THEORIES OF PERSONALITY NOTES Source: Feist & Feist, 7 th Ed What Is Personality? - It originated from the word persona, word persona, referring to a theatrical mask worn by Roman actors in Greek dramas. - Personalit is a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency and individuality to a person’s behavior. - A theor o! "ersonalit is "ersonalit is an organied attempt to describe and e!plain how personalities develop and why personalities differ. (Plotnik, 2009) - Traits contribute to individual differences in behavior" consistency consistency of behavior over time" and stability of behavior across situations. - #haracteristics are unique qualities of an individual that include such attributes as temperature" physique" and intelligence. A useful theory: theory: #$% generates research #&% is falsifiable #'% organies data #(% guides action #)% is internally consistent #*% is parsimonious Dimensions for Concept of Humanity #$% deter$inis$ %s !ree choice ' Are ' Are people’s behaviors determined by forces over which they have no control" or can people choose to be what they wish to be+ #&% "essi$is$ %s o"ti$is$ o"ti$is$ - Are people doomed to live miserable" conflicted" and troubled lives" or can they change and grow into psychologically healthy" happy" fully functioning human beings+ #'% causalit %s teleolo( ' ,riefly" causality holds that behavior is a function of past e!periences" whereas teleology is teleology is an e!planation
ordinarily aware of what they are doing and why they are doing it" or do unconscious forces impinge on them and drive them to act without awareness of these underlying forces+ #)% )iolo(ical %s social social nature-nurture issue #*% uni*ueness %s si$ilarities si$ilarities Is the salient feature of people their individuality" or their common characteristics+ characteristics+
IG/012 3R4025 6sychoanalysis Hsteria ' a disorder typically characteried by paralysis or improper functioning of certain parts of the body. #7ean /artin-8harcot% #atharsis #atharsis the process of removing removing hysterical hysterical symptoms through 9talking them out: #7osef ,reuer% Free Association Techni*ue ; Techni*ue ; H"nosis + principal therapeutic techniques used by 3reud Inter"retation o! rea$s rea$s 3reud’s greatest work Phlo(enetic Endo-$ent Endo-$ent a portion of our unconscious originates from the e!periences of our early ancestors that have have been passed on to us through hundreds generations of repetition Provinces of the Mind #$% Id Id serves the 9pleasure principle:. It has no contact with the reality" it strives constantly to reduce tension by satisfying basic desires. #&% E(o E(o governed by the the 9reality principle:. principle:.
moral standards of the superego. A function of conscience. Feelin(s o! in!eriorit arise in!eriorit arise when the ego is unable to meet the superego’s standards of perfection. A function of ego-ideal. Dynamics of Personality /01 ri%e - an internal stimulus that operates as a constant motivational force Se2 ri%e or Eros ' erogenous zones: genitals" mouth" and anus 3orms>/anifestations5 /a1) primary narcissism narcissism libido e!clusively invested on their own ego" a universal condition a!) secondary narcissism narcissism 1ot universal" but a moderate degree of self-love is common to nearly every one. ?ere narcissistic libido is transformed into ob@ect libido ") love love develops when when people invest their libido on an ob@ect or person other than themselves c) sadism sadism is the need for se!ual pleasure by inflicting pain or humiliation on another person. 8onsidered sexual perversion e!treme. d) masochism masochism is the need for se!ual pleasure by suffering pain and humiliation inflicted by themselves or by others. /31 A((ressi on - the aim of the destructive drive is to return the organism to an inorganic state" which is death /41 An2iet - the center of the 3reudian dynamic theory - a felt" affective" unpleasant state accompanied accompanied by a physical sensation - it is ego-preserving and self-regulating a) neurotic an#iety defined as an apprehension about an unknown danger. It results from the dependence of the ego to the id. ") moral an#iety an#iety stems from the conflict between the ego and superego o. c) realistic an#iety an#iety It is closely related to fear. fear. It is defined as an unpleasant" nonspecific feeling
Defense Mechanisms - It helps the ego to avoid dealing directly with se!ual and aggressive impulses and to defend itself against the an!iety that accompanies them /01 Re"ression It is the most basic of the defense mechanisms. hen the ego is threatened by undesirable id impulses" it forces threatening feelings into the unconscious. /31 Reaction For$ation repressed impulse becomes conscious by adopting a disguise that is directly opposite to its original form /41 is"lace$ent unacceptable urges are redirected onto a variety of people or ob@ects so that the original impulse is disguised or concealed /51 Fi2ation when the prospect of taking the ne!t psychological stage becomes too an!iety provoking" the ego may resort to the strategy of remaining at the present" more comfortable psychological stage.
an!iety-provoking event or piece of information that is clear to others $ta%es of Development 3or 3reud" the first ( or ) years of life" or the infantile stage, are the most crucial for personality information. It is divided into three stages5 0 Oral Phase (early infancy, first 1 !ont"s of life) - 6leasure-seeking activities include sucking" chewing" and biting. - If fi!ated at this stage" because oral wishes were gratified too much or too little" oral gratification continues in adulthood. 3 Anal Phase (late a#ult"oo#, 1 $ to % years) - Infant’s pleasure seeking is centered on the anus and its function of elimination. - 3i!ation at this stage results to retention or eli!ination. - Anal retentive may take the form of being very neat" stingy" or behaviourally rigid - Anal e#pulsive may take the form of being generous" messy" or very loose or carefree - Anal triad: or#erliness, stinginess, and o&stinacy 4 Phallic Sta(e (early c"il#"oo#, %-' years) - Infant’s pleasure-seeking is centered on the genitals. - &edipus comple# occurs at this stage5 a process in which a child competes with the parent of the same se! for the affections and pleasures of the parent of the opposite se!. # 'lectra comple# for female% - Castration an#iety may arise" the fear of losing the penis" or penis envy for females 5 Latenc Sta(e (' to pu&erty) - A time when the child represses se!ual thoughts and engages in nonse!ual activities" such as developing social and intellectual skills. - dormant psychose!ual development 6 .enital Sta(e - puberty signals the reawakening of se!ual impulses
the more important latent content - the 9royal road: to the knowledge of the unconscious - =ani!est content of a dream refers to the surface meaning or the conscious description given by the dreamer - Latent content refers to the unconscious material - 3or 3reud" all dreams are is" fulfil!ents - 2reams can work their way to consciousness in two ways5 #$% #ondensation refers to the fact that the manifest dream content is not as e!tensive as the latent level" indicating that the unconscious material has been abbreviated or condensed before appearing on the manifest level #&% is"lace$ent means that the dream is replaced by some other idea remotely related to it Freudian sli"s /"ara"ra2es1 Criti(ue of reud*s Psychoanalysis - ?is theory of personality was strongly oriented towards men" he lacked a complete understanding of the feminine psyche. - an area of criticism on 3reud centers around his status as a scientist
AB3R42 A2B4R5 Individual 6sychology - Individual psychology rests heavily on the notion of social interest " that is" a feeling of oneness with all humankind. - 6eople are motivated mostly by social influences and by their striving for superiority or success. - 6eople are largely responsible for who they are - 6resent behavior is shaped by the people’s view of the future. - an opposing theory to psychoanalysis Stri%in( !or success or su"eriorit ' 0st tenet: The one dna$ic !orce )ehind "eo"le>s )eha%ior is the stri%in( !or success or
- 4veryone begins with a life of physical deficiencies that activate feelings of inferiority. -
s su)8ecti%e "erce"tions sha"e their )eha%ior and "ersonalit Fictionalis$ triving superiority is shaped by people’s perceptions of reality that is by their fictions" or e!pectations of the future. - 3ictionalism is consistent with the teleology. ?nit and Sel!'#onsistenc o! Personalit ' 4rd tenet: Personalit is uni!ied and sel!' consistent - 4ach person is unique and indivisible. Or(an ialect -
considered as a dichotomy" but two cooperating parts of the same unified system. s stle o! li!e tyle of life is the term Adler used to refer to the flavor of a person’s life. It includes a person’s goal" self-concept" feelings for others" and attitude toward the world. It is the product of the interaction of heredity" environment" and a person’s creative power. - Although the final goal is singular" style of life need not be narrow or rigid. - +"ree !aor pro&le!s of life5 neighborly love" se!ual love" and occupation. #reati%e Po-er th Tenet: Stle o! li!e is $olded ) "eo"le>s creati%e "o-er - 4ach person is empowered with the freedom to create his or her own style of life. 0ltimately" people are responsible for who they are and how they behave. It makes each person a free individual. - 4ach person uses heredity and environment as the bricks and mortar to build personality" but the
secondary. e are our own architect and can build either a useful or useless style of life. A)nor$al e%elo"$ent - 3or Adler" the one factor underlying all types of malad@ustments is un#er#evelope# social interest. - Also neurotics tend to5 #$% set their goals too high #&% live in their own private world #'% have a rigid and dogmatic style of life E2ternal Factors in =alad8ust$ent #$% 4!aggerated physical deficiencies #&% 6ampered style of life - the heart of most neuroses #'% 1eglected style of life Sa!e(uardin( Tendencies - 6eople create patterns of behavior to protect their e!aggerated sense of self-esteem against public disgrace. -
one’s fictional goal of superiority by psychologically reverting to a more secure period of life. It is designed to elicit sympathy. $tandin% $till,
- Analytical psychology is essentially a psychology of opposites. /31 Earl Recollections /41 rea$s Golden rule of dream work in individual psychology5 94verything can be different.: /51 Pschothera" Adlerian theory postulates that psychopathology results from lack of courage" e!aggerated feelings of inferiority" and underdeveloped social interest.
8ARB 701G5 Analytical 6sychology - It rests on the assumption that occult phenomena can and do influence the lives of everyone. - 7ung believed that each of us is motivated not only by repressed e!periences but also by certainly emotionally toned e!periences inherited from our ancestors.
Le%els o! the Psche - 7ung strongly asserted that the most important part of the unconscious springs not from personal e!periences of the individual but from distant past of human e!istence" the collective unconscious. f lesser importance are conscious and personal unconscious. #onscious. Images that are sensed by the e%oC the center of consciousness. 4go is not the whole personality" but must be completed by the self " the center of the personality that is largely unconscious. -
-
- archetype of wisdom and meaning" symbolies human’s pre-e!isting knowledge of the mysteries of life. Hero - the conquering hero archetype represents victory over the forces of darkness $elf - the innate disposition possessed by each person to move toward growth" perfection" and completion - the most comprehensive of all archetypes - the self is the arc"etype of arc"etypes because it pulls together the other archetypes and unites them in the process of self-realization -its ultimate symbol is the !an#ala" representing the strivings of the collective unconscious for unity" balance and wholeness na$ics o! Personalit #ausalit and Teleolo( - ?e insisted that both causal and teleological forces must be balanced. Pro(ression adaptation to the outside world involving the forward flow of psychic energy Re(ression - adaptation to the inner world involving the backward flow of psychic energy H Alone" neither progression nor regression leads to development. 4ither can bring about too much one-sidedness and failure in adaptationC but the two" working together" can activate the process of healthy personality development. Pscholo(ical T"es Attitudes 7ung defined it as a predisposition to act or react in a characteristic direction. ?e insisted that each person has both an introverte# and an extraverte# attitude" although one may be conscious while the other is unconscious. Into%ersion - is the turning inward of psychic energy with an orientation toward the sub@ective. Introverts are tuned in to their inner world with all its biases" fantasies" dreams" and individualied perceptions.
orientation toward the ob@ective. 2 unctions: $ensin% tells people that something e!ists xtraverte# sensing - people perceive e!ternal stimuli ob@ectively ntroverte# sensing guided by their sub@ective interpretation of sense stimuli +hin/in% enables them to recognie its meaning xtraverte# t"inking relying heavily on concrete thoughts" ob@ective ntroverte# t"inking interpretation of an event is colored more by the internal meaning" sub@ective eelin% tells them its value or worth xtraverte# feeling people use ob@ective data to make evaluations ntroverte# feeling - people base their value @udgments primarily on sub@ective perceptions Intuitin% allows them to know without knowing how they know xtraverte# intuitive people are oriented towards facts in the e!ternal world ntroverte# intuitive people are guided by unconscious perceptions of facts that are basically sub@ective and have no resemblance to e!ternal stimuli e%elo"$ent o! Personalit Sta(es o! e%elo"$ent5 childhood" youth" middle life" and old age #hildhood +"ree 3u&stages: /01 Anarchic "hase characteried by chaotic and sporadic consciousness. 4!periences of the anarchic phase sometimes enter consciousness as primitive images" incapable of being accurately verbalied. - slan#s of consciousness* may e!ist but there is little or no connection among these islands. /31 =onarchic "hase characteried by the development of ego and by the beginning of logical and verbal thinking. 2uring this time" children refer to themselves in the third person.
-
/31 rea$ Analsis - 7ung ob@ected to 3reud’s notion that nearly all dreams are wish fulfilments and that most dream symbols represent se!ual urgesC rather people used symbols to represent a variety of concepts to try to comprehend the 9innumerable things beyond the range of human understanding:. - 2reams are our unconscious and spontaneous attempt to know the unknowable. -
problems #adopted from 3reud%. -
their psychic structure the e!ternal ob@ects.
/4BA1I4 JB4I15 b@ect Relations
Positions - Infants attempt to deal with life instincts and death instincts" and they attempt to organie these e!periences into positions3 or ways of dealing with both internal and e!ternal ob@ects.
which it can tolerate some of its own destructive feelings rather than pro@ecting them outward. -
Pschic e!ense =echanis$s Infants adopt several psychic defense mechanisms to protect their ego against the an!iety aroused by their own destructive fantasies. /01 Intro8ection - Infants fantasie taking into their body those perceptions and e!periences that have had with the e!ternal ob@ect" originally the mother’s breast. - Intro@ected ob@ects are not accurate representations of the real ob@ects but are colored by children’s fantasies. /31 Pro8ection - 6ro@ection is the fantasy that one’s own feelings and impulses actually reside in another person and not within one’s body. - ,y pro@ecting unmanageable destructive impulses onto e!ternal ob@ects" infants alleviate the unbearable an!iety of being destroyed by dangerous internal forces /41 S"littin( - keeping part incompatible impulses" the good and bad aspect of themselves and of e!ternal ob@ects
picture of both the 9good me: and the 9bad me: that enables them to deal with both pleasurable and destructive impulses toward e!ternal ob@ects. - If splitting is not e!treme and rigid" it has a positive effect on the child.
and anal stage and reaches its clima! during the genital stage at around age '-( #b% A significant part of the edipus comple! is children’s fear of retaliation from their parent for their fantasy of emptying the parent’s body. #c% stressed the importance of children retaining positive feelings toward both parents during the edipal years #d% 3ourth" she hypothesied that during its early stages" the edipus comple! serves the same need for both genders" that is" to establish a positive attitude with the good or gratifying ob@ect #breast or penis% and to avoid the bad or terrifying ob@ect #breast or penis%. In this position" children of either gender can direct their love either alternately or simultaneously toward each parent. e!ale 5e#ipal 6evelop!ent 1st !ont" the little girl sees her mother’s breast as both good and bad. ' !ont"s she begins to the view the breast as more positive than negative - he sees her mother as full of good things #this leads to her imagining of how babies are made%. - he y by fantasies that the father’s penis feeds her mother with riches" including babies #she fantasies that the father will her with babies%. - If the edipal stage flows smoothly" the little girl adopts a fe!inine* position and has a positive relationship with both parents. - 0nder less ideal circumstances" the little girl will see her mother as a rival and will fantasie robbing her mother of her father’s penis and stealing her mother’s babies.
good and bad - 2uring the early monthsC the boy shifts some of his oral desires from his mother’s breast to his father’s penis.
of t"e 5e#ipus co!plex #epen#s on t"eir a&ility to allo t"eir !ot"er an# fat"er to co!e toget"er an# to "ave sexual intercourse it" eac" ot"er. 7o re!nant of rivalry re!ains. 8"il#rens positive feelings toar# &ot" parents later serve to en"ance t"eir a#ult sexual relations. Later Bie-s on O)8ect Relations
/ARGAR4< /A?B4R - Pscholo(ical )irth begins during the first weeks of postnatal life and continues for the ne!t ' years or so. It meant that the child becomes an in#ivi#ual separate from his or her primary caregiver" an accomplishment that leads ultimately to a sense of i#entity. -
- he disagreed with Jlein’s notion that the infants incorporate the good breast and other ob@ects into their ego. 3econ# 3tage: Nor$al S$)iosis -
sight of their mother - later" they begin to walk and to take in the outside world. +"ir# 3u&stage: 7approchement - about $* to &) months of age - they desire to bring back their mother and themselves back together" both physically and physiologically - their increased cognitive skills make them more aware of their separateness and make various ploys to regain the desired unity ourt" 3u&stage: 8i"idinal &"9ect Constancy -appro!imates the ' rd year of life - children will continue to depend on their mother’s physical presence for their own security if they do not develop a constant inner representation of their mother. - children must also learn to consolidate their individuality" that is they must learn to function without their mother and to develop other ob@ect relations H
the infant takes in the selfob@ect’s responses as pride" guilt" shame" or envyEall attitudes that eventually form the building blocks of the self. - ?e believed that infants are naturally narcissistic and self-centered.
?4I1L J?0< - ?e emphasied the process by which the self evolves from a vague and undifferentiated image to a clear and precise sense of individual identity. - ?e defined the self as 9the center of the individual’s psychological universe: and 9the center of initiative and recipient of impressions:. - ?e also focused on early mother-child relationship as the key to later development @ust like other ob@ect relations theorists. - Infants require adult caregivers not only to gratify physical needs but also to satisfy psychological needs.
7?1 ,B,D5 Attachment
- ?umans @ust like primate infants go through a clear sequence of reactions when separated from their primary caregivers.
Three Sta(es o! Se"aration An2iet 1) protest hen the caregiver is first out of sight" infants will cry" resist soothing by other people" and search for their caregiver. !) despair As separation continues" infants become quiet" sad" passive" listless" and apathetic. 4) detachment
/ARD AI1R
/01 secure attach$ent Infants are confident in the accessibility and responsiveness of their caregiver. /31 an2ious'resistant attach$ent Infants are ambivalent.
tend to be chronically worried about the state of relationship so they e!press a strong desire to gain more information about their romantic partner. Attach$ent Stle and Leadershi" - Beaders with a secure attachment style #neither an!ious nor avoidant% are more effective than insecurely attached #an!ious or avoidant% leaders. #riti*ue o! O)8ect Relations Theor - low on its ability to generate research - ince it grew out of the orthodo! psychoanalytic theory" it suffers from some of the falsifications that confront 3reud’s theory. - Jlein used needlessly comple! phrases and concepts to e!press her theory. - It has the ability to organie information about the behavior of infants. b@ects relations theory has speculated on how humans gradually come to a sense of identity. - It is built on careful observations of the motherchild relationship. - 6arents of young infants can learn the importance of a warm" accepting" and nurturing caregiver. - "ig" on #eter!inis!, lo on free c"oice - can eit"er &e pessi!istic or opti!istic - ten#s to &e !ore causal, expectations of t"e future play a very !inor role - "ig" on unconscious #eter!inants of &e"avior - &iology as !ore i!portant t"an environ!ent in s"aping personality in ter!s of t"e concept of p"ylogenetic en#o!ent an# #eat" instinct - t"e &iologically &ase# infantile stages lean !ore toar# social #eter!inants of personality - it ten#s toar# si!ilarities
JAR41 ?R14D5 6sychoanalytic ocial
neurotic or healthy. - ocial rather than biological forces are paramount in personality development. - ?orney criticied 3reud on several accounts5 #$% strict adherence to orthodo! psychoanalysis would lead to stagnation in both theoretical and therapeutic practice. #&% he ob@ected to 3reud’s ideas on feminine psychology #'% psychoanalysis should move beyond instinct theory emphasie the importance of cultural influences in shaping personality +he Impact of Culture - /odern culture is based on competition among individuals. - 8ompetitiveness and the )asic hostilit it spawns result in feelings of isolation.
form as a )asic an2iet" the profound feelings of insecurity and vague sense of apprehension. It is further defined as a feeling of being isolated and helpless in a world conceived as potentially hostile. - ?ostile impulses are the principal source of basic an!iety" but basic an!iety can also contribute to feelings of hostility. Protective !ec"anis!s fro! feelings of isolation #$% affection #&% submissiveness #'% striving for power" prestige or possession #(% withdrawal - 4veryone uses these various protective devices to guard against the re@ection" hostility" and competitiveness of others. 6eople become unhealthy when people feel compelled to rely on them. #o$"ulsi%e ri%es - 8ompulsion is the salient characteristic of all neurotic drives. eurotic eeds #$% +he neurotic need for affection and approval . In their quest for affection and approval" neurotics attempt indiscriminately to please others.
affection are perhaps the two greatest neurotic needs.
1ormal 2efenses (3pontaneous ove!ent) To-ard "eo"le #friendly" loving personality% A(ainst "eo"le #a survivor in a competitive society% A-a !ro$ "eo"le #autonomous" serene personality% 1eurotic 2efenses (8o!pulsive ove!ent) To-ard "eo"le 1-4) #compliant personality% A(ainst "eo"le 2-=) #aggressive personality% A-a !ro$ "eo"le >-1) #detached personality% - 1eurotics are limited to the use of a single trend" whereas normals can choose a variety of strategies. - 1eurotics are unaware of their basic attitude and they are forced to act. =o%in( To-ard Peo"le - refers to the neurotic need to protect oneself against feelings of helplessness through compliance - complaint people comply either or both of the first two neurotic needs5 #$% they desperately strive for affection and approval of others #&% they seek a powerful partner who will take responsibility of their lives - ?orney referred to this need as 9 mor"id dependency; =o%in( A(ainst Peo"le - they move against others by appearing tough or ruthless to resolve feelings of hostility - they are motivated by the strong need to e!ploit others and to use them for their own benefit - compulsively driven to appear perfect" powerful" and superior - 1eurotic needs incorporated include5 #$% the
admired" and #)% to achieve. ; oving toar#s ot"ers an# !oving against people are polar opposites*. +"e co!pliant person nee#s affection fro! ot"ers "ile t"e aggressive person sees everyone as a potential ene!y. ; or &ot" types, t"e center of gravity lies outsi#e t"e person*. =o%in( A-a Fro$ Peo"le -
1) +he eurotic $earch for lory - As neurotics come to believe in the reality of their idealied self" they begin to incorporate it into all aspects of their livesEtheir goals" their selfconcept" and their relations with others. - It includes three other elements5 /a ) t"e nee# for perfection Refers to the drive to mold the whole personality in to the idealied self.
Sel!'Hatred 6eople with a neurotic search for glory can never be happy with themselves because when they realie that their real self does not match the insatiable demands of their idealied self" they will begin to hate and despise themselves. - ?orney recognied si! ways in which people e!press self-hatred5 #$% relentless demands on the self #&% merciless self-accusation #'% self-contempt #(% self-frustration #)% self-torment or self-torture #*% self-destructive actions and impulses Fe$inine Pscholo( H 6sychic differences between men and women are not the result of anatomy but rather of cultural and social e!pectations - edipus comple! is not universal" instead is found only in some people and is an e!pression for the neurotic need for love. - A child may passionately cling to one parent and e!press #neurotic need for love% and e!press @ealousy toward the other" as means of alleviating basic an!iety and not manifestations of an anatomically based edipus comple!. -
masculine protest #men are superior than women% that leads to the neurotic desire to be a man" not an e!pression of penis envy.
the ability to recognie threats in the environment and would be related to decreased negative mood.
Pschothera" -
#riti*ue o! Horne -
Related Research -
-#eter!inistic for neurotic in#ivi#uals, &ut a "ealt"y person oul# "ave a large ele!ent of free c"oice - so!e"at !ore opti!istic t"an pessi!istic, people possess in"erent curative poers t"at lea# toar# self-realization. - a !i##le position on causality vs. teleology: c"il#"oo# experiences can &lock t"e !ove!ent toar# self-realization - !ost people "ave li!ite# aareness of t"eir !otives - strongly e!p"asize# social influences !ore t"an &iological ones - it "ig"lig"ts si!ilarities a!ong people !ore t"an uni/ueness
