S e r i e O r i e n t a l e R o m a CVI
Asian Hor izons Gi useppe T ucci’s Bu ddh ist, I n di a n, H i m a laya n a n d Cen t r a l Asi a n St u di es Ed ited by A. A. Di Cast ro a nd D. T em plem a n
Melbou r ne 2 01 5
Contents Preface............................................................................................................. xi Introduction.....................................................................................................xv
PART I 1. Giuseppe Tucci, anti-Orientalist..................................................................3 Gustavo Benavides
2. A glimpse of some archives on Giuseppe Tucci’s scientific expeditions to Tibet: 1929–1939................................................................................... 16 Francesco D’A relli
3. The problem with folk: Giuseppe Tucci and the transformation of folksongs into scientific artefacts.............................................................. 45 Ruth Gamble
4. “A very useful lie”: Giuseppe Tucci, Tibet, and scholarship under dictatorship...............................................................................................68 A lex McK ay
5. The “thought” of Giuseppe Tucci..............................................................83 Francesco Sferra
PART II 6. Reaffirming the “origins” of Mahāmudrā............................................... 113 Giovanni A rca
7. The implication of Giuseppe Tucci’s work for epic and Purāṇic studies........175 Greg Bailey
8. Merchants, mercenaries and monarchs: Christians in Safavid Iran......... 184 James Barry
9. A survey of Sassanian seals.................................................................... 197 Z ohreh Baseri
10. The Bodhisattva Vajrapāṇi’s Laghutantraṭīkā and the rotation of yoginīs: structure of the maṇḍala and dynamic motion....................... 210 Claudio Cicuzza
11. Nibbāna as the fruit of meritorious deeds in the Apadāna....................... 229 Chris Clark
ix
12. Mapping the Buddhist sacred status of Triloknāth.................................. 241 Diana Cousens
13. Goat heads and goddesses in Swāt , Gandhāra and Kashmir and connected problems................................................................................. 263 A ngelo A ndrea Di Castro
14. The theory and practice of the Mandala: ritual and identity in the Kabīr Panth....................................................................................... 296 P eter Friedlander
15. Philosophical reasoning and spiritual practice: Giuseppe Tucci on Buddhist philosophical systems.............................................................. 313 A ndrew McGarrity
16. The story of Bon in the Naxi Dongba religion.........................................348 Christine M athieu
17. Under the female gaze: Isabella Bird’s travels among the Tibetans.........409 Isabella Ofner
18. The creation of theism personified: a conceptual history of the god-maker Avalokiteśvara....................................................................... 431 I ain Sinclair
19. Revising Tucci’s sixteenth—seventeenth century: new data on Tibet’s Civil War (1603–1621)................................................................. 479 David Templeman
20. Google Earth™ @ Ghazni....................................................................... 495 David Thomas
21. Rediscovering rainbow colour in the textile aesthetic of Bhutan............. 529 A lathea Vavasour
22. The classical Arabs’ thought, Bayazid al-Ansari (1525–1572) and his mystical work Maqsud al-Mu’minin: mysticism and Sunni orthodoxy in the Pakhtun zone.................................................................................544 Dennis Walker
23. Cultures of the body: medical pluralism, bacteria and Tibetan refugees..........585 Tanya Zivkovic
List of Illustations.......................................................................................... 597 Contributors...................................................................................................605 Rome Oriental Series.....................................................................................609
x
6
GIOVANNI ARCA
REAFFIRMING THE "ORIGINS" OF MAHAMUDRA
cultural landscape two great spiritual traditions, In the vast Mahiimudrii and rDzogs chen, have crossed paths many and in many ways. A debate about their origins, similarities and differences developed not later than the twelfth century and went on for many hundreds of years. Socio-political considerations, "technical" aspects of the practice, insti "esoteric" value of spiritual transmission may all be considered tutional concurrent in this debate. What stands out in the texts presented and commented on here, however, is the concern of the authors for what can be defined as a "spiritual integrity" of the Mahiimudrii tradition. The main reason for this concern seems to be the effectiveness of the teaching itself, and the difference any "contamination" can make the judgement of results of the relative spiritual practices. This, and not a different teachings, was in fact the fo�us of the debate on the "origins" of Mahiimudrii. MAHAMUDRA, RDZOGS
CHEN, CHAN AND THE TUCCI LEGACY
The debate around the origins of Mahiimudrii is closely connected to the studies on the origins of rDzogs chen, to which Giuseppe Tucci has contributed with his research. Tucci explored the possible connections
113
Asian Horizons: Studies in Honour of Giuseppe Tucci and His Legacy
between the Chinese Ch 'an and rDzogs chen, reviewing and updating his arguments when new documents and translations became available.1 His arguments on possible original links between Ch 'an and rDzogs chen have been the obj ect of a variety of reactions: scholars have alternated acceptance, refusal and a varied mix of the two, according to their interpretations and the evidence that became progressively available.2 The difficulty of the subject is clearly by the simple fact that the discussion is still alive today and it does not seem that a conclusive position can be easily reached. It is inevitable that new findings and new evidences inform newer and more precise interpretations of texts and historical phenomena: no pioneer scholarly work can survive intact through time, confronted with new research other scholars have been able to make, which often build on the previous works. What I think is more relevant, though, is that Tucci was able to identify the fundamental element in a of views which spanned many the gradualist and the non-gradualist approach to paths, which encompassed interest in the Tantric traditions, Tibetan Buddhism, the nexus between Chinese and Taoism, and Mongol socio-religious strategies. This approach is the same core element which is present in the around the origins of Mahiimudra and its differences with rDzogs chen, and is also the reason why it represents a fundamental point in this article. It is repeatedly mentioned in the Sa skya bka' 'bum, in reference to a rDzogs chen of "Chinese style". This "Chinese rDzogs chen" was apparently quite close to Ch 'an and possibly influenced by other religious traditions as, for example, Taoism. Evidence of a complex coexistence of different religious elements whose origin is uncertain is provided by the ongoing research on the in particular those related to Ch 'an and Tantric Buddhism.4
Initially in Tucci 1 95 8 : 1 02, with later reflections present in Tucci 1 988: 1 1 1 5 . Among those who highlighted the doctrinal similarities between Ch 'an and rDzogs chen we find Walter Evans Wentz, almost at the same time of Giuseppe Tucci's Minor Buddhist Texts (Evans Wentz 1 954, 2000); Ueyama Daishun (1 983); Jeffrey Broughton (1 983); Carmen Meinert (2002). Among those more inclined to view a relatively more independent origin of the two traditions, distancing themselves from Tucci's view, there are Per Kvaerne (1 983); Samten Karmay (1 988); Raymond E. Robertson and Kenneth K. Tanaka (1 992). From the eighth century to at least the thirteenth century. From the seminal work of Paul Demieville, Le Concile de Lhasa: un controverse sur le quietisme entre bouddhistes de l 'Inde et de la Chine au VJJJe siecle d<;: ! 'ere chretienne
114
C h ap t e r 6 11 G i o v a n n i A r c a
These show that the interactions between Chinese Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism included historical and doctrinal not only between Ch 'an and rDzogs chen, but between Ch 'an and Tantra in general. Scholars have different views about how and how much Ch 'an ideas were integrated into Mahiiyoga Tantric teachings, and about the possible existence of a "proto- rDzogs chen" which absorbed Ch 'an ideas.5 The relevance that Tucci attributed to commonalities between rDzogs chen and Ch 'an not be overlooked, under-evaluated or disregarded, especially in light of the pronounced tendency to "harmonise" different Buddhist traditions that scholars now see as having been an important phenomenon during the Sung rule (960-1279).6 The debate around the original identities of these traditions and on the interactions between different forms is therefore likely to remain open. of Buddhism and other religious
MAHAMUDRA
RDZOGS CHEN
Mahiimudrii ("Great Symbol" or "Seal") is the Sanskrit name of a religious tradition and of an inner, individual state of spiritual realisation. It defines both a meditational, psychophysical path and its final achievement. Its corpus of teachings and techniques is rooted in Tantrism, and more specifically into the Tantric practices of visualisation and transformation. Its practices have been widely incorporated into many Inda-Tibetan religious traditions and beliefs . rDzogs chen ("Great Perfection") i s the Tibetan name of a religious tradition which also represents an state of spiritual realisation. Considered as the final stage of Anuyoga, it is also known as Atiyoga. rDzogs chen is a "self-liberating" path, where the initiation is by a "direct introduction" to the experiential knowledge of the practitioner's "natural state". This is generally defined with the term rig pa or chos nyid mngon sum ("real dharmatii", or "true condition of all dharma") and it is
(1 952), to the research work of Robert Mayer and Cathy Cantwell on early Tibetan documents, among which is Early Tibetan Documents on Phurpafrom Dunhuang (2008). See the opposing arguments provided by Meinert one side, and Van Schaik and Dalton on the other, regarding the interpretation of the commentary in document PT 699 (Meinert 2002; Van Schaik & Dalton 2004). Chiin fang 2001.
115
Asian Horizons: Studies in Honour of Giuseppe Tucci and His Legacy
considered a non-dual state of pure awareness, beyond any conditioning mental activities and emotions. The need for stressing the distinctions between Mahiimudrii and rDzogs chen has always accompanied the coexistence of the two traditions in Tibetan cultural history, the most obvious reason for this being the similarities present in their systems. The debate regarding the real or fictitious nature of these similarities has produced an abundance of discordant interpretations, which go many centu ries back in time and are still present and a matter of discussion nowadays. Systems like Ch 'an, Mahiiyoga and rDzogs chen undoubtedly do share enough commonality to justify the interest of practitioners and scholars attempting to investigate their respective origins and distinctive traits,7 though the questions regarding the relevance of late syncretism or remote, common roots, are probably destined to remain mostly unanswered. The influence of rDzogs chen on Mahiimudrii seems to be essentially due to the following circumstances: 1.
coexistence of the two systems in the main traditional schools of Tibetan Buddhism
2.
interpretation of the dohii and other written sources
3.
misleading classification and terminology
4.
factual similarities
These will be discussed in order below.
Coexistence The coexistence of Mahiimudrii and rDzogs chen has resulted in a certain number of loanwords, where terminology specific to one or the other system has been consistently used. At the same time, representatives of different schools tend to adopt examples and concepts taken freely from both systems while delivering their teachings. Referring to studies conducted by Meinert, van Schaik and Dalton, Kapstein and Dotson (2007:xi) write: "( . . .) the creative evolution of religious practices between China and Tibet in multi ethnic Dunhuang (. . . where) trends such as Ch 'an, Mahiiyoga and rDzogs chen enj oyed a degree of fluidity prior to their codification as distinct systems of teaching". I
116
C h ap t e r 6 II G i o v a n n i A r c a
For example, sometimes the same method has been called "Mahamudrii,'' by the rNying ma pa school and "rDzogs chen" by the bKa' brgyud pa and the other schools. This is simply due to the fact that the rNying ma pa name for all their the term "rDzogs chen" as a traditionally highest, most important practices, reflecting how great was the regard in which they hold Atiyoga, which they consider the method. Another example is that in the Mahamudra teaching of bKa' brgyud pa of to the state (of the mind)" that has tradition there is a the aim of introducing the disciples to the state of contemplation, to make them understand the nature of the true Mahamudra. This state is expressed using three words: "essence, nature and form", in a very similar way to what we find in rDzogs chen, where the same concept is expressed with the words: "essence, nature and energy" (ngo ho, rang bzhin and thugs rje). 8 Both the rNying ma pa and bKa' brgyud pa had important practitioners of rDzogs chen and Mahamudra, and these masters were of course examples and practices from both these traditions, to then overlapped and influenced each other. This happened regardless of the fact that teachers did not always actually "mix up" different teachings and traditions, because word borrowings, comparisons and parallelisms were often superficially interpreted by the students and practitioners. An example of the practice of "linking" Mahamudra and rDzogs chen, but assimilating one teaching to the other, is well represented by the following quote:
Though the common acceptance of the term thugs rje revolves around the concept of "compassion" (variably rendered and interpreted), its meaning in rDzogs chen involves more than mercy and compassionate ethics, strongly implying the ideas of "energy", "potential energy", "activity", "dynamic force", etc., as the reflections and rendering of several scholars suggest: N. Norbu, Clemente 1 999:235; Achard 1 999: 1 1 1 (Note 41); Goodman, Davidson 1 992: 14; Berzin 2001 :7. Furthermore, the use ofthe word in the Klang chen snying thig further suggests the idea of a creative energy: "As it (thugs rje) is ceaseless, it is the basis of various manifestations", (from the gZhi lam 'bras bu'i sman lam, a short prayer of aspiration attributed to 'Jigs med gling pa and included in the Klang chen snying thig cycle). Therefore, the term thugs rje is a good example of Tibetan polysemy, and the umpteenth piece of evidence of the prevailing value of context in semantics. I do agree that, as pointed out in different ways and degrees by the above mentioned scholars, translating thugs rje as "compassion" in some specific rDzogs chen contexts would introduce the idea of an ethically inspired action, which is an element not functionally present inAtiyaga as part of its essentially self liberating and non dual method of practice.
117
Asian Horizons: Studies in Honou r of Giu seppe Tu cci and His Legacy
If the mind is clear, observe the essence of clarity: this is Mahiimudrii, union of void and clarity. If the mind rejoices, observe the essence of pleasure: this is Atiyoga, of void and pleasure. If the mind is empty, observe the face of the void: this is Mahiimiidhyamika, union of void and knowledge. The quote belongs to a very short text, entitled "The Refined Gold of the Oral Teaching About the Practice of Understanding, and Behaving According to the Mahamudrii',9 written by an important master of the 'Brug pa bka' pa school. Ngag dban kun dga' bstan 'dzin khams sprul (1680-1728), who had also rNying ma pa teachers (like the brothers gTer chen 'Gyur med rDo rje and Lo chen Dharma Sri Kun dga' bstan 'dzin, both from sMing 'grol gling monastery). relevant here: gsal stong, bde Three are stong and rig stong. Stong means "void", "emptiness", and it is used in conjunction with three different words, respectively meaning "clarity" (gsal), "pleasure" (bde) and "knowledge" (rig).10 The three resulting expressions convey the meaning of of void and clarity", "union of void and pleasure" and "union of void and knowledge", clearly defining stong, the void, as their common denominator. What I find interesting is that gsal stong ("union of void and clarity") is equated to Mahamudra, bde stong with rDzogs chen and rig stong with Mahamadhyamika. An analysis of the doctrinal which is at the basis of this shared connection to siinyata would definitely be interesting to pursue, but well beyond the limits of this short document. I only briefly notice here that this implies a strong commonality between different teaching traditions, and the overall impression is that these are perceived j ust as different aspects of one path, each of them essentially
10
118
Ngag dban kun dga' bstan 'dzin khams sprul, (Ngag dban kun dga' bstan 'dzin dge legs dpal bzang po), Phyag rgya chen po'i lta bsgom spyod gsum gyi nyams su Zen tshul zhal gdams gser zhun ma. Na ro chos drug texts of the 'Brug pa dkar brgyud pa traditions: a collection of rare texts on the Six Doctrines of Naropa, 1 978, TBRC W2 3652 2393. Also in the translation by Dell'Angelo and Maglietti (1 993). The semantic value of these words (and of rig pa in particular) is extremely wide, as well as their different possible translations in English.
Chapter 6 I I Giovanni Arca
corresponding to a type of experience. Interestingly, this is not obtained through assimilation or juxtaposition; it is not syncretism but rather a kind of essential classification of different systems of practice, organised according to one's experience, any doctrinal belonging and practice. Tantric Mahiimudrii and self-liberating Atiyoga are here considered as connected expressions of qualitatively different experiences or "planes" of one and only realisation, sharing sunyatii as the common basis of all are phenomena (dhiirma). Historical and doctrinal origins and of "purifying", his simply not relevant here, as the author "refining" everything from any exterior shell, to show what he believes is the "golden" core of these teachings. This text, and the passage quoted above in particular, represents therefore an interesting example of how teachers freely created links according to their own between different experience and what they thought more useful and effective for their teaching purposes. Sometimes these links could be justified in terms of of a be the historical and doctrinal relations, other times they more "esoteric" understanding and others still were simply determined by reasons and convenience. personal or Although certainly not common in the dGe lugs pa tradition, rDzogs chen had some great representatives in that school too, like the first Pal} chen Lama, Blo bzang chos kyi rgyal mtshan (1570-1662) and the fifth Dalai Lama (1617-1682). It seems reasonable to suppose that rDzogs chen pa, particularly in had very probably other followers among the dGe the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, not only of the and ascendency of these leaders, but for the links that the teachings of pa", also the Great Perfection had with the "Mahiimudrii of the dGe called dGa ' ldan phyag rgya chen po, expounded by the Pal} chen Lama in his work dGa ' ldan bka ' brgyud rin po che ' i phyag chen rtsa ba rgyal ba ' i gzhung lam (Root Text of the Precious dGe lugs-bKa ' brgyud'1 Mahiimudrii: The Main Road of the Victorious Ones). As Karmay interestingly points out: II
The expression bka ' brgyudhas been interpreted both as the name of bKa' rgyud school and as "oral" or "whispered transmission". In the first case it would indicate a combined tradition, while the second interpretation would refer to a specif c dGe lugs tradition of Mahiimudrii. The subj ect has been investigated by Roger R. Jackson (Newland 2001 : 165).
119
A sian
S t u di e s i n Ho n o ur of G iu s epp e Tuc c i a n d
L ega cy
Writing this work, the Pan chen Lama in fact brought an already established hidden teaching tradition among the dGe lugs pa known as dBen sa brnyan brgyud handed down from Tsong-kha-pa. (. . .) The Pan-chen Lama syncretised the dBen sa brnyan brgyud with all other esoteric teachings of Tibetan Buddhism (. . .) For [him and other later dGe lugs pa masters of the 16th and 18th centuries], MTPh [Man ngag lta ba'i phreng ba] contains the genuine teaching of and therefore they consider it to be the principal work expounding the doctrine of rDzogs ch en which in their view is essentially akin to dGe ldan bka' brgyud (sic passim).12
These doctrinal borrowings and sharing occurred among all schools, except the Sa skya pa, who never had any relevant, important rDzogs chen master, and because of this the Mahamudrii teachings present in their tradition have been less influenced by rDzogs chen terminology, references and contents. We can find another example of how rDzogs chen influenced Mahiimudrii in the rNying ma pa school, where the explanation of the purpose of Mahiimudrii is followed by an introduction to the state of Mahiimudrii, whereas in the Mahiimudrii tradition of the Sa skya pa school, there is not evident form of introduction - quite the opposite, it is expressly denied, as we can read in one of the texts presented in the following pages (Sa pal). 1): Since the mind has no essence, how can there be an introduction of the And in another text by Sa skya Pawiita (abbreviated as "Sa pal)." hereafter): When I am asked this, (how to introduce the nature ofmind), according to my way (of I answer that) the mind has no essence and there is nothing to introduce.13
12 13
120
Karmay (2007:89). Sa skya bka ' 'b urn , Vol. 5: 416, 1.5, ("Answers to questions of bKa' gdams pa nam mkha ' bum").
C hapt e r 6 II G i o v a n n i A r c a
S a pa1;1's logic i s i n this case very basic, but his arguments are supported actually represents a fundamental both by the fact that this of rDzogs chen, and by the absence of rDzogs chen influence in the Mahamudra of Sa skya tradition, providing strength to his does not seem irrelevant or inconsistent. What he is acknowledging here is that the knowledge of the state must arise alone, by itself, according to the meaning of the term lhag mthong,14 that is something which arises the sole practice of zhi gnas,15 a consideration that is partly present in the pa school as well.16 dGe This "Introduction to the state (of the mind)"17 is in fact perfectly justified and appropriate in the Atiyoga system, it the key for the immediate is in perfect accord recognition of the adept's of the mind. All with the essence of a totally non-gradual path, where the step to obtain the "realisation" is usually considered a single one. When Sa pa1;1 states that he does not recognise this as a valid practice, he is not saying that the he means is that it is not consistent with the practice has no value. Mahamudra tradition, according to the teachings of this system that were taught in the Sa skya pa school. Because the two systems of Mahamudra and rDzogs chen were not coexistent in the Sa skya pa tradition, Sa pa1;1 had no reason to confirm what appeared to him as a clear borrowing from Atiyoga, nor had he to defend any Sa skya in which this "Introduction" had been used as part of the "curricular" Mahamudra teachings of his school. I think there are sufficient reasons to consider the presence of such a component within the Mahamudra system as an example of how syncretism can produce contradictory results, that is the introduction of a key element into a system based on progressive achieve ments.
14
15 16
17
Lhag mthong literally means "seeing more" and, as an extended meaning, can be (and has been) interpreted, as "more clearly" or "more introspective, and "insightful". That is, relaxing one's mind, bringing it into its natural state. "When you have thus won an imperturbable tranquillity, you must examine again and again with discriminative and appreciative acumen the existentiality of mind in itself and strengthen your certainty about it" (Guenther 1 966 :92). Often called rig pa'i ngo sprod ("introduction to the state of rig pa) in the rDzogs chen teachings. For the meaning of rig pa see note 63 .
121
A s i a n Ho r iz o n s: Studie s i n Ho n o ur of G iusepp e Tuc c i a n d Hi s
A second, possible reason for some juxtapositions of Mahamudra and rDzogs chen is the superficial appreciation of the doha (and to a lesser extent, of the Songs of la ras pa), when these are considered as a sort of poetical description of the method of the practice, and not as an expression of its achievements. We do not know enough about the legendary authors or protagonists of these beautiful and inspiring writings, but the references we have tell us of people who were in Tantric practices 1 8 of visualisation and transformation, progressing from one stage to another. The actions of these hagiographic heroes, whether or and transgressive, have captured the imagination of the readers, contributing to the Mahamudra tradition an image that does not reflect its nature. There has been an assimilation of what is expressed in the doha as an extreme spontaneity of practitioners singing of their victorious achievement (after what had been probably a gradual and highly committed training), with the immediate and apparently spontaneous, effortless character of rDzogs chen, whose distinctive method is precisely the opposite of a gradual path and does not involve Tantric techniques of transformation. 19 As Roger Jackson writes, In fact, the preponderance of the evidence (. . .) indicates that Saraha, Kanha, and Tilopa all did promote specific yogic practices, which were believed crucial to the listener's ability to attain the ultimate.2 0 We can certainly make hypotheses regarding the reasons why the songs attributed to these :figures were composed in such a way to suggest a sort of careless, "easy-going" lifestyle, as if all that mattered in achieving their spiritual goal was having fun breaking all rules, while making fun of those
18
19
20
122
For example: Saraha (Guhyasamiija T., Tib. gSang 'dus), Virupa (Hevajra T., Tib. Kye ' i rdo rje), Tilopa (mainly Cakrasal'J1vara T., Tib. 'Khor lo sdom pa), Mi la ras pa (Cakrasal'J1vara T., Tib. 'Khor lo sdom pa). Nevertheless, it is quite common for rDzogs chen teachers to use many Tantric transformation methods during the training with their students. Not all of them, though, consider relevant to distinguish these on a theoretical basis, well on the track of many of their predecessors. Jackson (2004:29).
C h ap ter 6 I I G i o v a n n i A r c a
who did not. However, we actually do not know the context well enough to make definitive observations here. we do not know what degree of editing these texts have undergone, and so we cannot be certain to what folk and religious context they were most responsive.2 1 Secondly, whether the choice of style is dictated by existent folk traditions and/or by accurately marketed propagation aims, and to what degree, we do not know either. Thirdly, we can see that use of negation is omnipresent the doha, as well as a more specific how these "antiyogic" rhetoric,22 but we are not able to fully context and how they were literary traits link with the overall devices and/or instructive elements of any possible Tantric didactics whose we would certainly fail to appreciate. These traits have contributed to heighten the similarities that the final stage of the Mahamudra Tantric practices has with the essence of the rDzogs chen teachings, favouring an interpretation of the doha as esoteric and symbolic instructions of a "Great Perfection" which does not need else than an instantaneous and self-liberating recognition of one's This has misrepresented the Tantric gradual character of the own Mahamudra, and this is precisely what Sa skya Pa1;t<;lita strongly opposes.
Classification One classification of the Tantras might have also contributed to the confusion between elements of Mahamudra and rDzogs chen. The Tantras classified as Anuttara Tantra in the Phyi sgyur, ("New translation") are 21
22
"The spiritual doha and carya songs, themselves of folk origin, were composed by the Tantric siddhas of India where they had turned out to be an apt medium to propagate their doctrines, coating and veiling the esoteric message in allusive phrases and in an enigmatic language (. . . ), rich in imagery and replete with double entendre and homonymous puns." Sorensen (1990: 15). And D. Templeman (1994: 17) observes that "As the dohii was primarily a means of direct, authentic communication between master and disciples, it had to express truth in a way which would resonate within its listeners, rather than being a understood by them at a conceptual level only. It had to fit into a wide range of folk rhythms and metres, as such songs had to travel into many cultural areas among unlettered people whose most practical way of gaining the message might well have listening to such songs ." " [The dohii songs] contain what we might regard as "antiyogic" rhetoric, which may leave us further confused as to what the siddhas were promoting and what they were denigrating" (Jackson 2004:28).
123
Asian
Studies in Honour of Giuseppe Tucci and His Legacy
divided into Paternal, Maternal and sometimes Neutral or "Non-dual", and are considered equivalent to the ones classified as Internal Tantras in the sNga sgyur ("Old Translation"), traditionally divided in Mahiiyoga, Anuyoga and Atiyoga. To clarify what the element of confusion is in this system of classification, I must very briefly consider the two "stages" of bskyed rim and rdzogs rim. While the practice of bskyed rim primarily consists in transformations from an vision into a "pure" one (for example in a mm:uj.ala of deities, in which all beings manifest themselves as gods and goddesses), the practice of rdzogs rim mainly deals with based on the "energy"23 of the individual, based on the "channels", the cakra and the prii�a. All Tantras contain instructions on both bskyed rim and rdzogs rim, but some, such as the C akrasaY(lvara Tantra for example, explain mostly the rdzogs rim, though not excluding the practices related to the bskyed rim. Other types of Tantras (such as Tantra of the Anuttara classification) the Guhyasamiija Tantra, a are mostly based on the bskyed rim transformation practices and mainly explain the methods through which all beings manifest themselves as gods, in the ma�rj.ala of their "pure dimension".24 But there are also some Tantras, such as the Kalacakra Tantra, which present a balanced way of practising bskyed rim and rdzogs rim; this balance has b een considered as being Neutral, or "Non-dual", and this name has been used in the classification of such Tantras. The problem is that if we assume that the "Neutral" Tantra is such precisely because its practices of bskyed rim and rdzogs rim are balanced, it is not possible that Atiyoga, which has neither bskyed rim nor rdzogs rim, be identified with a method based on its balance. Unfortunately this classification potentially
23
24
124
In the context of the Western studies on Tibetan Tantrism, the complex interaction ofrtsal, rol pa and gdangs (three terms that convey many different meanings and acceptations, including "manifestation", "resonance", "creative power'', "emanation", "function", "ref ection'', "strength", "potency'', "action" and "force") is often simply translated as "energy". When used to mean the dynamic, vital force of the individual, "energy" mainly refers to rtsal; in relation to the practice of the methods of transformation it refers to rol gdangs can be defined as (Norbu, N. 1 996:55) "the inherent condition of energy itself as it really is, in any kind of manifestation whatsoever". An interesting example of the concrete, practical interrelation occurring between Tantras has been provided by David Templeman (1 992 3:71), who has highlighted the "completion" role of the Cakrasmr1vara Tantra in relation to the Guhyasamiija Tantra.
Chapter 6 II Giovanni Arca
leads towards this wrong understanding, because it has created the idea of some sort of reciprocity between the Neutral Tantra of the new translation and the Atiyoga of the old translation. Therefore it presents an element of potential confusion, which has certainly not helped to clarify the distinctive elements of both the systems of Mahamudrii and rDzogs chen.
Terminology Another factthat can be relatively confusing is that not only does Mahamudra commonly mean both the Path and its state of realisation, but both the names of Mahamudra and rDzogs chen are used with exactly the same meaning when referring to the highest level of the practice. More precisely, in the tradition of the rNying ma pa school, Mahamudra means the aim, and the result, of Mahiiyoga, and rDzogs chen the aim and result of Anuyoga, while the other schools do not usually have this distinction and generally define the highest level of the practice only as Mahamudra. Even though what they mean by this is the final stage of Mahiiyoga, they actually use the name Mahamudrii to generically define the final and unsurpassable result of any spiritual path. But in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition the same final result can be obtained through two different paths, one from Mahayoga and the other from Anuyoga. In fact, though the common goal or result can be called Mahamudra, the paths are indeed different because it is true that both Mahayoga and Anuyoga are based on the methods of but the first one deals with the method of gradual transformation, practising bskyed rim and rdzogs rim, while the latter is non-gradual, meaning it is not necessary to practise bskyed rim, step by step. This is because in the Anuyoga system the "base" of each individual is considered lhun grub, that is "self-perfected" ab origine, and so it is considered sufficient to maintain a presence, without creating or developing anything. The Anuyoga system is thus much closer to the rDzogs chen view of the practice, and in fact its final stage is called Atiyoga, which is rDzogs chen.25
25
A hypothesis of a possible, original liaison between Mahiimudrii and rDzogs chen has been proposed by J. Dalton (2004:1 3 0), according to whom the latter could have been originated from the "stage of completion" (rdzogs rim).
125
A s i a n Ho r i z o n s : Studies i n
of G iu s epp e Tuc c i a n d His L ega cy
Factual similarities The similarities between Mahiimudra and rDzogs chen, however, might not only being derived from syncretic elements, misinterpretation of the dohii, classificatory weaknesses and ambiguous terminology. In fact, if we refer to Mahiimudrii as the method relative to the final stage of the Tantric path of transformation, it does actually present factual affinities with rDzogs chen. These affinities, though, can be mainly found in the "completion stage" (rdzogs rim) of the Anuttara Tantra or Tantras.26 Mahiimudrii and rDzogs chen might also share more than classificatory and terminological borders, for there is the possible presence of a Tantric tradition of Mahasiddhas related to the B on po rDzogs chen teachings, to the Zhang zhung snyan rgyud.27 If research added further evidence and clarity to the references already provided by some scholars, 2 8 26 27
28
126
For the term rDzogs ch e n as an extension of rdzogs rim, see Karmay (2007:1 38). A very useful bibliographical tool for the various editions of the Zhang zhung snyan rgyudhas been recently provided by H. Blezer (201 1 :1 35 203). D. Snellgrove (1 986:103 1 04) writes: "There is no serious reason for doubting the existence of the Bon sages who come within the historical period, and at the same time there is no doubt of the Indian Buddhist origin of their philosophical theories and meditative practices. 'The Oral Traditions of Shang shung' belong to the class of teachings known as the 'Great Perfection' (rDzogs ch e n). Such teachings are common to the ' Old Order' (rNying ma) among Tibetan Buddhists and to certain followers of Bon, and there would seem to be a close connection between the Bon sages who practised them and the Indian Buddhist yogins who were perhaps already spreading in Tibet unconventional teachings of a non monastic kind during the royal period". After the recount of a story connected to Gyer spungs pa, a Zhang zhung pa Mahasiddha, Snellgrove adds: "The willingness of the disciple to sacrifice himself for his master, once he was assured that his master would be prepared to eat the flesh of his corpse, belongs to Indian Tantric tradition. S o too do the women, dressed in j ewellery and white clothes, for they are the rjakinf (attendant goddesses) who administer to meditating yogins". J.M. Reynolds (2005:79 81) writes: "( . . . ) in strictly historical terms, it may be asserted that this Zhang zhung Nyan gyud derived from the oral precepts of a kind of Bonpo Mahasiddha known by the name of Gyerpung Nangzher L odpo (Gyer spungs snang bzher lodpo), the disciple of another mysterious Mahasiddha, Tapihritsa, whom he encountered in a series of visionary experiences. This Gyerpungpa, ( . . . ) who is almost certainly historical, ( . . . ) and his master probably lived in the axial period of the eighth century to which the Nyingmapas equally look back to as the Golden Age for the establishing in Tibet of the teachings of their own tradition deriving from India, which also Dzogchen . Gyerpungpa was not a Central Tibetan however, but a Zhang zhung pa. ( . . . ) From Gyerpungpa, an unbroken lineage of transmission can be traced
Chapter 6 II Giovanni Arca
this could open an interesting chapter on the wider presence of a Tantrism related tradition, well beyond the borders of the Indo-Tibetan Moreover, early "intermingling" between Mahayoga and rDzogs chen has been already mentioned by researchers, as found in texts earlier than the tenth century, in in the Rdo rje sems dpa ' i zhus !an (Questions and Answers of Vajrasattva), a Mahayoga text attributed to Gnyan dpal dbyangs, in which Karmay (2007:60) has shown there exist borrowings of rDzogs ch en material from the Sbas pa' i rgum chung (The Small Collection of Hidden Precepts). Dalton (2004:1-30) has also highlighted the emphasis on the Mahayana term bodhicitta present in the early rDzogs chen texts, with the Tantric ritual system and the connections of the Great of the Dgongs pa 'dus pa'i mdo.
THE TEXTS
The six short texts presented belong to the Sa skya canon and were written by three well known masters and scholars: Grags pa rgyal mtshan (11471216), Sa skya Pal)<)ita Kun dga' rgyal mtshan (1182-1251) and 'Phags pa blo gros rgyal mtshan (1235-1280). These were all related to the famous Khon dkon mchog rgyal po (1034-1102), of the 'Khon family of Gtsang, who is said to have been of the monastery of Sa skya (1073), the original centre of the Sa skya school. chose texts belonging to the Sa skya school because of the relative independence of its Mahamudra teachings from the influence of rDzogs occurred mainly due to the fact chen. As has been mentioned above, that no rDzogs chen master of any relevance has been historically present in this school. These texts have been selected because they all indicate that as early as the twelfth century CE the necessity of discussing topics related to the origin and nature of Mahamudra was deeply felt. The authors held two
down to the present day. ( . . . ) Snellgrove speculates about Tapihritsa possibly being of Indian origin because of the appearance of his name, which might have been originally Tapiraj a, probably meaning a prince or lesser king. However, Lopon Tenzin adamantly asserts that was not an Indian traveler, but a native Zhang zhung pa and that his name derives from the Zhang zhung language".
127
A s i a n Ho r iz o n s :
i n Ho n o ur of G i u s epp e Tuc c i and His L e g a cy
concurrent positions: as and learned masters we may suppose they felt the need to reaffirm what they had been taught and believed was the correct view; as religious and political leaders they had to identify and clearly establish the official position of the institution they represented, ensuring the integrity, consistency and continuity of their traditions. the point of view of masters and guardians of the traditions, the need to clearly identify the nature of the Mahiimudrii teachings was especially felt in relation to rDzogs chen, which undoubtedly present similarities with Phyag rgya chen po, some apparent and other factual, as I have previously argued. 1. Phyag rgya chen po gees po btus man ngag
The first text, "Collection of Selected Instructions on the Mahiimudrii" (hereafter referred to as Grags pa 1), is the oldest document presented in this study. The author, Grags pa rgyal mtshan (1 1 47-121 6), one of the "Great Five" of the Sa skya tradition, wrote it in the second half of the twelfth century, but the instructions contained therein go back to Lama Rdo rje gdan pa,29 lived around the year 1 000 CE. The text describes a gradual practice of visualisation-transformation, in which the practitioner moves toward a state of natural relaxation, through the progressive purification of the five main passions, which correspond to the Buddhas of the five families. 30 In the final phase of the practice all 29
30
128
Known also as Amogavajra, and as one of the "Three Tantric Brothers" (Niguma, Sukhasiddhi and himself). The five Buddha families (rigs Inga), Vajra (rdo rje 'i rigs, the Indestructible), Ratna (rin chen rigs, the Jewel), Padma (padma rigs, the Lotus), Karma (las kyi rigs, the Action) and Tathagata (de bzhin gshegspa'i rigs, the Buddha), representthe five aspects ofbuddhahood and are also frequently referred to as the five Dhyani (meditational) Buddhas, though they are not called by this name in Sanskrit or Tibetan sources. "Dhyani" seems in fact a term of Western origin, possibly created by Brian Hodgson in the nineteenth century. Lopez (2004:73) argues in this regard that "Hodgson's other major error was the introduction of the term "dhyani Buddha" into the Buddhist lexicon". The five families are associated with their corresponding five negative emotions (nyon mongs pa, Skt. klefo), respectively hatred (zhe sdang), pride (nga rgyal), desire ( 'dod chags), jealousy (phrag dog) and stupidity (gti mug). Bdud 'joms (2005:425) writes that "According to Kriyatantra and Vajra. there are three families: Tathagatha, refers to four families: Tathagatha [the Buddha family], Lotus, Vajra, and a fourth family that combines the Action with the Jewel family". (Sic for all Sanskrit transliteration in the quote.)
C h ap t e r 6 I I G i o v a n n i A r c a
supports of meditation are gradually abandoned, until a state devoid of concepts is reached. not In the case of a the skills to achieve this state, the text provides an explanation of the Prajnaparamita practice, which "should be", as the author writes, "known (to the reader) after having received the third initiation". It is therefore clear that the author assumes the readers of these instructions have received the proper initiations, which shows that these practices were included in a preliminary wider initiation context, without which they would not have had any sense. As a sort of practical anthology, the text with a very short explanation of gtum mo, one of the Six Yogas of Naropa. A practice of visualisation-transformation of a yab yum31 then introduces some concise instructions and explanations regarding the Tantric union, where the sexual act becomes the This selection of instructions ends with an explanation by Indrabhuti for a practitioner of the Mahamudra. regarding the proper This text clearly exemplifies the gradual nature of the methods connected to what is defined as Phyag rgya chen po, at least around the twelfth century. 2. Phyag rgya chen po yan lag bdun ldan gyi rtsa ha
text, entitled: "Root text of the Mahamudra of the Seven The (hereafter referred to as Sa pa:t;t 1) is a root text by Sa skya Pa:t;t<;lita Kun dga' rgyal mtshan (1 182-1251). Written in the first half of the thirteenth this short text the essence of the teaching and practice of Mahamudra.
31
The mystical union of the male (yab), and female (yum) is represented in the Inda Tibetan Tantric iconography by the sexual embrace of two beings belonging to the highest realms of existence and realisation. In the context oflndo Tibetan Tantrism the female represents the wisdom (Skt. prajnii) of the Enlightenment. The male is a symbol of the so called "skillful means", through which the wisdom can actively manifest in the world. Similarities but also differences do exist with the Hindu Tantrism, as Faure (20 03 : 1 24) highlights: "In Hindu Tantrism, the god's "female energy", his §akti, is personified as his female consort. The same seems true in the case of the mudrii, the sexual partner of Tibetan Tantric gods. As Agehananda Bharati and Alex Wayman have pointed out, however, this female mudrii, §akti, is a symbol ofprajnii (wisdom)". contrary to the
129
Asian
Studies in
of Giuseppe Tucci and His
Despite the poetical style being gentle, the author does not fail to exercise his well known tendency to clarify and qualify,32 applying it to explain his of Mahiimudrii as a spiritual point of view regarding the original path. In this second text we find the first direct mention of the two levels of practice in the Mahiimudrii teaching method, bskyed rim (process of creation/generation) and rdzogs rim (stage of completion),33 which will be frequently mentioned in the following texts. These progressive levels are inherent to the practice of Phyag rgya chen po, and represent the main "structural" difference between Mahiimudrii and rDzogs chen. 3. De 'i khrid yig yan lag bdun pa
The third text, entitled "Commentary on the Mahiimudrii of the Seven Levels" (hereafter referred to as 'Phags pa 1), is a commentary to the previous root text, written by pa blo gros rgyal mtshan (1235-1280), disciple and grandson of Sa skya Pal).<,iita. It examines in greater depth the seven levels of the practice described in the root text and enters into the details of the psychophysical techniques. In the last part of the Commentary we find some short definitions of four Mahiimudrii "qualities": Natural Condition (gnas lugs), Vision (!ta ba), (bsgom pa) and Fruit ( 'bras bu). They can be contextually defined as "qualities" and not "levels", because they are not presented as further stages, but as different aspects resulting from the application of the previous gradual practice (the "seven levels" mentioned in the title itself). a whole, the undivided They "qualify" the Mahiimudrii and 32
33
13 0
For an insightful outline of Sa pal)'s personality and his rather rational approach to the study and practice of the Dharma, see the Introduction by V. Scott (Sa skya Paw.lita Kun dga' rgyal mtshan 2002 : 3 35). Though the terms bskyed rim and rdzogs rim are a common recurrence both in sNga sgyur and sgyur Tantric production, in the context of a comparison between Mahiimudrii and rDzogs chen they represent a particularly important point, because they can be taken as an evidence to connect Mahiimudrii to the Tantric tradition, and more specifically to those Tantric teachings which contain transformation practices of a gradual kind. Their possible S anskrit equivalents are rendered in various ways by different authors : For example, J.D. Rhoton (Scott 2002:36 270) translates bskyed rim as utpattikrama and rdzogs rim as nispannakrama, and S.G. Karmay (2007) translates bskyed rim as utpannakrama, and rdzogs rim as sa1!7pannakrama.
Chapter 6 II Giovanni Arca
essence of what the text defines as "non-dual realisation". This experiential state of Mahamudra is, the final realisation, "great non-duality is symbol" or "great seal". The previous gradual practice in seven is a quite representative example of the psychophysical techniques that are used to reach this final state. 4. Phyag chen nyams fen
The fourth text, entitled "The Practice of the Mahamudra" (hereafter pa. As in referred to as 'Phags pa 2) is a short root text also by the previous root text, we find some other clarifications about the nature of the Mahamudra method and about the correct approach to its practice. In particular, the methods of visualisation and recitation of mantras are explicitly accepted as part of the practice and defined as "beneficial". The author nonetheless specifies that these Tantric methods are just "methods", "means", like an "axle" joining the wheels of Merit and Wisdom. 5. rTogs ldan rgyan po 'i dris Ian
The fifth text, entitled ''Answers to the Questions of rTogs ldan rgyan po" (hereafter referred to as Sa pal) 2), is written by Sa skya Pai:ic;lita and deals with four important points: the lta ba ("vision") of Mahamudra, its nature, its Tibetan name (Phyag rgya chen po), and the levels of its practice. In particular, Sa skya Pai:ic;lita observes that the essential methods relating to Mahamudra are not present in the Lower Tantras (Kriya T., Upa T. and also mentions the possibility of an "instant awakening" into Yoga T.). the authentic wisdom of Mahamudra, but stresses that such an occurrence is to be considered exceptional and that its achievement generally requires the application of the methods and the gradual progression of the practitioner. 6. rNal 'byor pa Phru ma pa la gdams pa
The sixth text, entitled "Advice to the yogi Phru ma-pa" (hereafter referred to as Sa pai:i 3), is written by Sa skya Pai:ic;lita. It explains how these practices can become obstacles for the practitioner, creating a condition worse than the initial one. The text is written in the form of a dialogue, as with the
13 1
A s i a n Ho r iz o n s: Studie s i n Ho n o ur of
Tuc c i a n d
L egacy
previous Sa pal). 2, and it provides quite direct answers to the questions supposedly asked by a yogi, met during a trip. The between Mahiimudrii and rDzogs chen is reaffirmed in all these texts, mainly referring to the practices and the gradual nature of the path, which are typical of the Tantric methods of visualisation-transformation to which the teachings of Mahiimudrii are commonly considered to belong. A clear reference to the preliminary practices is in Grags pa 1 : The preliminary practices are not present here. The "preliminary practices" (sngon 'gro) the author refers to are those related to the accumulation of merit and wisdom. These are not formally present in the rDzogs chen teachings, which are traditionally defined as a path of self-liberation and, as such, distinct from the path oftransformation.34 As Karmay (2007: 1 07) quotes, examining the chapter on rDzogs chen in the bSam gtan mig sgron, 35 ( . . .) the doctrine of Atiyoga, (. . .) its name is the Great Perfection. Why? Because it gives detailed teaching with a view to imparting direct of the principle of this non-sought spontaneity with regard to all existential elements. The of the spontaneous essence, which is the innermost treasury of all vehicles and the great "universal grandfather", is to be experienced directly by "self awareness", but not as a thing to be kept in mind. It is to be made to the "self-awareness". And Meinert (Kapstein & Dotson 2007:255) notes further that
34
35
13 2
The essential aspect of rDzog chen has traditionally been related to an awakening to one's own nature (ngo rang thog tu sprod pa), produced by a direct without the recourse to transformation practices of a gradual kind. This consideration mainly stems from the first verse (or "statement") of the "Three Vajra Verses" (rdo rje tshig gsum), attributed to the legendary first master ofrDzogs chen, dGa' rab rdo rje, also known as the "Three Statements that Catch the Essential Points" (tshig gsum gnad brdeg) or, more literally, the "Three Statements that Hit the Nail on the Head" (going directly to the heart of the matter). Bsam gtan mig sgron ("The Torch of the Eye of Meditation"), by Gnubs chen Sangs rgyas ye shes, possibly written around the tenth century.
Chapter 6 II Giovanni Arca
In the spontaneously perfected suchness of the supreme yoga, of Atiyoga, all dharma-s self-radiate the perfect and pure sphere of self-arising primordial gnosis. They are not separately sought as cause and fruition because they are spontaneously perfected. spontaneity", "self-awareness", "spontaneously perfected all at the suchness", "[no] cause and of transformation methods. The fact that Grags pa rgyal mtshan mentions the absence of the pre liminary practices is a clear indication they were a common part of the Mahiimudrii gradual path. With regard to this notion of "graduality" though, it should be noticed that even if, as part of the tradition originating from the Yoga Tantras, Mahiimudrii inherits many of the gradual features which were specific to the stages of transformation, not all practices within Mahiimudrii system can be considered literally "gradual". The "graduality" of Mahiimudrii refers to the presence of the preliminary practices, of the stages of bskyed rim and rdzogs rim, and of the practices of gradual transformation. But the borders between "gradual" and "non gradual" are far from being fixed.
Grags pa 1 In Grags pa 1 the instructions begin in fact with a non-gradual of Prajniipiiriimitii, in a way a correspondence to the Anuyoga style of practice: in
instant manifest yourself as Prajniipiiriimitii
without any gradual of the deity's image, but followed by a progressive sequence of defined steps, where lights of different colours are the means of specific transformation acts, changing all passions into wisdoms. The practice is then concluded with a further, clearly gradual sequence until all mental dualism disappears: of "subtractive" Then absorb yourself into the Hum, the 0 is absorbed into the Ha, the Ha one into the thig le, the thig le into the nii da and into the crescent, the nii da dissolves into the state void of concepts, and so you meditate.
13 3
A s ia n Ho r iz o n s : St u di e s in Ho n o u r of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d
L ega cy
The reason why the visualisation of Prajfziipiiriimitii is obtained in a totally non-gradual manner might be that the considered the adept already well trained in that practice, as a part of those preliminaries which, being so fundamental and are not described. This seems to be consistent with what follows at the end of the same instructions, where the adept advised to train more in the practice of Prajnapiiriimita, in case he or she finds it difficult to reach a non-dual, non-conceptual condition: If you do not have the capacity of finding yourself beyond the concepts, learn (to practice) the visualisation of Prajniipiiriimitii, which you should know, having you received the third lnitiation.36 As a sort of "revision", the method of oneself as Prajnapariimitii is then briefly described. All the instructions contained in Grags pa are practices of visualisation and transformation, with a relevant degree of graduality.
Sa pal} 1 In Sa pai:i 1 the gradual character of the instructions and their direct connection with the Tantric tradition becomes unequivocally clear: To perfectly obtain the 37 the cause for rapidly improving the two accumulations, 38 and the method for realising the two Bodies,39 one applies the contemplation of the two levels,4 0 then 36 37
38 39
40
13 4
The initiation "of the wisdom" (Shes rab ye shes kyi dbang). dBang bzhi: the four "Empowerments", or "Initiations", are the following: 'Bum dbang, gSang ba'i dbang, Shes rab ye shes kyi dbang, Tshig dbang rin po che (Initiations "of the vessel", "of the secret", "of the wisdom" and "(precious empowerment) of the voice (word)". Wisdom and merit. sKu gnyis: the dhiirmakaya and the rupakiiya, which includes the sambhogakiiya and the nirmiil)akiiya. Kiiya literally means "body", but can be interpreted as "aspect of enlightenment". Rim gnyis: "the two levels". "Bskyed rim is bskyed rim itself, concrete rdzogs rim is the peaceful and wrathful rlung, and the mind (focused) on one point (as in the) glum mo, etc. Thus, by not becoming separated from these two, the blessing comes from the rim gnyis (bskyed rim and rdzogs rim). !Ta ba is like a method to clarify these two. Mahiimudrii is the final wisdom which has been increased by these two (bskyed rim and rdzogs rim)". Sa skya bka ' 'bum, Vol.14:167, 1.3.
C h ap t e r 6 II G i o v a n n i A r c a
one must become familiar with the practice of the Mahiimudrii, which is the Wisdom (coming) from these.41 This is in accord with what is more extensively expressed in another point of the Sa skya canon: Practicing bskyed rim without having received the first initiation; practicing the gtum mo, etc. without the second initiation; meditating the bliss and the emptiness the third; practicing the Mahiimudrii etc., without the and being a mkhan po (abbot) without the vows of the full ordination, like trying to take a jewel from the head of a snake, and it will be the cause of one's own and others' destruction. Therefore, all wise people should leave these (actions) far (from them).42 And soon after we find an even more explicit reference to the Tantric, gradual character of the Mahiimudrii teachings: Narotapa said: "Receiving the initiation and practicing bskyed rim and rdzogs rim is an appropriate practice but which belongs to the lineage of Naro; practicing bskyed rim and rdzogs rim and not having is certainly in contradiction with the Tantra and also the with our own customs [of the lineage of Naropa]".43 Another closely related text is "Common grounds of the Buddhas: Method (tha bs) and Knowledge (shes rab)".44 Some say that there is no illusion nor non-illusion. To become realised it is not necessary to use all methods and cross all paths. Nagarjuna 41
42 43 44
The meaning and value of this "Wisdom", as well as its dependence from the two stages of bskyed rim and rdzogs rim, are clearly stated in the tradition of the Sa skya pa school: "( . . . ) Our Mahiimudrii is the wisdom (ye shes) that comes from the initiation. And from the practice of the two rim pa comes the self arising wisdom . This realisation can be achieved during this life if one practices wisely the methods of the secret Tantra. Otherwise, Buddha did not say that one can realise the Mahiimudrii. Because of this, one should not commit to the practice of Mahiimudrii without initiations etc., but one should practice according to the secret Tantric doctrine". (Sa skya bka ' 'bum, Vol. 5 : 3 0 8 , 1. 14). Sa skya bka ' 'bum, Vol. 5 : . 3 10, I. 1 2 . Sa skya bka ' ' bum, Vol. 5 : 317, I. 5. Sa skya bka ' ' bum Vol. 5 : 308, I . 2 .
13 5
A s ia n Ho r iz o n s : St u di e s in Ho n o u r of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d His L ega cy
Padma 'byung gnas with attained liberation realising only eta ba the bskyed rim. Luhipa realised himself working, Nagpopa45 with the help of rituals, Gorak8a46 through the power of the rlung, S avarI with the practice of gtum mo, Saraha with the Mahiimudrii, Togtseba47 with the power of blessing, Zhi ba lha48 eating, sleeping and going to the toilet, Indrabhuti living in luxury and Birwapa49 became a siddha realising all kinds of interrelations. Therefore, one must not slander all these different methods and paths. Listen to what I will explain about this. There is no method (or path) to become a Buddha, without the presence of thabs and shes rab. Thus all siddha did not liberate themselves only by this or that method. One is liberated realising or increasing the Wisdom (ye shes), which developed through the and through bskyed rim and rdzogs rim. We cannot liberate ourselves only with the gtum mo or with (the power of) blessings, and so on. One can liberate himself through the interrelation of bskyed rim and rdzogs rim, with the blessing of receiving initiation. bsKyed rim, rlung, gtum mo, etc., are not different from the other two rim: the blessing comes from these, the !ta ba is a part of them, the Mahiimudrii is the ultimate wisdom of these. Indrabhliti practiced the Mahiimudrii with the elaborate actions [behaviour], the practice of the non-elaborate behaviour is called bhusuku. So the Buddha said. And the practice "absolutely not elaborated" is the teaching of the two rim pa [bskyed rim and rdzogs rim] . For this reason the actions ofall those siddhas are known as the "conduct ofKun tu bzang po (Samantabhadra)". 45 46 47 48
49
Usually known as Kai;ihapa, and often identified with Kr�i;iacarya. Also known as Gorakhnath. Known with many variations of the names Ghadhari, Kotalipa and Kodali. The great bodhisattva and scholar S antideva. This description is in accord with the meaning of his other name Bhusuku ("vagabond") and follows what Abhayadatta (op. cit.) writes. Taranatha describes him very differently, as possessing extraordinary qualities already at his birth (in his work 'dod kun 'byung, more commonly known as rgya gar chos 'byung, "History of Buddhism in India"), and only apparently behaving as a "bhusuku". Some interesting notes on the possible etymology ofthis term can be found in Taranatha (1970:217). Virupa.
C h ap t e r 6 II Giovanni Arca
Thus, without the union of condition and cause, there will be no of the Buddha, but through this specific connection with the meritorious acts and through the difference of the internal interrelations, one increases and the Wisdom (ye shes). This (happens) with the different methods. For drink but, the body of a sick person needs to eat to let his mind becoming open (to the idea) of eating, what makes the difference is the food. In the same way there are many different methods and belittling them is foolish. But thinking that only (through the practice of) these specific methods one can become a Buddha, is absolutely stupid. For this reason one should make all (necessary) efforts to receive the initiation, which is necessary to fully develop and (to receive the teachings of) bskyed rim and rdzogs rim. Another passage5 0 directly compares Mahamudra and the rDzogs c he n o f "Chinese style", referring t o the teachings o f Hwa Shang: If there is not conception one cannot abandon. If one can abandon, but without the presence of concepts, (then) there no reason why all sentient cannot realise the Mahamudra. For this reason, there are no "falling" or wrong paths dealing with Mahamudra. If there is Mahamudra. Therefore, if one (this type of consideration) it is does not the true Mahamudra, the ultimate wisdom, then his/her Mahamudra will not go beyond the rDzogs chen of Chinese type.s1 debated both in the different One of the points more Mahamudra traditions as well as in the comparison between Mahamudra and rDzogs ch en is the "Introduction of the mind" (sems kyi ngo sprod) . S a skya Pai;idita states i n Sa pai;t 1 that this practice does not belong t o what h e considered the Mahamudra of Tantric heritage, opposing the well known arguments of the bKa' brgyud pa and Nying ma pa schools, according to
50 51
Sa skya bka ' 'bum, Vol. 5: 309, l. 8. "This distinguishes Tibetan (and its source: Indian), Buddhism from the peculiar Chinese form, the Hwa shang meditation, as it is called in the Tibetan texts, where contemplation is said to consist in staring into empty space with a blank mind" (Guenther 1 966:92).
13 7
A s i a n Ho r iz o n s : S t u d i e s in
of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d Hi s
which Mahamudra teachings could have also been originated outside a definite Tantric context. 52 This consideration took into particular account of the mind independently the idea that sGam po pa used the from any Tantric and yogic practice of visualisation and as a more " Siitra style" or "different" kind of instructions. 53 The opposition to the idea of any sort of non-Tantric Mahamudra continues with a specific reference to the gradual path, which should lead the practitioner to realisation different several stages, or "bhumi", using bskyed rim and rdzogs rim: In the condition is as follows: a person who has this knowledge, in order to integrate Samsara and Nirvana tries to achieve with his [or her] commitment the types of conduct,54 elaborate, non-elaborate and extremely non-elaborate, as it is explained in the Tantras, and so crossing the Path and the internal bhumi(s),55 relative to this practice, obtains the 13th bhumi of the Vajradhara. 52
53
54
55
Sa skya
firmly stresses his conviction also in another text: "For the eleventh ' How to introduce the nature of the mind?' when (I) am asked this, according to my way (of understanding), (I say that) the mind has no essence and that there is nothing to introduce. There is not thought nor memory to realise the primordial emptiness, the Sa skya bka ' 'bum, Vol. 5: 416, I. 5, ("Answers to questions of 'memory' of the bKa' gdams pa nam mkha ' bum"). "One of the special Great S eal (phyag rgya chen po: Mahiimudrii) teachings for which sGam po pa was best known was his so called ' introduction to the [nature of] mind' (sems kyi ngo sprod), by which the disciple was led to confront and directly the nature of his or her mind. sGam po pa is said to have given such Great Seal precepts in connection with initiation instructions sometimes not as secret and special yogic practices, but rather as a Siitra based Great Seal instruction, or even as a doctrine going beyond both Siitra and Tantra. Later critics such as S a skya Pal)gita maintained, however, that all true Great Seal instructions were Mantrayana teachings that necessitated full, formal Tantric initiation into a mm:u;lala. These masters denied in general the existence of any Siitra based or non Tantric Great S eal, and in they considered the existence of any Mahiiyiina doctrine outside of the classes of Piiramitiiyiina and Mantrayiina to be impossible" (D. Jackson 1 994:2 3). Spyod pa gsum: "the three conducts". "The Conduct is used to develop the two rim pa (bskyed rim and rdzogs rim), 'with elaboration', 'without elaboration' and ' absolutely without elaboration', namely ' the three types of Conduct'. Indrabhuti maintained the first type, S antideva the second, the third type is called 'Bhusuku ' or 'of Birwapa' and other siddha who practiced the two rim pa. This is also called 'The conduct of Kun tu bzang po [Samantabhadra] "'. Sa skya bka ' 'bum, Vol. 14 :167, I . 5 . The bhiimi(s) are 10, 1 2 o r 1 3 stages o f the bodhisattva path.
C h ap t e r 6 I I G i o v a n n i A r c a
'Phags pa 1 The Commentary to the root text, 'Phags pa 1, explicitly organise the instruc tions into the seven "levels" (yan lag)56 mentioned in the title of Sa pa1;1 1 . As it is common i n many expositions o f Mahamudra teachings, the graduality and progression of the path is at the same time described and apparently negated, a recurring trait that has certainly contributed to the identification of Mahamudra as a "one step" path, flattening or even elim inating its from Atiyoga. In 'Phags pa 1 this is explicit: Meditate supremely without meditating. because it does not This negation is more apparent than real towards an action rather to a refer to a quality of this action, which leads the adept into a state of non-action: Since there is no object nor consciousness (to perceive it), without entering into the concept of something to meditate upon and someone who meditates, supremely without meditating). of the translation of the term sgom as "meditate" are evident The here, because the abundance of meanings this term conveys in all Western languages almost totally related to some kind of dualistic mental activity, whether reflective, one-pointed or contemplative. Moreover, the Tibetan term itself has a complex history of semantic adaptation, reflecting the efforts of translating the Sanskrit of the Tantras. 57 This activity of the mind, this "meditation", has an object, no matter how "small", disguised and hidden into one's mental processes. The Dalai Lama has uncommonly defined meditation as "a familiar ization of the mind with an object of meditation". 5 8 This rendering of the
56
57
58
Yan lag literally means "branches", "limbs", "parts"; I have chosen to translate it as "levels" because they contribute here to the creation of a set. In Mahiimudrii, zhi gnas and lhag mthong are "parts" of the Mahiimudrii, meaning that they are functional to the realisation of Mahiimudrii. It is in this sense that I translate yan lag as sa, "level", as in the expression sa bcu, "the ten levels" (of the bodhisattva). of the Tibetan sgom pa, Some interesting notes on the etymology and the semantic with a comparison with the Sanskrit bhiivanii can be in Bentor [ed .. by Cabezon] 2010. (DL 2006:207).
13 9
A s i a n Ho r iz o n s: S t u d i e s in Ho n o u r of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d His L egacy
term is etymologically consistent with the Tibetan fundamental meaning and apparently distant from that of bhiivanii, of sgom pa ("to which is "causing to be", "bringing into existence" or "a state of existence". Quite interestingly, however, it does match the idea that something is present in the meditative action, that there is an obj ect created by the mind or to which the mind refers applying various kinds of methods and techniques. 59 But what the practitioner is requested here is to find a state where the implying an obj ect), or what "meditation" (that is a mental commenced as a "meditation", does not exist or does not exist anymore. This concept is metaphorically stressed soon after: As the heat is not different from the fire, the real condition is not different from the phenomena, which why it is non-dual, and in all circumstances there is union. Of course "meditating without meditating" is not possible, as it would not be possible to conceive something that is at the same time full and empty. These contradictions are meant to express a state of non-duality, which is not part of a reality we are ordinarily able to appreciate. It is here to note that the "non-duality" of this condition can be easily as an invitation not to engage in any meditative activity, equating what is intended both as a point of arrival and an inherent quality, to an approach based on the spontaneous arising of experiences, without proceeding through gradual steps. The juxtaposition to methods present in the Atiyoga system, such as thod rgal, becomes a concrete possibility. the verses immediately following remind of a fundament of the Tantric path: Emptiness alone, without Method, does not get to the realisation, nor Emptiness. does the Method The two components ofthe negation, the "meditation meditation", are recomposed in the Tantric union of the opposites and "sealed" in an it is necessary to sameness. This is what, the text "obtain the non-dual realisation". 59
14 0
The choice of meditative objects can be very wide: a physical item, an abstract symbol, a deity, a sound, a recollection of any sensorial or mental experience, a conceptual thought.
C h ap t e r 6 I I G i o v a n n i A r c a
'Phags-pa 2 'Phags-pa 2 is a very short text, written as if its main purpose was to be an instructive reminder of what the author considered the most essential points of the Mahamudra teachings. For this reason I would not classify it as a "root text", if not for its brevity. According to the traditional point of view expressed by the Sa skya pa school, 'Phags pa stresses the Tantric nature of Mahamudra: The view of the deity, the recitation of the mantra etc., are not to be refused, because from all these methods one can obtain (benefit) without (any) conflict (between these practices), in the state of total Wisdom. The Tantric practices of visualisation and transformation are not con sidered as being in opposition with a condition of non-duality. They are, on the contrary, part of what can be used to achieve that state, the Dharmata. If the main condition is met, that is the union of Method and Knowledge, which produces an indissoluble unit of Emptiness and the practitioner reaches the state of zung 'jug, 6 0 the union of the two bodies of dharmakaya and rupakaya. All becomes the subject of a classic allegory: The two wheels of Merit and Wisdom, joined by the axle of the "Wise lead to the Methods", and pulled by the supreme horse of dimension of Omniscience. a proper conduct;6 1 The Merit is the karmic condition attained the Wisdom is the "knowledge", that is a non comprehension that is produced by a successful practice of the "two levels" or "stages" (rim gnyis); the Wise Methods are those of Tantrism; the horse of Devotion mainly refers to the profound link between a student and a Tantric teacher, an initiation relationship that is considered essential for the transmission of the knowledge and its successful application. All this should lead to 60
61
Zung 'jug, "union" is a particular term of the Mahiimudrii tradition. In rDzogs chen the same concept is conveyed by the term gnyis med, "non dual". In the Mahiimudrii teachings, "proper" is not only to be intended as a virtuous and morally elevated conduct, but also as the practice of the Tantric methods that are believed to purify one's karmic condition much more effectively and rapidly than only virtuous actions.
14 1
A s ia n Ho r iz o n s : St u di e s in Ho n o u r of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d His L egacy
knowledge" or "wisdom", which is Omniscience (kun mkhyen), defined as the state of Mahamudrii.
Sa pai;i 2 It is perhaps in Sa pai;t 2 that we can most appreciate how the debate revolving around the nature of Mahiimudrii was alive and deeply felt in twelfth and thirteenth century Tibet. Inserted in a realistic scenario, in the form of answers to the questions of a faithful practitioner, we find a summary of the Sa skya points of view regarding the Tantric fundaments of Phyag rgya chen po: 1.
Refusal of the idea that the Mahamudra teaching may originate from the so called "lower" or "outer" Tantras (Kriya, Upa and Yoga Tantra).
2.
Reassertion of the fundaments of the Mahamudra path, according to the Sa skya tradition: preliminary initiation followed by the practices included in two stages of bskyed rim and rdzogs rim. The importance of the initiation, and hence of a connection with a master, is still further emphasised as a moment when some "fortunate people" might exceptionally realise the very state of Mahamudra without the recourse to any specific method of practice.
3.
Definition of bskyed rim and rdzogs rim as the dual-level Tantric core of all Higher Tantras of the New Translation (phyi sgyur) Anuttara group. More precisely, Sa paJ:.1 writes that "all methods of the Anuttara (teaching), for the arising of wisdom, (are summarised into the two levels)" which shows he believed the stages of "development" and "completion" were an essential part of the Paternal, Maternal and or "Non-dual" Tantras, at least in regard of all methods of whether gradual or instantaneous. visualisation and
4.
The will of Sa paJ:.1 to adhere as much as possible to the Tantric terms is further confirmed even in his etymologic analysis of the word "Phyag rgya chen po" as an inaccurate translation of the Sanskrit "Mahamudra". His refutation of the word ''phyag" (in its acceptation of "wisdom/knowledge of emptiness") echoed some of the old and around the "contemplative" Mahiimudrii, and most debated the discredited dkar po chig thub, whose meditative system mainly focused on the realisation of emptiness.
Chapter 6 I I Giovanni Arca
5.
All the "hard work" (so distant from the careless and free spontaneity of the Mahasiddhas) is reflected into a list of levels, experiences and different degrees of realisation.
6.
Referring to some people (probably bKa' brgyud pa scholars), who according to him were refuting the Tantric fundaments ofMahiimudrii, Sa pai;t perseveres in his almost didactical intent, meticulously mentioning all 1 3 bhumi, as they are found in the Mahayana Sutra.
7.
Referring to the "sudden enlightenment", he quotes the 'Jam dpal mtshan brj od, a well known praise ofMafijusri,62 stressing that there is in the Mahiimudrii system, one implies no such that it can be obtained through the application of all necessary Tantric methods, and only after having successfully achieved the realisation of the different levels and bhumi.
Sa pai;t 3 this short and limited selection of Sa skya pa texts on the Mahiimudrii, Sa pai;i 3 examines in greater depth the experiences arising during the application of the Tantric methods. The instructions are once again delivered against a backdrop of ordinary life, as answers to the question of a yogi who, quite interestingly, quotes a passage from a text written by Sa skya Pawiita himself, asking for clarifications. The p oints mostly relevant here are the following: 1.
Very strong and repeated exhortations to exercise all possible cautions when dealing with the Tantric methods. This represents possibly clearest assertion of the practical, almost "operative" and "matter of-fact" character of the path a student of the Mahiimudrii teaching was supposed to follow, at least according to the more "orthodox", or "conservative" Sa skya pa tradition.
2.
The [to the state] of the mind" is expressly negated. As mentioned earlier, this was one of the main arguments in the controversy regarding the inner and most fundamental character of Phyag rgya chen po.
62
The 'Jam
mtshan brjod is the Tibetan version of the Mafiju.frlniimasaJ!1gfti.
143
A s ia n
Studies in
of
Tu c c i a n d His L egacy
CONCLUSION
The main point in the debate Mahiimudrii and rDzogs chen has always been the distinction between their different approaches to the spiritual path. The teachings of Mahiimudrii are generally considered belonging to the Mahiiyoga and Anuyoga systems of Tantra classification, and their main characteristic is the of the Tantric practices of transformation. The j uxtaposition of Atiyoga (rDzogs chen) in the and controversies mainly Mahiimudrii system has triggered because rDzogs chen does not contain any practice of transformation and, moreover, does not use any initiation.63 For these reasons, the presence ofAtiyoga practices has been considered an element of "contamination", affecting the integrity of the Mahiimudrii system. This has nothing to do with any negative opinion regarding rDzogs chen. In fact it is simply connected with the consideration that in a maintain an "original" coherence and path all the practices must be related to an uninterrupted lineage of transmission. Although the Mahamudrii "orthodoxy" of the great Sa skya pa masters is certainly not devoid of institutional care, there is no trace of spiritual "competition" nor of aspiration to any sort of Mahiimudrii "supremacy" over Atiyoga. From the spiritual point of view of these masters, stressing the essential, "original" coherence of Mahiimudrii is thus mainly justified by the belief (especially true in regard to all Internal Tantras) that a practice can be
63
14 4
some kinds of initiation and "empowerment" may be used by rDzogs chen masters, these are in fact "borrowed" from Mahayoga and Anuyoga, and are actually part of the Tantric path of transformation. The practice of Atiyoga itself does not imply any initiation. On the contrary, the initiation is completely substituted by a "direct introduction" to the experiential knowledge of one's "natural state". This knowledge is defined as rig pa or also as chos nyid mngon sum ("real dharmatii'', or "true condition of all dharma"). It is considered a non dual state that is free from all conditioning mental activities and emotions. This does not mean that a student of Atiyoga is usually supposed to enter this state as soon as he is to it by a master. The practices leading to the achievement of that state can be those of Mahiimudrii (following the transformation path of and Anuyoga) or they can be Atiyoga practices (following the three rDzogs ch en series of sems sde, klong de and man ngag sde). More often, a mix of Atiyoga and Tantric practices of visualisation transformation is used. To further complicate this scenario, in many cases rDzogs chen masters do perform Tantric style initiations, but include the "direct introduction" of Atiyoga.
Chapter 6 I I Giovanni Arca
successfully performed and its realisation obtained only if it strictly adheres to what is believed to represent the "original" corpus of instructions. These instructions have to be transmitted from master to disciple, together with their relative initiations. Many masters of Tibetan Buddhism have also institutional roles, and according to their secular point of view they usually practise, transmit and teach only what belongs to the lineage of their own school. Often they carefully avoid dealing with teachings that belong to other traditions, regardless of their value or potential spiritual benefit. This sectarian attitude has also been relevant in the general debate regarding the "origins" religious myopia and of Mahamudra. It certainly has much to do both the prioritising of secular management of spirituality. Other teachers show an opposite attitude, freely gathering from all traditions whatever they consider useful for progressing in the path towards a spiritual "realisation". While this conduct is positively non-sectarian, it can also risk a potential mixing of everything together, flattening the distinctive traits of different traditions. opposed, particularly This is precisely what some masters have what they regarded as a "confusion" and a in the Sa skya pa school, "contamination" between Mahamudra and rDzogs chen. In fact, they considered this as detrimental for the effectiveness of both these teachings. and should not necessarily be It is in this regard considered mainly or purely politically pragmatic, that those who are personally involved in any spiritual quest be genuinely interested to know the "origins" of the teaching they are following and the "modifications" these may have undergone. This can be particularly felt as important when the practitioners deal with the management of their individual physical and as it occurs with the yogic techniques. Even more if they mental transmission, as is attribute a fundamental value to a lineage of the case with practitioners and teachers of Tantric tradition, like the Sa skya pa masters presented in these pages. I believe that it is mainly in this sense that these masters attributed a negative value, such as "contamination", to what they considered spurious elements in the Mahamudra tradition. I also think it is mainly for the same reason that they showed such a strong interest towards a definition of the of Mahamudra, although these "origins" are not generally affirmed
145
A s i a n Ho r iz o n s: S t u d i e s in Ho n o u r of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d His
on the basis of historical evidence. are, in fact, rather based on a mainly subj ective assessment of their consistency with what the authors considered the correct contents and methods of the practice. The experience of the authors as spiritual masters and their position of recognised leaders are the pivotal factors in the assessment of "origins". is mainly their experiential, "hands-on" knowledge that seems to guide them in the choice of any textual evidence. The texts they quote, however, together with facts and circumstances report, undoubtedly support their arguments. The interconnections between religious socio-political interests are clearly indissoluble in the debate around Mahamudra and rDzogs chen. Nevertheless, the specificity and the details of the arguments provided contribute to strengthen the impression that it was for the preservation and defense of a spiritual "effectiveness" and "integrity" that they wanted to reaffirm the "origins" of Mahamudra as deeply and practices. exclusively rooted in the Tantric path of
TRANSLATION
THE TEXTS 64
1 . Collection of Selected Instructions on the Mahiimudra ( Grags pa 1 )65 Phyag rgya chen po gees po btus man ngag, by Grags pa rgyal mtshan
rje gdan-pa,66 the clear light These are the instructions given by Lama of the non-dual Mahamudra. The preliminary practices are not present here. Once you are seated in the lotus position and have placed your hands in the mudra of meditation, draw your eyes down, on the tip of the nose and,
64
65 66
The transliteration of the Tibetan texts is available online at the following link: https:// db.tt/HOIRFHiv. Sa skya bka' 'bum, Vol. 6: 302. Pai:i<;lita Don yod rdo rje, known as rDo rje gdan pa, "Amoghavajra". G.N. Roerich ( 1949).
Chapter 6 II Giovanni Arca
sounding Hul!l, in an instant manifest yourself as Prajfiaparamita with white body, who holds a blue lotus with her hands in the mudra of the Teaching of the Doctrine, and a book on a Utpala flower. At the heart she has a Hu1J1 on a solar disk, spreading rays of white light which, through the top of the head, hit the deities and the A suras, transforming them into Vairocana. from the top of the head they all disappear, together with their dimensions, into the Huw Then rays of striking the human light spread from the beings and transforming them into Aksobhya and all, together with their dimensions, finally disappear into the Hu1J1. Rays of yellow light then spread from the navel reaching the animals and transforming them into and then, together with their dimensions, they are all absorbed into the Hu1J1. Rays of red light then spread from the secret place, reaching the Preta and transforming them into Amitabha. Then through the triangle, 67 together with their dimensions, they are all absorbed into the Hu1J1. Then from the anus rays of green light spread, hitting the infernal beings and transforming them into Amogasiddhi,6 8 becoming then absorbed from the anus in the Hul!l, together with their dimensions. Then absorb yourself into the Hu1J1, the 0 is absorbed into the Ha, the Ha into the crescent, this one into the thig le, the thig le into the niida and the nada dissolves into the state void of concepts, and so you meditate.69 Continuing to practise in this way, one discovers the signs of the practice: parasites, good looking complexion, and light and luminous body, so on many good qualities manifest. 67 68
69
The chakra symbolised as a triangle or crossed triangles, near the base of the spine. Vairocana, Akfobhya, Amitabha, and Amoghasiddhi represent the enlightened states of the main human passions ("Five Wisdoms"): Wisdom of the Real Dimension (Dharmadhiitu), Wisdom of the Mirror (Adarfo jfziina), Wisdom of Equality (Samatii jfziina), Discriminative Wisdom (Pratyaveksm:w jfziina) and Wisdom of Duty (KrtyiinuS{hiina jfziina). For the inconsistency of the "five main passions" within the Buddhist classification see Wayman 1961 :85 ff. The visualisation of the syllable Hiil!l acts as a meditative support for a gradual relaxation of the mind in its natural condition. The a, the Ha, the crescent and the thig le are parts of the writing of the syllable and correspond to levels of meditation.
14 7
A s i a n Ho r iz o n s : S t u d i e s i n Ho n o u r of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d
L egacy
Obtaining then the Bhiimi(s), one realises the Mahiimudrii in this very life. Learn (how to find yourself in) the state which is beyond the concepts, for as long as you are able to remain (sitting) in contemplation. Even when you perform any activity (try to) learn (to find yourself in) the state beyond the concepts and to become familiar with it. If you do not have the capacity of finding yourself beyond the concepts, learn (to practice) the visualisation of Prajfiaparamita, which you should know, having you received the third Initiation. Thi *
*
*
Single systematic instruction on the inconceivable Prajfiaparamita. In an instant one manifests as Prajfiaparamita. Focusing a white, luminous and clear lunar mm:u;lala on the empty space of the heart, all the phenomena of the universe are gathered into oneself, oneself into the moon, the moon to the size of a mustard seed and transforms into the niida, which becomes increasingly thinner, the size of the lotus' filaments, and then becomes so thin as to be invisible. Thus remain in the emptiness beyond the eight limitations. for as much as you retain its memory, on the bliss of the third initiation. (transformed) into the deity and, an instant visualise authenticated by the (knowledge) which is like an illusion, perform deeds with body and voice. This also applies to other practice sessions. The instruction of bLama rDo rje gdan pa was transmitted by bLama Pa ri ba. ***
Homage t o the Master!
14 8
Chapter 6 II Giovanni Arca
Sitting on a comfortable place, cross-legged, truly practice the Bodhicitta; either transformed into the deity or in your ordinary appearance, behave as in an illusion. Then the main practice begins. Even if the channels of the body can be summarised in 32, these can be further reduced to 3 channels.7 0 Above and below the navel the three channels divide and then meet on the navel, taking the form of a rdo rje. Visualise in this way the three channels, and unify the upper air with lower air. Then visualise that from the Ram on the navel, or at a short distance from it, a fire is lighted. So the navel, where the three channels meet, heats up. The upper air and lower airs unify at the navel, so that all rlung71 and Bodhicitta meet on the navel and penetrate in the Avadhilti channel.72 Focus visualising that the fire of the gtum mo spreads only at the navel, but that it does not circulate inside the central channel. Meditating in this way the body is filled with warmth and pleasure, and the 32 knots of the channel are untied. So visualise that (the body) is filled to the top of the head with the 32 Bodhicitta. your daily activities unify the three rlung and when (sitting) in meditation keep the presence of the experiences that arise. If previously, during the third initiation, you had any experience, try to continue it. All rlung and Bodhicitta will penetrate into the central channel. This is the cm:u;lill13 based on the three channels. Instruction of the glorious Narotapa.74 Sa Ma' pTa Mi Thi
70 71 72 73 74
dbu ma, ro ma and brkyang ma: central, left and right channels. Skt. priilJa. The central channel dbu ma. Tib. gtum mo. Nampa.
14 9
A s ia n
S t u d i e s i n Ho n o u r of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d
L ega cy
***
to the Master! In the lotus position, hands in the position of meditation, recall as before the memory of the mantra.75 Visualise that from the condition of the emptiness Hevajra Yab Yum76 manifests at the heart, lotus, sun and corpse. In the right hand holds a vajra and in the left a skull decorated with vajras. The yum holds a gri gug77 and a B oth are decorated with the five mudrii. The yab is decorated by Akfobya at the head. At the heart of the yab there is a Hii1?1 and at the navel of the yum an A1J1. Visualise in this way and remain in an state. By virtue of this, due to the feeling of pleasure, the A1?1 becomes a jewel. The Hii1?1 too becomes a j ewel. Both letters dissolve into light and the yab and yum too dissolve in light, like a shining lamp. This state without concepts, experienced as a nyams7 8 in the past, is itself the Great this Bliss is something that does not exist in the three worlds,79 but it is the nature of the Bodhicitta. The moment the A1?1 and the Hii1?1 arrive in the Jewel, 8 0 one has an experience of happiness, which is supreme knowing wisdom. The Lama will then say that that experience is indication of the Great Bliss and that indication is the fourth initiation. that all this happens (is concluded) in the mind but do not have any concept of where and what it is. ! Thi *
75 76 77 78 79 RO
*
*
At the moment of the third initiation. Tantric deity in mystical union. See Note 3 1 . Hooked knife. "Experience". Kama, Riipa and Ariipa Dhatu: the worlds of desire, form and absence of form. The genital chakra.
C h ap t e r 6 I I G i o v a n n i A r c a
Orrz Swasti As the greatest part of the sentient beings the world of desire are born from a womb, the females feel attraction towards their father and aversion is the opposite. for their mother; for the Because they do not understand the reality, all these beings are attached to passions. if one is aware of this, this itself becomes the Path.
Just with the embrace, the tight holding and the union of the genitals, the external is neutralised. When it [Arrz-Hurrz, which is Bodhicitta] reaches the root of the j ewel, through this one acquires awareness in the mind. it reaches the half, then arise. If it reaches the top, becomes aware beyond confirmations. 8 1 Although this 82 happens to all beings, because they do not recognise and become attached to it, this becomes cause of restraint. Secretly, having recognised it thanks to the and really understood it with the five Dharma, with that itself one becomes liberated. According to the Hevajra: "As with the heat one can burn, as something burnt by heat one must be inflamed with desire." So it is said. I Thi *
81
82
*
*
These are the three levels of understanding of the Mahamudra, related here to the yogic practice of control of the semen. See Dasgupta (1950 : 1 8 8 ff.): "There is a very close relation between the motion of semen, the vital wind and the citta and the relation is so intimate that the arrest of any one of them will stop the course of the other two. ( . . . ) for the purpose of arresting the flow of the Bodhicitta the vital wind must also be checked. (. . .) The most important of the processes for the arrest of the flow of Bodhicitta is the Kumbhaka or the suspension of the vital wind, both Prana and Apana. Prana is the wind that moves upward, and Apana is the wind that moves downward, and generally the disturbed semen within the body is discharged through the downward motion of Apana; but if this Apana is arrested, the Bodhicitta cannot go downward, and if Prana is arrested, it cannot go upward, and, therefore, when both are arrested or made passive, it can go upward nor go downward, but becomes motionless like the motionless air within. C.f. aha IJa gamai uha na jiii I be1Ji rahia tasu 1Jiccala thai 1 1 bha1Jai kii1Jha malJa kahavi IJa phutfai I 1Jiccala pava1Ja ghari!Jf ghare vaffai I I Dohakofa of Kai:ihu pada, Doha No 1 3 ." The "ordinary" experience of sexual pleasure, without the awareness produced by Tantric initiations.
A s i a n Ho r iz o n s : S t u di e s i n Ho n o u r of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d His L egacy
Instructions of the great master Indrabhi.iti. "As the mind that has abandoned the action, in any way it is, leave it like this ! " (It means:) having abandoned the activity of body, voice and mind, until one enters again into action, without effort the innate, self-manifest wisdom which has no concepts spontaneously arises. Similarly it is said: "When the state without thoughts arises, leave it in the way in which it arose and in which it remains." That is to say that, as all internal and external phenomena, in any way they are, are free from birth and interruption and are not something to get through an effort, so leave your mind in this way and without effort you will find a present and relaxed state. Being in this state, the self-manifest wisdom which is without thoughts will arise. Therefore we must remain beyond commitment. In this way, finding yourself into the state of contemplation, with no effort the wisdom without thoughts will arise: this is the accumulation of wisdom. Without trying to reject or to obtain, act in regard of all phenomena without rejecting them: this is the accumulation of merit. In this way, having built up the two accumulations of wisdom and merit, one will obtain the fruit of the great bliss, which can be summarised in the three Kiiya. 83 The behaviour which does not rej ect any phenomenon is: not having any judging consideration regarding pure and impure foods, as well as regarding clean and dirty places; not having any behaviour of acceptance and rejection of friends; not having thoughts regarding negative or virtuous actions; always paying homage to women, to the king, parents, etc., as if they were the Vajra holders; giving food, clothes etc., to all beings, thinking of making offerings to the Buddha. This is the end of the instruction in verses.
83
15 2
Dhiirmakiiya, sambhogakiiya and nirmiil)akiiya. See also Note 39.
Chapter 6 1 1 Giovanni Arca
2.
Root text of the Mahiimudrii of the seven levels (Sa pal} 1 )84
Phyag rgya chen po yan lag bdun ldan gyi rtsa ba, by Sa skya Pav<,lita Kun dga' rgyal mtshan
I pay homage to the holy master and prostrate myself at his feet. All phenomena are in a state of complete stability. In them there is no concept of "being" and "not being". pay homage to (the condition that is) beyond concept, which immediately cuts concepts. 8 5 Since it is not in any way visible the end of this ocean of suffering which unites all the waters of existence, in whom can we take refuge, we who are protector? It is difficult to get the perfect condition of being human, 8 6 difficult to meet the Teaching of the Buddha, difficult to find a good master, and difficult to maintain his [or her] teaching. Those who are aware and understand the meaning of the Teaching follow it with confidence. Understanding the meaning of this, one overcomes all worldly thoughts. A practitioner who has not overcome the worldly thoughts, may likewise be a good practitioner, but he is in the Smrzsiira, even if at a high level.
84 85 86
Sa skya bka' ' bum Vol. 5: 446. The state of Mahiimudrii. Dal 'byor is the quality or condition of the precious human body. There are eight dal, namely "freedoms" from undesirable conditions: the infernal conditions, the Preta or "hungry ghosts", the animals, the beings who never had a Buddha, the barbarians who are not able to practice the Dharma, the long living gods, the beings without senses and the heretics, who have wrong and extremist views. From the "Bodhisattvacharyavatara'', shin tu dka ' I skyes bu'i don sgrub thob par by S antideva: "dal 'byor 'di ni rnyed 'gyur pa la I gal te 'di la phan pa ma bsgrub na I phyis 'di yang dag ' byor par ga la 'gyur." "(Because of) this noble human body, adorned with all the necessary qualities, we have an opportunity to benefit ourselves and our neighbour, otherwise, wasting this opportunity (of being) human, it will be exceedingly difficult to obtain this human body again." In a more essential translation: "So hard to find the ease and wealth I whereby the aims of beings may be gained. I If now I fail to turn it to my profit, I How could such a chance be mine again?" S antideva Padmakara TG (20 1 1 :30).
15 3
A s i a n Ho r iz o n s: S t u d i e s i n Ho n o ur of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d His L egacy
Those who do not depend on the Three Jewels, 87 even if they are good individuals, they are Thirtika. 88 Without Method and (its) Wisdom, 8 9 even with the understanding of Emptiness one is j ust an Arhat.9 0 this, abandon all inclinations of the wrong paths and try to achieve the state of omniscience which liberates from Samsiira and Nirvana. in a of Samsiira, Recalling to your mind the solitary place, to all external distractions and being content with anything, leave in this way all internal distractions, first working on the special refuge and then on the Bodhicitta. To perfectly obtain the four Initiations,9 1 the cause for rapidly improving the two and the method for realising the two Bodies, one applies the contemplation of the two levels, then one must become familiar with the practice of the Mahiimudrii, which is the (coming) from these.92 It does not have a material condition for which it is possible to say that it does or does not exist; it is not something on which to meditate, in which there is an obj ect of meditation and someone who meditates. 87
88
90
91
92
15 4
Buddha, Dhiirma and Sarrigha: the Master, the Teaching and the Community (of practitioners). The "heretics", or those who are "extremist" in their views and opinions. Tib. mu steg. Tib. thabs and shes rab. The level of arhat is the ideal spiritual achievement of the Theravada (or Sthaviravada) school, the bodhisattva of the Mahayana school. See Note 37. From the Sa skya bka' 'bum, Vol. 5 : 310, 1. 12: "Practicing bskyed rim without having received the first initiation; practicing the gtum mo, etc. without the second initiation; meditating the bliss and the emptiness without the third; practicing the Mahiimudrii etc., without the fourth and being a mkhan po (abbot) without the vows of the full ordination, is like trying to take a jewel from the head of a snake, and it will be the cause of one's own and others' destruction. Therefore, all wise people should leave these (actions) far (from them)." From the Sa skya bka' 'bum, Vol. 5: 317, I. 5: "Narotapa said: receiving the initiation and practicing bskyed rim and rdzogs rim is an appropriate practice but which belongs to the lineage ofNaro; practicing bskyed rim and rdzogs rim and not having the initiation is certainly in contradiction with the Tantra and also with our own customs [of the lineage ofNaropa]". From the Sa skya bka' 'bum, Vol. 5: 308, 1. 14: "If one likes to practice the secretT antra, he/ she should receive the four initiations, without mistakes, and practice the two rim (bskyed rim and rdzogs rim) without any illusion. Thus, since from (the practice of) these two originates the Wisdom (ye shes) (and this Wisdom is Mahiimudrii), one must practice this
C h ap t e r 6 I I G i o v a n n i A r c a
Since the mind has no essence, how can there b e an Introduction of the Mind? Since it is beyond the object of the word, it cannot absolutely be explained. For the Dharma(s)93 that are beyond thoughts, there is no distraction of the mind. In the absolute condition it is as follows: a person who has this knowledge, in order to integrate Saf!lsiira and Nirvana tries to achieve with his [or her] commitment the three types of conduct, elaborate, non-elaborate and extremely non-elaborate,94 as it is explained in the Tantras, and so crossing the Path and the internal Bhumi(s), relative to this practice, obtains the Bhumi of the Vajradhara. Thanks to your good conduct in the past,95 you have made happy an excellent teacher and so the nature of the mind has been clarified to you. However, understand this too! Summing up these virtues all the others, that total enlightenment may be completely achieved, for the benefit of all beings. Composed in an easy style, in response to a fervent prayer, by Sa skya Pa1;1c;lita. Sa rba ma nga lam. dGe 'o.96 3.
Commentary on the Mahiimudrii of the seven levels ('Phags pa 1 )97
De 'i khrid yig yan lag bdun pa, by 'Phags pa blo gros rgyal mtshan.
title is: "The of the seven levels for the practice of the Mahamudra". I pay respectful homage at the feet of the sacred master. I pay homage to the state of absolute equanimity, beyond conceptualisation and
93 94 95 96
97
"Existences" or "conditions of existence". See Note 54. In the previous lives. Sa rba ma nga lam means approximately "that everything be good" and dGe 'o "that everything be (cause of) Virtue". Sa skya bka' ' bum Vol. 7: 214.
15 5
A s i a n Ho r iz o n s : S t u d i e s in
of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d His L ega cy
When, even freed from all concepts, various types of concepts manifest, until one really understands the supreme meaning there is no freedom from the bonds of existence [Sa1J1sara] . Therefore, to understand how the true condition is, I will explain the levels of the practice.9 8 Having received this instruction at the feet of the respectful and good master,99 here I shall write the transmission regarding the levels of the practice of the yogi, condition of all existence, so that can remember it and (also) because of a request I received. Sitting cross-legged on a comfortable mat, abandon completely all external distractions and the internal proj ections of the thoughts and, with feeling and participation, take refuge three times in the master and the three Jewels, until obtaining the essence of Bodhicitta.100 This is the first level. Then, in order to free all kinds of sentient beings in all boundaries of space from the ocean of in the supreme state of and establish great bliss, with the intention of obtaining the total becoming familiar with the state of Wisdom which has no concepts, meditate at length on the Bodhicitta. This is the second level. Then, instantly, transform into a superior deity, who apparently manifests itself but is not concrete, like the reflection in a mirror. as Understanding also all the external physical vision of the dream, which is not concrete, concentrate on this for a while. This is the third level. Then, over the top of the head, sitting on the lotus and the moon, clearly visualise the holy master with the symbol of his family. 1 0 1 him 98 99 !00
101
The seven levels mentioned by Sa skya Pm;ic.lita in the root text. His uncle and master Sa skya Pai;igita. The essence of bodhicitta is the state of enlightenment, which is considered present in all sentient beings. According to the lineage of the Master.
Chapter 6 II Giovanni Arca
as the essence of all the enlightened beings and, feeling supreme devotion, respectfully without distraction. After that, think that all impediments and obstacles, accumulated from endless time, have been purified. level. This is the the true condition of all absolutely free from Then, concepts, leave (your equanimous, because it is useless to set the thoughts arise. mind in any sort of "position", and release any tension if you recognise that there is a thought, this too is not good. Any experience may occur, let it arise and be manifest when the moment comes, and leave it as it is. This is the :fifth level. Then, if thoughts arise, because you do not understand this mind as an illusion, because of the karma and passions, meditate on the Great Compassion thinking: "may all beings sunk in the mud of Samsara, afflicted with suffering and without protection, be free from all sufferings and from their causes ! " is the sixth level. from by sharing all Then, thanks to the cause of virtue possible results of your and others' merits, in the past, present and future, the precious and perfect enlightenment may really be obtained. So dedicate the merit for three times. This is the seventh level. Thus, if the practitioner, having abandoned distraction, always applies this the true meaning of the contemplation of the seven levels, Prajiiaparamita which is not devoid of the method of the Great Compassion, he will be quickly able to obtain the supreme realisation. The Mahamudra of the emptiness seals as non-dual the entire substance of Smrzsara and Nirvana: this is the Mahamudra ofthe Natural Condition. 1 02
102
Tib. gnas lugs phyag rgya chen po.
15 7
A s i a n Ho r iz o n s: St u d i e s in Ho n o u r of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d His L egacy
Through intelligence, developed by listening and re:tlecting, 1 03 analysing understand that all phenomena are completely empty within their own condition: this is the Mahiimudrii of Vision. 1 04 Since there is no object nor consciousness (to perceive it), without entering into the concept of something to meditate and someone who meditates, meditate supremely without meditating: this is the Mahiimudrii of Meditation. 1 05 As the space in a pot and the space (out of it), the real condition (of the phenomena) and the primordial wisdom have the same taste, thus they are the true essence of everything: this is the Mahiimudrii of the As the heat is not different from the fire, the real condition is not different from the phenomena, which is why it is non-dual, and in all circumstances there is union. With regard to those who see the absolute and relative truth in terms of accepting and abandoning, is this not contrary to realisation? alone, without Method, does not get to realisation, nor does Emptiness. the Method Those who are wise, understanding both intelligently, obtain the non dual What I understood, thanks to the kindness of the master, I wrote for the benefit of others. May any cause of virtue thus produced make the beings obtain the supreme enlightenment. essential nature of all phenomena, (This is) the instruction revealing called the "Mahiimudrii of the seven levels". It was written according to the teaching of the great and glorious Lord of the Dharma, Sa skya Pa1;1<;lita, 103
104 105 106
Two of the three Wisdoms : thos pa 'i shes rab, bsam pa'i shes rab and sgom pa'i shes rab, also called thos bsam sgom gsum. Tib. !ta ba'i phyag chen. Tib. bsgom pa'i phyag chen. Tib. 'bras bu'i phyag chen.
Chapter 6 II Giovanni Arca
by the novice bLo gros rgyal mtshan dpal bzang po, who puts on the top of his head the dust at the feet of the master, in the year Water-Mouse, 1 07 the month of the Hawk, in Mi ny ag. 1 0 8 4.
The Practice of the Mahiimudrii ('Phags pa 2)109
Phyag chen nyams !en, by 'Phags pa blo gros rgyal mtshan
I pay respectful homage to the sacred master and prostrate myself at his feet. The emptiness, of all things the most precious, is the essence of all phenomena. Since it is the symbol of both Sarrzsiira and Nirvana, it is explained by the name of "Great Symbol", the Mahiimudrii. to all considerations regarding the of the "I", the atoms and the emptiness, remain relaxed in a state beyond concept. Whatever experience arises from that (state) do not feel pleasure nor fear. Abandon there all thoughts of accepting and refusing. Being in this state of contemplation, while performing any activity after (the practice), such as walking, lying down or sitting, behave as if everything was In the state of dharmatii, meditate infinite compassion for all beings and, without attachment to yourself, benefit the others as much as you can, (and) offer what you have got to the three Jewels. The view of the Deity, the recitation of the mantra etc., are not to be refused, because from all these methods one can obtain (benefit) without (any) conflict (between these practices), in the state of total Wisdom. is negative if one wants to get (But) the Emptiness without the the qualifications (of the practice). The Method too, without Emptiness, does not bring Liberation.
107 108 109
Probably 1 257. A south east region of Tibet. Sa skya bka' 'bum Vol. 7: p. 214.
15 9
A s ia n
St u di e s i n
of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d His L egacy
(It is) in the of Emptiness and Presence, (that) the Mind, founded on the way of the union of Method and Knowledge, obtains the union of the two Bodies. Vehicles are concluded in this. All The two wheels of Merit and Wisdom, joined by the axle of the "Wise Methods" 1 1 0 and by the supreme horse of Devotion, lead to the dimension of Omniscience. He who takes the dust at the feet of the Lord of Dharma Sa skya Pm;igita, 'Phags pa, wrote this method of the Mahamudra practice, at bo rtse lnga. 1 1 1 5.
Answers to the questions of rTogs ldan rgyan po (Sa pal). 2) 112
rTogs ldan rgyan po ' i dris !an, b y Sa skya Pal).gita Kun dga' rgyal mtshan
The emanation of the Reverend MafijusrI, the great Pal).gita of Sa skya pa, Lord of the Dharma, having traveled to Wutai shan, in met a man named rTogs ldan rgyan po, who lived in that place (Because and the prostrations to the Lord he) did many times the of the Dharma, being such a respectable (person), the great Pal).gita told rTogs ldan! It is wonderful (to do) the and the prostrations, but to stay in a place like this one needs a practice and a meditation founded on deep secret method, do you understand?! " (So) he said. rTogs ldan reflected for a while and then, taken from home a white silk scarf he offered it to the Lord of the Dharma (saying): "Oh of the Dharma! (In regard to) the !ta ba 1 13 of the Mahiimitdra, do you confirm that it is the meditation (which is found in) all Vehicles?
110 111 112 113
16 0
The methods of Tantrism. The "Mountain of the Five Peaks", in Wutai Shan, China. Sa skya bka' ' bum Vol. 5: 334. /Ta ba is the vision, one's opinion, the point of view. It means the understanding (also theoretical) of the teaching, which in this case is equivalent to the comprehension of the of the mind.
Chapter 6 II Giovanni Arca
How is the nature of the Mahamudra? Why is it called Mahamudra? are the levels of the ways of arising and progressing toward its attainments? secret method of the Mahamudra can be given to I ask that a me." So he asked, in order to (obtain) this. Being pleased, the Lord of the Dharma gave the Initiation of Hevajra (according to the tradition) of Damvipa; he gave a complete teaching of Mahamudra Lhan cig skyes grub114 and the secret method of Tog tse pa, 1 15 the bSam mi khyab.116 (Then he said:) "The way ofteaching Mahamudra according to my system is this: practice with determination and, without claiming to be a Mahasiddha ahead of time, the realisation will come without disappointment. Keep in mind this summary of the meaning of your questions". (And) so (he continued) saying: "Generally, in the system of the Paramita, the lta ba, is sealed with the four mudra.117 In the system of the three series of lower Tantras it is explained that (the lta ba) is sealed (by the) non-dual state of depth and clarity but there is no mention of the term "Mahamudra". Although these systems explain the supreme achievement, they do not explain the supreme achievement of the Mahamudra, thus we cannot accept (to consider) that what they meditate is j ust the lta ba that one needs of the Mahamudra. Those systems, they to understand the emptiness, do not explain the profound methods for its understanding, thus it is not possible to consider (this) j ust Mahamudra. For example, the Sravaka system explains about the gift, the morality and so on, but it does not explain the specific methods and the 114 115
116 117
The literal meaning is: "at the same time arisen and perfected". One of the legendary 84 Mahasiddhas, known by many names, among which several variations of "Kotali". His deeds are narrated in the Caturasltisiddhapravrtti (Grub thob brgyad cu rtsa bzh i ' i lo rgyus) by Abhayadatta ('Jigs pa sbyin pa dpal). For the authorship and editions of this work, see Dowman (1985:384 ff). For another translation of the same text, see Guarisco (1986:51 ff). The literal meaning is: "that cannot be conceived by thinking". sdug bsngal ba, mi rtag pa, stong pa and bdag med pa: Suffering, Impermanence, Emptiness and Non self.
A s i a n Ho r iz o n s: S t u d i e s in Ho n o ur of
Tu c c i a n d
L egacy
Knowledge 1 1 8 that has to be present with them, so one cannot consider as Danapiiramitii,1 19 etc. Defining as Mahamudrii the meditation of their way of seeing is as when they call someone ignorant a "bull": it is just a (on this regard). name; so there is nothing to of the Mahiimudrii: Mahiimudrii is immutable bliss; Regarding the having totally abandoned subj ect and obj ect, forms, thoughts and explana tions, similar to (a) city of Dri za120 and with the nature of clairvoyance, 121 the yogi who dominates Method and Prajnii pays homage to the letters E and WalJl. 122 Beyond the phenomenal nature of thick and thin atoms, with the nature of (the experience of the) clairvoyance he possesses the supreme total form; 123 I pay homage to that Mahiimudrii. They say that one must understand what is called "innate phenomenal nature" and that this is the way to the emptiness which possesses total form: through an experience that cannot be expressed in words, (like) the apparent form of clairvoyance, one attains the understanding of the innate essence. Regarding the wisdom of the union; their names are: union of the vision of emptiness, union of the presence of emptiness, union of the bliss of totality, the coemergent wisdom, the self-originated wisdom, the wisdom of one's own present, the discriminative wisdom, the wisdom beyond etc. 118 119
120
121 122
123
162
Tib. shes rah, Skt. prajiia. Tib. (shyin pa'i) pha rol du phyin pa, "transcendental perfection" or, literally, "the gift [that is] beyond". Skt. Gm:u;lhamadana, "those that feed (inebriate) on odours". They are a kind of ghosts" whose "cities" possess existence and consistency more than ephemeral. That is, of the same inconsistent nature of the events manifesting to a seer in a crystal ball. "E Wmrz" represents the basis of the non dual condition, from which all the activities of a Buddha manifest; that is, a condition within which the dualistic perception of subj ect and object is eliminated. Individually, the two letters have several possible meanings. The letter E symbolises the state of bliss; Waf!l indicates the Knowledge, shes rah. also represents the "space" and "Waf!l" the "methods" of the practice, whose is the non dual state. Furthermore, in a more purely Tantric acceptation, "E Waf!l" also means "Yah Yum", the mystical union of the male and female energies, the indissolubility of thahs and shes rah, Method and Knowledge. Tib. rnam pa kun gyi mchog ldan pa. It expresses the supreme level of realisation of the non dual state. It involves limitless understanding, which is why it is defined as "total".
Chapter 6 II Giovanni Arca
are) the methods to understand what has got many different names. pleasing and From the "Vajramala", explanatory text on Tantra: benefitting the master one receives the initiations with purity (in order) to achieve the best understanding of the meaning of those (initiations)"; and from the brtag gnyis:124 "Just that (very meaning) one can identify with extreme clarity". So it is said. The maturation arises from the perfect initiation, and the perfection of the two levels (arises from) the meditation. According to Arya Nagarjuna: "The teachings ofthe Buddhas are based purely on the two levels; one is the level of development, the other that of the refinement". Thus, all methods of the Anuttara (teaching) for the arising of wisdom (are summarised into the two levels). This is the main reason why all is explained by (all) into the two levels. The meaning of the word Mahiimudrii is (the following): those who are not trained in Sanskrit (maintain that) phyag be the "wisdom of emptiness" (and) rgya means "freed from the limitation of Saf(lsiira ". Accordingly (they say), (these terms) are explained by the the gSar rnying and the Phyag rgya chen po thig le, etc. To say so it is a mistake. we say Mahiimudrii, in Tibetan mahii translates as That is, in chen po, (which means) "great" or "total"; for this (reason) there is not a word corresponding to the term phyag. (It was) because of a King's order,125 that the first translators added the word phyag in Tibetan. For example, regarding the (Tibetan) translation of bhagavate there is not a word corresponding to 'das pa (in the so the word 'das was added in Tibetan: it is the same thing Sanskrit (occurred with) the phyag rgya chen po. So that is why there is no (to say) that an explanation of the word phyag come from the Tantra. this reason, (saying) that phyag is the "wisdom of emptiness" it is (a) false (sentence), made up by the Tibetans. These words do not exist in the Phyag rgya chen po thig le, etc.
124
125 126
Literally "the two segments" or "parts", a condensed version of the Hevajra Root Tantra (Tib. Kye rdo rje zhes bya ba rgyud kyi rgyal po I Kye ' i rdo rje dgu mkha' 'gro ma dra ba'i sdom pa'i rgyud kyi rgyal po.) Possibly Khri srong Ide btsan. Bhagavate is usually translated in Tibetan as beam ldan 'das.
A s ia n Ho r iz o n s : St udies in Ho n o u r of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d His L egacy
"Mudra" means "seal", "sign", "symbol", "stamp" and other words with similar meaning; for this (reason) they have translated it as rgya ("seal"). The meaning is this: as Avadhutipa 127 said: "Because it is sealed (it is called), rgya, (having) the same flavour of the three worlds is (called) 'total phyag'." (This is) how he said. of Sealing all phenomena of Sarrisiira and Nirviina into the state of bliss and emptiness: (this is the) meaning of the practice called the "way of seeing" of the Mahiimudrii. (Regarding to) the way this arises: for some fortunate people it is also possible that the authentic wisdom of the Mahiimudrii arise from the of wisdom at the time of the Initiation, but (for) the maj ority (of people) it depends on the meditation of the methods; at first the super ficial Mahiimudrii arises, later the authentic Mahiimudrii will arise. There are two (experiences of the) superficial Mahiimudrii: "poisoned" and "limited by defects". The poisonous (Mahiimudrii) is the knowledge produced by listening, thinking and the arising of some kind of nyams,12 8 without the disappearance of waves of the thoughts generated by reasoning. (The Mahiimudrii) of solitude is (being) only in the calm state, or becoming only discriminative, or (when) (it) becomes only (a state) of vision, or (a state) of emptiness, or the feeling of bliss and warmth in the body, or of jumping and movement or, (regarding) the voice, talking without precision or (the arising) in the minds of different visions of the experiences of contemplation, but (any) accuracy; (these), that is, become only experiences of the three existences. 129 Or one faints, or the six senses become blocked, etc. (That is, experiences) that result being only ephemeral. (As to) how to proceed on the Paths (and) the Bhumi(s), those who are interested to the realisation, start from the Initiation, which is needed in order to mature, one makes experiences with defect, according to the ordinary (Vehicle) which is called "The Path of accumulation".
127
128 129
One of the 84 Mahasiddha according to the Caturasitisiddhapravrtti (Grub thob brgyad pa sbyin pa dpal). cu rtsa bzh i ' i lo rgyus), by Abhayadatta "Experiences". The Body, the Voice (or "Energy") and the Mind.
Chapter 6 II Giovanni Arca
From the (Tantra) "brtag gnyis": "The wisdom of omniscience is this. said, As the true wisdom of the union of bliss and emptiness has arisen, if the experiences of the state without perturbation of thoughts arise, or if (only) subtle traces of that state (arise); as it becomes dawn when the sun rises, the arising of the wisdom of the example in one's self is called the Path of the application" and in the mtshan brjod130 (it said): "Beyond the phenomenal nature of consciousness, maintain the character of the non-dual wisdom, a self-perfected (state), without disturbance of thought, in all circumstances". (So) as (Buddha) said, "Truly know the emptiness, which possesses wisdom that does not supreme of all forms, which is the of the Mahiimudrii". in any circumstance, (which is) the absolute When it arises for the first time it is called the "attainment of the Path of the Vision"; continuously used to that (state of Mahiimudrii), one gradually covers (the levels) up to the twelfth Bhumi ; (this) transition is called the "Path of Meditation". Then, when one really the thirteenth Bhumi, one obtains the four Kaya (s),131 the five Wisdoms,132 etc., similarly to an ocean of qualifications; (that) is the real attainment of "Path where there is nothing to learn". Thus, in the ordinary (vehicle), 133 (one has) the Path of application; in the to attain the non-ordinary (vehicle),134 instead, if (one) has truly realisation of Vajradhiira, the condition of the union, in this life, when one really obtains the wisdom the true wisdom of the example arises in oneself. If one maintains a proper conduct and possesses the necessary causes, as explained in the Tantras, then why could one not completely attain the realisation in this life, as the Siddhas? If the authentic wisdom of the example arises in oneself, if one has not one achieves realisation maintained (a correct) it is explained at the time of death, or through the secret teachings of the bar do.135
130 131 132 1 33 134 135
See Note 62. Dharmakaya, sambogakaya, nirmii1Jakaya and svabhavakaya. See Note 68. The tradition based on the Sutra teachings. Tantrism. The intermediate state between death and rebirth.
A s ia n Ho r iz o n s : S t u d i e s in
of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d His L egacy
Some136 (say): "As for the Mahimudra, which is '(a teaching) that cuts away' counting Bhumi(s) and Paths is a mistake of ignorant people". What they say it is a mistake because (this is) what we can read in the mtshan brjod: "The mighty Lord of the Ten Bhumi(s)", so it is written; and by Abhidhana (it is said): '" Supreme Joy', 'Unblemished', 'Enlightening', 'Radiant', 'Bhumi of the Realisation', 'Distant Attainment', 'Irremovable Rectitude', 'Good Knowledge', ' Spiritual Cloud', 'Incomparable', 'Great Wisdom', ' 13th Bhumi of the Vajradhara'", and so on; the Tantras and the realised masters have made wide reference to the Bhumi(s) and the Paths. (So we can read) in the mtshan brjod: "It fully enlightens in an instant". This "enlightening" refers to the way in which, truly and completely, (the great practitioners) eventually become enlightened, after crossing the Bhumi(s) and the Paths. that the (Nature of the) From the 'Da ' ga ye shes:137 "If one mind is enlightenment, one will meditate in (one's own) conscience without looking for the enlightenment in anything else." So it is said. According to Saraha:13 8 "The seed of all is the nature of the mind, from which, that is to say, arises the existence (Saf(lsiira) and the Nirvana, which produce the fruit of desire, Cittamai;ii;139 to (this nature of the) mind (I) bow (and) pay homage." So he said. it is considered, that (one) enlightens crossing the Bhumi(s) and the Paths, achieving knowledge of the relative mind, which is the basis of the condition. consciousness and (the knowledge) of the (So) as it is said: "Outside the precious mind there are neither enlight enment nor sentient beings; the obj ect of the intuitive mind or (something) 136
137
139
16 6
Sa skya Pm)c;iita is probably referring to some bKa' brgyud pa scholars. Worthy of note the style of the exposition, typical of the author. "The Wisdom (or "Knowledge") of the time of death", a teaching traditionally attributed to Buddha S akyamuni which can be found in the gZungs bsdus, also known as mDo mang ("Manifold Sutra Collection"), a collection of many small texts dealing with health, long life, astrology, etc. Almost all Tibetans, in general, have this text at home and, on special occasions, they invite some monk to read it, as a liturgy. Mahacarya Brahmana Rahula (Saraha). His biographical data are quite uncertain, though it seems possible that he was a contemporary of King Dharmapala (769 803). A symbolic gem that fulf ls all wishes (Tib. yid bzhin nor bu).
C h ap t e r 6 I I G i o v a n n i A r c a
outside (of it) does not exist". And (also): "(Between) a very form of wisdom (and) a samsaric perception there is not even a little bit of difference". As (he) said, (the importance of the mind) is that in the all visions of Smrzsara and Nirvana have the same flavour. "You, rTog-ldan! Keep in mind these (recommendations) and do your practice, and you can greatly benefit from this." So he said and proposed, insisting. (This) is the advice for rTog ldan rgyan po, called "Needle of the eye of Mahamudra",140 repeatedly and accurately written by Pi j i in Wutai Shan, according to the words of the Lord of the Dharma.141 6.
Advice to the yogi Phru ma pa (Sa pai;i 3) 142
rNal 'byor pa Phru ma pa la gdams pa, by Sa skya Pai;i<;lita Kun dga' rgyal mtshan
The Lord of the Dharma Sa skya Pai;i<;lita, emanation of MafijusrI, arrived in a village of Hor, 143 travelling on horseback on the road to mDo smad.144 A yogi named Phru ma pa, good meditator, offering a lined robe to the Lord of Dharma, asked: 0 Lord of the Dharma, from your work (titled) "How to precisely the Dharma from the non-Dharma", "(The Buddha) said that the who meditate the Mahamudra create, for the part, the cause of (rebirth in the) animal (realm), otherwise they are born in the world without form,145 or fall into the dimension of the Sravaka. Even if it (the Mahamudra) is a good meditation it does not escape (from being a)
140
141 142 143 144 145
The "needle" mentioned here (Tib. thur ba), is a small medical instrument. It is used to open an eye closed because of some disease. Sa skya Pai;igita. Sa skya bka' ' bum, Vol. 5: 419. Mongolia. Amdo. Skt. ariipa dhiitu. Dhiitu means "world", "realm" or "fundamental dimension''. Traditionally there are three dhiitu (Tib. khams gsum, Skt. trailokya, Pali tiloka), kiimaloka, riipaloka and ariipaloka (Tib. 'dod pa'i khams, gzugs kyi khams, gzugs med pa 'i khams): the worlds of Desire, Form and Absence of Form.
A s i a n Ho r iz o n s: S t u d i e s in Ho n o u r of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d His L egacy
meditation of Madhyamika (kind); the Madhyamika meditation is good but it is very difficult to achieve the realisation (with it)". This is what you said, but what is the meaning of this? On (this) request the estimable Lord of Dharma so answered: Remaining in a natural state, leaving the thoughts without effort and observing the mind, invites one to sleep and causes a "slumbery" state. King Indrabhuti146 said: "(In) any kind of ignorant meditation, from ignorance will be obtained ignorance." So he said. 'Phags-pa klu sgrub147 (said): "Misunderstanding emptiness will bring ruin to those who have little intelligence. Without examining with the discriminative intelligence, one understands that there is no dharma14 8 which can have visions and attachments, and so an experience of emptiness arises, which interrupts the objective visions." So he said. B oth (the previous "ignorant" meditations) are powerful causes which determine one's fall into the lower states. Those who are desirous of well being, better if they abandon them. A calm state which has not got the clarity of movement of the mind, - without having the clarity of the movement of the mind, in a strong calm state, the mind automatically remains where it is fixed and a lhag mthong which has blocked the visions, (the meaning of this is clarified by the texts of the Mngon pa149 etc.) - [because] without examining, all phenomena are (like) space and,
146
147 148 149
"The identification of the various King Indrabhiitis presents the most intractable problem in the history of the siddhas" (Dowman 1985 :232). In this case the quote might refer to the first of these legendary kings who, according to the hagiographic data, lived around the last period of the life of Buddha S akyamuni, or immediately after his death (Stein 2010:228; Karmay 1 98 1 :222). Arya Nagarjuna, second century CE. "Existence", in this case. Tib. chos mngon pa mdzod kyi tsig le'ur byas pa'i 'grel pa mngon pa 'i rgyan mchims 'jam pa 'i dbyangs, a commentary on the Prajniipiiramitii Siitras written by Asal}.ga on the root text transmitted, according to the tradition, by the Buddha Maitreya. It corresponds to the I
16 8
Chapter 6 II Giovanni Arca
because the is not anything (of existing and perceivable) by introducing (it)15° is not going to exist or non-exist but [nevertheless] the expenences anse .
.
both are powerful causes which produce the birth in the world form. Those who wish to obtain the liberation, it is better that they abandon them. The cause of birth in the world without form is the accumulation of the actions of mi gyo ba151 ( ) • • •
Regarding the experience of the supreme purification from the mDo sde rgyan it is as follows:152 the body of that (person) with the great experience of the supreme purification, imagining that this (happen). So he said. Regarding a calm state which possesses bliss and confirmations
the conceptual
(So) has been said by the respectable Aryadeva:153 is not that it exist (but) it is not that it do not exist; it is not that it be both existing and non-existing, (and) neither that be condition of any of them. Free from the four of the limitations, it is the supreme (meaning) of the absolute state. That is the Madhyamika system." So he said. The !hag mthong that has totally exhausted, (all the conceptions), as a cairn state without the presence of sensations
150 151 152
153
Abhidhiirmakofo Kiirikii of the Tripi/aka. "Introduction" to the nature of the mind. "Without (mental) movements". Sutra text, Skt. Siitriilal'[lkiira kiirikii, "The ornament of the Sutra basket". According to the tradition its root text was given by Maitreya to Asal)ga, his disciple, who remained for forty years in the Tusita, a heavenly dimension of divine beings, where he received five root texts; the mDo sde rgyan is said to be one of those. Main disciple of Arya Nagarjuna.
16 9
A s ia n Ho r iz o n s : St u di e s in Ho n o u r of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d His L eg a cy
when one applies the contemplation remaining a long time without thinking of and a !h a mthong where the six senses are blocked, (that is) there is no clarity of movements, (functions), ofthe consciences of the six senses, like the eyes, etc. both of them being equal, (since they belong to) the level of the Sravaka, which means the experiences similar to those of Samiipanna, that is of "cessation", arise who have wished the supreme realisation it is better if they abandon them. of the Vehicle of the being both of them the great Prajniipiiriimitii, those who are the children of the it is better apply them. if Regarding the calm state, in which all the characteristics of conceptual thinking are pacified, the estimable Sang rgyas ye shes155 said: "Besides the movements of the ordinary thoughts there is nothing else that binds one to the existence (the sarrzsiira), and the mind that (is in) total contradiction with this, which does not create thoughts in any case". So he said. and the !ha mthong of the union of bliss and emptiness, from the Spyan ras gzigs pad dkar: "Beyond the substance of the phenomena of both the thin and thick atoms, similar (to) appearances of the forms of possessing the supreme and total form, the great symbol is immutable bliss". So he said, being Mahiimudrii the Way of the Secret Mantra156, those who wish to achieve liberation in this life it is better if they apply it. 154 155 156
170
Tib. rgyal ba, Skt. Jina. It is a general name for the Buddha. Buddhajfiana, an Indian siddha and scholar who reportedly visited Tibet (eighth century CE). The " Secret Mantrayiina", Tib. gsang sngags.
C h ap t e r 6 II Giovanni A r c a
I f the meanings of these five verses have been understood, one can have a pure knowledge of the Mahiimudrii, thus that this (teaching) be examined! So he said. (These are) the five verses of advice to the yogi Phru rna pa, edited by Pi-ji-in the park of Arn do.
Tibetan transliterated sources Complete Works of the Great Masters of the Sa skya Sect of Sa skya bka ' 'bum Tibetan Buddhism, compiled by bSod nams rgya mtsho ( 1 968) (Volumes 5 , 6, 7 and 1 4), The Toyo Bunlrn, Tokyo.
Western language sources Achard J. L. ( 1 999) L 'essence perlee, Brepols, Tumhout, BE. bral Ye shes rDo rje (2005) Wisdom nectar: Dudjom Rinpoche s Bdud 'j oms heart advice, Snow Lion, Ithaca, NY Bentor Y (20 1 0) "The Convergence of Theoretical and Practical Concerns a S ingle Verse of the Guhyasamaj a Tantra", in J. I. Cabezon (ed.), Tibetan Ritual, Oxford Press, New York: 89- 1 02. Berzin A. (200 1 ) Fundamentals ofDzogchen Meditation, Part 1, www. berzinarchives. com last accessed 13 June 20 1 3 . snyan Blezer H . (20 1 1 ) " A Brief Bibliographical Key to Zhang Editions, With Special Attention for Sources on the Early Lineage", Revue Tibetaines, 20: 1 3 5-203 . (Also online at www.digitalhimalaya.com/collections/ ). Broughton J. ( 1 983) "Early Ch'an Schools in Tibet", in Gimello R. and Gregory P. N. (eds.), Studies in Ch 'an and Hua-yen, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu: Chi.in-fang Y. (200 1 ) Kuan-yin: the Chinese transformation ofAvalokitesvara, University Press, New York: 1 9-20. Daishun U. ( 1 983) "The Study of Tibetan Chan Manuscripts Recovered from Tun huang: A Review of the Field and its Prospects", in W. Lai and L. R. Lancaster Ch 'an in China and Tibet, Asia Humanity Press, Berkeley: 327-3 5 0 . (eds.), Dalai Lama XIV (2006) Kindness, Clarity, and insight, Snow Lion, Ithaca, NY. Dalton J. (2004) "The Development of Perfection: the Interiorization of Ritual the Eighth and Ninth Centuries", Journal ofIndian Philosophy, 3 2 : 1-30.
17 1
A s ia n
S t u d i e s i n Ho n o u r of
Tu c c i a n d His L egacy
Dasgupta S. B . ( 1 950) An Introduction to Tantric Buddhism, Calcutta Press, Calcutta. Demieville P. ( 1 952) Le Concile de Lhasa: une controverse sur le quietisme entre bouddhistes de l 'Inde et de la Chine au VIIIe siecle de ! 'ere chretienne, Presses universitaires de France, Paris. Dowman K. ( 1 985) Masters ofMahamudra - Songs and History of the Eighty-Four Buddhist Siddhas, SUNY Press, Albany, NY. Evans-Wentz W. ( 1 954, 2000) The Tibetan book of the great liberation, or, The method of realising nirvana through knowing the mind, OUP 1 954, London. Faure B. (2003) The Power ofDenial: Buddhism, Purity, and Gender, Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford. Goodman S. D. and Davidson R. M. ( 1 992) Tibetan Buddhism: Reason and Press, Albany, NY. Revelation, Guarisco E. ( 1 986) Le Vite degli Ottantaquattro Mahasiddha, Ghe Pel Ling, H. V. ( 1 966) Tibetan Buddhism without Mystification, Brill, Leiden. Jackson D. ( 1 994) Enlightenment by a Single Means: Tibetan Controversies on the "Self-Sufficient White Remedy " (dkar po chig thub), Verlag der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaffen, Vienna. - How Jackson R. R. (200 1 ) "The dGe ldan-bKa' brgyud Tradition of Much dGe ldan? How Much bKa' brgyud?" in G. Newland (ed.), Changing minds: contributions to the study ofBuddhism and Tibet in honor ofJeffrey Hopkins, Lion, Ithaca, NY: 1 5 5-1 9 1 . R. R. (2004) Tantric treasures: three collections of mystical verse from Buddhist India, Oxford Press, New York. Kapstein and Dotson (2007) Contributions to the Cultural History of Tibet, Brill, Leiden and Boston. Karmay S. G. ( 1 9 8 1 ) "King Tsa-Dza and Vajrayana", in M. Strickmann (ed.), Tantric and Taoist studies in honour ofR.A. Stein, Institut beige des hautes etudes chinoises, Bruxelles: 1 92-2 1 1 . Karmay S . G . ( 1 988) The Great Perfection: A Philosophical and Meditative Teaching of Tibetan Buddhism, Brill, Leiden. Karmay S. G. (2007) The Great Perfection (rDzogs chen). A Philosophical and Leiden and B oston. Meditative Teaching of Tibetan Buddhism, Kvaeme P. ( 1 983) "The Great Perfection in the Tradition of the Bonpos", in W. Lai Ch 'an in China and Tibet, Asia Humanity and L. R. Lancaster (eds.), Press, Berkeley: 3 67-3 92 . Lopez Jr D. S . (2004) "The Ambivalent Exegete - Hodgson's contributions to the study of Buddhism", in D .M. Waterhouse (ed.), The Origins ofHimalayan Studies - B. Houghton Hodgson in Nepal and Darjeeling 1 820-1858, Routledge Curzon, London and New York: 49-76. Mayer R. and Cantwell C. (2008) Early Tibetan Documents on Phur pafrom Dunhuang, VOAW, Vienna.
17 2
C h ap t e r 6 II G i o v a n n i A r c a
Meinert C . (2002) "Chinese Chan and Tibetan rDzogs-chen: Preliminary Remarks on Two Tibetan Dunhuang Manuscripts", in H. Blezer (ed.), Religion and Secular Culture in Tibet: Tibetan Studies: Proceedings of the 9th Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Brill, Leiden: 289-307. C. (2007) "The Conjunction of Chinese Chan and Tibetan Rdzogs ch en IOL Tib J 689-1 and Thought: Reflections on the Tibetan Dunhuang PT 699SM:60.2-6", in M.T. Kapstein and B. Dotson (eds.), Contributions to the Cultural History ofEarly Tibet, Brill, Leiden and Boston: 239-3 0 1 . Ngag dban kun dga' bstan ' dzin khams sprul (E. Dell' Angelo and M . Maglietti (eds.) ( 1 993) The refined gold of the oral teaching about the practice of understanding, meditating and behaving according to the Mahiimudrii, Shang Shung Editions, Arcidosso, Italy. Norbu N. ( 1 996) Dzogchen: the self-perfected state, Snow Lion, Ithaca N.Y. Norbu N. and Clemente A. ( 1 999) The Supreme Source - The Kunjed Gyalpo, The Fundamental Tantra ofDzogchen Semde, Snow Lion, Ithaca, NY. Reynolds J. M. (2005) The Oral Tradition.from Zhang Zhung - An Introduction to the Bonpo Dzogchen Teachings of the Oral Tradition from Zhang-zhung known as the Zhang-zhung snyan-rgyud, Vajra Publications, Kathmandu. Robertson R. E. and Tanaka K. K. ( 1 992) "A Ch' an Text from Tun-huang: Implications for Ch' an Influence on Tibetan Buddhism", in S . Goodman and R. Davidson (eds.), Tibetan Buddhism: Reason and Revelation, SUNY Press, New York: 5 7-7 8 . Roerich G. N. ( 1 949) The Blue Annals (Deb ther sngon po), Royal Asiatic Society o f Bengal, Sa skya Par.u;iita Kun dga' rgyal mtshan, (V. R. M. Scott ed.) (2002) A clear diferentiation of the three codes: essential distinctions among the Individual Liberation, Great Vehicle, and Tantric systems: the sDom gsum rab dbye and six letters, SUNY Press, Albany, NY. Santideva - Padmakara Translation Group (20 1 1 ) The way of the Bodhisattva: a translation of the Bodhicharyavatara, Shambhala, Boston. Snellgrove D. and Richardson H. ( 1 986) A Cultural History of Tibet, Shambhala, Boston and London. Sorensen P. K. ( 1 990) Divinity Secularized: An Inquiry into the and Form of the Songs ascribed to the Sixth Dalai Lama, heft 25, (Arbeitskreis fur tibetische Wien, Vienna. und buddhistische Studien), Brill, Stein, R. A. (20 1 0) Rolf Stein s Tibetica Antiqua. With Additional Leiden and Boston. Taranatha ( 1 970) Tiraniitha s History ofBuddhism in India, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. Templeman D. ( 1 992-93) "A Narrative Account of a Gm:iacakra, and the of Guhyasamaja through Cakrasaqivara", Journal of The Seminarfor Buddhist Studies 5-6, Copenhagen and Aarhus :64-77.
173
A s i a n Ho r iz o n s : S t u d i e s in Ho n o u r of G i u s epp e Tu c c i a n d Hi s
Templeman D. ( 1 994) "Doha, Vajragiti and Carya Songs", in G. H. Gregor and E. Stutchbury (eds.), Tantra and Popular Religion in Tibet, International Academy of lndian Culture and Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi : l S-3 8 . Templeman D . (2008) Becoming Indian: A Study of the Life of the 1 6-1 7th Century Tibetan Lama, Tiiraniitha, School of Arts, Monash Asia Institute, Monash [to be published by Brill, Leiden & Boston] . Tucci G. ( 1 958) Minor Buddhist Texts: Part II, IsMEO, Roma. Tucci G. ( 1 988) The Religions of Tibet, California University Press, Berkeley. Van Schaik S. and Dalton J. (2004) "Where Chan and Tantra Meet: Buddhist Syncretism in Dunhuang", in S . Whitfield (ed.), The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Serindia, Chicago : 6 1-7 1 . Wayman A . ( "Totemic Beliefs in the Buddhist Tantras", Chicago, Chicago Journals, History ofReligions, Vol. The University o f Chicago Press, Chicago.
174
