamias ( Averrhoa balimbi).
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Fig.30
b.4
Coconut + fruits t rees farm.
Marketing system of farm produce The 90% of farm produce are sold while the rest are used for
household consumption. The farm products are hauled by horses or carabaos to the “paradahan” or waiting shed, which is 4 to5 km away from the farmers’ farm. The farmers sell their products either to the middlemen who came to the farm or directly to Sariaya market. The middlemen directly influence the choice of species to be planted. The current price of products determines the farmers’ decision as to what crops to plant the next cropping. c.
Brgy. Masalukot, Candelaria, Quezon c.1
Physical characteristics of the site The town of Candelaria, Quezon is located 112 km south of Metro
Manila. It is considered as one of the rice granaries of the province. Brgy. Masalukot is situated in the western portion of Mt. Banahaw. It has an elevation of 460 m above sea level. The barangay is accessible by car during dry season but becomes less accessible during wet season because of muddy feeder roads. Brgy. Masalukot has an undulating terrain with
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slopes ranging from 30 to 50%. Only small patches of land have slopes below 30%. The area falls under Climatic Type III characterized by relatively dry season from November to April and wet during the rest of the year. The wet season starts in December while the driest months are from January to April. Three soil series identified in the area were Guadalupe, Macolod and Sariaya series. The Guadalupe series include moderately deep, well drained dark brown soils of fine clay family. These soils are derived from tuffaceous volcanic material with varying degree of weathering. The Guadalupe series is more widely distributed and is most important for agriculture than the other families of soil in the area. c.2
Land preparation and farm maintenance Farmers prepared the farm by brushing. The debris are either piled
in the corner of the farm and allowed to decompose to serve as organic fertilizer or burned during dry months. Land preparation is generally done by men in a form of family, hired or exchange labor. Animals are not used in land preparation because of the steepness of the site. The farmers practice soil conservation like cultivating along the contour and planting perennial crops like coconut ( Cocos nucifera), ipil-ipil ( Leucaena leucocephala ) and madre de cacao ( Gliricidia sepium).
c.3
The multistory system There are three agroforestry systems in the area, namely
perennial-based, annual-based, and perennial + annual based systems. In the perennial-based system, four crop combinations were identified: 1) coconut + coffee; 2) coffee + banana; 3) coffee + madre de cacao and 4) coconut + fruit-bearing trees. In the annual-based system, nine species were identified, namely rice (Oryza sativa), sweet potato ( Ipomea batatas), corn ( Zea mays), squash (Cucurbita maxima), ginger ( Zingiber officinale), gabi (Colocasia esculenta), ampalaya ( Momordica charantia), patani (Phaseolus lunatus)
and sitao (Vigna sesquipedalian). The farmers follow a monthly sequence of planting. For the month
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of January, sweet potato is planted and in August, it is harvested. The crops planted in March include ampalaya, patani, and sitao and harvested in June or July. Because the area depends on rainfall for irrigation, rice is planted only in May and harvested in September. During the month of June, corn, squash and ginger are planted and are harvested in September. Majority of the farmers plant corn because it does not require too much labor and fertilizer. Gabi is planted during wet months and is harvested after 6 months to 1 year. It was observed that farmers are gradually modifying their system by intercropping ginger with corn, rice with corn and combining corn, ginger and gabi. The Masalukot farmers practice crop rotation rather than shifting from one area to another. Rotation is based on the kind of crop in season. The fallow period ranges from 2 to 3 months depending on the farmers’ readiness to plant. c.4
The marketing system The farm products are placed in the community shed (“bahay-
nayon”) where the buyers can pick up and transport to the different market outlets. The 90 to 95% of the products are sold in a wholesale basis while the remaining 5 to 10% is used for household consumption.
References Abuel, M.N. (1995) Upland Farming Systems in Brgy. Masalukot V, Candelaria, Quezon. Southern Luzon Polytechnic College, Lucban, Quezon. Allegado,
R.M.
(2001)
The
Multistory
Agroforestry
System
in
Brgy.
Pinagdanglayan, Dolores, Quezon. Southern Luzon Polytechnic College, Lucban, Quezon Philippines. De los Santos, L. (1995) Cropping Pattern in Brgy. Ilayang Mamala I, Sariaya, Quezon and its Relation on the Socio-economic Condition of the People. Southern Luzon Polytechnic College, Lucban, Quezon.
- 85 -
Navasero, C.N. (1993) Upland farming system in Mt. Banahaw de Lucban watershed and its ecological implication to the conservation and management of Mt. Banahaw, University of the Philippines, Los Baños, Philippines.
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The Hanunuo Mangyan Agr ofor estr y Systems And Associated Far ming Pr actices
Cecilia N. Gascon
Introduction The Hanunuo territory lies in the southeastern part of Mindoro island. It 2
2
occupied about 800 km of forest and grass-covered hinterlands. The 650 km of which was an exclusive territory while the remaining 150 km
2
was shared with
other Mangyan groups. Hanunuo occupied the highlands from Roxas to Bulalacao in the south, and portions of San Jose and Magsaysay in the west, hence they were often referred to as the Southern Mangyans. Hanunuo Mangyan is one of the tribal communities or indigenous people group in the island of Mindoro, Philippines. Literatures showed that this community use swidden or kaingin farming as the most common type of agroforestry system (Conklin 1957 as cited by Abarquez 1991). The Hanunuo Mangyans have four types of land uses, namely the residential area, the multistory farm, the kaingin or swidden farm and the forested area (Fig.31).
Land Uses of the Ha nunu o Mangyan 1.
Residential Areas These are found very near the seashore approximately 5 to 20 m above sea level with flat to rolling topography. One distinguishing characteristic of this land use is the presence of home gardens planted with fruit trees and few vegetable species. As mentioned in the previous discussion, the home gardens of the Hanunuos could not be considered as kitchen gardens because they did not provide the kitchen needs of the household. The ocular observation and interviews revealed that the home gardens are not original practice of the Hanunuo. They just imitated it from the "damuongs" or lowlanders who also live in the area.
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. n a y g n a M o u n u n a H e h t f o s m e t s y s e s u d n a l e h T 1 3 . g i F
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. . . d e u n i t n o C 1 3 . g i F
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. . . d e u n i t n o C 1 3 . g i F
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. . . d e u n i t n o C 1 3 . g i F
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The home gardens are the least diverse area and are not subjected to burning. No rituals were done during planting and harvesting periods. The labor devoted to home gardens is minimal compared with the kaingin.
2.
Multistory farming Areas These areas are located at 70 to 100 m above sea level with a rolling to hilly topography. These are planted to perennials that are the source of food and cash of the farmers. The respondents revealed that once the area is converted to a multistory farm, it is no longer subjected to kaingin, specifically to burning. The multistory farms are "owned" by farmers with more than one parcel of land for cultivation. There are indications that these areas are previously a second growth forest subjected to clearing before they became multistory farm. The indications include the presence of species like anahaw ( Livistonia rotundifolia ) which was also found in kaingin and forested areas. Multistory farming may not be an original practice of the Hanunuos because of two major reasons: 1) originally the Hanunuo Mangyan are not dependent on cash and thus they do not need to plant mango which is their primary source of cash; and 2) early studies about the Hanunuo Mangyan (e.g., Conklin 1957) never mentioned the multistory system of farming.
3.
Swidden farming Areas These areas are located 100 to 160 m above sea level with a hilly topography. These are planted with rice or rice+com and later on mixed with other crops like banana ( Musa sapientum) , ube ( Dioscorea hispida) , cassava ( Manihot utilissima) and cadios (Cajanus cajan ). The Swidden farming areas are previously a secondary forest as manifested by the presence of stumps of secondary forest species left after burning. This is validated by the interview results wherein farmers admitted that they cut the trees, burned the area and did cultivation activities locally termed as kaingin. Kaingin areas undergo fallow periods of 1 to 3 years, depending on the
farmer. The fallow area is just one portion located within the kaingin site.
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This practice is different from their original practice of moving from one place to another to look for areas for kaingin while resting their farm.
4.
Forested Area The forested areas are located at 100 to 200 m above sea level. These areas are either forest fallows or secondary growth forests and permanent forests. The forest fallows are usually found in boundaries or in between two kaingin farms along the slope. They serve as buffer zones against soil erosion.
The permanent forests are found on very steep slopes and in mountain tops. These are not subject to kaingin but are sources of wood/lumber when the farmers build or repair their houses. The presence of rocks in the upper slope prevented the farmers from cultivating these areas.
The Differ ent Agroforestr y Systems of th e Hanunu o Mangyan 1.
Swidden farming (kaingin) Swidden farming is the most commonly practiced agroforestry system of the Hanunuo Mangyans. It is also referred to as "kaingin" by the Hanunuos. The full swidden cycle is composed of five distinct phases: a. site selection b. cutting c. burning d. cropping and e. fallowing. a.
Site selection Farmers selected their respective sites and are no longer opening up
new sites because of the government regulation. This is a departure from the old practice wherein each nuclear household should make one new swidden a year (Conklin, 1957 as cited by Abarquez et aI 1991). The site for kaingin is dependent on the availability of land that has been fallowed for the past 1 to 3 years. This area is usually adjacent to the present kaingin site. This practice indicates that the Hanunuos are no longer shifting cultivators in the real sense of the word but more of modified sedentary farmers. This also manifested that land was no longer a "free good" (Conklin 1957) as claimed by earlier writers on the Hanunuo.
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Rotation of land is done within the area "owned" by the farmer. This has positive ecological advantage for the secondary forest. Hence, it was more likely that the forest would be maintained and preserved. Although, it is seldom that the Hanunuo would open up a new site for kaingin, the following were the observed standard rules for site selection: 1) Sacred groves and strangling figs ( Ficus sp.) should not be touched. 2) Site should be as near the settlement as possible as a practical measure during harvesting when heavy loads would be carried on the back. In some cases, the Hanunuo Mangyan would build a temporary house ("kubo") at the farm where they could stay during the significant farming operations like burning, planting, weeding and harvesting. 3) Swiddens cannot be made on land cultivated by other farmers and still have productive tree crops. This was because previous occupation of an area indicated ownership or rights to refarm it. 4) A shady slope was more favorable because of better soil moisture 5) Permanently muddy, fine silty, gravel, or quicksand types of soils were to be avoided. "Firm" rather than "hard" or "loose" or "cracked" soils were preferred because they led to less erosion. These were tested using the thumb and index finger. This method corresponded to the brittleness or consistency test for forest soils. A firm soil is hard and does not readily succumb to pressing and also the beating effect of raindrops, hence it is stable and less susceptible to soil erosion. This practice specifically held true in selecting a new kaingin site. However, this was no longer considered at the time of the study because the Hanunuo farmers concentrated only on the area they were presently cultivating. Site rotation existed only within the area they occupied. 6) Excessive rock outcrops are to be avoided. 7) Regularity of slope was more important than degree of slope. Slopes of less than 35 % are preferred. Moderate slopes made all work easier for the Hanunuo swiddener in terms of site preparation, planting, weeding and harvesting.
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b.
Cutting. Cutting and brushing of small trees, shrubs and grasses were done
from January to February after the farmers had marked their respective sites. This activity was done in preparation for burning. Cutting and brushing was generally performed by men. The present process of cutting done by the Hanunuos was exactly the same as what their forefathers did (personal communication with the barangay captain of the Hanunuos ). The trees were felled down to stump level (Fig.32), laid down and bucked for ease in spreading.
Fig.32
The newly prepared area of the Hanunuos.
They used an ax or a bolo for cutting. The debris were spread uniformly on the whole site to ensure even amount of fuel for burning. c. Burning. Burning was done from March to April, sometimes extending up to May. This activity was done to eliminate grasses and other vegetation that were not removed during cutting and believed to compete with the crop. The farmers said that it was hard to grow crops if the area was not burned (Fig.33). Burning lasted for 2 hours. A 2-m wide safety path around the whole area also called afirebreak
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was made to prevent the spread or escape of fire to the next farm or adjacent secondary forest. Superstitious belief during burning include the following: 1) the one who was burning the farm should sit down while doing the activity to prevent the fire from going up or blow up; 2) he should also be quiet to stop spotting of fire embers during burning. Burning was done during calm hours to prevent the occurrence of fire whirlwinds or windstorms.
Fig.33
d.
The newly burn ed site for kaingin b y the Hanunuos .
Cropping The cropping included planting, maintenance, and harvesting of the
cultivated crops (Table 7). Rice and corn were the major crops (Fig. 34) of the Hanunuos because these were their staple food. Rice varieties included "camuros," "capungot," "bintalan," "tabuno," "dungis," "kinta" and "Iubang." Corn varieties were hybrid types which included "sweet corn" and "sticky corn." Rice and corn were not planted in a regular spacing. Their normal distances (based on field measurement) were 1 × 1m and 2 × 2m for rice and corn, respectively. Each hill had 10 to 12 rice seedlings and 2 to 3 corn seedlings. Planting was an elaborate farm activity involving various rituals participated in by the other members of the community. Before planting, which
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the Hanunuo referred to as "hasik," ( broadcast sowing) seeds and the farm implements were subjected to a blood sacrifice ritual. Blood from a chicken or pig's neck was dropped on some of the rice seeds and on the farm implements to be used in planting. It was done so that the rice spirit will show proper respect to the present crop. It was believed to provide good vigor to the plants and better harvest. The rice spirit would protect the crop during its entire growth cycle.
Table 7 Cropping Calendar of the Hanunuo Mangyan in Sitio Dangkalan,Bulalacao,Oriental Mindoro.
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Prior to the actual planting, the owner of the rice seed would prepare six items needed for setting up a ritual seed plot. Blood was placed on them, together with the seed. Then, they were mixed and brought to the edge of the swidden (upper corner) by the entire labor party. The leader, surrounded by the rest of the labor party would then make 5 to 7 dibble holes using the (Voacanga globosa) wood. "Liwas" means "free of something" and "Iipas" means to "pass by or miss". The ceremony hoped to convey these messages to plant and animal pests which were then expected to leave the swidden field so it would have better growth and yield. Planting was done on the onset of the rainy season, which u sually took place in the latter part of May or first week of June. Related activities included replacement planting (if necessary), fencing to keep larger mammals away from the field, watching against animal pests, weeding and thinning. Intercropping of new crops like banana, cassava, sugar cane and root crops were also done (Fig.34 and 35). Crop maintenance included weeding specially in the rice and rice + corn farms. This was done in August and September. Fertilization and the use of pesticides were not practiced because of the unavailability of chemicals. The Hanunuos had not developed a specific method to control rodents from destroying their crops although result of the interview revealed that this is one of their problems. The farmers considered whatever left by the rodents as their harvest. This factor contributed to the low harvest and food shortage. Aside from rice and corn, the swidden farms were also planted with other plant species that are all food sources for the Hanunuos. These include banana (for additional carbohydrate source), cadios (source of protein), cassava (very important source of flour during lean months), sugarcane and pineapple. Akleng parang ( Albizia procea) was a common tree species found in the rice and corn farm.
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) m ( e c n a t s i D
Distance (m) Vertic al Profile of a Hanunuo Mangyan’s Ric e Farm.
) m ( s e i c e p S f o t h g i e H
Distance (m) Horizontal Profi le of a Hanunuo Mangyan’s Rice Farm.
Fig.34
Verti cal and hori zontal profi le of a Hanunuo Mangyan’s Rice Farm, Sitio Dangkalan, Bulalacao, Oriental Mindo ro.
- 99 -
Fig.35
e.
The swidden farm of the Hanunuo Mangyan.
Fallowing. The scenario at the time of the study had changed from what it was as
described by studies conducted 20 to 40 years ago. Previously, land was fallowed for 10 to 19 years (Conklin 1957 as cited by Abarquez et al. 1991). The farmers did this by shifting from one place to another and opening up new kaingin sites. However, the practice now was to rest only a portion of the land
under cultivation while the remaining portions of the same piece of land were planted to crops. The land was rested whenever the farmer noticed that it was no longer fertile. Fallow period lasted for 1 to 3 years depending on the need of the farmer and availability of seeds for planting. This was significant in maintaining the sustainability of the land. The longer the fallow period, the more the sustainability of the land was maintained. In areas that were not subjected to swidden farming or has been under fallow for many years, it was surprising to know that there were 75 species of crops, weeds, shrubs and trees present (Table 8).
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Table 8
Species of plants foun d in the kaingin site before planting rice + corn.
Common Name
Scientific Name
Fam ily
Plant Type
Use
1. Anuling
Pisonia umbellifera
Nyctaginaceae
small tree
indicator of high moisture
2. Alagaw
Premna odorata
Verbenaceae
small tree
medicine
3. Mamalis
Pittosporum pentandrum
Pittosporacea
small tree
medicinal
4. Sugar cane
Saccharum officinale
Graminae
erect herb
food
5. Mango
Mangifera indica
Anacardiaceae
tree
food
6. Hagonoi
Chromolaena odorata
Compositae
shrub weeds
medicinal
8. Elipanthopus
Elipanthopus spicatus
Verbenaceae
erect herb
indicator species
9. Sambong
Blumea balsamifera
Verbenaceae
herbaceous
medicinal shrub
10. Pineapple
Ananas comosus
Mromeliaceae
erect herb
food
11. Bagarbas
Flacourtia jangomas
Flacourtiaceae
small tree
fuelwood
12. Makahiya
Mimosa pudica
Mimosaceae
creeper weed
13 Mutha
Cyperus rotondus
Cyperaceae
herb weed
14. Paragis
Eleusine indica
Graminae
herb weed
7. Ciratro
15. Linga
herbaceous
source of sesame fruit
16. Corn
Zea mays
Graminae
erect herb
food/fodder
17. Malunggay
Moringa oleifera
Moringaceae
small tree
vegetable medicine
18. Nami
Dioscorea hispida
vine
food
19. Ube
Dioscorea alata
vine
food
20. Cassava
Manihot utilissima
Euphorbiaceae
woody shrub
food
21. Coconut
Cocos nucifera
Palmae
Arborescent
food
22. Ipil-ipil
Leucaena leucocephala
Mimosaceae
tree
fuelwood.lumber
23. Carabao grass
Paspalum conjugatum
Gramineae
grass, creeper
weed,fodder
24. Cowpea
Vigna sequidales
Fabaceae
small shrub
vegetable, grain
25. Nito
Lygodium japonicum
Schizaeaceae
vine
novelty furniture
26. Sapinit
Lantana camara
Verbenaceae
woody shrub
indicator of compacted soil
27. Saluyot
Corchorus aestuans
Tiliaceae
herbaceous weed
vegetable shrub
28. Kadios
Cajanus cajan
Fabaceae
woody shrub
vegetable, N-fixer
29. Banana
Musa sapientum
Musaceae
arborescent
food
30. Ligas
Semecarpus cuneiformis
Anacardiaceae
small tree
pole
31. Hog plum
Spondias mombin
Anacardiaceae
small tree
edible fruit
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Common Name
Scientific Name
Family
Plant Type
Use
32. Rice
Oryza sativa
Gramineae
herbaceous
grain for food
33. Bagalunga
Melia dubia
Meliaceae
tree
lumber
34. Wild singkamas
Pachyrhizus sp.
Fabaceae
vine
weed
35. Tigbau
Saccharum spontaneum
Gramineae
36. Binunga
Macaranga tanarius
Euphorbiaceae
small tree
pole
37. Hauili
Ficus septica
Moracea
small tree
indicator of high soil moisture
38. Bignai kalabaw
Antidesma bunus
Euphorbiaceae
small tree
edible fruits, dye
39. Mali-mali
Leea manllensls
Leeaceae
small tree
medicine
40. Dita
Alstonia scholaris
Apocynaceae
tree
medicine, lumber
41. Sayapo
Trichospermum eriopodium Tiliaceae
medium tree
fiber
42. Borakan
weed
vine
43. Pakiling
Ficus odorata
Moraceae
small tree
pole
44. Amugis
Koordersiodendron pinnatum Anacardiaceae
big tree
lumber
45. Palasan
Calamus merrillii
Palmaceae
shrub
poles, furniture
46. Lokwat
Eriobotrya japonica
Rosaceae
small tree
pole
47. Bangkal
Nauclea orientalis
Rubiaceae
big tree
lumber
48. Suag kabayo
Hyptes suaveolens
Labiatae
small shrub
weed
49. Dungao
Melastoma sp.
Melastomataceae small shrub
indicator species
50. Cogon
Imperata cylindrica
Gramineae
grass
weed
51. Amorseco
Crhysopogon aciculatus
Gramineae
grass
weed
52. Binayoyo
Antidesma ghaesembillia
Euphorbiaceae
small tree
edible fruit
53. Tawa-tawa
Scirpus hirta
Euphorbiaceae
herb
weed
54. Duhat
Syzygium cumingii
Myrtaceae
small tree
edible fruit, pole
55. Alagaw
Premna odorata
Verbenaceae
small tree
edible fruit, pole
56. Bagalunga
Melia dubia
Meliaceae
big tree
lumber
57. Kakawate
Gliricidia sepium
Fabaceae
small tree
fuelwood
58. Tangisang bayawak Ficus variegata
Moraceae
big tree indicator
lumber
59. Buli
Corypha elata
Palmae
palm
fiber
60. Malatampoi
Syzygium xantophyllum
Myrtaceae
big tree
lumber
61. Salingkugi
Albizzia saponaria
Mimosaceae
small tree
medicine
62. Niyog-niyugan
Ficus pseudopalma
Moraceae
small tree
medicine
63. Akleng parang
Serialbizzia procera
Mimosaceae
big tree
fuelwood
64. Malabulak
Salmalia malabarica
Bombacaceae
big tree
fiber
65. Kawayang kiling Bambusa vulgaris
Graminae
erect clump
pole
66. Anonang
Ehretia dichotoma
Boraginaceae
small tree
pole, medicinal
67. Anubing
Artocarpus ovata
Moraceae
big tree
gums, lumber
68. Pagsahingin
Canarium aspernm
Burseraceae
big tree
lumber
69. Tiger grass
Thysanolaena latefolia
Graminae
erect herb
weed
70. Tsaang gubat
Camelia lanceolata
Theaceae
big tree
pole, lumber
71. Batino
Alstonia macrophylla
Apocynaceae
big tree
pole, lumber
shrub
indicator species
72. Wild strawberry 73. Coffee
Coffea sp.
Rubiaceae
small tree
food
74. Tigau
Callicarpa sp
Verbenaceae
small tree
pole
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2. Multi-story System The Hanunuo Mangyan farms were widely known for their crop diversification (Fig.36). This was not only true for the swidden farms but
Fig.36
The multistor y farm of the Hanunuo Mangyan.
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also for the multistory farms. Plant species found included trees, shrubs and herbs. As previously described, the upper canopy was occupied by coconut, and the middle canopy was composed of mango ( Mangifera indica) , banana ( Musa sapientum) , anahaw ( Livistona rotundifolia) and anuling ( Pisonia umbellifera). The lower canopy was dominated by pineapple, wildlings of ipil-
ipil ( Leucaena leucocephala ) and grasses.
The farming practices in multistory farms were not as elaborate as in the swidden farms. The activities are focused on replacing the dead plants (especially in the case of banana) and brushing the area to remove weeds and free the crops from competition. In the case of mango, however, the Hanunuo farmer had adopted the lowland technology of spraying chemicals to induce flowering. The farmers reported that they could not get good harvests if the mango trees were not sprayed with chemicals. This was a modification of their traditional practice of non-dependency on chemicals but could mean an increase in income of farmers. It was found out that areas planted to coconut and banana were no longer subjected to kaingin activities. This had positive implication to the ecological system because: 1) it promoted minimal soil disturbance; 2) it provided continuous vegetation cover which served as protection against the direct impact of rain and intense sunlight leading to minimizing soil erosion and maintaining good soil moisture; 3) it promoted biological diversity ; and 4) it promoted efficient use of solar energy because the light energy not utilized by the upper canopy level can be trapped by the intermediate and understory vegetation.
3.
Home Gardens The home gardens of the Hanunuo Mangyan were structurally simple. They were composed of bananas, coconut and other fruit bearing trees like mango, jackfruit ( Artocarpus heterophylla ) and guava (Psidium guajava) in the upper canopy level. The farmers also planted ube ( Dioscorea hispida) which twined on the fruit trees. Ipil-ipil ( Leucaena leucocephala ) and kakawate
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(Gliricidia sepium) were grown as live fence or boundary trees. Vegetable crops were not common features of the Hanunuo Mangyan home gardens. Thus, they could not be equated to 'kitchen-garden' as described by Nair (1993). Preparation of a home garden did not require elaborate activities like removal of grasses, burning, cultivation, etc. The farmer only spent his or her spare time planting the crops and underbrushing them, especially late in the afternoon or during Sundays. The family members can harvest the crop whenever fruits are available for harvest.
The Infiltration, Volume of Erosion and Sediment Loss in the Differ ent Agrofor estr y Systems of th e Hanu nuo Mangyan Table 9 and Fig.37 show the infiltration rate of water as it entered the soil. Among the three agroforestry systems, the highest infiltration rate was found in the multistory stand which had an average of 1.322 cm/min. The lowest infiltration rate was observed in the rice + corn swidden farm which had an average of 0.480 cm/min. The high infiltration rate in the multistory area was due to its high organic matter content and lower soil bulk density. High organic matter content makes the soil loose, allowing water to easily infiltrate down the soil column. The lowest infiltration rate was noted in plots planted with rice + corn. These plots were frequently trampled on because of planting and weeding operations, hence appeared to be compacted. Compaction of the soil resulted in slow infiltration. Table 9
Infiltration rates in three agroforestry systems in Sitio Dangkalan, Ori ental Mindoro.
Systems
Swidden Farm Multistory Farm Forested Area
Infiltra tion Rat e (cm/min) 1 0.75 2.46 0.64
2 0.61 1.23 0.42
3 0.39 1.02 0.44
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4 0.33 0.96 0.46
Average Infiltration 5 0.32 0.94 0.45
0.480 1.322 0.482
1.4 Average Infiltration rate (cm/min)
1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
Sw id den F. Mu lt is to ry
Fig.37
Fo res ted
Average infi ltration r ates in three agrofo restry sys tems in Sitio Dangkalan, Oriental Mindo ro.
This result confirmed the findings of Thompson and Troeh (1978) who mentioned that a 1 to 2 cm/hr infiltration rate was observed in an agricultural area. Likewise, Daño (1983) noted that a dipterocarp forest area had an infiltration rate of 6.38 cm/hr. This value was lower than the findings of our study, which found the infiltration rate to be 28.8 cm/hr at a natural forest area. The differences may have been due to the initial moisture content of the area, soil texture and organic matter.
Volume of Sur face Runoff in the Thr ee Fa r ming Systems Runoff refers to the water that is not infiltrated or lost through evapotranspiration. Together with runoff water are the soil particles that had been detached and transported. The study showed that the forest and multistory farms had the lowest total runoff in the July -December period (Table 10). On the other hand, the rice + corn swidden farm had the highest runoff yield. This showed that the vegetation present in the other areas, such as in forested and multistory systems, helped intercept rainfall, resulting in low runoff yield. The results were consistent with the findings of Daño (1983) that low runoff yield was found in dense forest like dipterocarp forest and high in grasslands.
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Table 10
Total runoff (liter) of the three agroforestry systems in Sitio Dangkalan, Bulalacao, Oriental Mindor o.
Systems Swidden Farm Multistory Farm Forested Area
Block II 917.4 443.8 514.4
I 927.1 448.8 523.0
III 937.6 446.4 531.9
Tota l
Mean
2782.1 1339.0 1569.3
927.40 c 446.36 c 523.10
b
Treatment means with the same superscript are not significantly different from each other at 5% level of significance using the Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
250 Swidden Farm
200
Multistory Farm ) r 150 e t i l ( f f 100 o n u R
Forested Area
50 0
Jul Fig.38
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Monthly runo ff in three agrof orestry syst ems in Sitio Dangkalan, Oriental Mindor o.
The higher runoff in the rice + corn swidden farm may have been an effect of burning as a method of land preparation. As the ground cover was consumed b y fire, the mineral soil
was left vulnerable to direct rainfall impact, causing the soil
particles including ashes to be detached and dispersed. These soil particles and ashes clogged or sealed the soil pore spaces in the surface, thus reducing infiltration rate (Jasmin 1976) and increasing the occurrence of surface runoff. Furthermore, the fire intensity may have killed the microorganisms active in litter decomposition. Decomposed litter through microorganisms, action usually improved soil porosity
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and infiltration capacity of the soil (Hewlett and Nutter 1969). Since most of the humus and litter were consumed in the burned plots, more runoff could occur as a result of impaired soil porosity and infiltration capacity of the soil (Costales 1981). The lower runoff values in the forest and multistory farms could be attributed to the presence of continuous cover provided by the canopy layers and debris on the soil surface. Furthermore, the presence of more organic matter in these two farm practices (based on the result of the chemical analysis) contributed to less surface runoff. Jo (1990) stated that organic matter improves the physical characteristics of the soil by improving aggregation, increasing both the cation exchange capacity and available water content. As a result, OM increases infiltration and reduces soil erosion.
Sediment Yield in the thr ee Agr ofor estr y Systems The forest had the lowest sediment yield (20.8 tons/ha), followed by multistory (63.5 tons/ha) in the July-December period (Table 11). The low sediment yield obtained from the forest area was attributed to the presence of tall trees which intercepted more rainfall. The net precipitate reaching the forest floor minimized the activity of runoff water resulting in low sediment yield. It could be attributed also to the presence of vegetation as well as litters on the forest floor. Moreover, the area was not subjected to any kind of cultivation, which is one of the causes of soil erosion. Furthermore, the very thin surface soil and the presence of rocks in the area have also minimized soil erosion. The villagers recalled that the area became a forest because of its unsuitability for cultivation due to the presence of rocks and very thin soil.
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Table 11
Total sediment yi eld (tons/ha) of the three agrof orestry s ystems in Siti o Dangkalan, Bul alacao, Oriental Mind oro.
Systems Swidden Farm Forested Area Multistory Farm
I 373.0 21.5 7.0
Block II 362.8 20.7 6.8
III 386.9 21.3 7.0
Tota l
Mean
1122.7 63.5 20.8
374.26 b 21.18 b 6.95
a
Treatment means with the same letter are not significantly different from each other at 5% level of significance using the Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.
140 ) a h / s n o t ( d l e i y t n e m i d e S
120
Swidden Farm
100
Multistory Farm Forested Area
80 60 40 20 0 Jul Fig.39
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Monthly sediment yield of th e three agrofo restry sy stems in Sitio Dangkalan, Oriental Mind oro.
The amount of erosion in the forest was comparable with the erosion rate of 25.8 tons/ha/yr obtained from a two-meter alley planted with kakawate (Gliricidia sepium) by (Agustin 1992). This rate was still relatively high compared with the standard stated by (Young 1989), which was 10 to 12 tons/ha/year. This maybe because of the influence of gaps, steep slope and high rainfall intensity. (Young 1989) and (Paningbatan 1990) stated that the tolerable soil loss is 10 tons/ha/yr. The US Conservation Service, however, sets the limit at 2.2 to 11.2 tons/ha/year. The multistory , on the other hand, was characterized by the presence of debris from banana and coconut plants. The floor was protected from direct
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exposure to raindrop by the leaves of bananas, coconut and other fruit trees. The area was also characterized by the presence of organic matter and thick soil which may have contributed to less soil erosion. A high volume of soil erosion was recorded for rice + corn swidden farm, which could be due to cultivation practices specially during weeding operation. It can be noted that the highest sediment yield was recorded in September and November (Table 11). Farmers weeded their farms in September, hence there was soil disturbance, making the area prone to erosion. The highest runoff was also observed in this month. November, on the other hand, was devoted to rice and corn harvesting. Although the farmers' practice was to remove only the fruits of rice and corn, other soil disturbances occurred in the form of soil trampling by the farmers. The occurrence of typhoon Rosing (heavy rains for 2 days) contributed to the soil erosion.
Sheet Er osion In addition to measuring the sediment yield in the runoff plots, sheet erosion (tons/ha) using modified erosion bars was also determined (Table 12). The highest average depth of soil loss was in the swidden farm. The lowest was observed in the forest (9.0mm) and multistory (10.9mm) farms. The multistory and forest farms can be compared to the effect of a single hedgerow of Gliricidia sepium in an alley cropping system (Visco 1997).
The sheet erosion data were converted into their equivalent weight per hectare. The mathematical computation showed that the control recorded the highest sheet erosion of 1,640.03 tons/ha while the forested area had the lowest with 427.54 tons/ha. It was interesting to note that the actual erosion in the study site far exceed that of records. The volume of soil erosion was very high compared with the allowable soil loss of 11.2 tons/ha (Weischmeier and Smith 1978 as cited by Visco 1997).
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Table 12 Average sheet erosion of the different farming systems from August to December 1996.
Fa r ming Systems
Aver age Depth of Soil Er osion (mm)
Swidden Farm Multistory Farm Forested Area
Sheet Erosion (tons/ha)
Mean
1159.1 427.5 513.4
386.3 e 142.5 d 171.1
22.3 9.0 10.9
bc
Treatment means with the same superscript are not significantly different from each other at 5% level of significance using the Duncan’s multiple range test.
References
Abarquez, G., et al. (1990) The Hanunuo uplnd swiddenists, unpublished paper. UPLB, College, Laguna, Philippines. Barker, T.C. (1984) Shifting cultivation among the Ikalahan, program on environmental science and management, Working Paper Series1, UPLB, Philippines. Berganio, M.L. (1990) Effects of corn and legume intercrops on crop productivity and soil erosion in hilly land, MS Thesis, UPLB, Philippines. Cruz, M.A., Concepcion J., et al. (1985) Philippine upland production system: an integrative analysis of three sites in Philippine upland communities, In: Man, agriculture and the tropical forest, change and development in the Philippine uplands, Sajise, P.E., et al. (Ed.), p87-118 David, W.P., (1988) Soil and water conservation planning, policy issues and recommendations, Journal of Philippine Development, 26, Vol. XV, No. 1. MacDicken, K.G. and Vergara N.T. (1990) Agroforestry: classification and management, John Wiley and Sons Inc., USA. Mun, C.Y., (1993) Rainfall and streamflow analysis of a large tropical rainforest watershed, MS Thesis, UPLB, Philippines. Nair, P.K.R. (1993) Introduction to Agroforestry. Kluwer Academic Publishers. The Netherlands.
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Typical Agroforestr y Systems in the Philippines
An tonio F. Gascon and Fernando Alibuyog
Introduction Agroforestry farms are found in almost everywhere in the Philippines, specifically in the provinces. In the lowlands, trees or woody perennials are integrated in the landscape as shade trees, farm crops and protective cover against wind and strong rains. In the upland areas, different types of agroforestry systems are observed. The oldest agroforestry system in the country is locally known as “kaingin” or shifting cultivation. This agroforestry system involves processes that include: 1) locating an area for cultivation; 2) clearing; 3) burning; 4) cultivation; and 5) fallowing. The main features of this system are the use of fire in clearing the area for cultivation and allowing the soil to “fallow” or rest and rejuvenate for a certain period of time until it becomes productive again. However, this system is now modified because of land limitation and the prohibition of the government to open up new public areas for cultivation. Agroforestry systems have been modified in order to address its twofold functions of maintaining ecological balance while achieving economic productivity for the farmers. This chapter will discuss some of the agroforestry systems in the Philippines as implemented in specific locations of the country.
Features of Typical Agroforestry Systems 1.
Mixed Cropping System This system combines coconut, forest species, fruit trees, root crops or medicinal plants arranged in a multi-layered canopy. The coconut occupies the main canopy layer while the middle or intermediate was occupied by developing
forest
trees
like
mahogany
( Swietenia mahogani),
narra
(Pterocarpus indicus), gmelina ( Gmelina arborea), fruit trees like jackfruit ( Artocarpus heterophyllus), mango ( Mangifera indica), santol (Sandoricum
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koetjape), banana ( Musa sapientum) and papaya ( Carica papaya). The lower
layer was composed of pineapple ( Ananas comosus), cassava ( Manihot utilissima) and ginger ( Zingiber officinale ).
In this system, coconuts are spaced 8 × 8 m, which allows enough light to reach the lower vegetation. This is practiced in Sta. Catalina, Atimonan, Quezon CBFM site. In the CBFM site in Catubig, Nothern Samar mixed crops of cacao (Theobroma cacao), coffee (Coffea robusta) and other crops like abaca ( Musa textiles), jackfruit ( Artocarpus heterophyllus) and black pepper (Piper negrum), and pineapple ( Ananas comosus) were planted in the coconutbased agroforestry farms (Sarmiento, 2005).
2. The Coffee and Cacao Based Agroforestry System One of the most common farming systems found in the Philippines is the coffee based agroforestry system. It makes use of shade trees such as Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium, Eryrthrina orientalis, Albizia saman, Pterocarpus indicus and other leguminous tree species. These trees are
regularly spaced at 5 × 5 up to 8 × 8 m or planted randomly while the crop trees of coffee and cacao are set as understories. The nurse trees are planted from 6 months to a year before the establishment of the main crops such as coffee or cacao. These are periodically pollarded or pruned and in some cases, thinned to provide partial shade and add nutrients from the leaf litter and prunings. The leaf litter and prunings decomposed can sufficiently provide for the fertilizer needs of cacao or coffee. For example, it was mentioned that through prunings and litter fall, The amount of 270 kg N/ha/year, 60 kg P/ha/year and 150 kg K/ha/year can be returned back to the soil. (Beer 1989 as cited by Dalmacio 2001) Nurse or shade trees provide the crop plant protection from strong winds. Newly transplanted coffee or cacao, though hardened-off, are not that ready to withstand strong winds. They may be shaked and their roots are loosened, or they may transpire excessively, lose water and die. These nurse trees on the other hand may decrease light intensity
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and thus modify
temperature. temperature. Cacao and coffee need cool climate for their growth. In choosing the shade of nurse trees, the following characteristics should be considered. The nurse tree should: exhibit light foliage; not attain large size; have rapid juvenile growth; have hard or wind firm stems; and not exhibit allelopathy. allelopathy. The nurse trees should minimally compete with cacao and coffee for light, water water and nutrients. Nurse trees and associated associated crops should occupy different canopy positions and root horizons. They should be easily be established, i.e. with high survival and good early growth performance. They should have rapid regeneration of leaves and they can easily be eradicated when no longer wanted. The canopy or leaf structure of trees should allow adequate amount of light to penetrate down the understory. The leaves should not cause coalescence if rain water is too large. Powerful raindrops or canopy drips during throughfall throughfall enhance enhance soil erosion. erosion. These nurse trees trees should not favor or serve as alternate host for pest or crop diseases (Dela Cruz et.al 2002). The nurse trees trees should be be preferably N-fixing. In this system, the coffee plants are likewise top-pruned to produce more lateral branches. It will produce more yield and will facilitate facilitate harvesting. Successful coffee or cacao based agroforestry system include: the coffee + Benguet pine multistory system in Mt. Province, the coffee or cacao + coconut + banana agroforestry system of Batangas and Cavite provinces, the coffee + ipil-ipil + banana agroforestry system of Iloilo and Negros Occidental in the Visayas.
3.
Alley Cropping Alley cropping involves the establishment of hedgerows of trees or shrubs (usually double-hedgerows) at regular intervals along the contours, and the planting of agricultural crops in the open space or alleys formed between the hedgerows. hedgerows. The contours are usually spaced 4 to 6 m, depending upon the steepness of the slope. It is closer in steeper slopes and wider in flatter ones. The hedgerow species are usually leguminous trees that minimize soil erosion,
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reduce surface run-off and improve soil fertility. The contour hedgerows are set in the contour lines established using an A-frame. The farmers use Flemingia congesta, Gliricidia sepium, Leucena leucocephal a and Desmodium rensonii as
hedgerows. A good example of alley cropping is the Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT-1). In this system, each contour line is planted with two rows of woody perennial using seeds, cuttings or seedlings. For the alleys, SALT-1 recommends planting of perennial crops in every third alley and annuals like rice, corn and vegetable for the rest. The hedgerows should be pruned back to the height of about 0.50 m to minimize shading of agricultural crops in the alleys. The frequency of pruning depends upon the coppicing or sprouting ability of the species. Biomass from the prunings can be mulched, used as green manure for the annuals or as a fodder for the livestock. The ideal characteristics of the hedgerow species are easy to establish, fast-growing, good sprouting or coppicing ability, nitrogen fixing, deep rooted and with multiple uses. In Sta. Catalina, Atimonan, Quezon, the farmers planted pineapple, cassava, corn and many practical vegetable crops in the alley.
4.
The Improved Fallow System The traditional fallow system or swidden cultivation (also called as shifting cultivation cultivation or kaingin) is considered as the oldest form of agroforestry. In this sytem, the land is cleared, burned and planted with agricultural crops for 2 to 3 years. After a few years of cropping and cultivation, the land is rested. This is called the fallow period. The land is cropped for less than 33% of the rotation cycle. Traditionally, the fallow period lasts 8 to 15 years which enables the soil to regain its fertility. While the land is under fallow, the farmer moves to another area where he can farm and repeat the same set of activities. This system can be viewed in various cover appearances. a.
The existing vegetation in plots is cleared and burned afterwards. Therefore the lower herbaceous vegetation layer is removed, followed by
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partial tree and shrub removal. Trees that provide fruits to the farmers are sometimes left. Standing dead trees are left as trellis for yam production. During this stage, hardly any vegetation is left. These cleared plots look like big gaps surrounded by a natural or semi natural vegetation. b.
In the next phase, crops cover the land. In general, cereals are sown first followed by root or tuber crops. A common worldwide crop combination starts with rice or corn, later interplanted with cassava, sweet potato, bananas and some fruit trees. Cropping is continued until perceived decline in harvest is felt.
c.
After the cropping period is completed, the secondary semi-natural vegetation starts to fully develop. They occupy the area very rapidly. The fallow period is an important stage of the kaingin cycle. Given
enough time, the natural processes of nutrient absorption and storage and nutrient returns through litter fall will restore the productivity of degraded or damaged land. When the fallow is enriched with fast growing trees, shrubs and vines, the practice is called improved fallow. Nitrogen fixing trees (NFTs) can be used to enhance soil amelioration amelioration and reduce the length of the fallow period. The farmers of Ikalahan in Imugan, Nueva Vizcaya practiced the improved fallow system using sweet potato as the main crop. Intercropping, crop rotation and fallow were done which enabled them to cultivate a new field when fertility is optimum and put the field back to fallow before significant erosion took place (Rice and Dolnera 1980 as cited by Lasco 1982). An area was cultivated for 2 to 3 years and then left to fallow for 17 years. The Hanunuo of Mindoro province practices fallow system which, in this case was divided into into two stages, low forest fallow and high forest forest fallow. The first stage which took about a year consisted of herbaceous shrubs, vines and low-growth trees which were protected from fire by firelines and were not cut and cultivated. The second stage which took about 7 to 8 years was composed of second growth forest. In Naalad, Naga, Cebu, a modified fallow system was being practiced. Two modifications were done to the traditional systems. The first modification
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involve planting of ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), a nitrogen-fixing plant along the strips. This practice hastens the natural fallow from 10 to 20 years to only 5 to 6 years. The second modifications involve the establishment of soil erosion control structure, locally termed as “balabag” or “babag” which is made of dead branches of ipil-ipil. The physical condition of the “balabag” indicated whether the land is really for fallow. The major significance of this modified system was that the farmer needed only two parcels since both the fallow and the cultivation periods lasted for 5 to 6 years. The farmers broadcast ipil-ipil seeds after harvesting the crops. Ipil-ipil is used because it is fast growing, and has good vegetative vigor aside from being deep rooted, tolerant to drought and nitrogen-fixing. The improved fallow system has many benefits, as follows: 1) the trees and shrubs in the fallow can fill the space and impede the establishment of undesirable weeds. Many kinds of invasive and problematic weeds thrive in the open and sunny conditions in vacant lands, but they do not occupy the areas that are cooler and shadier; 2) the physical and chemical properties of the soil are enhanced. It improves soil fertility, accumulates more nutrient, adds organic matter, breaks up hard soil, reduce soil erosion, encourages or sustains the population of beneficial organism, breaks up physical barriers to root growth; 3) when the trees are removed at the end of the fallow period, they can also yield products such as firewood, charcoal and poles; 4) trees and shrubs provide regulative functions such as disruption of pests and disease cycle, and sequestration of carbon dioxide. There are other trees and shrubs which can be used to improve the species composition of the fallow. These are Sesbania sesban + Crotolaria grahamiana, Sesbania sesban + Macroptilium artropurpurium ( siratro) , Sesbania sesban + ground nut ( Arachis hypogea) and Cajanus cajan+ peanut.
5. Windbreak or shelterbelts as agroforestry system Trees and shrubs are established along farm boundaries to protect the crops on the leeward side from strong winds thus minimizing wind-induced
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damage to crop. Wind velocity is reduced from 5 to 10% in the leeward side. The presence of shelterbelt can protect farms, orchards and nurseries. Agricultural species which are free from the adverse effects of winds are more vigorous and healthy and consequently give increased crop yield. There are many factors to be considered in choosing a species for shelterbelt. These are as follows: 1) the species must be adapted to the kind of soil ; 2) it must have strong and deep root system; 3) it must be resistant to pest and diseases; 4) it must be easy to propagate; 5) should have higher field survival; 6) it must retain its leaves throughout the year; 7) it must provide multiple uses. The plants recommended for shelterbelt include molave ( Vitex parviflora), anahau ( Livistonia rotundifolia), agoho (Casuarina equisetifolia),
banaba ( Lagerstromia speciosa), kamachile ( Pitthecelobium dulce), akleng parang ( Albizia procera ) and kawayan tinik ( Bambusa blumeana ).
References Alibuyog, F.B. (2004) Agroforestry systems adopted by the upland farmers in a CBFM project in Sta. Catalina, Atimonan, Quezon, Unpublished, SLPC, Lucban, Quezon, Philippines. Dela Cruz, L.U., Dalmacio R.V., Castillo A.S.A., and Gascon, A.F. (2001) Rehabilitation of marginal and degraded areas, University of the Philippines Open University, Philippines. Evans, J. (1992) Plantation forestry in the tropics. 2
nd
edition, Oxford University
Press, Great Britain, 325-327. Gascon, C.N. (1998) Sustainability indicators of the Hanunuo Mangyan agroforestry systems, Sitio Dangkalan, Brgy. Bulalacao, Oriental Mindoro, Philippines. Ph.D. Dissertation, UPLB, Philippines. Hensleigh, T.E. and Holaway, B.R., (Eds). (1988) Agroforestry species for the Philippines, US Peace Corps. Technology Center, Manila, Philippines.
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Magcale-Macandog, D., Yao, R. and Degal, E. (1999) Fallow Systems in the Philipines: A review of literature paper presented in a workshop proceedings of the fallow systems documentation and participatory rapid appraisal methodology, SEAMEO-SEARCA. Baguio City, Philippines. Nair, P.K.R. (1993) An introduction to agroforestry, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands.
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AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES: Experiences and Lessons Learned in Mt. Banahaw, Hanunuo Mangyan and Some Community-based Forestry Projects
発行年月日
平成18年3月31日
発 行 者
独立行政法人 国際農林水産業研究センタ− 理事長 稲 永 忍 〒305 8686 茨城県つくば市大わし1 1 TEL 029(838)6340(情報資料課) FAX 029(838)6656 E-mail
[email protected]
印
刷
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