Chapter 17: Colonial Politics: Towards Complete Autonomy Chapter 18: Campaign for Independence
Nadora, Angelica Rose D. Santoyo, Jillian M/TH 15:00 – 17:00
Chapter 17: Colonial Politics: Towards Complete Autonomy Prologue: United States political scene As Woodrow Wilson’s term in office as President ends, the United States is entering another election season. The Republican Party, at that time, controls the Congress and it is of no question that they are aiming to retake the White House from the Democrats who had brought the country into the First World War. Under the slogan “return to normalcy”, they were able to control the presidency by nominating Warren Gamaliel Harding. Wood-Forbes Mission With the United States is undergoing transition of power, the fate of the independence of the Philippines hangs. The Republicancontrolled government wasted no time in this issue and they have dispatched a special investigating mission to ascertain that the Philippines is ready for independence, composed of Major General Leonard Wood, the former governor of the Moro Province, and former Governor-General of the Philippines William Cameron Forbes. After four months of staying in the Philippines and assessing the colony, they concluded in a lengthy report that the country is not yet ready for independence. Among the problems they raised in the report were: (1) the lack of sufficient press, (2) mistakes in finances, (3) delays in the administration of justice, (4) the need for
teachers across all educational levels and (5) the inadequate treatment and care of cultural minorities. Governor-General Wood and Filipinos At the end of the term of Woodrow Wilson’s term, so does the term of the beloved Francis Burton Harrison. With President Harding’s acceptance of the report of the Wood-Forbes Mission, he chose someone very familiar in the Philippines as GovernorGeneral, the recently-retired Army general Leonard Wood. Wood was entirely different from Harrison, if not opposite. He posits that the Jones Act, the organic act passed by the United States Congress in 1916 that serves as the “constitution” of the colony, cannot be modified by anyone except an action by the United States Congress. With this position, Filipino leaders were on guard against encroachments on their powers by the new GovernorGeneral. Wood vs. Filipino Politicos As governor-general, Wood is bent on exercising his powers as governor-general, not just a mere figurehead; and Filipino leaders view this stance as an enemy to Philippine autonomy and independence. Such rivalry within Filipino politicians caught Wood in the web of local partisan politics. The conflict was culminated in the Cabinet Crisis of 1923 where all Filipino leaders resigned from their posts in the Council of State and in various executive departments.
Conley and the Cabinet Crisis The Cabinet Crisis was caused by one man: Ray Conley. Conley was the chief of the vice-squad of the Secret Service branch of the Manila Police Department charged with misconduct in office, including keeping a mistress and making false statements relating to her. Complaints were filed in various office no one took action due to his connections to illegal gambling. The charges then were sent to the office of Governor-General Wood, but the latter referred it to Manila Mayor Ramon Fernandez for action. As there was nothing found to make Conley liable, Wood dismissed the charges. In response, Interior Secretary Jose P. Laurel and Mayor Fernandez secured approval to suspend Conley, but Wood insisted that Conley’s case must be filed to the Court of First Instance to give Conley a fair trial. However, the charges filed in court were dismissed due to lack of merit. As a result of the decision, Governor Wood ordered Laurel to reinstate Conley, but Secretary Laurel resigned after complying. Filipino leaders then quit their positions as Secretaries and members of the Council of State after accusing Wood of meddling with government affairs and the Philippine Legislature refused to confirm Wood’s appointees until his term ended in 1927. Governor’s veto power Governor Wood exercised his veto power liberally and also altered measures previously approved by the Philippine Legislature
and then affixes his signature for approval. He explained that the vetoes he made were due to serious defects or unconstitutional provisions. Board of Control Controversy Governor Wood is also hated for his desire to abolish the Board of Control. The body was created to handle stocks in various government corporations and Governor Wood wants it abolished as it is illegal. He believed that the Philippine treasury needed the money invested in business enterprises to spend it for greater public benefit and governments were not qualified to conduct business that would compete with private initiative. But Filipino leaders want the government body to be retained. In 1926, Wood had lost his patience and abolished the Board of Control. He also decreed that all duties and functions of the board will be exercised by the Governor-General moving forward. The Filipinos leaders went on to sue him before the Philippine Supreme Court regarding the matter, but the Court upheld Wood’s action. They filed an appeal before the US Supreme Court, but it only sustained the earlier decision. Governor-General Stimson Leonard Wood ended his term in 1927, but it took until 1928 to swear in Henry Stimson as Governor-General of the Philippines. Aware of Wood’s issues, he showed willingness to compromise with Filipino leaders and was successfully able to cease deadlock
between
governor-general
predecessor’s term.
and
Filipinos
created
during
his
Chapter 18: Campaign for Independence Introduction Since 1898, Filipinos aspired for independence. Even during the American period, they did not stop in their efforts to ensure independence will be given to the country as espoused in the Jones Act of 1916. Encouraged by the said act, Filipino leaders concluded that they can attain independence through increased political pressure and an active campaign in favor of this cause. Commission of Independence In November 1918, the Philippine Legislature created the Commission of Independence “for the purpose of studying all matters
related
to
the
negotiation
and
organization
of
the
independence of the Philippines”, giving them full power and jurisdiction over the matter. It was composed of eleven senators and forty congressmen, including the presiding officers of both houses of the legislature. The commission’s most important undertaking was the dispatch of independence missions to the United States and the direction of the publicity campaign for independence. These missions presented a set of arguments in favor of the independence cause.
Independence Missions The first independence mission was sent to the United States in 1919, the only one sent during the term of Woodrow Wilson, composed of forty leading Filipinos representing the legislature and the leading figures in the colony’s agricultural, commercial and professional life. The mission though came at a really bad time: the United States was reeling from the effects of the World War I and the Philippine situation is so far the least of their concerns. They were welcomed in the United States, but Republican congressional leaders were unconvinced that Filipinos are ready for independence and announced an independent postponement of the question of Philippine independence until the Filipinos have convincing proof that they can stand alone. In 1922, the Philippine Legislature launched a second independence mission to the United States to present the Filipino viewpoint on the questions raised on the Wood-Forbes mission, but they received a disappointing reply from President Harding. While the President assured that no backward step is being contemplated, granting of independence was out of the question. In 1923, the independence commission dispatched a special mission led by Speaker Manuel Roxas to specifically ask for the relief of Governor-General Leonard Wood or for the independence of the country. It presented a list of grievances against the governorgeneral’s “reactionary and militaristic rule”. But in a reply by the new President Calvin Coolidge, he pointed out that while the American people would gladly accord them independence, he felt
that Filipinos were unprepared for it holistically, especially if they cannot cooperate with Governor-General Wood. Fairfield Bill Supreme National Council The Supreme National Council was created by Senate President Quezon to unite all political parties and all segments of Philippine society for an ostensibly more effective and vigorous fight for independence. But as the American government continues to defend their stance concerning the preparedness of the Filipinos to be independent, the cause simply faded away and in 1928, it became almost unheard of. Plebiscite Controversy The Philippine Legislature passed Senate Bill 198 providing for a plebiscite on immediate independence in early November 1925, but it was vetoed by Governor Wood the following month for the very reason that it runs contradictory to the very notion that Filipinos are still unprepared for independence. The bill was reintroduced in the legislative floor and was approved in July 1926, but it was vetoed once again by Governor Wood, this time it was upheld by President Calvin Coolidge. American Interest Groups
The economic period known as the Great Depression hit the American agricultural sector very hard and they are seeing influx of Philippine agricultural goods as a threat to their business. Filipino immigration to the United States also became a contentious issue due to the fact that Filipinos can freely enter the United States, grabbing employment opportunities from the locals. Free Trade and Independence Continuous presence of Filipino representatives to steer independence Os-Rox Mission In December 1931, Osmeña and Roxas left for the United States for another independence mission. In the two years they stayed in the United States, they were successful in securing the passage Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act, despite being vetoed by President Herbert Hoover. The abovementioned organic act provided for the establishment of a ten-year Commonwealth to serve as transitional government and imposed graduated export tax at the sixth year of the Commonwealth. But, the seeming jealousy after the success of the mission, Quezon led the opposition the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act and successfully spearheaded efforts to have it rejected by the Philippine Legislature. In November 1933, Quezon left for the United States for the purpose of securing a better independence bill, resulting in the
passage of the Tydings-McDuffie Act which technically has the same
effect
with
the
rejected
Hare-Hawes-Cutting
Act
but
eliminated provisions on military reservations. He then took the credit for everything.
