Ecological Systems Theory
Proponent’s Logic This theory looks at a child’s development within the context of the system of relationships that form his or her environment. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s theory defines complex “layers” of environment, each having an effect on a child’s development. This theory has recently been renamed “bioecological systems theory” to emphasize that a c hild’s own biology is a primary environment fueling her development. The interaction between factors in the child’s maturing biology, his immediate family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers his development. Changes or conflict in an y one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child’s development then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well. The five environmental systems are: (1) microsystem - encompasses the relationships and interactions a child has with her immediate surroundings; (2) mesosystem - this layer provides the connection between the structures of the child’s microsystem; (3) exosystem - this layer defines the larger social system in which the child does not function directly; (4) macrosystem this layer is comprised of cultural values, customs, and laws; and, (5) chronosystem - this system encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child’s environments. Student’s Logic Ecological Systems Theory holds that the development of a child reflects the influence of several environmental systems. Like for example, the family of the child, his/her friends, his/her classmates, his/her teachers, and others that can be found that surround the environment of the child affects his/her development. This theory identifies five environmental systems that include several factors that affect the development of the child. These five environmental systems are: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. These systems just prove that everyone or everything that surrounds the child is essential even though the child has direct or indirect contact with these. Example of the indirect contact that a child encounters is the job of his/her parent, this job may affect a child in such way that because of this job, his/her parent has limited time for him/her. The mass media, culture, politics and economy also affects the child’s development even though the child is subconscious about it. I agree on this theory because I believe that the ecological systems that surround a child are very important. Thinking about it, our surrounding is where we seek for protection, for acceptance, for belongingness, and for love. Here, in our surrounding, this is where we can find what we are looking for. With our ou r family and friends, there, we find the will to carry on, the motivation we need, and the strength to carry on. Also, with our surrounding, we develop ourselves through the help of them but then, we need to admit the fact that also through this surrounding, for sometimes, we become worst. A proper gu idance is all what we need so that we can be a better person.
Educational Implication Ecological Systems Theory can be implied by providing stable and long term relationships among students. We can see this during o ur elementary and high school days, wherein through the whole school year, we have the same classmates or seatmates. I believe that through this, a student develops by interacting to others. Long term relationship helps in such way that a student is able to explore his/her classmate’s attitudes and thus, that student may help his/her classmate to improve some of his/her classmate’s attitudes. Schools and teachers help students to explore what it is happening outside the four corners of the classroom. They also provide assistance that helps students to develop themselves. For some instances, we prefer our teachers as our second parents and our school as our second home because we feel that through the knowledge and experiences they share, we belong.
Cumulative Learning Theory
Proponent’s Logic The proponent of this theory is Robert Mills Gagne, an essentialist. This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The signif significa icance nce of these these classi classific ficati ations ons is that that each differ different ent type type requir requires es differ different ent types types of instruction. Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments. Gagne Gagne sugges suggests ts that that learni learning ng tasks tasks for intell intellect ectual ual skill skillss can be organi organized zed in a hierar hierarchy chy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of terminolo terminology, gy, discrimin discriminations ations,, concept concept formation, formation, rule applicatio application, n, and problem problem solving. solving. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to facili facilitat tatee learni learning ng at each level. level. Prereq Prerequis uisite itess are identi identifie fied d by doing doing a task task analysi analysiss of a learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequ encing of instruction. In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes: (1) gaining attention attention (reception); (reception); (2) informing informing learners of the objective objective (expectancy); (expectancy); (3) stimulating recall of prior learning learning (retrieval); (4) presenting the stimulus (selective (selective perception); (5) providing learning learning guidance guidance (semantic (semantic encoding); encoding); (6) eliciting eliciting performance performance (responding); (responding); (7) provid providing ing feedbac feedback k (reinf (reinforc orceme ement) nt);; (8) asses assessin sing g perfor performan mance ce (retri (retrieva eval); l); and, (9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization). Student’s Logic Cumula Cumulativ tivee Learni Learning, ng, a theory theory of learni learning ng that that believ believes es that that learni learning ng happens happens in a hierarchical way wherein there are stages or levels to be followed. A step by step pattern as we called it and this theory of learning apply this pattern in order to transfer knowledge from a scaffolder to an individual. This is a theory of learning that have an idea of the lower level tasks must be mastered before going to higher level tasks. As we know, lower level tasks requires an individual a not sot high thinking abilities nor a not so low thinking abilities, an average thinking will do. In other words, lower level tasks are simple and easy that’s why there is a ‘must’ for an individual to master it and also, mastering it will help an individual to do higher level tasks. A theory of learning that is based on the premise that any intellectual skill or task can be broken down into simpler skills, which can in turn by broken down into even simpler skills, and so on. Because this theory requires a mastery of lower level tasks and operates in a step by step pattern, this theory believes that a complex skill or task can be broken down into simpler skill.
For example, playing basketball is a complex task, in order to learn it; it is broken down into basic skills that include passing, dribbling, and shooting. Shooting that we now consider as a simple task can be broken down ‘again’ into a simpler task by knowing and learning the basics of shooting. Another example of this is solving solving trigonomet trigonometric ric problems in Mathematic Mathematics. s. These examples only prove that this theory wants a learner to start with the basic or simple task and little by little takes several essentials steps in order to accomplish a complex or higher level tasks. Educational Implication I believe that this theory is being used in every school curriculum wherein one should enter preparatory then Grade I, Grade II, and so on until he/she reaches college level that requires high thinking abilities. This theory can also be seen in every teacher wherein they will present first basic information and will transfer basic knowledge to their students. Then, he/she will do a step by step pattern until it will come to the point of teaching them complex tasks or skills. A good example of this is when one is teaching Math, he/she cannot teach Trigonometry to the students until he/she is not done teaching them Geometry and Algebra; and, he/she cannot teach these two until he/she is not done teaching them the other fundamentals of Mathematics. If one insists teaching Trigonometry to the unaware and unready students, there will be no learning that will happen; confusion will rule the place.
*Theory of Instruction* *Bruner’s Scaffolding Theory*
Proponent’s Logic Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: (1) predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effective sequences in which to present material, and (4) the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information. ( tip.psychology.org/bruner.html tip.psychology.org/bruner.html ) Jerome Bruner, researcher in cognitive and educational psychology, coined the term scaffolding as a description for the kind of o f assistance given by the teacher or more knowledgeable peer in providing comprehensible input and moving the learner into the zone of proximal development. Scaffolding includes all the things that teachers do already when they predict the kinds of difficulty that the class or individual students in it will have with a given task. Typical examples are the activation of background knowledge at the beginning of the lesson or a brief review of key vocabulary at the end of it. The Writing Process is another prime example of scaffolding. ( esl.fis.edu/teachers/fis/scaffold/page1.htm ) esl.fis.edu/teachers/fis/scaffold/page1.htm ) Student’s Logic Theory of Instruction, a theory of learning that implies a process of discovery to be done by the students. Bruner’s Scaffolding Theory, a theory of learning wherein there is an interaction between adult and the children that enable the child to do something beyond his or her independent effort. Instructional Scaffolding, I believe that this provision is somewhat like mix of Bruner’s Theory of instruction and his scaffolding theory wherein students are ough t to discover things with the help of a scaffolder, a teacher or other people around the student. It’s only my opinion and I can see this clearly c learly inside the classroom, most especially in adult learner’s classroom. A good example of this is the classes we attend since we enter college. Our teachers or professors let us to discover things about our subject and then, they will help us in interpreting more deeply the information or facts we have newly acquired. ac quired. It’s been effective since it tends us to c onduct researches, study more, and think deeply Educational Implication On my explanation earlier, this theory of learning is effective as it is implied inside the classroom. Students tends to study more most especially when there is a reporting to be done and the teacher will just guide them as they report the lesson in the front of their classmates. Active
Dialogue will now enter the scene wherein in this way; a teacher is able to engage his/her students in a meaningful and active discussion about a certain topic. Considering motivation and reinforcement among students are essential. Teachers must be able to imply it inside the classroom to p romote a harmonious discussion of topics or lessons.
Problem Solving Theory
Proponent’s Logic The proponent of this theory is Wolfgang Kohler, a German psychologist. In the 1920s, many scientists thought that animals could only learn through trial and error. They thought that when an animal faced a problem, such as finding food, it would stumble around until it hit upon the right answer by trying different actions until it got lucky. But Kohler believed that animals, especially chimps, were much smarter than most people imagined. He believed that chimpanzees were capable of intelligence, and even insight. To test his ideas he did several experiments. During During his time time at the Anthropoi Anthropoid d Resear Research ch Statio Station n in the Canary Islands Islands,, Köhler conducted numerous experiments on chimpanzees. He was interested in how chimpanzees were able to retrieve bananas suspended from the top of their enclosure. He observed them standing on boxes, and even stacking boxes on top of each other, to get closer to the food. It has been pointed out, however, that Köhler did not control well for prior experience or the possibility that the animals imitated each other's behavior. Thus, it is difficult to be sure that some trial-and-error learning had not occurred before the apparent "insight" giving the solution to the problem. Student’s Logic Problem Solving Theory is a theory of learning that involves mental process and is part of the larger process that includes problem finding and problem shaping. A mental process for it requires requires the mind to work critically critically in order to solve problems. Problem Problem finding is a mental process wherein a person tries to find or look for a problem in a certain situations. On the other hand, problem shaping is a mental process of giving an intelligent guess or hypothesis for a solution to a problem. This theory is just saying that people, when solving problem, analyzes first the facts, their resources, and their belief before doing something in order to come up with proper solution to the problem. This theory is opposed to Thorndike’s Thorndike’s Connectionis Connectionism m theory that conveys a trialtrialand-error process or stimulus-response association. I agree that people analyzes first before they do something. It’s been natural or innate to us, us, peopl people; e; to thin think k firs firstt befor beforee acti acting ng becau because se for for some someti time mes, s, some some of our our acti action onss are are irreversible that’s why thinking or analyzing a nalyzing is significant. Regarding with the learning of animals, the only thing I can say is that various animals have their own way of thinking that’s why we can’t blame them for somehow if they undergo through trial-and-error process of learning or problem solving process of learning. Classroom Implication Problem Solving Theory can be applied inside the classroom through exposing the students to different problems, like for example, country’s economic problems or problems that people encountered most in their life. Exposing is not enough; discussion of solution to a certain problem is important. In this way, students are able to think critically in order to solve problems.
Meaningful Learning Theory
Proponent’s Logic The proponent of this theory is David Ausubel. David Ausubel is a psychologist who advanced a theory which contrasted meaningful learning from rote learning. In Ausubel's view, to learn meaningfully, students must relate new knowledge (concepts and propositions) to what they already know. He proposed the notion of an advanced organizer as a way to help students link their ideas with new material or concepts. Ausubel's theory of learning claims that new concepts to be learned can be incorporated into more inclusive concepts or ideas. These more inclusive concepts or ideas are advance organizers. Advance organizers can be verbal phrases (the paragraph you are about to read is about Albert Einstein), or a graphic. In any case, the advance organizer is designed to provide, what cognitive psychologists call, the "mental scaffolding: to learn new information. (www.csudh.edu (www.csudh.edu)) Meaningful Reception Learning Theory concerned with how students learn large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a learning activities Learning is based on the representation representational, al, super ordinate ordinate and combinator combinatorial ial processes that occur during the reception of information. A primary process in learning is subsumption in which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a non-verbatim basis (previous knowledge) Meaningful learning results when new information is acquired by linking the new information in the learner's own cognitive structure. ( www.slideshare.net www.slideshare.net ) Student’s Logic Meaningful Learning theory, a theory of learning that let people relate what they have recently learned to their previous knowledge. This theory also involves the use of schema of every individual. Also, a theory that believes that a person should be an active learner shouldn’t be so passive who just takes in information without relating it to other thing he/she had learned before. In this this theory theory,, applica applicatio tion n of what what you have have learne learned d to certai certain n situat situation ion or relate related d activities is important. I believe that if a person is able to apply what he/she had learned, there is a meaningful learning that happens because that person do something that is more than analyzing or taking in the new knowledge he/she had acquired. I agree on this theory of learning wherein rote method is being opposed by this theory. Classroom Implication Meaningful learning theory can be applied inside a classroom through deductive learning, .also, using tools that can utilize our mental skill is a great help for learning to be meaningful. Using graphic organizer and mnemonic devices are just some of many tools that a teacher can use to utilize the mind of his/her students. I also believe that conducting related activities to what students have learned is also a one way of making learning meaningful. Letting students to have mini role playing, poster making or slogan making are some of related activities that students can do to apply what they have learned. Actual application of it, like having hav ing community service is also ideal.
Dual Coding Theory
Proponent’s Logic The Dual Coding Theory proposed by Allan Paivio attempts to give equal weight to verbal and non-verbal processing. Paivio (1986) states: "Human cognition is unique in that it has become specialized for dealing simultaneously with language and with nonverbal objects and events. Moreover, the language system is peculiar in that it deals directly with linguistic input and output (in the form of speech or writing) while at the same time serving a symbolic function with respect to nonverbal nonverbal objects, objects, events, events, and behaviors. behaviors. Any representat representational ional theory must accommodate this dual functionality." (p 53). The theory theory assumes assumes that that there there are two cogniti cognitive ve subsy subsyste stems, ms, one specia specializ lized ed for the repres represent entati ation on and proces processin sing g of nonver nonverbal bal object objects/e s/event ventss (i.e., (i.e., imager imagery), y), and the other other spec specia iali lize zed d for for deal dealin ing g with with lang langua uage ge.. Paiv Paivio io also also post postul ulat ates es two two diff differ eren entt type typess of representational units: "imagens" for mental images and "logogens" for verbal entities which he describes as being similar to "chunks" as described by Miller. Logogens are organized in terms of associations and hierarchies while imagens are organized in terms of part-whole relationships. Dual Coding theory identified three types of processing: (1) representational, the direct activation of verbal or non-verbal representations, (2) referential, the activation of the verbal system system by the nonverbal system or vice-versa, vice-versa, and (3) associative associative processing, processing, the activation activation of representations within the same verbal or nonverbal system. A given task may require any or all of the three kinds of processing. (tip.psychology.org tip.psychology.org)) Student’s Logic Dual Coding Theory, a theory of learning that assumes that the human cognition consist of two subsys subsystem temss that that proces processs knowle knowledge dge simult simultaneo aneousl usly, y, one proces processin sing g the verbal verbal object objectss (verbal subsystem) and one dealing with visual objects (visual subsystem). The verbal subsystem processes and stores linguistic information; wherein linguistic communicative competence takes in place. The visual subsystem processes and stores images and pictorial information. These two subsystems that are different from each other can work together for a better acquisition of knowledge or information. Like for example, in studying geography, a person can learn easily and visualize easily what he/she is reading about certain significant places if it is accompanied by pictures. Also, these two subsystems when work together can help a person, most especially a child, to be more focus or attentive to what he/she is studying or reading. Like for example, many people buy magazines because of the varied information they get and they are attracted to those colorful pictures attached to the magazines that are related to the articles they are reading. People also tend to remember more a certain information or things if it is accompanied by symbols or pictures. Like for example, when reviewing, I sometimes relate certain topic to a symbol or pictures; pictures; we have our topic about classical conditionin conditioning, g, I relates relates it to a dog because of the dog used by Pavlov, and then, when it is about operant conditioning, I relates it to the rat because of the rat inside the Skinner’s Box. Educational Implication Dual Coding Theory is said to be successful in children’s learning because children are not that capable of focusing there whole attention to what is important. Children tend to focus their
attent attention ion to what what is attrac attractiv tivee even even though though it is not import important ant that’s that’s why when inside inside the classroom, teacher must be able to show various pictures that are related to the topic he/she is teaching so that children can focus their attention and learn more easily. It is also also said said that that read readin ing g mate materi rial alss with with imag images es or pict pictur ures es enha enhanc nces es read readin ing g comprehensi comprehension on and vocabulary vocabulary learning learning that’s that’s why we can clearly clearly see that the academic academic books used by children have so many images or pictures.
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
Proponent’s Logic Lev Vygotsky’ socio-cultural theory is widely cited by educators even today, as they formulate plans on how to get the most from students, challenging them to reach their highest poten potentia tial. l. Vygoys Vygoysky' ky'ss belief belief that that social social intera interacti ction on leads leads not only only to increa increased sed levels levels of knowledge, but that it actually changes a child's thoughts and behaviors. Since it is the goal of parents and educators alike to help children become high achievers, taking a look at the work of Vygotsky and examining his conclusions seems wise. The belief that social exposure to various cultures expands a child's pool of knowledge seems seems reason reasonabl able. e. The more more experie experience ncess that that a child child has, has, the richer richer their their world world become becomes. s. Developmental advancements, dependent upon the people and the cultural tools provided to the child, will help him to form his perceptions of the world. Vygotsky's theory suggests that there are three ways in which learning is passed along to an individual. Imitative learning is the first, where the child simply copies another person. Second is instructed learning, where a child recalls direction given by a teacher and then puts it into play, and the third is collaborative learning. Collaborative learning happens when a peer group cooperates to learn or achieve a specific goal while working to understand one another. Student’s Logic Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory, is a theory of learning that tackles about what he called as Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). This “zone” is the area of exploration for which the student is cognitively prepared, but requires help and social interaction to fully develop. This help will come from the ‘scaffolder/s’ that’s why family, peers, relatives, neighbors, and teachers are essential in the mental development of o f the children. Social interaction is important and as well as the culture. Without social interaction, there would be no communication after all and without communication between the scaffolders and the child, then, there would be no learning and cognitive or mental development for the child. Culture is important in such way that it serves as the standards or norms in the mental or cognitive development of the child. Like for example, if the child grows in a family wherein there is always fights or quarrels, then, there is a big possibility that the child will be bully to his/her classmates and thus, will affect his/her learning. People around the child should make sure that they show and teach what is good so that cognitive development of the child will be better as he/she grows. Educational Implication Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory can be applied inside the classroom through proper assist assistanc ancee and encour encourage agement mentss of the teache teacher. r. The teacher teacher,, as we know when inside inside the classroom is the scaffolder that will help students to do certain things and also have involvement in the development development of the students students that’s why teacher must be a good model to his/her students and must know what to do in order to guide the students. A friend, a seatmate, or a classmate can also be a scaffolder in such way that both students students help each other to fill up the gap in acquiring knowledge. knowledge. This peer teaching teaching is widely widely used because some students tend to be more open with his/her weakness to his/her classmate and also, this is done to promote social interaction. Not only that, this method helps the one who is
assigned assigned to teach his/her his/her classmate/s classmate/s to be more competent and also, this can help one who is a slow learner to catch up easily with the lessons. With With the things things mentio mentioned ned above, above, this this will will effect effective ively ly assess assess the child’ child’ss Zone Zone of Proximal Development, and help to transform the classroom with Vygostkian ideas.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Proponent’s Logic Classi Classical cal Condit Condition ioning ing was accident accidentall ally y discove discovered red by Ivan Ivan Petrov Petrovich ich Pavlov Pavlov,, a Russia Russian n physiologist. According to him, this type of learning involves what they call stimulus and response wherein he indicated that if there’s a stimulus, then, there’s always a certain response to it. The proponent came up in to this theory accidentally when he was doing a research on the digestion patterns of dogs. Then, he noticed during the experiment, a stimulus and a response was happening whenever a meat powder was shown to the dog, it began to salivate. Afterwards, he began pairing it with bell that every time a meat powder is to be shown, he will ring the bell. This phenomenon rise into what he called conditioned stimulus (in the experiment, it’s the bell) and conditioned response (in the experiment, it’s the salivation of the dog to the bell). Also, there is what he called unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response; these are the two variables that resulted naturally. Student’s Logic Classical Conditioning, a type of learning that needs reinforcement in order to know the result. On my own understanding, it also means that for every stimulus, there’s equivalent response/s to it. For somehow, I agree in this theory of learning because it is true that as people learn, most especially the children, they need reinforcement or somewhat-like motivation in order to result to an effective learning. The only problem in this theory, I think, is that for every individual there is varied response on how they would react to the stimulus presented by a teacher; the response/s may be negative or positive. For me, perception is also a factor to consider in this theory because it’s important how a person would perceive this stimulus presented by a teacher; if a particular person perceives the stimulus positively, then, it will resulted to a good response but if not, it will resulted to a bad response. Educational Implication Classical Conditioning is a theory of learning so it is applied to a classroom setting wherein the teacher teacher presents presents stimulus, stimulus, accidentall accidentally y or incidental incidentally, ly, and the children or rather rather the students will surely surely response to it based on their perception. A good example of this one is giving encouragements to the students, as a response, students will have the courage co urage to participate in a recitation or will ha ve the courage to study hard. Another example of this is the strictness of the teacher and the use of disciplines inside the classroom. In this case, there would be varied responses from the students: they may study hard as a positive response; and, be afraid to enter their class with that strict teacher, or be afraid to go to school as negative responses. To avoid negative responses, a teacher must be flexible and sensitive to his/her students. Students are unique so they response variedly on different stimuli they perceive.
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Proponent’s Logic Operant Conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for various behaviors. This method or we can alread already y say ‘theor ‘theory’ y’ of learni learning ng was coined coined by B.F. B.F. Skinne Skinner. r. This This theory theory has signif significa icant nt processes which are: reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Skinner Skinner descri described bed reinfo reinforce rcement ment as presen presentat tation ion of any event event that that streng strengthe thens ns or increases the behavior it follows while punishment is the exact opposite of it that weakens or decreases the behavior. These two have both negative and positive sides that are based on the addi additi tion on or remo remova vall of favo favora rabl blee or unfav unfavor orab able le even events ts.. Mean Meanwh whil ile, e, exti extinc ncti tion on is the the reinforcement results in the weakening of the behavior. Student’s Logic Operant Conditioning, a theory that involves rewards and consequences or punishments given or can possibly happens automatically as according to our behavior. For For some someho how, w, I agree agree on this this theo theory ry becau because se it is true true that that thro throug ugh h rewa reward rdss and punishments, the behavior of students towards learning can be possibly controlled but then there is this in my mind, as a result of reading an article in the internet about punishments, that some people (most especially those who have low self-esteem) views punishments as threats. Also, we shouldn’t deny the fact that there are times we can’t avoid being punished by others or by our own conscience. This fact behind punishment makes me disagree in this theory of learning because others, including me for somehow, practices on what they called ‘self-punishment’. As a result of excessive self-punishment, people who are used to this method may experience apathy, boredom, depression, addiction to drugs and alcohol, television fantasies and the worst, suicide. Becaus Becausee people people do someth something ing they they think think that that is wrong, wrong, they they punish punish their their own selves selves thus resulting to the things I mentioned earlier. Some people, whom we used to call ‘emo’ nowadays, practice excessive self-punishments. Well, these are only my beliefs in this theory. All I can say is that it has good and bad side. Educational Implication Operant Conditioning as a theory of learning can be applied inside the classroom through the use of rewards and punishments. Yes, punishments; it may sound ironic as I disagree on this matter lately but takes this as one of why I agree on this for somehow. I believe that light punishments should be given so that students may realize how important it is to study and to become obedient. Of course, giving rewards is advisable when handling children but not so advisable when it comes to teenagers because some teenagers, nowadays, are hard to please; for sometimes, some teenagers don’t even care for the reward. Giving positive reinforcement may do to all ages so it is the most advisable thing a teacher can do in applying this theory inside the classroom.
CONNECTIONISM
Proponent’s Logic Connectionism is a learning theory which states that learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses; these associations are weakened or strengthened by the nature and frequency of stimulus-response (S-R) pairing. This theory that was proposed by Edwa Edward rd Lee Lee Thor Thorndi ndike ke was was also also call called ed Tria Triall and Erro Errorr lear learni ning ng theo theory ry.. It is term termed ed as ‘connectionism’ because of Thorndike’s idea about the bonds between stimulus and response. This learning theory is also famous of the puzzle box experiment done by the proponent wherein a cat was inside the wooden puzzle box and a fish was placed far from the front door of the puzzle box. The cat inside the box had done anything just to try to escape from the box. After trying many times how to escape, it pressed the lever (S) inside the box and opened the door (R) finally; the fish at the front door served as the reward of the cat. In this experiment, trial and error learning was shown as the cat tries and does anything to escape. In strengthening/weakening the connection between stimulus and response, Thorndike came up to the three primary laws of learning: (1) law of readiness – a series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence; (2) law of exercise – connections become strengthened with practices and weakened when practice is discontinued; and, (3) law of effect – responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding state of affairs will be strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation. Student’s Logic Connectionism, a theory of learning that involves bonds or connections between the stimulus stimulus and the response. response. A theory theory of learning learning that somewhat somewhat depends upon the readiness readiness of a child. I agree on this theory of learning most especially on the part wherein the three primary laws of learning affect the bond between stimulus and response. If we think of it deeply, it is true that learning would not be that successful if these three primary laws of learning are not applied. Also, if one of these three laws is ignored, learning would be surely interrupted that’s why in the application of this theory of learning, the teacher should be aware and assured that the three laws of learning flow rightly inside the classroom. Educational Implication Connectionism, as theory of learning, can be best applied inside the classroom if we consider the three primary laws of learning as the framework of teaching strategy. Putting the law of readiness into consideration is important so that it wouldn’t be hard for the students students to underst understand and what the teache teacherr is teachi teaching ng to them. them. Regard Regarding ing with this this law, law, knowing the capacities of students to learn is essential. The law of exercise is best applied when a teacher gives home works, seat works, written/oral examinations and other related activities to his/her students. The law of effect can be put into action as the teacher gives encouragements praises, and deserving high scores/grades to his/her students.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Proponent’s Logic Social Learning theory, a theory of learning that was proposed By Albert Bandura. This theory is also known as “Observational Learning” (Modeling) or “Social Cognitive Learning Theory”. Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning. His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people. In Bandura’s famous “Bobo doll” studies, he demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. In this experiment, he let children to watch a movie where in that movie, some adult were acting acting violently violently toward a bobo doll. Bandura later allowed the children to play in a room with the bobo doll and the children, when they saw the bobo doll; they acted violently toward it as wh at they saw in the movie. Also, this theory has what they called “modeling process” that includes five steps: (1) attention – a person must be able to pay attention to the model; (2) retention – a person must be able to store information based on what he/she observed to his/her chosen model; (3) motor reproduction – a person must be able to actually perform the action or behavior he/she had observed; (4) motivation – a person must be able to know the purpose of imitating that certain behavior; and, (5) self management – a person must be able to control his/her self in order to do well the behavior he/she is imitating. Student’s Logic Social Learning Theory is a theory of learning that involves critical observation of others and we prefer them as model. A theory of learning that can occur without a change in behavior. A theory wherein cognition plays an important role in learning. A theory that can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviors. I agree on this theory of learning because I also think that people, most especially children, learn as they watched certain model. Example of this is when we watched TV, because it easily catches up our attention, we are able to learn new information even though there is no change in our behavior. I also think that this theory is effective since the modeling process can possibly teaches new behaviors, influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors, and increases the frequency of similar behavior. Classroom Implication I think Social Learning Theory will be effective when implied inside the classroom. Letting the students to watch she educational video tapes or cds is advisable because it easily
catch attention and the students learn more as they enjoy watching. Describing the consequences of certain behaviors helps students to know if the behavior they want to imitate will benefit them or not. Exposing students to variety of models is essential in order to break down traditional stereotypes. As a conclusion, this theory of learning is effective and it is widely advice to implement inside the classroom by Albert Bandura.
FIELD THEORY
Proponent’s Logic Fiel Field d Theo Theory ry of Lear Learni ning ng was was prop propos osed ed by Kurt Kurt Lewi Lewin, n, a Germ German an-A -Ame meri rica can n psychologist, psychologist, one of the modern pioneers of social, social, organizational, and applied applied psychology psychology.. Lewin, as a neo-gestaltist, transferred the Gestalt model to everyday situations. He was greatly influenced by Einstein and applied the idea of Einsteinian field physics to psychology. He proposed that human behavior is a function of both the person and the environment in which the behavi behavior or takes takes place, place, includ including ing the social social parame parameter ters. s. He postul postulate ated d that that needs needs organi organize ze perception of the field and acting within the field. He understood a dynamic interaction of elements in the field. He believed behavior was purposeful and visualized the individual as existing in a field of forces which included +valence forces which attract people, and -valence forces forces which which repel repel people people.. The blendi blending ng of these these fields fields produce produced d and approa approach/ ch/avo avoida idance nce dynamic. According to Lewin's theory, learning is essential to coping with these opposing force fields. Changes in valences and values are important to the learner's ability to deal with ongoing situations. Lewin also believed that a holistic investigation of human behavior and learning must include the environment in which the learning is taking place, including the psychological environment of the learner and others with whom he interacts. Lewin’s field theory leads to field research on human behavior. Lewin believed that it was possib possible le to study study social social and psychol psychologi ogical cal phenom phenomena ena experi experimen mental tally; ly; as a result result he conducted experiments in natural settings where he manipulated complex situational variables and observed the effects. effects. This approach has been used widely widely in education education as "action "action research" research" and has had a large impact on modern research. Student’s Logic Based on what I’ve understand about this theory, Field theory talks about the behavior as a result of the individual traits and the environment. I think the ‘field’ that the proponent was saying is about the facts which a person’s behaviors depends on. As according to the proponent, behavior of a person depends on the environment (includes the people who surrounds him/her) and his/her traits. Individuals were seen to behave differently according to the way in which tensions between perceptions of the self and of the environment were worked through. Then, there is this life space that the proponent is talking about. ‘Life space’ is the present condi conditi tion on or plac placee wher wheree a pers person on used used to live live.. Here Here,, a perso person n acts acts accor accordi ding ng to his/ his/he her r personality or traits and environment. The significance of this is that it had to be viewed to understand the behavior of a certain person. Behavior depends on present field, neither in past nor in future. I agree on this statement because I believe for somehow that people behave based on what happening on the present times. Even though some people can’t stop reminiscing the past, still, they behave on present field and just goes with the flow of life. All people have dreams for their future, but then, we all don’t know what comes ahead not until we do something now. Dreams will serve as goals and no one knows when this will come true that’s why our behavior on present times is very essential.
Classroom Implication How this theory would be applied inside the classroom? Based on what I’ve understand, Field Theory can be applied inside the classroom through knowing the knowledge (they called it as schema) of your students based on the subject that will be discuss. This can help a teacher to know where he/she will focus less or much in discussing the lesson. Like for example, if most of the student already already knew about the history history of computer, computer, then, the teacher can focus less on this topic by just giving a review and additional information. I think knowing the strengths and weaknesses of each student is also important. If some students are better in oral, then, a teacher must be able to have oral exams or recitation in his/her class. Then, for some students who are good in written, he/she must also give written exams and paperwork. Developing group interaction is also advisable to enable students to cooperate with each other. This will develop their social skill and their behav iors towards other people.
Information Processing: Atkinson-Shiffrin Memory Model Proponents’ Logic
In 1968 Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed a model of human memory which posited two distinct memory stores: short-term memory, and long-term memory. Later a third memory store (actually the first in sequence) was added: sensory memory. Sensory memory contains information received immediately from a person's senses into the human brain. It is affiliat affiliated ed with the transduction transduction of energy (change (change from one energy to another). another). Short-term Short-term memory memory is sometimes sometimes called working memory (although (although recent research has demonstrated these are two separate issues) and relates to what we are thinking about at any given given moment moment in time time as well as what what we have have atte attend nded ed to in the rece recent nt past past.. In gene genera rall information in working memory is the information you are conscious of and can work with. It is created created by our paying attention attention to an external stimulus, stimulus, an internal internal thought, thought, or both. It will initially initially last somewhere somewhere around 15-30 seconds unless it is repeated (called maintenance maintenance or rote rehearsal), at which point it may be available for up to 20 minutes. Long-term memory is the relatively permanent memory store in which you hold information even when you are no longer attending to it. Storing information in LTM is equivalent to a computer writing information out to its hard drive, or to a tape recorder writing patterns of magnet magnetiza izatio tion n onto onto tape tape to record record music. music. The record recording ing proces processs is called called storag storagee and the "playback" process, retrieval. Student’s Logic
This is a theory of learning that deals with memory. There’s nothing I can do but to agree about this matter since there is nothing to argue about. I am just thinking about that maybe Atki Atkins nson on and and Shif Shiffr frin in just just want wanted ed to tell tell some someth thin ing g about about memo memory ry and and the the info inform rmat atio ion n processing; they have no intention to disagree to the others’ theory of learning. It is something like that they share some information that I believe is true. There’s nothing to argue about. People learn and of course, there is information processing that takes place. Just try to think of it, how people could learn if they don’t take information from their environment? Information processing is important and I believe that it is a natural process for a person to undergo in this process. Classroom Implication
Since, there is what they called sensory memory, for somehow; it is advisable to have repetition on what a teacher is discussing about or to just directly point out important information so that it will go to short term memory and if possible, it may go to long term memory. Also, it is advisable to a teacher to present information in an organized manner. A teacher must be able to apply certain techniques used in teaching/learning processes and these are: imaging, method of loci, pegword method, rhyming, using acronym, etc. a teacher must choose which is best for his/her students to keep in mind the lesson for the day.
METACOGNITION THEORY
Proponent’s Logic In his 1976 1976 articl article, e, John John Flavel Flavelll recogni recognized zed that that metacog metacognit nition ion consis consisted ted of both both monitoring and regulation aspects. It was here that the term metacognition was first formally used in the title of his paper. He defined metacognition as follows: "In any kind of cognitive transaction with the human or non-human environment, a variety of information processing activities may go on. Metacognition refers, among other things, to the active monitoring and consequent regulation and orchestration of these processes in relation to the cognitive objects or data on which they bear, usually in service of some concrete goal or objective." (p.232). Hacker (1998) offered offered a more comprehensive comprehensive definition definition of metacognition, metacognition, to include include the knowledge of one's own cognitive and affective processes and states as well as the ability to consciously and deliberately monitor and regulate those processes and states. Flavell (1976) also identified three “metas” that children gradually acquire in the context of information storage and retrieval. These were: (a) The child learns to identify situations in which intentional, conscious storage of certain information may be useful at some time in the future; (b) the child learns to keep current any information which may be related to active problem-solving, and have it ready to retrieve as needed; and (c) the child learns how to make deliberate systematic searches for information which may be helpful in solving a problem, even when the need for it has not been foreseen. Student’s Logic Metacognition Theory, a theory of learning that refers to a level of thinking that involves active control over the process of thinking that is used in learning strategies. A theory of learning that talks about evaluating our thinking process. Based on my understanding, this theory is about how we think in order to solve certain problems that we encounter. It also includes how or what effective strategies we choose in order learn successfully. Under Under meta metacog cogni niti tion on theor theory y are are the the othe otherr ment mental al proc proces esse ses: s: emot emotio ion, n, memo memory ry,, perce percepti ption, on, motiva motivatio tion, n, and reason reasoning ing.. This This mental mental proces processs displa displays ys an evalua evaluatio tion n of our thinking process. Like for example in emotion, we feel sad or happy based on the information or facts we had obtain from our environment. env ironment. I believe for somehow that this theory requires a higher thinking skill because this theory requires a person for somehow to think beyond the materials and information given to him/her in order to solve a certain problem or in order to learn effectively. I also think that this theory require a person to sharpen and use meaningfully what knowledge he/she had acquired. Educational Implication Metacognition Theory, as a theory of learning can be implied inside the classroom by having activities that will enhance the intellectual aspect of a person. Letting a person to answer
the question, ‘”why he/she came to certain answers or actions?” will surely help a person to enhance his/her mind in metacognition. When I was in high school, I remember the activity that we had done in our Religion class. Our Religion teacher instructed us to draw a poster about the topic we had recently finished. Then, after that, he let all of us to talk in front of the class and explain why we came up to such poster. I think this one that we had done is an example of activities we can do in order to imply this theory.
SCHEMATA THEORY
Proponent’s Logic Schema theory was developed by R. C. Anderson, a respected educational psychologist. This learning theory views organized knowledge as an elaborate network of abstract mental structures which represent one understanding of the world. The term schema was first used by Piaget in 1926, so it was not an entirely new concept. Anderson, however, expanded the meaning. Schemata are always organized meaningfully, can be added to, and, as an individual gains gains experi experience ence,, develop develop to includ includee more more variab variables les and more more specif specifici icity ty.. Each Each schema schema is embedded in other schemata and itself contains subschema. It changes moment by moment as information is received. They may also be reorganized when incoming data reveals a need to restructure the concept. The mental representations used during perception and comprehension, and which evolve as a result of these processes, processes, combine combine to form a whole which is greater than the sum of its parts. Student’s Logic Schemata Theory, a theory of learning that involves the use of previous knowledge in order to relate it to the new knowledge or to use it in certain situations. This new knowledge can either replace or can improve your previous knowledge. It is also say that when the new information or knowledge is interconnected to the previous one, the tendency is it can be easily remembered. In this theory, there is also what we called ‘assimilation’ wherein it involves the reuse of schema to fit the new information. This theory is often use by the adult learners rather by the children because the adult are more aware of their previous knowledge than the children who tends to forget what they had learned in the past school year. But then, the situation that the children are involve to in forgetting the previous lesson is seriously supervise by the teachers wherein they always have a recap of the topic and then, after recapping, they will relate it to the new topic. I strongly believe that the use of schema is very essential most especially today that we shouldn’t be always contented of what we already know. There should be always a progress or a transformation of knowledge because if no changes happen, then, we would be stuck up in one place and cannot move even a little in order to success. Educational Implication Like what I’ve written recently, schemata theory is implied inside the classroom through recapping of the previous topic and relating it to the new one. Like for example in a History class, when we were in our elementary days, we used to know that Jose Rizal is our national hero and he had two novels: novels: “Noli “Noli Me Tanger Tangere” e” and “El “El Filibu Filibuste steris rismo” mo”.. These These knowle knowledge dge or information about Rizal can be later use and can be later refine as years passes by until we enter
college that we would have a ‘Rizal subject’ that will tackles more about the life and works of Rizal. Of course, in this example, schema is important in such way that if you don’t have it, then, it wouldn’t be easy for a person to learn facts about Rizal. Also, schema is important in math subjects because if you don’t have it and you will never ever understand the higher math that includes calculus, trigonometry, and many more that comprise math as a complicated subject that requires a high thinking ability. In over all of what I’ve written, schema is use in all subjects. The importance of this is clearly seen that’s why the implication of this is widely seen also.
Constructivism Theory
Proponent’s Logic Constructivism is a psychological theory of knowledge (epistemology (epistemology)) which argues that humans generate knowledge and meaning from their experiences. Constructivism is not a specific pedagogy, although it is often confused with constructionism, constructionism, an educational theory developed by Seymour Papert. Papert. Piaget's Piaget's theory of constructivist learning has had wide ranging impact on learning theories and teaching methods in education and is an underlying theme of many education reform movements. Research support for constructivist teaching techniques has been mixed, with some research supporting these techniques and other research contradicting those results.
Instruction is under the theory of constructivism, educators focus on making connections between between facts and fostering fostering new understandi understanding ng in students. students. Instructors Instructors tailor their teaching teaching strate strategie giess to studen studentt respons responses es and encoura encourage ge student studentss to analyze analyze,, interp interpret ret,, and predic predictt information. Teachers also rely heavily on open-ended questions and promote extensive dialogue among students. Student’s Logic Constructivism Theory, not only a learning theory but becomes almost a philosophical though thoughtt that that is widely widely accepted. accepted. Also, Also, this this theory theory is somewh somewhat at like like a modern modern theory theory that combines the other learning theory altogether made by other constructivists like David Ausubel, Jerome Bruner, and etc. In this theory of learning, a student is responsible for his/her own learning. There is a process of discovery or exploration wherein students have to find/look for it on various reference materials and work for it independently. The instructor or facilitator here only becomes a guide in the wide understanding of the lesson. A good example of this is used by some of our college professors in teaching us our lessons, some of them give the topics we will discuss for the whole semester/quarter or they assign topics for reporting and, they let us go by our own to know what it is and where it is. Then, inside the classroom, our professors let each one of us to explain in our own words about what we had discovered or searched about the topic and our professors explain further more and give more examples. This theory is applicable and effective to adult learners because it will enhance their sense of responsibility as learners who are now becoming independent and also, it enhances our self-discovery of many other things we need to know. Educational Implication I’ve already gave an example earlier how some of our professors apply Constructivism Theory but not only that in that way professors/teachers can apply this by letting students to explor exploree on their their own. A teacher teacher can also also apply apply this this throug through h encour encouragi aging ng criti critical cal thinki thinking, ng, inquiry, students’ autonomy, and communication among the students.
Asking follow-up questions and elaboration in such way that it helps students to think critically and enhances their metacognition about things to learn. A teacher also needs patience in waiti waiting ng for for stude student ntss to thin think k about about the the ques questi tion onss so they they can can answ answer er it corr correc ectl tly y or approximately as what teacher expects to them to answer.
PROF. ED. 03 – Theories of Learning Submitted by: Rocillo, Michelle G.
Submitted to: Sir Bert Tuga
