Academic Achievement in Single Parent Homes Compared to Two Parent Homes
Ryan McKinnon
University of Findlay
According to the United States Census Bureau, in 2012 sixty-four
percent of children between birth and seventeen years old lived with two
married parents. This number has decreased from seventy-seven percent in
1980. Of the remaining children, twenty-four percent of children live with
their mothers, four percent live with their father, and four percent live
with neither parent. (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012) This data is evidence that
the traditional American norm of growing up in a two parent home is
diminishing. Divorce is more acceptable and more common than it has ever
been. Over the past fifty years, the number of single parent homes has
dramatically increased.
The purpose of this paper is to investigate if children raised in
single-parent homes are at an academic disadvantage because they were not
raised in the stable environment of a two-parent home. My interest in this
research is further heightened because of my upbringing in a single-parent
home through my juvenile educational journey. I do not believe my academic
achievement and progression suffered because of this. However, I am curious
my academic achievement would have developed differently if I had grown up
in a two-parent household. By reviewing available data, the question I
intend to answer upon completing my research is: Do children who live in
single parent homes have lower achievement in school than children who live
in two parent homes?
Differences in School Behavior and Achievement between Children from
Intact, Reconstituted, and Single-Parent Families
The purpose of Featherstone & Cundick's research article Differences
in School Behavior and Achievement between Children from Intact,
Reconstituted, and Single-Parent Families is the exploration of the family
structure on academic achievement. Their research compares "…students
living in intact, reconstituted, and single-parent families and to assess
their academic performance and school behavior." (Featherstone & Cundick,
1992, p. 4) This study linked children from these three family structures
based on: school behavior ratings, teacher ratings, grade point average,
absences, tardiness, and social competence and citizenship ratings.
(Featherstone & Cundick, 1992)
The authors quantitative research involve five-hundred-thirty
students in grades six through nine selected based on certain criteria that
the authors had defined. Data was collected from these students based on
their grade point average, absences, tardiness, behavior ratings, teacher
ratings, and social competence and citizenship ratings. The authors
gathered the data into statistical charts and utilized a chi-square test to
further analyze the information.
(Featherstone & Cundick, 1992)
The authors discovered these common patterns in their results:
1. Grade point average was higher for the students from intact
families than for those from single-parent and reconstituted families.
2. The number of tardies and absences for students from intact
families was lower than for those from single-parent and reconstituted
families.
3. Citizenship ratings of honors were greater for students from
intact families than for the other students.
4. Citizenship ratings of needs improvement and unsatisfactory
were lower for students from intact families than for those from
reconstituted and single-parent families.
5. Teacher behavioral ratings of disinterested attitude and
disruptive influence were given less frequently to students from intact
families than to those from single-parent and reconstituted families.
(Featherstone & Cundick, 1992, p. 6)
Featherstone and Cundick's research is very relevant to my research.
The results showed that students from intact families earned a higher grade
point average than those from other family structures. Does this show that
student's from single parent homes are at an academic disadvantage? The
study has shown that single parent students have a lower grade point
average which shows that these students are an academic disadvantage
compared to their counterparts in two-parent homes.
(Featherstone & Cundick, 1992)
Achievement Levels, Outcomes, and Orientations of Black Students in Single-
and Two-Parent Families
The purpose of D. Ford, L. Wright, T. Grantham, and J. Harris III's
research paper Achievement Levels, Outcomes, and Orientations of Black
Students in Single- and Two-Parent Families to identify any differences in
parents' achievement ideologies, student achievement ideologies, student
attitudes toward school, and student perceptions of their school learning
environments between black students in single parent-homes and students in
two-parent homes.
The authors set out to answer five research questions:
(a) How do the students' achievements differ by family structure
(single- versus two-parent families)? (b) Do Black students in
different family structures hold different or similar beliefs and
values about achievement? (c) What are the achievement outcomes of
Black students in single- versus two-parent families? (d) Do students
in different family structures hold similar or different attitudes
about school and perceptions of the learning environment? (e) What is
the relationship between students' achievement ideologies and their
perceptions of parental achievement ideologies? (Ford, Brown Wright,
Grantham & Harris III, 1998, p. 371)
The authors' quantitative and qualitative research examined black
students grades six through nine from single-parent and two-parent homes.
Interviews were conducted with one-hundred-fifty-two students regarding
their perceptions of their parents' achievement ideologies, their own
achievement ideologies, their attitudes toward school, and their perception
of their school learning environments. Quantitative data was then gathered
on the student's achievement levels and statuses. This information was then
compiled into statistical charts and graphs to be examined.
(Ford, Brown Wright, Grantham & Harris III, 1998)
The authors research concluded "…no significant differences in the
achievement statuses, achievement levels, and achievement
orientation/ideologies of students in the two-parent family structures."
(Ford, Brown Wright, Grantham & Harris III, 1998, p. 360) The research did
suggest that students in two-parent homes were more likely to be labeled
gifted than students in single-parent homes. The authors concluded "…a
significant relationship appeared between the students' own achievement and
perceptions of their parents' achievement orientations." (Ford, Brown
Wright, Grantham & Harris III, 1998, p. 360)
This research is significant to my study because there was no
significant difference between the academic achievement in single-parent
and two-parent homes. However, it was interesting that those in two-parent
homes were more likely to be labeled gifted. The research also suggested
that a parent's support for academic achievement can cause the child to
perform better in any type of family structure. Could the support from two
parents cause more results than support from a single-parent? This research
suggests that there is no difference. (Ford, Brown Wright, Grantham &
Harris III, 1998)
The Effects of Divorce and Remarriage on the Academic Achievement of High
School Seniors
The purpose of Barry Ham's paper The Effects of Divorce and
Remarriage on the Academic Achievement of High School Seniors is to examine
the relationship between remarriage and academic achievement in
adolescents. The author attempts to prove or disprove the following two
interesting theories:
(1) that the grade point averages and attendance figures of high
school seniors will be found to be lower for students from
reconstituted and single-parent families than for students from intact
families, and
(2) that no differences will be found in GPA or attendance figures
between high school seniors from remarried households and high
school seniors from single-parent households. (Ham, 2004, p. 164)
Ham's qualitative and quantitative study consisted of two-
hundred-sixty-five high school seniors who were selected based on the
following guidelines: their age, academic load, and if they had special
needs. Utilizing questionnaires, Ham gathered demographic data on the
students' current living situations including gender, ethnicity, family
size, parent's level of education, and their family structure. Quantitative
data on the students' attendance and grade point average was also gathered
for examination. (Ham, 2004)
Ham's analysis of the data consisted of statistical methods with the
intention of finding correlations between his theories and the data. Ham
reached his conclusions with careful observation of Chi Square Tables as
well as other statistical models. Findings from Ham's research suggest "…
that family structure can be a contributing factor to a student's academic
performance". (Ham, 2004, p.173) He further adds, "Those students residing
with their two biological parents appear to be given an increased chance to
excel educationally over those students from any other measured family
structure." (Ham, 2004, p.173)
Ham's study is very relevant to the information that I'm
seeking. His research suggests that children living in single-parent homes
have lower academic achievement than those living in two-parent homes. He
contributes a correlation between family structures and academic
achievement. The study further suggests that there is a greater chance for
academic achievement if both biological parents are residing in the same
household. (Ham, 2004)
A Longitudinal Analysis on the Effects of Remarriage Following Divorce on
the Academic Achievement of Adolescents
The purpose of W. Jeynes research paper A Longitudinal Analysis on
the Effects of Remarriage Following Divorce on the Academic Achievement of
Adolescents is the assessment of the effects of remarriage following
divorce on the academic achievement of children. Jeynes research consisted
of quantitative data on a sample of one-thousand-sixty-four eighth-grade
students from divorced families comparing the academic achievement between
those whose custodial parent remarried and those who remained in divorced
single-parent homes. (Jeynes, 2000)
The author used the National Educational Longitudinal Study set
from the years 1988-1992 to compile the data sample needed for his
research. This study set consisted of questionnaires, analysis of the
students' academic achievement, and follow up of their academic progress.
The quantitative data was placed in statistical tables and charts for the
author's examination.. (Jeynes, 2000)
Jeynes' results indicated that "…children of divorce whose
custodial parent remarried during the course of the study fared somewhat
worse academically than their counterparts remaining in divorced single-
parent families." (Jeynes, 2000, p. 139) The author also discovered that
"…children of divorce from reconstituted families scored lower than their
counterparts in divorced single-parent homes on two of four of the measures
of academic achievement." (Jeynes, 2000, p. 131)
This study is significant to my research because it shows that
children from divorced families whose parents remarry score lower than
their counterparts if two out of four academic achievements. This shows
that children from single-parent homes face many different academic
disadvantages. This research further confirms Ham's research which suggests
that both biological parents living in the home increases the chances for
their child's academic success.
(Jeynes, 2000)
Single-parent families: The Role of Parent's and Child's Gender on Academic
Achievement
The purpose of Sang Min Lee and Jason Kushner's paper Single-parent
families: The Role of Parent's and Child's Gender on Academic Achievement
is the exploration of the single parents effect on their children's
academic achievement by gender. The authors pose the following four
questions:
1. Will adolescents living with the same-gender parents have higher
scores on reading standardized test than those living with the
opposite-gender single parents?
2. Will adolescents living with the same-gender single parents have
higher scores on mathematics standardized tests than those living with
the opposite-gender single parents?
3. Will adolescents living with the same-gender single parents have
higher scores on English teachers' evaluations that those living with
the opposite-gender single parents?
4. Will adolescents living with the same-gender single parents have
higher scores on mathematics teachers' evaluations than those living
with the opposite-gender single parents? (Lee & Kushner, 2008, p. 610)
The authors' quantitative research consisted of data from a
longitudinal study sponsored by the National Center for Education
Statistics which surveyed over three million high school students
reflecting all segments of the United States. The information collected
from this study were reading test scores, mathematics test scores, English
teachers' evaluations, and Mathematic teachers' evaluations of students
living in single-parent homes. (Lee & Kushner, 2008)
The authors utilized multiple analyses of covariance procedures to
safeguard against errors and reach their final conclusion. They determined
that there were "…no benefits in same-gender single-parent households."
(Lee & Kushner, 2008, p. 607) They further added that "daughters in single-
father homes performed better than other parent and child combinations on
academic achievement." (Lee & Kushner, 2008, p. 607)
Based on this research, there are no findings that same gender
between the parent and child in single parent homes effect academic
achievement. It is interesting to note that daughters living in single-
father households perform better academically than any other group. One
reason for this, as given by the authors, is that in adolescence parents
tend to assume the friend role to their child and fathers are less than
likely to become friends with their daughters. This research suggests that
children from single parent homes do not always have lower academic
performance than children from two-parent homes. (Lee & Kushner, 2008)
Family Size, Family Type, and Student Achievement: Cross-National
Differences and the Role of Socioeconomic and School Factors
The purpose of Gary N. Marks' paper Family Size, Family Type, and
Student Achievement: Cross-National Differences and the Role of
Socioeconomic and School Factors are to analysis of the effects on family
size and family type on student achievement. Also Marks examines if these
effects are related to socioeconomic background, resources available at
home, and factors relating to school. The questions Marks raises are:
1. What are the cross-national patterns in the effects of family size
and family type on student achievement in reading and mathematics?
2. To what extent can the effects of family size and family type be
attributed to socioeconomic background?
3. Is the resource dilution hypothesis supported in most countries? In
other words, do more limited material resources and social resources
(including parent time spent with the child) account for the negative
relationship between family size and achievement?
4. Are students from larger and non-traditional families more likely
to be found in academically weaker locations in the school system,
especially in countries with tracked school systems?
5. Can cross-national differences in the effects of family size and
family type be attributed to economic development, the size of the
welfare state or other characteristics of countries? (Marks, 2006, p.
3)
Marks study consists primarily of quantitative research examining the
student achievement of one-hundred-seventy-two-thousand fifteen year old
students in six-thousand schools located throughout thirty-two countries.
The students were randomly selected and information was collected through
survey on: family size and type, reading and mathematics achievement,
socioeconomic background, material resources, and academic location. This
data was compiled into numerical tables for review, which allowed for
"…examination of the effects of family size and family typed with and
without controls for socioeconomic background, resources, and academic
location." (Marks, 2006, p.8)
Mark's research discovered that "The largest effects for a single-
family were found for the United States where, on average, students from
single-parent family had lower scores that students from intact families—50
score points lower for reading and 53 score points lower for mathematics."
(Marks, 2006, p. 12) He continues "(the United States)…has both the largest
proportion of 15-year-olds living in single-parent families and strongest
effects for single parent families." (Marks, 2006, p.12)
Based on this research completed by Gary Marks, it is apparent
that children living in single-parent homes are at an academic disadvantage
when compared against children living in a two-parent home. Both reading
and mathematics scores were discovered to be significantly lower with
children living in single parent homes. His research suggests that children
who live in single-parent homes have lower achievement in school than
children who live in two-parent homes.
(Marks, 2006)
Conclusion
The purpose of this paper was to discover if children raised in
single-parent homes are at an academic disadvantage because they were not
raised in the stable environment of a two-parent home. More specifically, I
began my research with the hope of answering the following question: "Do
children who live in single parent homes have lower achievement in school
than children who live in two parent homes?" Based on the research
summarized in this paper, I believe the answer to the question is yes.
Children who live in single-parent homes have lower achievement in schools
than children from two-parent homes. Featherstone & Cundick's research
confirmed my answer and found that single-parent students have a lower
grade point average compare to their counter parts. Ford, Brown Wright,
Grantham, and Harris III's research uncovered no significant information
other than children from two-parent homes were more likely to be labeled
gifted than others.
Ham's research suggested children from single-parent homes have
lower achievement than those in two-parent homes. Jeynes' study showed that
children from divorce families where a parent remarries score significantly
lower in academics and children from single-parent homes and face many
academic advantages. Lee and Kushner's research indicated that children
from single-parent homes do not always have lower academic achievement.
However, their study acknowledged single-parent students often are at an
academic advantage compared to their counterparts. Finally, Mark's research
overwhelmingly confirmed my answer to my research question. His findings
showed significant lower scores in math and reading of those students from
single-parent homes.
Unfortunately, the research in the difference of student achievement
in different family structures is lacking. Further research is needed to
identify the causes of the achievement disadvantages and the correlation to
family structure. It would also be interesting to see how same-sex parents
affect student achievement.
References
Featherstone, D., & Cundick, B. (1992). Differences in school behavior and
achievement between children from intact, reconstituted, and single-
parent families. Adolescence, Vol. 27(105).
Ford, D., Brown Wright, L., Grantham, T., & Harris III, J. (1998).
Achievement levels, outcomes, and orientations of black students in
single- and two-parent families. Urban Education, Vol. 33(No. 3),
pp.360-384.
Ham, B. (2004). The effects of divorce and remarriage on the academic
achievement of high school seniors. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 42
(1/2), pp.159-178, The Hawthorn Press, Inc.
Jeynes, W. (2000). A longitudinal analysis on the effects of remarriage
following divorce on the academic achievement of adolescents. Journal
of Divorce and Remarriage, Vol. 33(1/2), pp. 131-148.
Lee, S. Kushner, J. (2008). Single parent families: The role of parent's
and child's gender on academic achievement. Gender and Education. Vol.
20 No. 6. pp. 607-621.
Marks, G. (2006). Family size, family type and student achievement: Cross-
national differences and the role of socioeconomic and school factors.
Journal of Comparative Family Studies. Vol. 37 Issue 1, pp.21-24.
U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2012 (131st
Edition) Washington, DC, 2011;
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