CHAPTER OUTLINE Personality is the unique pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings and actions that characterize a person. I. THE THE PSY PSYCH CHOD ODY Y! !"IC "IC !PP#O PP#O! !CH How did paralyzed patients patients lead Freud Freud to psychoanalysis? psychoanalysis? Sig$und %reud treated &neurotic' disorders()lindness, paral*sis(for +hich no ph*sical cause could )e found and that could )e re$oed +ith h*pnosis. This led hi$ to )eliee in psychic determinism, determinism, the idea that personalit* and )ehaior are caused )* ps*chological factors(+hat one thin-s and feels($ore than )* )iolog* or current eents. %reud held that one $ight )e una+are of ones ps*chic deter$inants. %ro$ these ideas %reud deeloped and treat$ent of $ental disorders. disorders. This theor* psychoanalysis, psychoanalysis, a theor* of personalit* and )eca$e the )asis of the psychodynamic approach, +hich assu$es that arious unconscious ps*chological ps*chological processes interact to deter$ine our thoughts, feelings, and )ehaior. !. The The Stru Struct ctu ure of of Pers Person onal alit it* * %reud clai$ed that personalit* deelops fro$ a personal struggle to $eet in)orn )asic needs in a +orld that $a* frustrate such efforts. /. Id, Eg Ego, an and Superego %reud sa+ the personalit* as $ade of three )asic co$ponents0 id, ego, and superego. a1 The id contains the )asic in)orn instincts for food, +ater, se2, and so on. The life instincts underlie instincts underlie )ehaiors to satisf* needs for positie ele$ents li-e loe or -no+ledge, and death instincts underlie instincts underlie aggressie and destructie )ehaiors. The id operates operates on the pleasure principle, +hich see-s i$$ediate satisfaction, regardless of societ*s rules or the rights of others. )1 The ego operates on the reality principle and organizes +a*s to get +hat a person +ants +hile +hile ta-ing into account account the constraints of of the real +orld. c1 The superego deelops as one internalizes parental internalizes parental and societal alues. The superego houses the persons sense of $oralit*3 the &shoulds' and &should nots' of of ho+ to )ehae. It is 4ust as unreasona)le unreasona)le as the id in its de$ands. 5. Conf Confllicts icts and and Defe Defen nses ses a1 %reud %reud sa+ sa+ )asic )asic needs needs and and urges urges 6id1 6id1,, reason reason 6ego1, 6ego1, and and $orali $oralit* t* 6supe 6supereg rego1 o1 as co$peting +ith each other, causing an2iet* and intrapsychic or psychodynamic conflicts. conflicts. The egos 4o) is to preent an2iet* and guilt that $ight arise if unconscious, sociall* unaccepta)le urges )eca$e conscious. The ego $a* use arious pro)le$7soling strategies to acco$plish this. )1 The ego $a* also use defense mechanisms— unconscious unconscious tactics that protect against an2iet* an2iet* and guilt )* either either person )* either preenting preenting threatening $aterial fro$ surfacing or disguising it +hen it does. 6/1 Ta)le Ta)le //./ //./ descri)e descri)ess repression repression,, rationaliza rationalization, tion, pro4ec pro4ection tion,, reaction reaction for$ation, su)li$ation, displace$ent, denial, and co$pensation. 8. Stag Stages es of Pers Person onal alit it* * De Deel elop op$e $ent nt %reud argued that personalit* deelops during childhood through a series of psychosexual stages. %ailure to resole a stages conflicts conflicts leaes one fixated, unconsciousl* unconsciousl* preoccupied +ith the pleasure area associated +ith that stage. The stage at +hich a person )eco$es fi2ated in childhood can )e seen in adult personalit* characteristics.
/.
C.
The Oral Stage a1 During the first *ear of life the $outh is the center of pleasure. )1 9hen oral needs are neglected or oerindulged, pro)le$s arise that $a* lead to adult characteristics such as tal-atieness, s$o-ing, oereating, drin-ing e2cessiel*, or &)iting' sarcas$. 5. The !nal Stage a1 The anal stage, during the second *ear, occurs +hen the ego deelops to cope +ith parental de$ands for sociall* appropriate )ehaior. In 9estern cultures, it coincides +ith toilet training. )1 If toilet training is too la2 or too harsh, pro)le$s arise. !nall* fi2ated adults can )e sting*, stu))orn, and o)sessed +ith orderliness or( conersel*($a* )e slopp*, disorganized, and i$pulsie. :. The Phallic Stage a1 The phallic stage occurs )et+een the ages of three and f ie, +hen the focus of pleasure shifts to the genital area. )1 ! )o*s id i$pulses inole se2ual desire for the $other and a desire to eli$inate, een -ill, the father. This is the Oedipus complex. The ego represses these desires, and eentuall* a )o* identifies +ith his father and )egins to deelop a superego. c1 ! girl )egins +ith a strong attach$ent to her $other. She deelops penis envy, +hen she realizes she is $issing a penis, and transfers her loe to her father. This is the Electra complex. The child eentuall* represses the conflict, identifies +ith her $other, and )egins to deelop a superego. d1 %i2ation at the phallic stage includes adult pro)le$s, such as difficulties +ith authorit* figures and pro)le$s $aintaining a sta)le loe relationship. ;. The
enital Period The genital stage )egins in adolescence and continues the rest of ones life. The qualit* of relationships and the degree of fulfill$ent e2perienced during this stage are directl* affected )* ho+ intraps*chic conflicts +ere resoled during the earlier stages. ?ariations on %reuds Personalit* Theor* Neo-Freudian theorists reised %reuds ideas, still stressing $an* )asic ideas in %reuds theor*, )ut deeloping their o+n approaches. Ego-psychologists $odified %reuds ideas to e$phasize the ego $ore than the id. /. @ungs !nal*tical Ps*cholog* a1 One of %reuds $ost pro$inent dissenters, Carl @ungs approach e$phasized peoples innate drie for creatiit*, gro+th7oriented resolution of conflicts, and productie )lending of )asic i$pulses +ith real7+orld de$ands. )1 He suggested that people graduall* deelop differing degrees of introversion or extraversion, along +ith differing tendencies to rel* on specific ps*chological functions, such as thin-ing ersus feeling. 5. Other eo7%reudian Theorists a1 !lfred !dler e$phasized that the $ost i$portant innate factor driing the deelop$ent of personalit* +as a desire to oerco$e infantile feelings of helplessness and gain control oer the eniron$ent.
)1
II.
Eri- Eri-son, Erich %ro$$, and Harr* Stac- Sullian argued that, once )iological needs are $et, the atte$pt to $eet social needs is the $ain shaper of personalit*. c1 Aaren Horne*, the first fe$inist personalit* theorist, argued that it +as $en +ho en* +o$en 6wom envy1 rather than +o$ens en*ing $en. D. Conte$porar* Ps*chod*na$ic Theories /. !"ect relations theory focuses on ho+ earl* relationships, particularl* +ith their parents, affect ho+ people perceie and relate to other people later in life. 5. #ttachment theory focuses specificall* on earl* attach$ent processes and ho+ ariations in attach$ent are related to different adult characteristics and social )ehaiors. E. Ealuating the Ps*chod*na$ic !pproach /. %reud deeloped the $ost co$prehensie and influential personalit* theor* eer proposed. So$e of his ideas hae receied support fro$ research on cognitie processes. He also sti$ulated the deelop$ent of personalit* assess$ent techniques. 5. %reuds ps*chod*na$ic approach has seeral +ea-nesses. a1 His sa$ple +as unrepresentatie, co$posed pri$aril* of +ealth* and $entall* trou)led +o$en +ho +ere raised in a societ* that sa+ discussion of se2 as unciilized. )1 %reuds theor* reflected 9estern European and orth !$erican cultural alues, +hich $a* or $a* not )e helpful in understanding people in other cultures. c1 %reud $a* also hae $odified reports of +hat happened during therap* to )etter fit his theor* and as-ed his patients leading questions. d1 %reuds )elief that +o$en en* $ale anato$* and his focus on $ale ps*chose2ual deelop$ent has also )een attac-ed. e1 %reuds theor* +as not er* scientific. "an* of his ideas are not $easura)le or testa)le. His theor* ignores that $uch of hu$an )ehaior is consciousl* deter$ined and is $otiated )* $ore than i$pulse gratification. THE T#!IT !PP#O!CH $hat personality traits are most asic? Personalit* traits are tendencies that help direct ho+ a person usuall* thin-s and )ehaes. The trait approach $a-es three )asic assu$ptions0 Personalit* traits re$ain relatiel* sta)le and predicta)le oer ti$e3 personalit* traits re$ain relatiel* sta)le across situations3 and people differ +ith regard to ho+ $uch of a particular personalit* trait the* possess. !. Earl* Trait Theories /. >ordon !llport suggested ho+ traits $ight co$)ine to for$ unique personalities. a1 %entral traits )roadl* characterize a persons )ehaior in $an* settings. )1 &econdary traits are situation7specific, t*pif*ing far less )ehaior. 5. #a*$ond Cattell +as interested in personalit* traits that people share. a1 Cattell used a statistical $ethod called factor analysis to stud* +hich traits are correlated +ith one another. )1 Cattell found si2teen clusters of traits that he )elieed $a-e up the )asic di$ensions of personalit*. 8. The 8ig7%ie "odel of Personalit* /. The big-five model or five-factor personality model +as also discoered through the use of factor anal*sis. Its factors are openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreealeness, and neuroticism.
5.
C.
D.
So$e ersion of the )ig7fie factors relia)l* appears in $an* countries and cultures, thus proiding eidence that these factors $a* represent )asic co$ponents of hu$an personalit*. Note' These fie factors can )e re$e$)ered +ith the $ne$onic !%E#N , +hich consists of the first letter of each of the )ig7fie factors. 8iological Trait Theories /. Eysenc()s *iological +rait +heory a1 Hans E*senc-s research using factor anal*sis coninced hi$ that personalit* can )e descri)ed using t+o $ain factors or di$ensions0 6/1 Introversion-Extraversion 651 Emotionality-Stability )1 E*senc- argued that ariations in personalit* characteristics could )e traced to inherited differences in the nerous s*ste$, especiall* the )rain. c1 His theor* suggests that extroverts inherit lo+er than ideal leels of arousal and +ill )e constantl* loo-ing for e2cite$ent to increase their arousal. ntroverts inherit higher than ideal leels of arousal that lead the$ to tr* to reduce arousal. People +ho are $ore sta)le hae nerous s*ste$s that are relatiel* insensitie to stress, and those +ho are $ore e$otional hae s*ste$s that react $ore strongl* to stress. 5. ray)s einforcement &ensitivity +heory a1 >ra* clai$s that the t+o personalit* di$ensions ste$ fro$ t+o related )rain s*ste$s0 6/1 The ehavioral approach system /*#&0 affects peoples sensitiit* to re+ards and their $otiation to see- these a+ards. People +ith an actie 8!S tend to e2perience positie e$otions. 651 The flight or freeze system /FF&0 affects sensitiit* to punish$ent and the $otiation to aoid punish$ent. People +ith an actie %%S are $ore li-el* to e2perience negatie e$otions. )1 >ra*s theor* is $ore +idel* accepted than E*senc-s )ecause it is supported )* neuroscientific research. Thin-ing Criticall*0 !re Personalit* Traits InheritedB /. $hat am eing as(ed to elieve or accept? So$e core aspects of personalit* $ight )e partl*, or een largel*, inherited. 5. s there evidence availale to support the claim? !necdotal stories descri)e personalit* si$ilarities a$ong fa$il* $e$)ers. Studies sho+ s$all )ut significant correlations on personalit* test scores )et+een fa$il* $e$)ers. Such correlations are stronger in identical t+ins 6+ho share identical genes1 een +hen reared apart. 8ehaior geneticists conclude that a)out = percent of aria)ilit* in adult personalit* traits is due to genetic factors. :. %an that evidence e interpreted another way? Parent7child si$ilarities in personalit* $a* co$e fro$ their si$ilar eniron$ental surroundings, especiall* fro$ the $odeling that parents and si)lings proide. Co$pared to t+ins, nont+ins tend to )e affected $ore )* nonshared environments. ;. $hat evidence would help to evaluate the alternatives? Studies of infants )efore the eniron$ent e2erts an influence are needed. e+)orns do sho+ differences in temperament , suggesting a )iological and perhaps genetic influence. Studies ealuating the personalit* characteristics of adopted children sho+ that their personalit* is $ore li-e that of their )iological fa$il* rather than their adoptie fa$il*. "ore research should address +hich eniron$ental aspects $ost i$portantl* shape personalit*.
=.
$hat conclusions are most reasonale? The genetic contri)ution to personalit* $ost li-el* co$es as genes influence peoples nerous s*ste$s and general predispositions to+ard certain te$pera$ents. These characteristics interact +ith eniron$ental factors to produce specific features of personalit*. People appear to inherit ra+ $aterials that are then shaped )* the +orld into indiidual personalities. E. Ealuating the Trait !pproach /. Trait theories descri)e personalit* $ore than the* e2plain it. !nd the* tell little a)out ho+ traits relate to the thoughts and feelings that precede, acco$pan*, and follo+ )ehaior. 5. Trait approaches onl* gie a static list of superficial personalit* descriptions, +ithout clarif*ing the d*na$ics of ho+ such traits co$)ine and interact in a real person, as +ell as ho+ such traits interact +ith situations. III. THE SOCI!<7CO>ITI?E !PP#O!CH 1o we learn our personality? The social-cognitive approach or social learning approach sees personalit* as a full set of )ehaiors that people acquire through learning and then displa* in particular situations. This ie+ e2pands )e*ond traditional )ehaioris$ )* e$phasizing learned patterns of thought as guiding actions and the fact that $uch of personalit* is learned in social situations fro$ interacting +ith and o)sering others. !. Pro$inent Social7Cognitie Theories /. otter)s Expectancy +heory a1 @ulian #otter argued that learned cognitie expectancies guide )ehaior. 8ehaiors reflect )oth e2pected outco$es and the alue one places on those outco$es. Thus )ehaior is deter$ined )* its re+arding or punishing consequences and )* an e2pectation that a particular )ehaior +ill )e re+arded or punished. )1 People also learn general e2pectancies a)out ho+ re+ards and punish$ents are controlled. nternals e2pect that their o+n efforts +ill control eents 6&I failed the test )ecause I did not stud*'1. Externals e2pect eents to )e controlled )* e2ternal forces oer +hich the* hae no control 6&I failed the test )ecause it +as too hard'1. 5. *andura and eciprocal 1eterminism a1 !l)ert 8andura argues that thought, eniron$ent, and )ehaior all interact3 each can onl* )e understood relatie to the other t+o. Personalit* is shaped )* the $utual influence of these ele$ents, +hich is called reciprocal determinism. )1 In 8anduras ie+, one i$portant cognitie ele$ent is perceied selfefficacy, a learned e2pectation that *ou can perfor$ +ell regardless of past failures or current o)stacles. :. 2ischel)s %ognitive3#ffective +heory a1 9alter "ischels theor* is )ased on learned, trait li-e cognitive person variales (identifia)le di$ensions along +hich people differ. 6/1 The $ost i$portant person aria)les are encodings 6the persons )eliefs a)out the eniron$ent and other people1, expectancies 6including self7efficac* and +hat the person e2pects to follo+ fro$ arious )ehaiors1, affects 6feelings and e$otions1, goals and values 6the things a person )eliees in and +ants to achiee1, and competencies and self-regulatory plans 6the things a person can do and the a)ilit* to thoughtfull* plan )ehaiors1.
)1
The cognitie person aria)les interact +ith situation aria)les to produce characteristic )ehaiors called ehavioral signatures. c1 The ne+ focus is on si$ilarities )et+een the trait and the social7cognitie approach(on the relationship )et+een personal and situational aria)les and ho+ the* affect )ehaior under arious conditions. %our conclusions consistent +ith 8anduras concept of reciprocal deter$inis$ hae e$erged0 6/1 Traits influence )ehaior onl* in releant situations. 651 Traits can lead to )ehaiors that alter situations, +hich in turn pro$ote other )ehaiors. 6:1 People choose to )e in situations that are in accord +ith their traits. 6;1 Traits are $ore i$portant in so$e situations than in others. 8. Ealuating the Cognitie78ehaioral !pproach /. The social7cognitie approach e2panded the role of learning principles to include sociall* i$portant areas. Social7cognitie principles hae also generated seeral effectie treat$ent $ethods for ps*chological disorders. 5. This approach is criticized as reducing hu$ans to )ehaior7acquiring $achines and neglecting the co$ple2ities and uniqueness of hu$an personalit*. It neglects unconscious processes, su)4ectie e2periences, and genetic or )iological issues. I?. THE H"!ISTIC !PP#O!CH s everyone asically good? The humanistic approach, or phenomenological approach, holds that personalit* and )ehaior are guided )* ones unique perceptions and alues, and )* an innate drie to gro+ and fulfill ones natural potential 6 self-actualiation1. !. Pro$inent Hu$anistic Theories /. oger)s &elf +heory a1 Carl #ogers thought that people hae an actualiing tendency, an innate inclination to+ard gro+th and fulfill$ent that $otiates all hu$an )ehaior. In this ie+, personalit* is the e2pression of that actualizing tendenc* as it unfolds in each persons uniquel* perceied realit*. )1 #ogerss concept of self refers to +ho a person reall* is(preferences, a)ilities, shortco$ings, desires. &elf-actualization requires a correct selfconcept, ones understanding of ones self. c1 The need for positive regard (approal of the self fro$ others(also shapes actions. 9hen others ealuations agree +ith ones o+n, or are congruent, the person sees hi$herself as &good'3 this )eco$es part of hisher self7concept. 9hen the feelings people e2perience or e2press $a* )e negatiel* ealuated )* others, the* often are suppressed. The sociall* accepta)le feelings that are e2pressed or e2perienced instead are incongruent +ith their true feelings and $a* result in ps*chological disco$fort or $ental disorder. d1 Positie regard is usuall* conditional, co$ing onl* +hen conditions of !orth are $et. Conditions of +orth are created +heneer people, instead of )ehaiors, are ealuated. Thus *ou $a* learn to )eliee that *our +orth as a person depends on sho+ing the &right' attitudes, )ehaiors, and alues. 5. 2aslow)s rowth +heory a1 !)raha$ "aslo+ sa+ self7actualization as a hu$an need, not 4ust a capacit*. He felt it +as the highest need in a hierarch* of needs that e2ist in life. Ho+eer, people often do not see- to $eet this need, )ecause the* are focusing on lo+er needs in the hierarch*.
)1
?.
He argued that $ost people hae a deficiency orientation, a preoccupation +ith perceied needs for $aterial things. This tends to render life as $eaningless, disappointing, and )oring. c1 Those +ith growth orientations focus on )eing satisfied +ith +hat the* hae, +hat the* are, and +hat the* can do. Such people are $ore li-el* to hae pea( experiences, feelings of 4o* oer the $ere fact of )eing alie, hu$an, and utilizing their fullest potential. 8. Ealuating the Hu$anistic !pproach /. The hu$anistic approach fits $an* peoples ie+s of the$seles. These ideas, +hich are consistent +ith the field of positive psychology, hae inspired therapies, personal gro+th e2periences, and parental techniques. 5. Critics see the hu$anistic approach as ague, naFe, ro$antic, and unrealistic. The* see this approach as giing too little attention to the role of inherited characteristics, learning, situational influences, and unconscious $otiations. So$e hu$anistic ideas are culture7specific, particularl* the notion of striing to fulfill ones indiidual and unique potential. ES0 PE#SO!ender differences $ust also )e ealuated. %e$ales in the nited States tend to hae an interdependent self7s*ste$, +hereas $ales tend to hae an independent self7s*ste$. !. %ocus on #esearch0 Personalit* Deelop$ent oer Ti$e /. $hat was the researchers) 4uestion? Can *oung childrens te$pera$ent predict their personalit* characteristics and )ehaiors as adultsB 5. How did the researchers answer the 4uestion? !ashalo$ Caspi and colleagues sought to ans+er such questions in a longitudinal stud* in +hich the sa$e group of people +ere follo+ed oer a long period of ti$e. The research sa$ple included all children )orn in Dunedin, e+ Gealand, )et+een !pril /5 and "arch /:, a)out /, people. a1 #esearch assistants o)sered participants at the age of three in a standard situation and $ade ratings on a nu$)er of di$ensions. Each child +as placed into one of fie te$pera$ent categories0 undercontrolled5 inhiited5 confident5 reserved5 and well-ad"usted. )1 The children +ere o)sered and categorized again at ages fie, seen, and nine. Different people $ade the ratings each ti$e. The ratings indicated that the childrens te$pera$ents sta*ed a)out the sa$e fro$ three to nine.
c1
9hen participants +ere age t+ent*7one, the* +ere interie+ed a)out their inole$ent in ris-* and unhealth* )ehaiors )* interie+ers +ho +ere gien no infor$ation a)out childhood te$pera$ents. !t age t+ent*7si2, the* too- a standard personalit* test and +ere rated )* friends on the )ig7 fie personalit* di$ensions. :. $hat did the researchers find? The researchers found seeral significant differences in the personalit* test results of the fie original te$pera$ent groups. %or e2a$ple, those +ho had )een classified as &undercontrolled' in childhood sho+ed that the* +ere $uch $ore aggressie, alienated, negatie, and hostile than an* other te$pera$ent group. !lso, there +ere s$all )ut significant correlations )et+een childhood te$pera$ent and ris-* )ehaior in *oung adulthood. ;. $hat do the results mean? 9e can $a-e relatiel* accurate predictions a)out peoples personalit* and )ehaior as adults if +e -no+ a)out their te$pera$ent as children. Ho+eer, it is i$portant to note that, although personalit* is influenced and shaped )* te$pera$ent, it is not co$pletel* deter$ined )* it. =. $hat do we still need to (now? 9e still need to -no+ +h* there is continuit* )et+een te$pera$ent as a child and personalit* as an adult. The researchers proposed an e2planation that dra+s heail* on 8anduras concept of reciprocal deter$inis$. The process of $utual influence )et+een personalit* and situations can continue oer a lifeti$e. ?I. !SSESSI> PE#SO!
ii1
5.
:.
In the orschach n(lot +est , people e2plain +hat each of a series of in-)lots $ight )e. 6Scoring $ethods pa* attention to +hat part of the )lot the person responds to3 +hat features Jsuch as details or colorK appear to deter$ine each response3 the content of the responses3 and ho+ unusual the responses are.1 )1 Pro4ectie $easures results are er* su)4ectie3 the* are difficult to put relia)l* into nu$erical for$. Though supporters clai$ that these tests can $easure personalit* features that people $ight )e a)le to hide on nonpro4ectie personalit* $easures, the* are su)stantiall* less relia)le and alid than nonpro4ectie personalit* $easures and often add little ne+ infor$ation a)out indiiduals. onpro4ectie Personalit* "easures c1 #onpro"ective personality measures, or o"ective personality measures, asclear and direct questions a)out a persons thoughts, feelings, or )ehaiors. The* are usuall* in a $ultiple7choice or true7false for$at, can )e ad$inistered to $an* people at once, and can )e scored )* $achine. The results are co$pared to norms, aerage scores fro$ others of the sa$e age and gender. a1 onpro4ectie $easures can focus on one trait or on $an*, li-e the Neuroticism Extraversion !penness 7ersonality nventory, evised 6 NE!-7-1, +hich $easures the )ig7fie factors. The EO7PI7# is quite relia)le and has successfull* predicted perfor$ance on specific 4o)s and oerall career success, social status, and the li-elihood of continued cri$inal )ehaior. c1 The 2innesota 2ultiphasic 7ersonality nventory 6 227 1, the $ost +idel* used o)4ectie personalit* test for diagnosing ps*chological disorders, consists of ==L true7false ite$s. It has )een reised and updated in the ""PI75. i1 The ""PI has ten clinical scales 6groups of ite$s that hae preiousl* )een sho+n to correlate +ith specific ps*chological disorders1 and four validity scales 6groups of ite$s intended to detect if people distort ans+ers, $isunderstand ite$s, or are uncooperatie1. The persons scores on the scales for$ a profile, +hich is co$pared +ith the profiles of others +ho are -no+n to hae certain personalit* characteristics or pro)le$s. Interpretation of the profile focuses on the pattern for$ed )* the oerall pattern in the scales, particularl* on the co$)ination of the highest t+o or three scales. ii1 Considera)le eidence supports the ""PIs relia)ilit* and alidit*. iii1 The ""PI75 uses nor$s that represent a $ore culturall* dierse population. Ho+eer, ps*chologists $ust still )e cautious +hen interpreting the profiles of people +ho identif* +ith $inorit* su)cultures and $a* hae different perceptions, alues and e2periences. Personalit* Tests and E$plo*ee Selection )1 Personalit* tests are used to select people for 4o)s. i1 Seeral researchers hae found significant relationships )et+een scores on the )ig fie di$ensions and oerall 4o) perfor$ance. The* hae also )een sho+n to reduce thefts and other disruptie e$plo*ee )ehaiors. ii1 Ho+eer, personalit* tests are not perfect tools for e$plo*ee selection. 6/1 So$e tests $easure traits that are too general to predict specific 4o) perfor$ances. 651 Traits $a* influence perfor$ance in so$e 4o) situations, )ut not others. 6:1 So$e e$plo*ees see personalit* tests as an inasion of priac* and that their tests +ill )e $isinterpreted and hurt their chances for
pro$otion or e$plo*$ent. These concerns hae pro$pted the !P! and related organizations to pu)lish ethical standards relating the procedures for the deelop$ent, distri)ution, and use of all ps*chological tests.
KEY TERMS !n actiit* )ased on the -e* ter$s could )e used to introduce students to search engines li-e Ps*cI%O or Ps*c!#TIC and 890 ego /pp. 8:=-89:0 Electra complex /p. 8:;0 genital stage /p. 89@0 humanistic psychology /p. 8890 id /p. 8:=0 latency period /p. 8:;0 nonpro"ective personality measures /pp. 8<-8<80 Oedipal complex /p. 8:;0 oral stage /pp. 8:>-8:;0 personality /p. 8:A0 personality traits /p. 89:0 phallic stage /p. 8:;0
pleasure principle /p. 8:=0 pro"ective personality measures /pp. 8<@-8<0 psychoanalytic theory /p. 8:=0 psychodynamic approach /p. 8:=0 psychosexual development /p. 8:>0 reality principle /p. 8:=0 self-actualiation /pp. 889-88<0 self-concept /p. 8890 self-efficacy /pp. 88@-880 social-cognitive approach /pp. 89;-88@0 superego /pp. 8:=, 8:;, and 8880 trait approach /p. 89:0
