pub he y Pegi Bok
In T h Long R ev y mond Wil h m conUnua the nqy he begn 10 ucce f uHy In C/ua n nd d S. Exminng he gr dul chn ge whch s comng over our POliic ic l, economc, nd cur l I he I.y speC emphs on he ' cr e e e mn n ", '1 , soc nd ulur . hInkn g Af e c cussn ng g h e of cultu tur r
e he tu ns to f ascn naan ng g hstoca td o sch n nsstit itu u o ons as edcato on n .n th thee pr ss, e. eveloment of f .. comon I In nguage, nd e evv. the lln nk between Id Ideea er .y f or ms, an o ca h y y
The gr u emegence o • common cuu e " . Br n nee nd y mnd lI Im ms e e he co
ncludin ing g .y of f tthe oo t o • d
scc"'o s 'on n o the .. h .s eched nd he c co onf c su r r ounding er osie ny c, nellJgn_
. •
Rchr ggr t The book I have been atn g f or r nce 1 4 4''_
chr r omen
Th ove ow I eta ta o Mondr raan CompotJ tJo on Stir
(R I / m m s sm 'K rf · ·M M , Ot/r l, Hland)
F ccp y i ig h h a sns hi hi s « m mi i ot ( & I "
K 6 THE LONG REVOUIN
2
in Ramond Willis ws t te \Vh vla! f rny, he fth aila sigala. H was duatd t t "l ,chl Agaw:ny Gra Scho, d a hch hch Tity Cllg ambg h sd as a -ak apn Guds Ame Dvso h bcam n t n tt h Ext:-Ext: Mal Si u I h h s lt F C l Cmbid he
D an h. I 19.H ls h. E ng ls ity v er er ity uv u andri H n h Gr pu bctUf( (r lectUf {,o/ifies and
was wa s
br nk''s Lb .w w Tink t e N . dor or of t E d
and i i ay jo tr tra b f a i numb num l ish ish d
. i iss uad d . Gua h e r h _ v w e w n a a a k w wll k wll ), ), e g om Ibstnn fE/wl (i P e g r omIbst D ma/ r k i icc u D k
80 '7 80 Sc d Sc lt 9544), C lt I (' ('95 m I orrm eo m i inn e D m n s cati tin uca mm mmu ) C 6) 6 1 1 O e O/ O/ H L A Th, Th , 955 9 vels,, novels !S ) two no y ( (! J T g J 2 2)) M J . . 1 1 aio .ntr aio tcond .ntr ns)) S tcon gu gu i ins P m/y (in P Olm d" C Ol Ber d r e e thr th h ma ma i ru illm mr d Will yon d R yon
dn.
THE LONG
I
PENGUI BOOKS
Bd Md, Etad P . .
PClin
F bd by uo nd Pd g6� Crs"'O Raym
W
& W
Mae a Irin,ed ; CoAl U'
CONTENTS
Ll Kcin. r�kc"ha
Fore ord Foo e l Eo Inroducto
S, Mom}' D:ue.U
7
8
9
R Te Creaive Min 2 The al si Cuure an Soiee Inivduals 3 Soc e 4 mages o
y
y R
Euaon nd Brh Societ 2 The Go of he Rng bl 3 The Gwh o e Popr Pre 4 The G o Sanard Ens 5 Th Socal Hisory Eglh W i e 6 The Socal H Dram Fom 7 Realsm ad e onmory ovl
19
57
89
10
' 5 '77 '95
237 5 27 3 0
REE
1 b i I j o 1 n" of n
b y o d oo ph < any om o ii o = h id bhw
·
Br e 19605
39
Nes Pl E Inex
3B5
39
OWOR
been hlpe may peole in wrg this ok an wh t rer y thn . I am e5pea reu t m wfe nly or much eerl help with the who le text, u fo r he eae work n reao t at w Cape 5. I wa gealy hpe y my clleue Mhe n do he pem of ! we mea y at"t for tme the dscss was so cse otuo tha it eame ul o epra h e fmmyn; I am ure n a ae ha m at t tan we mh t hm thh I t olve him n my errrs. 1 w a help by Ew T hm' rtcm o a ere ft f my hto y o e ppla re, m atefu t hm fo ths a fo mch ele O e ed epcay S art Hal a I P Smith, ave hlped erhaps re hn ey ko w. wou a eod my geeal eee te plie wr wh I a th Par of the h\ evo uy appeae Partian or ele Iilan, J/h;' 'i w UOL'Q C R el, e w (�ew Y ork) J (New Y rk) U nir ste ad Lef vw, Aw Lt f R ·;w.
I
HAVE
R..
OEWOD O E
1
PN O
For this edition have mae a revisons and amend ment d added some nots which ar indicaed by as terisks. The ar mily for clarication or to brg some poin up to ae I must hank all thos wo hae witten o me aot he book and tose who hae taken part i the puic argument an discussion about i whih has bee even oe extnsive an in he se of Cuure and Soct. The point was reached, quie ry wen coud not do mch more than ten I have at est done that Te boo is of cours still controvesia and dicul: o so or many reasons han ulu nd Soc. he earier ook gathered and ed to restate an exstng traition whereas ths book is an attempt to reach n gound ts method s th much harder o grasp, for the ethod is in his sese e substnce If rders have found parts of the book usl my ave sid, hat in is o way is we· cme But also if the connexions I make and tr to describe ae not s o r no acceed e boo as a whle is und t be diclt to bing into focus and ten ts local dculties are exaggerat e may kins o aaysis whc are necessay to the essental case car their own aditiona obems do no want to rge any o h iculties away bu most o them belong, as I see it o the inenon and am espialy gatefu to th who, realizing have me me on ha gound. Even we this as in some cases, was the tru soure o the contorsy, I found e ecogniton eeply ecoraging.
W.
NODUO
boo has ben planned and writen as a onttion
o he work begun in m) Cuf d iy, 178095° I descred hat book as 'an a ad an interpreaton of ou responss in thought and eeing to changs n Engish socety snce the ate gtent cenu, an ths ocourse, was is main cton, a critcl istry o das ad aes in t ero o dece change Yet t mto o te book, ad in paca ts concuding chaper ld o a ther inention om analysing ad terprtg tc ie d ales I moed to an aempt o riterpr and exend hm i tr of a stil channg sociy and o my ow eperience in t 1 did not oresee wen I was worng on uue d SQt! that by te tm it Ws plsd an poan at o or genera socal thing wol ac developed along nes which incudd my OW} themes he result o ths de veopmen was no only that e ook was very cxtsivy discsed- hae rad mor th y oand wor of com· me on t and en par in vey many erbal discussions bUL ao /a Ijnes ofgUnen o ed wen any cases consideraby beyond the cope o the book itsel I had panned and raed much o the pesent boo before uu d was pubished, bt I ae now consieraby re· vised it o take accoun o dcuio have ept how· eve to my own ids o he her work at was necary book o what n any cse I should hae and have limitd written about ustons n the eory o cutue hisorica anaysis o cra cual insittions ad forms ad prob· lems o meng and action i our coeporary cultral stuation. I can wor in se genea es oy to the it o my own interests and do not suppose ese o be dealy complete Ineed I have already risked an extension and
blruci variey o hemes we beyod he lmts o ay d o academc pdec, o wat sems to m he good reaso hat there s o academc subject whn whch he qesons I am teresed n can be olowed trogh; ope oe day hee mght be for was qi obos o h discssio j' t t e pressre of hese estons was o Cu t u not oy pcsoa b general Se, b !y e s ake rom a seence n Ce a e oe 0 i mgt be sefl I seems to me ha we are ig thogh a ong evoio wc o est dscipons oy n pat terpe. I s a gee evoo ansfomg me ad sttios; contay cxended ad deepeed by he actons of mions conaly ad ariosy opposed by expic eaco ad by he pessre o abal ms and deas Ye t is a dict revolto to dene and ts eve ao s tang pace over so og a perod a t s amost mpossbe no to get ost i is ecepioay compicaed pocess. Te democatc eoto comads o poical ae ion Here the cocts are most epic and e qesons o power noed mae very neven ad cosed e ay geera vew s mpossbe to misae he ·isng deter mato amos veywee ta peoe shod gover hemses and mae ter own decisos whot cocs so o ts igh to ay paca gop atoaly or cass n sxty yeas of ts cetry th pocs o e wod have aeady een changed beyod recognton ay eaie erms. \Vehe i popla eoton e eao moements o coloa peoples o n e etesio o para menary sO'age he same basc demad is evd e Ye e demand has bee and s eg ery powey ressed o ony y te wegh o other tradios b y voence and fad w ake he cteo tat people sod gove emseles (te methos by whc they do so beig Jess m pant ta s ceral fac) t s vdet tat e democac revol i s st at a very eary sage The dstra eotio baed by mmese sceic deveopmet omads o ecoomc attnto Its rae of
Introduciol
expaso n e word as a whoe s aready greaer ha anyoe ad foresee and s deed oo rapd to be eas y erpretedet wits ams and mehos have ee amos ivesaly acceped mos o te wold is st fa behd he stage acay eaced i the adaced contes whe e advanced conres the sese o possby n e ransorma to of nae s beng coinay and apdly eeded hs e ndsta reoo s road sese is aso at a comparavey eary sage cove t s ede a s coelaio wh he gowt o democracy s by o meas smpe. n he one ad i seems cear that dsa deve pm s a powel cenie to ew kns o democac organzaon he ote and he appaet eeds of dsral oganao a may eves rom e pocess of accmag capa o he sas o he woe n a vey eesive and dvded teccal sysem sometmes deay sometmes rsate e aspaton o shae he mang o decsons Te compe ieracto bewee he democrat ad dsra eoons s at he cete o o most dct soca tng e ee emans a hrd evoton peaps the mos dc of a to erpet e spea a ca evolon and we mst cetay see te asprao o exnd he acve pocess o eang wi he ss of leracy and oter adaced commcaon to al peope aher ta o imted grops as comparabe n mpoance o the gow of democacy a he se of scentc ndstry Ths aspra on as een ad s beig ressed somemes opey somems sby bt as an am has bee omay acow ledged amos nvesally cose is revoton s a a very early sage. Bae teacy s stl attaed y dre of mons whe n the advacd cotes the sese of poss bty epadg edato and deeloping ew meas o commncato is beng reised and eeded ere as n deocacy ad dsy wha we ave done seems ttle compared wt what we are cea to y to do Yet at ts pont t s partcaly evden tha we cano desand te pocess of eag wch w ac olvd
boduon we limt oselv to thnking o the dematc, ndtrial, and cutUa revolutons separat pocses ur whole way o from the shape of our cODUes to he organ· zaton and cotent of educaton and from he sctr of h miy e satus of ar and entanmnt is beig pofoundy acted by the progress and ntacto of demcrcy and ndstry ad by e extnson of cmmui· ctons Ths deep cultural rvouton s a ag part of o most sgncat lv exprence, ad is beng ntepreted nd inded fought out in very compl way n the world of rt and de Jt s when we try to correlate chage o kind wth the chag cvered by the discipn of poltic, econom, ad communcations that we discor some of he most cult but also some oth most hman qustions hcscal ofthe who pocess he sugg for democracy the deelopmet of ndusy the xtension of coica tions and the deep social and personal changs s ndeed too large to now o ev imagine practce t is rducd to a sries of discected or ocal changs bt while this s easonab in th odnary sns, t sems to me ha hs scaling-down ony dsgises som of the dps robs and tsions, which then appea only as scatterd symptoms o restessnss and uncetanty n a coy like Brtan in whic the long reoluton is at a reatiely advced stage, t seems cstomay or ach gnaon to announce e com peon of he revoluion and to b bwildered and angry when the nw young eneraon assers hat te revoluto hafer all not occed We are te clearly n ts stuao i th '960s when he objective fO whch y genrao work hae been qute eneraly achev, yt whe e sociy ha never bee more racy criticzed not only by prcuar wters ad thnke n artcla way but aso mor generally d n ways oen so iarticulat and C s that old decriptons such as cyicsm apathy, pint· ncss are uually the best we can nd to ackowldg em W sem sevey hndd, in such a situaton by the y practice o scaln-down. hs certan expctations ar shaped and dened as unversal suage a ptcuar stand
Iodun ad o living a en schooleavg ag and lev o educa tion hse ar adeate as ncntes o eo and anyoe who knows ther hstory ows that hr achimn did not simply olve, but had to b woked and struggled or over geneatons Hut t s characttc of he hstoowhat I s as the lon reoluton thatsuh ai, oce achd are te qucly absrbd and eithr new epcatios ae cmmoly deed O in thr absenc thre is a mood of both snato and restlsne F a long tme ow we have bee harin from eey kind of rling goup that ppl ar ever sat ed vr even ratfu Indeed this thrust o demand has bn so depy lern, and is so deply red that one can s on a sids a ruling phosophy o delayed and gaded concessions, for as has ben sad, todays con cesson s tomorrows springoad. Rulng grops ae thei own reasons for not shing to recgn the tue scal of the revoluon but swhere t s a gune crss f consciou� ess, and anyody concened wth hs own le and the li of his sociey, n ths process of genral change, mst obously do what h can to ty t rsolve and cariy My own iw s tha we must ep tryn to gas te rcss as a woe to se it n new ways as a long reoution, i wear e to udtand ether he thortcal cisis, or o actual history or th eaity oor immeate cndion and th terms of change A ery large part of o tctual ife, to say nothing o ou socia pacice hower deoted to criticing th lon reoluton, n this or that aspct by many powerfu selectve techniues ut as the eoluon itself extnds ntil nobody can ecape it s whole sms ncreasngly relevant. n namng th great proess of change the lon revouon, am ting to le assent to it an adeqte et omind and spirt J d increingly tat th vau and meaning I nd ar all n tS proc o change f t s ponted out in tradtonal tens, tat dmocracy indutry and xtendd communicato ar all means rather than eds eply that this, pcsly is their rolutionay character and tat eaize and accpt ths reurs new ways of thik ng and eeng new conceptons of relationships which we
(
J ntodj
I/roduci01
'
must try to xpo Ts book is a cord of sch a ttmpt n my rst prt I gin from an anatn f the natur fCatv ctvit hch I se no s h necssa bass fr xtnding the ccont f th elatn btn comntin and cmmt wch I rd t stablsh in Cutue d So. go back o mnng cn therica pb lms in th deftio nd nalsis cult nd o a pacca eme Fllwng a ld fom te dscussin of commnco 1 en t t lyse t cncepts o' th dv d' nd scety t we rdnal us, d t ds cert ypc eltonsps hs knd I thn tend this rgument o a dscsion f sme of the exstng concts f own soct, and discuss sm of h pocsss f socia and cultur chang. second pat n account nd anays f th dv1o men f ein f u mjr cultrl nsttutns from ducato th pess and s compltd by a seies f n eltn bwen cetin oms n t and h genral dveopment f e sey I hink much f s s usful smpl s nfmon bgt gethe t ght f a common pcess gh 1 do nt dot tha my fctual cos w hve t be vsed as sech cntnus Th critcal ys peiml nd argble but mpt to dvlp th nd of nqry rpsed b my chptr on Indtrial Nvel in Cl and SoJ' M third and cnclung par rtus to th them the lng roluio hch I hav utlined n this ntuctin by atemptng despn o o· contmpary cur an sct i trms wt I se s a pe of chng. Biy I attmp t assess he prgss f e lng olton in Btan �d cnsde s n stages d not cne m soc becuse f y ck o ntes n wha self t Bts is hppnng eswe bt becau e kd f dec I m ntersted n is ly ely avaabe where on ves I thnk owee it cud ded t tn as v tS r\lutn nd tha our scet cn entng ary I senly es ve rch matia o he considean f som f s genel problems. It is t as that the rsnt
d
?
'5
crsis in rish sciet s sucently nteresting n tself and of omandng mportanc t ths of us nvoed n t, \0 mae ths attempt ke bigs usful ih ths ok an Cue d oe!, nd wih m novl Bo Couy whch I believ t h s paular and ut den way n ssenial elevance to th two gneal bos I hv cmped body f wk whc I set myslf t d t yes go Oter wrk wl necessr foo fom s, ut t els likc t cmpletn f pclr stg n ns lfe nd wl hs need nt nteest anybd else, it is paps wort ecdg.
PART ON
I THE CRAV MND
N
w Egsh cre r csenty pve ee han 'creaive and bvly we sh be gld hs he w hnk f e vle t eks XP1CS nd e aciviis i ers scib Y cely e vy wid f he refeence ivlves no nly dcuies meng, bt also, rugh hab, a n f ung rctH which ms maes he wr seem l I rse examne the o he reatve ea: s, by reewng t ry; scn, b} cmp
OU
O
The hsy he \ i y ways icul race. seems t m to begn essetally i he thug of the Renaice bu when we l t hee surc, e n s oigitors referg the iea classicl hug as i are fthe ew emhs ey ee ang I n ny pas wrng, ny pa rgna meanng is ecvrabl fr the meng as whe hs e us Ogh my d d vn he w hv h e nuce we nd he igna gca wh e l pary wil Y as [ he ahrs, pl Arte la o wh hese ensace hnkes rel I see sctn, n alere sigcn, h sees undamentl mprtance he acy big scrib is a mmn ac, b s escn, esenial, has altere "V spek nw o th arss viy as crean, bu e
Th RU word ed y Plto and risotle i the vr dierent imia� on The genal meaning o he Greek od mms is ih'doig ha anohe has done, o'mang soehig ie omehing e In actl ue i included th activties of e dancr, he sngr the musician the pair he sclpor he acor te dramast and he comon quai in thee acvie wa see a 'the repeaion ooming se: ition stotle wroc
e eneal orign oty s due to o caes eac of em a ofhman nare. I tt i o n na ta o an o chhood , on f hs vngs e th l nils b n ths h h e os iave eaue n th o ld, and s a by n. And it s as nata a to dih t wk of n Te _h ths od po show by xpe: tuh t objc! thmsls ay e pin o see d gh iw th os lst rpeseaios ofe h fos o exae of h o wt nls n o d oies The 1aaion is o ound a fe fact: o e in soe h at f lues no onl o e h oopher as o he e f nin, owee l caciy f ; the o h deh n see n ce a on s h same e e3Lg - aher e meann ohns.
b
b
t sm cear from this rom the hoe o hi main argu� mnt that Arisole coirs art pimarily a rpesena tion oome hiheo-exising realy The ars itats th, and by hi imon wch s ain o ou rs proce of lning w athr meaning of e hing that isimtated Plato, simary, decribed h ai as an imiator of a pe�eistig rali God as the craor oting; wokmn te arcer o hings artits th imtaos of thngs. Thus, Pato and riote ag on the fat of imitation bt go on to d dirent oclion from it F or Pato ahough i th h ecibs th po as dvinely insped the act of imaon i a o move fom ray (e da hen e matia thing the he iation) and he amos discsio in the &/c popoig the cnsorship of poes emphaizes th dagers of he uence of $C'mer imaor on te weae art of c mind
v Mnd e a of imao is he wos sess a oess fend, ad he pan of wonlcss pgny. . Te iitae oe . b1s he n d n h a hen the stadd of tu and e em in th ke h he hld$ nro t a o so wc a nd hs othl n not th h bes p H o h sl, n s �ys t aona t
x
w m
isotle on he othr hand not onl emphas imitaon prt of the normal learning pros, t ntroduce a new principe hat of the nivea
Th s non i de s be not he hig h hs hpd
b knd on a igh hen, i . e wa ose as be roal nCa ry Hne y s mehn o so h ic n o e r n hOy sice sn e of h hCI' o vsas weeas hoe hsory ae sin as By a sl samn an n s wa sc a kin n l oy o ncsl sy or do - hh e a f hough a a o e aacte; by sl smet as wha sy Alc bid dd o hd dnoh
hu hle Plao mphaie he danger of cto as e imtation not ven o ulimate ality but o mre appr� ancs Arsotle devop hs oncept of maton a a form of leaing toads dfion a he higes om of lcarnng in hat i sho hrog it unvrsa satmen t perma nent and e necesary. e imme inlcct1l trato whih owed from lao and Asotl came o incld no only thee to oppo ing valatios u an eraordia seie of modicatios trasvalaons deeopment, ad intpreaton Th Ptonim came to inclde a theoy of art diecl oppsed o that o he Rubc, agg that he divnly ispred poet wa ae o each e hghet reaiy becae he penetraed mr apaance and modid in or e dvin Ida Aisotles idea ounivcsals hich i context rads primaly as he mbodiment o gnl truth abot hman naure became identied i man mnds as h ame docrn: h niversals wc ne jas, and h poet emodied
Lg Rvo/ e Sll ee ee e tee deelpet te pe ft tt d t F e exteet d Ree f e f t ee ed Te t deed t t f te idde et ki J f eti; ptl l t e Cti ike ld te ee e te d f Gd T deped e de t ee t d ti f k lel bl kid. e ed de f te e e bt le eed b Cit tk t pepe t d ebde e 'Ide Bet T e lde pe te de f itt t l t el ee k ft t de f Bet ebdied (i e d became kown as classcim). Te hrd docne deveop
ome of te mphases ofArotle, aw at as te ' deaizaton ofnatue '; a o ay, ow tng not a tey a bt as tey ou t o be. Th "hle based o he same source a alegace o he Idea oBeauy' , moved no towards classcm, butLOwarda impotat adition ofexemplary mora zing ad didacc wo The fot doctine, fom wc
te ee' ep pl p te Gd (T d f ee e t e teet pt t At s o a h dent om atur o' a i pass bcyod ms of aue; t se ou w he same prpos a ha of auc
Ti ppe i dt et Ne i d et; t e Tee e e T e Gd d e pet pl Ree kely d te dte J e ee ded t e te t eqe ed t e te te ete b d ee f e e ke e pbe B te e p e te tede td dt te f t qte ked F e ete e te de et kid f l
The a "{d '3 Gd ld ee blpe Yet eed t b t d fe ee Pt d � plted b deet kd C tdti te eeee t de be ee pt f te e tii f e Ree d t te ed led d t d I e El dt t teet de Al te d ee t e pp et edie tp e Sde e ted e
Oy the Po ddaynn ed o ay sc sbjeon led p wi hc vgo o s owcventio doo rowe etaotc a mak hns eh r au re orh o, qe a newe formes su as cve were Natue a Heoes, Demgod Cyops Chmeras FU-e ad h ie: so as e gocth ad an d wih Naue n! losed Wheao warant of er s, b frey aging ony wthin th Zodia oownwt Naue nevcr s et ort he eah i so apsr} as diers poes ha\ done, neihr w pasan vrs, rf trs swect smeg owrs no haoer c1s may makc e oo mh ocd earth moc loey. He word rase, he oes ony dever golde Bu let those thigs alo ad oc o man fo wom as th o ar o emeh n m e uttemost cung s mployed ad kowe wetr e a " rou oorth o rue a lov a Teans so osa a (ed a ydes, so valan a ma as Olando so igh a rc as Xohons y o exeet a ma evy wa a Vl eeas eie l this e estigly oeived, cae he works of te oe b eseall e oer n mao o io for ay nandng owe the skI of te ier tadh a Idea or oreonc ofe work and n wo t sfe. And ha he P ah a Idea i maes by dveg m foh n el as a mand m "h deig o alo s ot whoe magative, as we arc Wt o sa y h em ha buid Casls n he a so {a sbaay workeh, o oy o make a rus wh had ee b a par clar cic as Naturc might have de, bt to besow a yrus po he wolde to ma ma Cyrss f ey w eae aih why ad ow tha ac madc hm. Neyhc ct t be demd oo aw a comparo to balac tc
Lo Rvoutn ges pot o ma! wit with he aie of Ntu; u rahe ge rgh honou to th haenl ae ae who hang me man to hs oWe ken set im beond ovr ll th oks ofa secon u hih in thin h!h s mc in oi whe wih the o f a · beah he ingh g oh ar supsing her doing wi no ll gut to cdlos o acs o Am, sh or ect makh s no 'hat perfecio is an t o netd kepth us romahg t.
t t
The stands of many tados ca be seen in tis but he decisve novlty (i is no dney's ut of his peiod) is cear. his is e doctrne of man e creaor, who wt he foce ofa din breah brings foh hing fasrpassing' nature Sidey ganc bac a one pa of Patos eaching, o nd hi orce given y God to one kd of man te oet. But the claim OCCrs withi a arge ovme of ougt n which man asseting hs igh o bea Qu of the oder of naure to see the e of nature as subordinate o his creive will For Sidney poey can e suatua because t is enegy of he soul whch i discoveig God is abe o create beyod natura imits. Bu aothr way of making he same claim is to assc a purely hmn caivity the powes ofe emegen mind When imiion the earning of reali, becomes ceation man making new eality, a cical sage in art and thogh ha been eached As we ollow he isorical argument we nd a growing compety a te impicatios of is clam ae ealized. I 1ave!s famous verse i The Cardtn, we arestill wh dey, but the pon i interesingly pu: The Jin tha Ocan he ch kin Dos seght own rsebace n Yt t cates tanscening th, Fa ohr \Volds, an othe &a5, hilatig al ha mad To gr ough i en She
This creatio' is sl, as te whoe poem maes clea a
T Cratv Mnd
enegy o te soul which is a appoach to God B it asume, as a contrast wih this an orde ofnatual eeng, wee each nd does sreight its own rsembace ind* idney also ad assumed his but had claimed that ony he poet could go beyod I Marvell ts is a ceaive activi of te hma mind as ch. It i tis emphai ta we mus bear in mind as we wach the extraordinary owcring o the eative dea in he development of wha we now ca Romanic hough he attachment of crcaive to the work of the ats emains the easiest to tace Don spoke of poey as a conterfeit reatio' Mae in ! 728 soke o the companion ofte Muse reative owr Imaginaion By the end of he eighteenh cenuy t emphasis, with i key-word magiation wa becoming paramount. he main ine rus as a empais on cative imagnation as a geneal man facty whc a ts highest i the poet his is he ba of helley's Dfc j Pot, which ike Sidneys contains many sands of radiona hougt bt is mo signcant in reation o deeloig idas o percepio and imaginaon:
g
n istret r h a s of xt ad ta imprio e dn, like he lio of evrchnng d or n eoi ly whch mov t heir motion o everchnging mody Bt there pncple withn hmn bng n phaps thin ll sentnt bengs whch es otheis than the lr ad podu not mod alon ut haon b a l asent o sus o motions thu xcite to the mpons wch cite them is as thc ly cold comoda s cho he moons o a wh �Iiks em, in detemind popoo osod.
This, of course, i til imitaion with the addition of the organiing prncipe what Seey calls syntei a the ceatv huma ac e cld and the savage imitae ee nal objects and lgug ad ge teher ith plc o pcoil itaon ecom he mage o h comb ec o he objecs and of is apprcnson o
The
(g
et s y t its highest O his geerl atiity: to apped god h � in th e relation bt t ew sc nd lio, and scy bln r cpio ad epeon.
he poet docs hs throug the sc a aguge whih s va meaphor; tha s t mas e eoe uapehee eus h areheson. :tos f hs
The uor eu n oin at smal for tei' rd \ve h emanent anaogyo n by ma whh
aite in te e oftth
kd
7 It is a equet rgment and eais imprnt but it ututes been imittie nd cetive ideas reept� seeg t resee real ceatin t secdr sscit; nd t tends towards dea f geerl han cratvit and its seal esevatin the pet It ws, tycl Clerdge ne f ths exr ar hes inei gece eeded te idea o eation to al perceton he pmay GINTI ho 1 he lg Poe d pm Aget of al huma pio an as a retion n the nte min o he eea aC ofreo
Wh ts srtig ypthesis, whih oy later shll we see the l sigianc th trasformati f imie' it reae theres reches its net cical stage.
A cm s the rao of ao aodg to h unchangeble for of human naur as exing n e Jiud o reaor whh itef .hmag f hemnds.
Iere Shelle rs the emhss o dey hh n oe pa of hs agen e ad ph bee mong beyod e eu aga but wh ered mpasis n is ms amo denion
l hi exs a he perceid a eat n rLon to te > i i w pa and ofsfcan me Hv ipet. Th mnd s of Hell, a of,·c.' Bt potry dfat51e s ·hch bs to be ubjeted to he dt of urundng mpreo nd hrafesdark eil whhcr jreads ISOW gre urtai n from beoe he scn othins e(!ualycreas for us a eg t big ak he habts ofa wol c fam r wold i hao I t reoues h oo Unee o a "on or e <d t ugs o ou wad ht he m offamat hc bsurs fom s he ne o o beng I omps u tha ch we pereve ad to imane tht which ko I reaes ane h ee, afte ha been ann hia- in or mnd by the crn of i pi bnl by i hab and tewod ofs: Non Mrita on I he na of no ceaoe, e on Id d i ota (n cor, x God h poet)
j
m
m
m
We mut now tu side notie an eec the cretive theoy, it eisted befoe olerdge claim that art epeseed spro y' essenill hge hn at aessible oher hm fues w, trll eough, ontested. The ass o the opoitio goes back to Plato Wt he ew thines clled eato Plat had caUc falehood Ar ws tn, nd s uh nferor to eity. he peristencetis atitude needs o emphasis It s a cmmon ple f mode thght, as ayone who ss he prers igrhies t ves eae at least they are true wil m \Vat w 1 bsere is tt the clam a t sue· realiy nd s desitn s nerio ion hae been n mod hogt cues el o t theory of art as mitao, t is evitabe, at a era sage E n a ure n ieh deepl aceed tht ere s a y' beyo apeaces it is by o mes ertn h artit ig abty o e and dp is will ccee a relgion s the em of lief a highr relty' the ists singulity wH certainl n be cnceded although his role i eicting suh a rality, i the cepted terms he rlgin will en be sresed In such a cse, hweve s will t e speial
e
Y
euu
e
T Long oolution
kind o crtive ct. The bele in istic creaon as h mdm oa supior reality sem most ikely to b hld i a pero o tnsiton rom a rmriy rligo to a primaly umanst ulture fo it embods emts o bo wys o hnkng ht thr a rlity beyod or han von, nd ye that mn ha sprem crtive powers But n suc a tansion th lattr clim will b md on general grounds ths tdig to chlng th at's sngularty Moovr the wil be lemnts in he sston o umn owers c wll tnd to devalu mgnaon or at lst o mk ambiguos The gowth ofscepticism, whch wll be at o e movmnt om a rmaily relgos cle wi etend into th rovine puttng inrsng emphsis upon th possibity o lusion o idl suction o mre omne' Hstoally this as bn gnea! dvelopmn or th tists clam tht he s a reator o spror relity has ben ountpontd, om th begin· ng by se on th possibl dlons of magation and he mislng lmnts of tion an romnc. From th hunreds o possib examles a famos passge rom Sakesr may be takn or its amgy
T
More stge tan te. nev may elieve n i ue ab no os Lov ad madme have uch eeng b Sh hag aas th pehend oe tha oo eon eve omehen e nc, the ove and he oe of imagiation a omat One moe de hn v t he an od; That he madma he ove a fnt Se en ea a bow o Eg he a e ong Doh gane om heaven o ah, om eah have Ad magnon boe oh e fom of thing nknown, e oets en u them o sh and ge o a nothng oca 1abtation and a ame Sh ath og mgaon ha i i oud b aehend omejoy
q
p
fz
p
Tk Ca Mind omhen oe ing of ajo O he ngh magng ome r How ea i a ea B a h o oh ngh od ovc, An hei mnd tnsged o togehe Ioe tnee than fan' mag, nd gs to omehng of geat onn
;
u u<
The lins bout h t ae rqunly quo the crv aion to wich ty obviouy bong but it is less on obs at th coex of th esripton is genrl dscipon of dluson Th vlton m to vee even i he witng, and peraps faily eprets a onnuing lin o bf: that lso or illsion s ommon bt tat he s a scial catcgory o iusion by aists which is vable Almost vry pobl arition oposton in hi onud db h in act bn ken up In prati snc th bgng oftle ghtenth ntu, e hv sn an alion bu oy of mhss been nv rism dsrbig ings as tey eally and th varyg ks of romntcism om dscrbing thngs s they ogt o be, as y daly r to te siml sueror ry aim s hr in Shey: e w wath fom dan to goom Te e-eed me he o ee he vy boom No hd no see what ngs he be t om h ee h Fo moe e han ng man g o mmot
Two strong mpass near ou o m ave bn widly mad Th growing beefn a imple kin ofmterial sm, uly aompanid by an plicit denil o ny knd o supatal reality ny 1lY beyond mn's rach, as ma oom O at in trm o its rtion olity' (imit ton) or, mo subly its oganzto orty th artst slets oga�s hllys syntsis) and hus ges
3
Th LOg Rvlu
Crt Md
ag ad alu Th w psyhoog, o th oth had, patcularly i ud adJg has pa, i a d o, th caim ta th is a rait yo ma ach: h usious r rat, yod mas ordiay a, a h igh th y hr fo a scic or fo a dto of ar or Frud th matral of art was phatasy, hch h otatd ith ' aty h atist o o rom a rai pycologca dioso
Iug o th ohr ha, th is a distito w to kds of arisi cao o ' psyoogica, a fom th matria of osiousss rasd to itsity, th oh vsoay da fo imls dps th htla of mas mi h ditiguishs th piat psoaty o h atis ad h atur of his actity as a aist hih at h ss as 'a msoa cativ pocs h a tiv aivy is a gl ha procs, ofhih th artist is, his art, th prsoa modim, takg us a o
t away fo realiy and ansfr is inerest and aU hs lbido too on to h creation ofli wises i e ife ofpantasy BI h ay bak alt fod y th atis hu: h no only on wo h a lf o pantasy; mdt world of phanasy s santoned by general uman onsn . t to hose ho a no att t gcaion ha an e dawn fom h spns of pantasy "ry limted A t ar h more a h diposal FSofl h undrtand how toaborae hsdaydan so hat they hat pesona no whc gas pon srang ea . He nows oohow o modythem suiely so that r orgn n pohibed sor is no easly dttd th, he msteios ailty 1 mold hs paila mal unl it pesss th deas ofh panasy faihy, an ten e ows how o aah o Aon o s pnsy stong a steam of ha, for a t at leas he eesson a obalancd and dispe!ed by t When h can do al is he opens o to oths the way c o t ofot and consolaon ofheow nocous soc olase and so reaps ther g rattude and admraion.
e
ee
h gratitud ad an i otd a pa of h ' aity o hh th atist ds is ay back A vopmt o th positio s fOW i Hbt Rad, wo stats from uds aout ofth mid
f we pr Le regions o h mind as hrc supermpd stata
(w hav aleady notd how nadquae s a itu must ), hen coning r meapo w can imagn n ertan are ass a phnomnon compaabe a 'fault geology as a C$t of h in on pa ofh ind the r come dsonnous, and xosd o ach or at unsal eels . ome s oss s ncsay o pain hat ac hat lyical iniion, whh nown as iao and w n all ages as ben h ar osss�o of ose w inddua w reog2e a ri ofgens
that v of ene at whih t is m who , ad not th indvida
Tu th rativ ia has udgo a thr vlop mt or ary asi alty g pacd h ma himsl, ith h ast a a ay d pso ho s al to ptrat to thi rgio But th asiatio with paasy spciay u, s ith t oary rast posito i ich it is ass tha t maia ofa i dir from ad io to aity This as b outd, om a d at, ith ih th asrtio that hmatial of ar isodaryraity u hat th ait i magit do oth gvalaimag, codig, ad tachig; o ith th claim that art i spcial kid of xpoatio ad ogaaio of raity th aris igimaiya motioa por,athscit y cotrast s a atoa por. h xtrmc poiio hav mg o t o ha, that th maia oa spcia id of aorma xpic dvacd as pha tasy o valud as 'piao o th ot ad, that h matra s oay vyay aity hich h aist mi o ogaizs h ligisi uiosiy, i hi oft agy dat is at y al soo a ! a assumpos at ad th atist a fd to as cativ t oud b a a ma ho oud say, at v th rfs i o og qiy to a of at that h s\ o i hecked, what reatve' quile mas. It is a hi he habi s
pot that ca r to ct ok o prcpio as rocsso ra a rvouyt t m o m
Te L Revut ceranly, that t enables to take a desve step foard n the neessry c1aiaton
brain oach o ofu do iey athi o h own wd
Ths stlng seUene from Professor J. Z. Youn's Dobt Ckn n See Q Bo's Refecto e ran, ntrodues learly enough a new ae n he don In the donal dscsson the creve emphasshad rested 1arly nough on an mpled opposte, whh nual seen A laonst would expre s as:
Q
Man - aua g Appea Ati eptiona eeig Reaity
A omantc would epress as :an ata eng Reay Att xpta eeg Spei Rey
A typal mode aount woul be a atua ei eaty Artt pta g At
There ar ndeed almost nnumeabe varatons of epr son ofhs relatonshp for the word real an be ued n so may ways But at the entre of o tem s he ommon assumpton that there s a rr everyy nd of p cpon and that ths an eeponaly be transcended by a cnnd ofman rr ndofatvty Mt veons rhre, would descbe he product of he e\yday pepton as reay' the hn n emsev as tey really a - so ha the podu of the tss percepton mst bseen n any oa numbe ofways n alton (oaza on deazaon transendene) of ths realty hat s shaed by other men Ths way of thnn i deeply bu nto or language and ntua traton tat the neery revaluaton n tems of what we now nw abou perepton s eeponally dlt Te allene n
he eatve Md 33 ongs sentene s the use of the word ceae to desbe not merey he artsts avy, b e avy f every human mnd The centra fa of ths new aout of he atvty of our brans that each one of a o ea He. The groh every human beg slow proess ofln wh oung alls the rules ofseng hou whh we coud not n any ordnay sense see he wold aound s There reaty o ar shapes olous and sos to whh we re e our eyes The nformon that we reee through our senses from the mera word arond o e erpreted, acordng to ertan human rs before what w ordnarly reay forms The humn bran has o per form ths eatve avty befoe e an as norma human bengs see a:
h viua ig �ytem it tned tate y v imitd pow We a phap eeie by the at hat th y o o ama Ctay t what we ht p, the y ad bain d ot py e i a o photaph ma hpi tur hat pa i n o ba i b ay mea a impe rodig yem k a m ay o u aai ar dte h aumpti ha e an pvide with a aa ord idepedt o Wha we a w bennng to aize h muh th a i tha w hae a t th wod w d
·
Tat s oungs ao, and he oes on om we teay ate the word we a about . h ont to gap i that we aot a impy hre a wd arod o whh o gi rue nonaon I ting to sa about what t wod ie w mt mmb a th tm at what we ad wha we ay d n what w hae d; woomeitohpos
as Sr R ran pus : Th oy qaiti oom pepio, uh oun m ad oh a genaed by e ba fthe peipient ad a ui tho exea vnt whh ntut tae oobj by whh they areaud.
Long volo nauralistic oes an ordnay desciptin epoducion ealy n the mos omn and bjetive ms. he ind less easly abelled b smeims alled rmantic, es n meely a eesenaion fealiy but hs eesenatin med by he ais's sbjeive emioal eaions t reai has been oganize selected deae aicaed by te aiss pesnal visin A hd knd mst mmn ale absra s neher he eructin eal no he sbectv modiatin ealy b the die expson o urel aesheic eperience he epresenaon in n f eai b o he ass visin Sme such classia in as hs was bvily necessay as an attem t come r wh te bsevable ieence n mden ais methds B agan we can now see a i is basay inade qae beause agan s base n he assmed da: e separaon a and realy man an he wl he bsees. The ccial imrane wha we nw ow ab pe cein s ha t oens he way t endng his ualiy and hus ransrmng u hiing abu at Te new acs ab ercein ae imssible s o asse ha ee s y reaiy xperened b man ino whih mans own bseraons d inerretins d n ene Ths e assmions nave easm -seeing he hings as ey reall ae e aart om u eaons em - become impos sibe Ye eal e acs o pecepn in no wa lead s o a lae fm idalism; he do no ere s o sse ha here is no in eali tsde he hman mid he pn ahe o he insisence ha all hman peence is an ineetain he nonhman ealiy. But his again is n he day subjec and bec - he assmn on whih amst al heoes of a a bse We have hin aher f hman xeriene as bh obecive and subecive in ne nsepaabe press As Cauwel Boy an vronent a ota teng elaton Pe epon not the og of tapg n h kn. I a em_ ng aon bte neua a nvomnal eo Evy pa! f h boy not oy ac te oe pat bu alo n -
e Caive Mind 37 g eao wth te t o eay. It ten by an , ang pung eeopmn the on9anty hangng o inelk vnt. . . O h mutu eato etnuhacea gouphagga tlo hage not t o epaatey o t bu mutualy en g ntato t Th on h hghy ogaze an e, a th cnune, ur ego \V o not t out h poe o eveopent paa out a paae ou, a u an panet a the mnt paat out om th poe obeong Spaae ou an t hagg cu t n o a a ga oulv a oou eg ut epaatng ou, o n opey paae out, ay o han ay 1m t eas them, n etg aton t t o h Un a th ty o h oganzato o h vope utu o t ne eaon an the eato o t ym h a othe m e n, pyhoogy
he dcly of this cnceion hdly needs ssig and o gasp n an subsantial wa needs lng er Ye s ieesig see ha we have apached this onepion n nl hrgh he sience erceon bu also hrogh some adiinal hining abo a as eaion ledge s I have ned earle was e near o i when he e he rimar imaginain as the vg Po an p Agent o a hua pep o a pon th nt mn oh ta a oato
Ye he ealier hining lmied even hs in the mve ment twads pesoniying hs cess (a Pwer an Agen), d in he impled psiton o he nie mind and a er snie eain We can lo a his again n Yong's conclsin asa biolgist u o xeen otm a n o not at u pouatg ay an o gng at a o o o ou u ay otang abou tng n te o h o1 ha peak fh b ay o a an th a bggn n en ooga ovey h ho t th aupon oa un bgnng o ah o u not tu O ogazato h mo a ughg about u o no gn o n but pae on onnuay Phap te o oug on bng a
e
ev
ac of eatin we sul do exa ps an cnre seeh on ony Thes n whih w o se reao is e idg orgizt h go n in the ife ec nidl, �i) teeom, n or is . . here apar t be wo grl ws he universc: ha ss fbd, dcncy fr admly isrbd rosss t beome lnked ogehe o f lger its; econd is he law t schunt o pennt b son lt r diso� povidng feh nome Ts cerany sem o be rl icile bology and ha\' sen how sfuly scrbes th oge ofh rwh of o bai5 an f the whle ganzain fo (s le o gegtin nd dsggegation Eac s� rmais i ane wi surug by lenae eds of loment n e fllwcd by lceme by a new ver in f he ogniz01 Tis is Ies by whh lf maains as iio wi the ling wold There a rhythmi udg by e rgaiza s conuo rocesf' ca
n
Tu mn hre h ll lvng reture h unmen rcess, but n c h evlve n suc y th h bulg f rgnztn s ctnul ce lerg n releng s cme th te rtvely e nnc mechm fnms I t mn u th hry h elutn be ctlly eng by he rc escre Snce s ctnug gnn n gnaon of concosss o man, th oganzatio ad eogazaio ofrealty -he cociousess a way oleaing to cotrol is envronm- clea tre s rl ense
n c mn cn ce crr
Al livg om havecommuicaionstcmsofa kd, bu
gn, m, he css f erg relenng hch s made osbe by socal orgazao d rdo has led
t umr cmmucnsysems grt cmety
ad power. Gtur language mus mthemaics are al
ysems n V cn nktcm se syems yt t r e ur n y t must see tem thr cntxt f le rcss c ng At
on I\' we can oppo a o science, or emoio
t
re y he cts ecrbc by these ms re n fc
h o/i Md deeply reltd prs oe woe mn procs We co refer cnce to th objc nd art o the ubject, o he view of human actvty we ae eei to ap reject ths dualt of uect d oec : he cocousess s pr oe eity, he ray s par o th coiounes, h whoe proess of our lving organzatio. Colrdge spok o sub-
tnt klge s
the inu ton of igs c ari�es whe we pssess U'l"es a with he whole.
Thi reazatio the capcy for substantal knowdge, s te highs fom ohma oaion, tog he poc i uccd graspg s thc commo om o our odinary lg At a ls orgaizd e\I w al bck on wha oleridge caled sc owdg " wh w in ofo sepaae engs and lae nare in anSis n objc t sujt h to tg det (0 le
Te aihs o nre o th md a objec to bject we ow know o be s yo mc oour hkg sd O t tat o grasp the ubntil uty he nS o a whole process, s to bgn a log an difclt ryoluion the md. Yet t i ceti h hco'cs oa wh bg rom he separd ctegoes o t d lity' ar from ow on, rrlnt. Ve ha\e o reace our sps and look o ew deition
v
e er to e a hing by earnig o dscrbe i ; ths he ormal pocss operceon, wich c oy beseea complete whe w ve intpetd th �comg nory informion eie y a known coguatIOn or rul or by me new cogaton which we an try o lear a a Hew rul The rocs o petao s ete �biry :OI' abat; a ctra ad ncessry Vtal fncon, by wch we seek o 10 udrad or nviromet that w can lve mor succfuly in t. But to ay tha w e by learg to dscie s ft to rl g to comuicon a
T
The Creative Mid
Long Reolu
funamena way We have many ways of escibing boh by leane rles convenonal escpions - an by ceran kns of espose n gesu langage, image, whch we oen lierally feel ouselves caing as we sruggle o esribe cerain new normaon for wh e coneniona descrip ons are naeqae Ths vial esipive eo whch s no meey a sbseuen eo o esc!be somehing known, bu erally a way of seeing new ngs an new elaonshps - has ofen been obseve, by ass y s no e acvy ofariss aone. The same eor is mae no ony by sens an hinke, b aso an necessary, by eeyone The soy of a langage s a vey goo eample o s or he ways n wich a langage changes o amen old escpions o accommoae new ones, ae uly soal in he mos onary busnss of ling I s no n his acy a he seial ncion of e as or he specia naure of e aris, can be scrne A val magnaive e and he ep eo o escb new xpence, a fon n many oes besies ariss and e commncaion o new escripons an new meanngs is carie o in many ways in a hough scence an n e orinary social process. Wha we call an ar is on ofa numbe o ways o escbng an com mneang, an mos ars ue eealy ar eelopmens ofway ommonly us - as ance m gesue poey rom speec Ye escripion i a fncion of communcaon an we can bes ndsand he as if we ook a hs a ela onship n wch epeence has LO be descbd o be real: (� escpion bing n fac puing e expe nce no a communicabl form) and has en, bcase hs s he boocal prpos o he escpon, o be share wh anoe oganm The sincon of e ars is ha n ie en ways hey comman ve poweful mens ofhs sharing; alogh agan in mos as hese meas are elopmens from geneal communcaon. Rhyhm as e mos obvios oese means may be aken as an exampl. Ve ae only begnning o nvsigae his on any scenic basis u sees cea rom wha we aeay know ha hyhm is a way of ransmng a escipon o _
4'
experence, n such a way ha he perience s recreae n he peson eeing , no meely as an absraion' o an emoon' b as a physcal eec 01 e oganism on he blood on he hng, on he physcal paes o he brn " use rhyhm o many onay puposes, bu he ars (I wol say all e as hough in the \ua as hs woul be Me c o prove) compse highly evelope an excpionaly powe hyhmi meas by wic he commncaon of peence s acually acheve an h mae an s makng hese hyhms as he has also mae colour The dance of h boy, he movemen of e voice hesons ofnsmens aelike coos fos an pas, means of ransmn OI' eprinc in so poweul a way ha e xperience can be eally livcd by ohrs. Ths as been fe, gan an again n aual epenee of he as an we ae now bennng o see ow and wy s moe an a meaphor s a physca expnce as eal as any oher Thus he as a cain inense fos o gcneral com· muncaion bu a hs sage we encoune a fuhe culy. For of ouse he speaking voce he ancng boy the sculpr he pice ae n er n objecs' whc hae o be inerped and eceved. he sensoy inom on wch comes o us from a paining is no moe lke' ha paining han he sensoy nomaion whic comes o us rom a sone or a ee The panng, lke oher vual obecs , has slfo bc nerpeed an escibc befoe, in any noal sense, s sen Wc reaize fom hs, he neces· say socal bass of any a, o noboy an see (no uner san bu see) he aris's acal work unlss h and he ars an com o shar he comple eals an means oa lane communicaon sem Bu o cose hee ae many possble levels of communcaton, fom absole falue which wihn a given lue wou harly ver occu hough para faile an msnerpeaion o somehing lke f ecepon We may as we pu see he painng bu no fee Somehng s comng ough b no a a sgn n evel. T may e anyoy's al he ariss as oen
n
The as he spectaor') bt to tay io he uual ecmto s ess usefu ha to eae he ae ad dicly o what s beng attemped he suanal commuicaon o epeene fom on ogasm to aohe. A no exis ues a workg commcao n be eached and hs ommniato aciy in Wlc oh tit ad pecto patici pat \Vhe rt commnice, hum experiene acively oered and ctvey ecived. Beow hs avity heshold tere ca be no a The UIC o the ai acity, poces may e he dened. he tt hes w oher men wha s say called he ceave magiao : ha s to y, the cpay o d d oge new desiptio of eperene Ohe men shae h he at the capy transmt ee descrpion hh r only in the ful sese depton whe hey ae i communbe om The pecial ue o e atsts wok i his ue o eed si pr tcla i of rsmson of expeiece Hs commad o hs sl s rt (we emember tha he adiona meing of r wa pesey kl' Bt he prpoe o he si is siml o he prpoe o all geer hmn sks ofcommuni_ aton he raiion o valed epeence Th the ars mpulse ike every hma mpule to commucae s he fet impotane of i perece; but he art's tvty s the actal wo o rmiio Tee a be no sprion his view, beween oten' and orm because dng the om leally ndng he cotet ts s wh s mea by e activity we have ced descbng' t n te rt ntace to evey m a mte o ugen peroal impo"ace o dece s expeiece ease ts is litealy emang o himef, a cetve chage hs pero! oganizaio, o lude d cono e expeene. Th srggle o remke oureve to change o· pcrsoa ogaao so ha wc may lve a prope rela ton o o enviromen s n fac oten panfu. Many eurologst wod now ay tha the stage beoe dcseipo acheed he te o our acual organizaion beoe new sesory epeiece comprehended e eo to respod
4
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h Crativ AJld 43 adequtey we te ew eprece s sl dorgzed and dsbng bologcy denial wit wha we cal pyca pai h ccave goy soeme Lhogt of as hyperole, i erally rue uhe he mple o commui cte i a ed human eponse o ditbce oY kid Fo he l o coue he ugge is to ommuncae suessfuly by deribng adeqely Te sae ofen noced n ar wc he sruggle o adeuae decrpon ual manpulato of word or pant eem pmriy o peonal mpotace whout egad to s cect on oes o be nderood in hi sese Fo nes te despto adequate tee cn be o relevt communcon o thi mey of mang coc wth oer, rahe than o mang contac wh hi pece expeee releva ad dtracting Genine commuiaon deped on ths bsorbed ttco o pccse decripon u of couse docs ot foow tht the de�cpo s fo own sae the ttento, ath" is a oditio o eea commucao. \Ve epod o diurce no oly by emaing ourelves b if we by cgig he evronment. deed hcse ae pat of a ingle pocess a consoucs and rey nerpeea he a1s way of remang hmse s a ma gene y wok whh remang he eviome and n learning to wor, rcmang himef This is so n he at o agage ound and moemen whee the ast amisson of epeence s ended o ae eng real rela ionps I can e seen moe impy in an at ike tha o he sulptor, where an objc is workcd on n wha cem a whole procss of modeng expcrcncc d yet dsovcg the epeiece by he act of modellg The arst woks on he maei n s gh, whe he macia igh e ao gh: he atwo s ben mde and e ats a rcmade himelf i a cotnou proces. abscon we n say that as oked o he maeia ntil es mt o mel h epeiece or tha e ha r by woig o he maeia, a cw d ofexperence hh he has ee leancd rom i ut dcut ough may be to old e md he ct pocess eihe o thee
The Lo volution ad ardly otceably or at a variety o rates to oe so rapd at te fac o cage is a matter geeral coscusess. Te reatsips betwee men ad te evrmet cange, ye cnsusess o tese relaonsps as be acheved by descrpos capae o beng commucated. Te organza receved meags has o be made cm patbe w possble ew meags tat are emegg ad s s a process o great complext I is o just a matter o 'a socety cagig but real canges in the persoal rgaao o a t members Moreover toug te membe sae a area o cmmo meag, the actual process o gao in eac dvdua s neceary persoal ccorig to is poston wti te complex eal reatiosps te socety, ad accorg to a mport at degree o erted divdualty (te result a partcu r selecto rom the great cmplex o varabe acors uma erace) te dvdual wil a s own way y eract wi te cagng organaton o s socety we se a eries unque dvduals i rea relat ps, laig ad conrbutg to a chagg pattern t is ts cte ta we mus uderstand bot cage ad ue n art Te vdua artt may eter re-create cn mea gs i te ute teral sese that e bulds hs persoa rgaiato i ei terms r e may create ew meangs, te sese that to orgae s acal experiece he has to d ew deptios For te dvdual arst s actual work, te pocesses wll be smlar, or eer case e i egged a substtal et t mae a patcuar rm o xperece s actve msltat e can commncate tt ters Yet in the prces� communcaio the exact degree o relaton beee hs persa meags and te comon meangs wll be o tl mporace Wee te eato s vry close e wll be abe to draw i a drec way o practsed meas of ouication w wc s audece wll be amar So ar om ts beng smply 'covetoal art wt e mplcao at i s less leyt be valuable t is pobae hat ms great art as bee made
h Creati id 49 tese codtions r the artst in suc a case s ot smply pyg te commo meangs; te meangs are ow, a deep realian and ye te condtons r e cm mucato are pwerully avalable Atte oppse extree wee e reato betee comon ad persoa meags s dstan te strggle nd meas o communcao wll bviously be lg ad ard practce te prcess o cange n art is ormally oe exteso o meangs r mdicao meas Beyd a certa pont a new meg coud harly be comm cated at all r peraps eve descrbed e pressue woud smpy brea up te artists rgaati e ceatve act ay arst s ay case te process o mkg a meag active by omuictng a ganed expeece to others e ave to se te process as Oe may meanngs beg oeed by partcular means ad ony some o these mea gs beg received e e art a socety cages wit out awareness o dscoty : a eecve umber o dvdual oerings are take up ad cmposed to e com meaing ad tee is n eecve resdue ejected meag to costtute calenge and te our w me cleary we ave cage o suc complext, due o ony o te rapty cage comm epeece bu t te geat exteso ad versicaon o comunte, at or a me a least disctuty seems ceta, ad we are prmary aware o art as the sees oindividual oergs e makng o com meags beig almost ost t is sch a perd tat we develp teres at wic wle rgtly stessg the iividual orig eglect te reity commuaon teso betee art ad audece is assed as evitable ad oe rm s tenso s des cribed i trm o e artsts ucto to descibe 'ew eperece n act owever, eve n s compex situa a subsanta mber le oered meanngs ae compose to ew como meangs ough aer a dstubace ad w a melag tat aga maes us coscous the act o cange s s a odary pocess o grow, ad o curse, weer te meang s ew r o te sense o
T
L Rvoluio
Th at d
avin never b pevouly decrbed) i can e fe as ne (i the sense of ben freshly ad pesnay eperenecd Hut o maintain wth a sncant ara ofommon dcripon and "ponc must be maintand and one of he futons of ar, like ote communcaton sytem s recharc is area, wih or own l negy �Ic ne a os his ad aso th ar o rli pcrios a ooth plaes whch w ha resrv fo jus is eaSO as a mean oe-ceaton oa sense ocom exprc o eu thsole
e vaou comncation ytems whch human beng ave deeoped mae personal orgnation er mor vared an cx The specal atachmns acular indduals o ceain inds of ommuncaton, e selcton of cerai class means whc they aue hhy ad in c y ae caae com hihly ke, aC form ofgrowh whn e ea a of gn aiey and socal ihertanc an pence \ cano say ha a a ubi fo oer n o commucion sinc we ucces evdnly ommcaes Xwrcnce wc s no apparntly comnicabe in other way c ms sec art ather, a an teo of ur capaci for or aiaton a vtal faculty whi allos parcuar aa of ray o be dscribed and communed To suceed n a s o convey an eperee o othe' n such a fom tat he epernc acvy rcreated no cotemplaed, ot examned no a svey ceved, bu by respon o mean, acuay ve hrogh, by toe o whom i ored t h tag, a numb o artwork aready ai, fudamenay ecaus as expeienc is i nuccnty orad an n consunce he ano cov th mas by ch thc e nce cl be hae ee arc abot faes in ti n, but e ae alo many patial !lues or patia succese in hich ertain pats fhe eprence ome through, an ca be shared as a ved rcait, he ohcr pars rach u wh diminish or gican stren \Ve ca ofen e, in thecascsoffare, how the oce of oanzaton, whc is also espon, brea do \c ec th relaps o mre mao of oth wos genera ac o l etas of pa, an te falur is not a he mod o ot wor a rn sica y iaduae bu ha y ae nngus wi hs parcla xprin e; actv dripo has bcom mhanca rpton. uch fau i coon but hady le than a ind ls ofte notced horNicaly where the eor toards ne dsrpons obviou yt communca tion fals. t has en bee sad that audnes mt be patint thy a o arn an artt e lanua u
xp
c
e
Rei 54 fe ha a oud e os nles it was gv s spea satu b e ig of am ra paa a wde pread paca j ad xson So poeu as dency to eud a fom serou pactia cr s a, a aa mood o denc lam ta ar s spia nd aodinary as bn UJ"g ad ven d prat; eve to quesio s podues eacions o eem voenc om thoe o ar covnd a ty ar soe rs of at a ostie od. T 5Uggstion a artad cure ae o d y ovoks ie yseca denas aog vy aim a hy ae eeay era dnay xcso ad o tly tha a ompad o a i p ctce iocd e souio s o to pull at do o ll o ote sal ativty as is s abiua y co cvd mass a m ts i tt hr aeeenally o ' odiay actvtis by odinay man abs o cativ npeaon ad o A i aid in ed by at of c i a our vg Eveting e s ad do e o uue o ou rlatonsps and Stituio epds aly n n eo of aring dsc ton and ommniaton \Ve Ceae o man od as avc oug o a bng ratd At a majo mas o recisy thi eation s stncon o a fom onary iv ng and dsmssa o a s p atia o eodry (a ese-ime avy) ae arave
O-
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fomulations o th sam or.
lf reaity must b ead by th efort to dcb suessfuly, w anno isolat ' real y ' ad s a opposto to or dgy o idig
y. a avty deends spo ead t a g ofdscripo, w ano st ar t' o one sid oa line ad ' work on tlw oh ; we canno umi o be (li\-ed o Aest a and onomc �Ia e as o ays odscbg ad ommuniatng a arned man skls, ms ko ad ad a ommniy beor ga oe con g pec an e sd ad dvoped Hma ommuni g b dover o ommo meaings and ommon mans commuaon Over a ave ang ar
The t Mid 5 ad by t an and e pae maiaized y a comm ity ontualy erat. e dvdua rai descrpion i pa o ga ocss c ras co veos ad stituo oug ic e manng a ar vaud by t ommny ae saed and made a s s u sgance o ou moden dno of e c insiss o tis community of po. ouation t ocess o maig une epe e io ommon xence ad is abo al th am to v. Fo a basay say ay nd o ommuica on : ' I am ving in is ay a is my epei ene e ability o ive in a aiua a epeds ul imay on aane o ts ee by otr, sucss commucaon us our dsripions of ou eece com o comose a o o ato ips ad all our commncaton ysems u ng e as a ally parts o our soal ogaaon co and epreao old n or dsrpio s mbody or ade needs ad nteests ic e se to vada by makng thm cea o ors A e same tim th dscrp tio v om os mbody a nd ad ir and og pocess o omarison a ntr aco or i l aoiave ie nce ou ay o sig thngs s r our way oliving, th ro ofcommuia o s i ["t pos o commuy: e sang o common maigs and ee ommo aves ad purposs oeig epo ad ompariso o W mags ladg o tsons and acvemes o grot and cag It s oe utmot mpoane o eaze s ense o ommucaon as a o oa o I av do 50, e ca n oo at aica kids ad mean o communao i ha as it re sparatd Ot ut ot separatd ou a ogtr. ata ly og apoh to ay suc sty om aumto o saae odes as odari assme a oa 1itions ad covenionsaeoa dieen and sepaae ode om asc isio and onvo Poiti and at tothr
d
Th Ro[O scince religio famly ife and th oher cegries wepea ofa abolute, belong in a wol wold of acti and iner acting rlatosip whch i common aociavc lie. f we beg fom he wole eure we cn go on o tudy particular aciiie, and heir bearings o oher kinds Ye we ben normally from the cagorie themsl ad hi has ld agai and again to a very damaging suprion of rationsips Eac knd of acivity in fac ur if i is whoy asractd and aracd Poliics, fo ampe ha graey urd by i paaton from rdiary rlaiohip and we hav seen he same proces i ecooc cince religio ad educaio he asacio of ar b 1 romoon or rgation o an ara of secia xperience (motion beauty antay, t imaginaton h uncon cious) which ar in racice ncr con itlf to raging in fac om he mos ordinary daily acviie o ceptioal cri ad teii and usig a rang of mea fom words of str ad commo polar or! o trange syems and img� wic i h yt been abl o mae common ropey I a en e prpose of i rviw of crea actiiy to allow u o acknowldge this, which is h rea hiso of ar and yt which we ar kpt rom by deiion and formula ha were sage i it intrtation ut hat w m now moe byon A rer conseqnc of ti o creativ activy is tha we ar hlped by what it shows of commucatio an comiy o riew he atur of our wole commo lif: the s of thi riw are th tr of h diion of cltue Wh we ha gaed th ndametal ratio bew mani arived a by creaive intepaion ad decipton, ad maning embodied by convention and instutions w are in a position to rcconcil e meanng of cultur a creati aciit ' ad a whol way ofife and t econciliaio he a e esion of our owe o udead ourles ad our ociei.
H ANALYS O F
UR ar thee genera cagoi n he denion o cultr hre is r ial ' in which cultr i a tate or process of hman cfcco in er of cetai abole or ni"e alu T aalyis of cuure ifuch a di ion i acceptd, is eeially th dicovery ad descptio, in li an woks of hose us whic ca be seen o com oe a mls orr o o have permanen efrnc o the ners hma coniio Te secod hr i the documenay' in which cultur th body of inellecual ad imaati work in which i a deaed way huma though and expric ar varioLly ecorded. Th analyis of cuure from uch a dnio i he actiity o crticim y wic he naue of e hought and experince e dail o the langage orm and covntion in wich hese are acive ar dcribd ad alued Sch criticsm ca rage om a process ery simiar o h ida' analyis, he dicov of th bes that ha ben hough and wren i te world trogh a proces which whi inrted i radion ake as pimary mpai he particuar wor beig studid is clacaion and aluaio beig he pricial d i iew to a kid of hisoril cricim which, aer anaysis of particular wor ee to relat hm o the paricula radion ad octie in wich they appeaed inally thrd thee is e ocial dnion of culture, i whic cure i a decrition of a paricular way of life whic pe crtain meaing and ale ot oly i ar ad leing b in insiutio ad ordiary behaour he analys of culture from such a deniion i h clarication o e meanngs and alue impc and licit i a paticuar way of ie a parcular cuu. uc nalysis will incde te hitorical criicim aady reed to i
Tlu Log Revoto whh intelltual a magaive work ar analed n laon to patca raditions and ociti, bu ll alo nlude analys oemn n th way off tt to followr oft other deniton a not ' cuI tu at al: organizato ofpodction the cu ofe faml th tuctue of nituo c expss 01' gove oal a ops t st o hogh w mme of t soet omm. A ch !ge om a deal empa th dicOy of cta aoute o ne a a Iat hh ad o man gs ad es throug t ont' mpas whch caicaio of a patuar wa of le is te mai d n e to an emphass wh om tudg patiular meags and aus, ses no so muc to compar the as a way ofstabhng a sal but b tudyng th mode of hange o doe ta gnl 'laws or rnds w ocal and lral deveopm a a whol can b btt undetood J t sem to m h t is va n eah o tee nd o eio. Fo cay m ecay {Q look o man g ad es h o e n ot ony n a and et wo u alo n inton ad for of beavou amc tim t dege to wh w depnd n o no of many pat oct ad pat stagesofou own on the bod ofintletual and magatie work whi as etad its majo ommnt e mak he dcripion o cultre n ts ems f ot om lee at rason an ided be agued that inc w a\ oct for te bo deipton we ca st o t mo litd feece Ye lmnt d;) dnito ch alo sm o me e wc coag th tntn o the boad re I it dult af e may compaa sts no o reod to identy t poces ofhman pefecton wt the diovr of ablut "alu, as these hae be ordnaly dend I accp( th crim hat the ar normall a xtenson of the vas of a p r tar tadto o ocie Ye, if we all t procs not
Aass Cte 59 human pfeton mp a known ideal towad whch we an m ut hm evoluo 10 mean a proces . ofgnral growth of man as a ind w are a to rogn aa of fat whch th othr dnion mght exude o m to m to tu tat mang and values dcoved i parlar soeti and y paticua idividual, and pt alie y so ta ad emodmnt n patc a ns o o, he o o ea t se th y a nd n a paticua sitao h ca co ut to L gh o ms pow guat i and o conto is o nrch hs fe nomnt ar mot a e o te lmnt in th form of patiular tehnqu, mdine produton, and omunaons bt it s lear ot onl that the depend on moepuly intellectual dipline, wch had to wought ot n the cativ handlng of pience but alo hat te diipl thmevs togete th etan ai thal ssmos nd ceai mao at fom av povd sm laly befeng gathd nto a genral tadito whc sms o eesent hog mn ns and oc a l of commo growt I seems easoab to spea of th tradition as a geneal uma cltre wl adding at it can only bcom t w h partcular oes , mor local ad tempoary eg hapd as tem. Th aon of eaning ad efnce n the use of utur as a tm, mut b en I am aguig not smpl a a dsntge wh pvnt a kd o nat ad xclu ve iton bt as ge u compy cospondg to ea lme i expeec. Te i a sgcnt rnc i ac of t ma d o dito ad fi i o t t ato bwe tm ta od m o attnlo I eem to m ta ay adeuate o ou mus iclu t thre aeas of fact to te deton pont, a coCcl that an patcar dition, witin any of the catgore whh wold clud referen to th ors, nadequate Thus a dal dnton whch atmp to astract th poc t decrib from s detaild
\V
60
The Ln Rel embomn and sapng by parclar soceies -regang mans ideal deveopmen as somehing separae romand evn oppose o h anmal nature' o e saisfacion ofmaera nees - seems to me acceptable A ocumenay den on wic sees vale only n he wren an pane recods, and marks hs area oom te rs oman's lfe in sociey is equally naccepabe gain a socal deon wch teats ither e genra pocess or the oy oa and eng as a mre byprodct a passive reecton oCthe real neress of he sociey) seems o me equay wrong Howeve dicul i may be in pracce, we have o ry o se he ocess as a whole and to relate o paticular sues no plictly a east y ultimae rerence to he actal a compe organizaon We can ake one example, fom analyic meod, o llstate s I we ak a pariclar wor of at, say e Atg of Sophocles we ca anayse i n dea erms - he dscovey of cera absolue vaes or in ocmentary ems - he commnicaion of ceran vales y ceain arsc means Mch be gaine from eer analys fo the st w poin o e asole vaue of reverence for the dea; e secon w po o the presson of cerain basic man enons rough the particlar dramatc fo o chors and obe and he specc ntesiy of the verse Ye i is clea tat nether analyss is complee The eerence, as an absolute value s limited n e play by e ens of a pariclar kinshp sysem and ts convenonal obligaions - ngone wold o is fo a broher o or a usad Silaly e damatc fom e mer of te vese, no ony ave an arisc raon beh them, e work ofmany men u can be seen o ave been saped no ony by e emans o he eperence bt by he paticula soca forms throug whc he dramatc traon eveloped We can accep suc eensons of our orina analyss bt we cannot goon o accep ha ecause of he exensions te value o reveece, or he dramac form and e specc vese have meang only in c cones o we we ave assigne tem The leaig of reverence rogh suc
kmm
Tk Aas Cture nens eames passes beyon s conex ino the general gowh of huma coscousess he dramaic form asses eyon is coet an becomes a eemen in a major a genera damac adon in qe dieren socees The play s a specc concaon sUvves e society and e eligon wc elpe o sape i, ad can be recreaed o sea dectly o uimagnd auences Ts while we coud no abstract te ia vale or e specc docume, neier col we reuce hese o explanao win te local termsofa partcua culure fwestuy real reatons n any acual analysis we reac te po were we see a we are sying a geera orgaation in a articlar eampe, an in is genra organzation ere s no elemen a we can absrac and separae om e res was certany an error o suppose a values O awors cold be adequaely stdied wout reerce o he parcular socey win which ey were expressed bu s equally an ero o sp pose at e soca expanaton s eterming, or at e vales and works ar mere byproducs We ave go io the hab since we read ow deeply works or vaues culd be deermine by te wole siuaon whch tey a exresse, of asng abot hese relationships n a sanda orm: hat e relation of tis ar o s sociey? B sociey his queson s a specous wole Ite ar s par of he socey, ere s no sod whole ousde o whc by the form of or question we conce porty he art there as an activy w he proucon, te trading e polcs e asing of familes To sdy e relaons aeaely we mt sudy tem acively, seeing all he acivs as parcuar an conempoay orms of human enegy Iwe tae any one of ese acvies we can see how many o th otrs ar rected i varos ways accord· ig o e naure of e whole oganaon I seems lely aso, a he very fac a we ca dsngui� ay patcular acviy as sng ceran specc ends suggess tat who s actvy e wole of e uman ogaaton a a place and te cou no ave bn ealzed. Ts ar whle ceay elated to te oter acivtes can e seen as expessng
L vlu
ertain elemen in the organizaion wi, within hat organaion's rm ould only a\" een exprsed in this way t is hn no a quesion o elatng a to e soiety ut of studyng all te acies and hi ineaions, withou ay conesson o rory o any on ohmwe may hoose o absac f w nd as often that a parcua aiity ca radially to hang th whole oganation we an sil not say that i is to his aiiy a all he othes mus be relatd; wanonysdy haryingways in whih within e anging organization h paticular acivitie and thir ntrlatons we acd Fuer sinc he paruar acviis wll b sring ayg ad somties oncing nds te sort of age we ms look fo wi rary e of a smple kind: lmens of isne adjment, unconscious assimlaion ai resistan altaive eor wi all normally e present in pariula· aiis and n he whoe organiaion e analysis of ulur in douentary sns, is of great imorance beaus it can yld sei vidnc about he whol oganization witn whch it was prssd Ve annot say that we know a articular fOm o period of oiey and that we will se ow its ar and eory elate to i for unil we know hs w annot really clam o know e sociy h a problem of mthod, and is mntioned here because a good deal of story has in fat ben written O e assmption tha bases of te soiy s poial eonoic and socia!' rangemens for h cenal Cre offac af wic e at and ory n b adducd for marginal ilraion or orlation' There as n a neat reersal of proedue in he histories of literatur art siene and plosophy wn heeare dsribd deloping by h own laws and tn somthing alld bak grund (wat in general history was e nra or) is sketed bously s necessary in eposion o set ertan aciis for mphasis and is nirly asonable to trae acula nes ofdvclomn in empoary isoaion. Bu h hisory of a uur sowly ult up fro such pa tiular wok, can only e writen wen e ae reatios
Aass �Culu
ar restored and he atiiies seen in a genuine paity ulural hisory mus b more han h sum o th pariuar stories, fo is wh e rlatios btwn he h ar ticular fos of t wole organao, that is spcaly ond I wod n din eoy of u as h sudy o rlaonsps btwn lmns in a whol way of The analyss of culture is attmp o discov th nature of h organaion which is te omple o hse rlaionship. Analys of paiular works or isiuions is in his ontet analysis o heir ssnial kind of organizaion th rlaonsps wic woks o nsions mbody as ar as a w.o. keyword in suc aalyss, ?fe patern Wth dIscovry o ans oa charac istic kind tha ay usf uura anlysis egis and
with the rlaionshps between ths pates wich so-
is rveal unepcd idniis and correspondnes in � hrto separa onsidred aciis somims agan
ryal dsconUIs of a unxpcd kid, that gnral
cu ral aalyss s concrnd. I
i ?nly n O WI i and ac a we an xpc o
kno, L any subsa way gnra oganiation \Ve can larn a gra da of he lifeofoh pacs and ims bt
crain elemns i sms o me will always e irecoe bl
Een hose ha can b rovrd are rcoered n aba-
on, and ths s of cuia mpoance. \Ve la ac as a pectat b in e Jivng expeinc of ie every clmen was in son, an insepaal a of a copex wo. Th os dc ng o g old o i
sdyng ay ps iod, is is f sn ofthe quay ofe
a a paiula pac and im: a ssc of he way in which
t�< pariular aci\·is ombid ino a way ofhnking and
VIg. W can g some way
I
rsoing the oulnes of a
paicular o'ganzation of lif; we can een cov wat
Fom as e 'socal aacr o Bnedit th pattn
o ultue' T . social <aaccr a vaed sm of haour d ads
a� - IS taJ omally ad inoally; t IS boh a Idal and a mode. e 'pae ofculue is a �
seleion and ongraion of inerss and aiviis, and a
n JU
para lon othem oducing a dtinct ogia on, a 'way ofli. Yet even hese, we eoe them, are saly astact Poily, howee w can gan he sense of a tecoon lemt which nithe th chaacte no he aten as t wee the actal exeence thogh wic these wee led Ths is oenay o ey geat moance, and think he act is tha we a mos onscios o sch conct n he ats o a eod It can haen hat when we hae meed hese agains the eenl chaate sticsohe eod, and then allowed fo indidal aations, thee s sll some imotant common lemnt tha we canot easly ace tnk we can est destad ths we thnk oany sila nalysis oa way o le at we oseles share Fo we nd hee a atila sese of a atcla com mnty o eence hady needing eesson thogh whch the chraceristc of or way of fe ha n tea analyst cold desri a n some way assed gng them a particla and haacttc colo We ae sally mos awae os when we otce h coass betwee genea tion who nec talk qte the same langage o wen we ead an acont o o les y someon om otside the commty o watch he smal deences n styl, o seh o ehao, n someone who ha learncd o ways yet wa not ed n hem Almos any oma descton wod e oo cde to ess this neheess te distinct sense oa paticla and nate syle And f this s so n a way ofle we now tmaely, w sely e so wn weoseJes ae in he osion o the sto te leae th gest om a deent geneaton : the ositon fct at we ae all n when we sdy any ast eiod hogh t can e rned o ria acnt, he fact o sch a chaaceistic neher iia no mginal; feels te ccntal he em I wold sggest to desc it is stcure fl : it is as m and den as stcte sggests ye t oeaes in the most delcate ad leas tangie ats o o actity In onescns ths stceoecg s he ct oa eod: it s the atclr lg est of a he elements n the geneal oganzaon And it is n this resec that the as of
An� utu
65
a peiod akng thes to ncude haraeristc aoah and tones n agmen, a ofmajo motance or hee anyhee ths haactesti is lkey to e eressed oen otconscosly t y the fact that hee, i the only eames w hae ocoded commncatio hat otes s eae, the ctal ling sense the dee comny at mak the commnicatio oile natally dawn on I do no mean tha he scte o eeling, any moe than the soia haac is osedn e same way y the many nd idals he comty Bt I thnk it is a ry dee and ey wde ossesson, n a actal commntes ecsely ecase s on t at commncao deends n what atilaly nteresting s tat t dos not seem o e n any omalsens leaned One genaton may an its scceo with eonale sccess, n the socal chaacte o the geneal cultral atten t thc new gnation wil hae own structe of eling whih wi not aea to hae come om anywhee o hee, most dtincly, he changg oganiaton s enacted i te ogasm: he new geneaon esonds i ts own ways o the e wod it is nheitng, kng many continies that can e taced and eo dcing many asects o the oganiation which can e seaately dcid yet feling s whole li n cn ways denly and shaing ts ceatie ose ino a new stcte ofeng nce the cae o sc a stcte de the neaes we ca get to ths tl lement s i the docmentay cle, om oems to ldngs and des-ashos, and is eaion that is sncane to th denion o cltre docmcnay tems his n no way means that he doc ment! ar aonomos I smy ha reously ad the sigicance o an acity mt e soght in tms of he whole oganiaton whch is moe than the sm o its sea ale ats What we ae looking fo, always, s he actal that the whoe oganiation ee to exress he sg cace o docmetay clte is hat mo cleay than ythng lse, it xesses hat l to s n dect tems wen the ling witnesses a silent he same tme if we ect
6
The Long Rvoluti
on th ature ofa stuctue offling and see how i can fai o be fuly undertood vn by iving peop i cose contact wih it with ample materia at their dsposa incuding th contemporar as we sha not suppos that we cn ever do mor han make an appoach an approximaon usng any channs. W ed to disinguish hre levels of culure eve in its �ost geral dnition Ter is th v cultue of a par ticular te and place only fuly accssibe o thos ivng in that time an lace Ther is the recorde cuure of very kind fom at to the most vryday facts: e ul also as the actor conecting tr of a period culures th cutur oCthe selcive ved culur and tradon 'hn .it is no long being livd but in a narrowe way survves 1 ts records, th cultur of a pcrod can be vry careully studcd unti we fee tha we have reasonaby cear ida of is cultua wok its socal caace its geneal patters of activity and vaue an in part of is srure of feeling Y te svva is govened, nOt by the erio slf but by new periods, whic gradally compose a tadition : vn mos specialists in a pod know oly a part of even its records ne can say w conidnc for ample that nobody raly know nietenthcntury nov; nobody as rad, or cold hav rad, all its amps, ovr h whol ang from prin voumes o penny serias he real spcial st may now som hundrds th ordinary spciast somewhat lss; educated reades a decrasing number: though al will hav clea das o the subjec A selective pocess of a quite dras.c �in is a oce evident and ths is tru of every el of acvty Euay of course no inteenthcntuy eae woud ave read al the ovls; o invidal in socety would ave kown moe tha a section of s facts But veryone living in e peiod woul ave had somthing which, have argud, no later individual can wholly recovr that sns of the ife wihi which th noves wer witten and which we now approach through our scton. heor icaly a period is recordd; in practice th record is
Analis oClure
absored into a selctv tradition and both ar dirent rom thcuure a lvd It i very important to try to undrstand th opration of a slective tradton o some xtent h seecton bgins within the peod sef; from the whoe body of activities crain ings ar seecte fovalu an emphasis. n general tis selecon will rclec h organizao ofthe peiod as a whole ogh ths dos no ean tha the vaues and emphases wi ate be conme se t eary enoug i the case of pas periods ut we neve ray biv it about our ow We can ake an xample om te noves of he last decade Nobody has rad al th Englsh noves of th nintenes; the fastst reader giving wety hours a day to th acvit aone, could not do it et it s cea n print and in eduation, not only hat crin general character istcs of h novl in ths priod have en s down, but also ha a asonay agrd short st has bee mad, of wha sem to be the best ad most elevant woks Iwe a te list as contaning pehaps thrty itles (aeay a very drasic selecto deed) we may suppose tat i fty yeas te speciast i the novel of th J 950 will kow these tirty, ad the gea reader will know praps ve or six et we can surely b u certain that, once he T950S av passd another sective procss wil be begun A well as reducing the number ofwors th nw process will also atr n some cases drastially, the exprssed vauaons It is tru at when y years have passed it is lely at rasonably per mann vauations wil hav en arrivd a ough these may coue to uctuat Yet to ayofus who had livd his long proess tbough it woul rean e that elens im porant o us ad bee ngctd V woud say in a vlnerabl edely way ' I dot udernd why hs young pop on't ea X any mor' but also moe rmly No tha n really what it was like it is you version Sic ay period cuds at last hree genrations w ar alwas seing e "amplso this and one compiang fact s that none of us stay still, \n in our most signicant prio many of h ausments w should not prott agast,
68
mg vti
man of the omisons, distortios ad reintepretations w shoud acept o not even notie, because we had ben pat of the chage which bought them about But then when iving witnesses had gone a furthe hange wold ou The lved ue wod o ol have been ned dow 1 seected documents it would be ed in it euce fom pay as a conibtion (inevabl qitesmll) to the general line of human growth parly fo historic reonstution py again a way of havig doe th , of nag and placig a paticuar stage ofhe past he seltive tradi· ion thus eates at one levl a general human ultue; at another evel the histoal rod ofa prticula ociety; at a thid leve mos diult to acep and assess, a rejectio of consderable aeas o what was oce a livig ulture Within a ven soiety seeco wll be govee by many kinds of special intet inclng la ites Just as e actual ocial situato will lagly gove ontempoary seletion, so the development of e soiey he process of historia chane, wll lagely deeme the seeve tradi tio. The raditional cltue of a soiety wi always tcnd to coespond to its cOlra system ofites and value foitis noan asolute bod ofwor ut a oiual seeon and intepetation. In theo and to a lied etent i pracie ose instituons wich ae foma coneed t eepig he tadio aive pic the ititutons ofeducation and scholaship are committed to e tadition a whole and not to some seletion om it acoding o tempoary intees The imponce Ofhis commimet s ve geat because we see again and agan in the woring of a selective tradition reverss ad re-discoveies returns to wok appaently abandoned s dead ad lealy this is on possible thee are instituions whose business it is to eep large aa ofpast ulture ifno alive, at ast available It is natural and inevtable that the seletive tadition should follow the line of owth of a societ, but beause suh gowth is cople an onnos, the eevane of pat work n any future situation is unforeseeable hee is a atal prure o aademc institution to folow he line
69 ofgowth of a society but a wise c w eurng this nd of reevace wil enuge he inttons to gv suient ouc o th ordina wok of preaio and to resist he citiism, whih any patiula peiod may make with gea ondene that much of th actiy s ireevant and usele t often an obstacle to he gowth of a soety Lhat so many aademic nstituons ae to a impotat e:ent sef-perptuating an resnt to chane he hag have to be made i ew instituo ifecesary ut if we poerly unerstand thc process of the seletive taditon and look at it over a sucientl ong iod to get a e sense of hisal change and utuation the oesponding vae of suh perpetuatio w be appreciatd. In a soiet s a whoe and in a i ptu ativiti the ultual tradition an be seen as a ontnual seleton ad e�seletion of ancestors Paular lines wi be dawn oen fo a long a ce1y and he suddeny th some new stag in growh these wl be caceled or weakened, and new lies dawn n te anals of ontepoa cutue he existg stae of the seletive tration is of vita import ane, fo it is often tue at some hange in his taditon establishng new lns with the past breaking o re-dawing sng l a adical knd of p hange We tend to nderesimate the extent to wih the uural tadi tion is ot only a selection bt also an interpretation We see most past work thugh our own experien, without even makng the eot o see it in somethig like it oigina te. Wha anais can do is not so muh to revee this returnng a wok to i peiod a to make the nterpraton onsio y howing itoical anavs to relate he inteeta ion to the paticular ontmpora value on whch it rests; and y eploring he eal patterns o he wok onfront us wih the a nature of e hoie we are mang e shal nd in SQmeaes hat wee keeping the wo alivebecause it is a genuine ontriution to ultral growth We shl nd in ohr cse, hat we are usng the wok in a particularway for ou own reason and it s better to know this than o
Ana{ Cture
Te g olut srreder to the myticim of e geat valuer, Time To put on to Tme the asaction, the responsibiliy for our own acti\·e chocs s to suppess a cea part of ou experece The more actvely a! cultural wo n be relaed either to te whoe ogaizatio within which it was pree, or to the conmporary orgaiation withi which i i ued, he moe clearl shall we see it true values Thu ' documeta aayis wil lead ou to il aal wheher i a lved cu a pa pcrod, or i the elective raditio which s itelf soia o"gniation And the discove of permaent contriutions wll ad to the same kd of genera analysis fwe accept e proces at is leve, ot a uma perfection (a oveen towads deteined vaue, but a a par o an genera eoluton, o wc may indviduals and grous conbute Eve clcn that we analye wi be i ti sene actve tat it il be een n certan ea elations, at many dierent leels In decrng these relation, the cal cult a process will ccrge.
ny ortical account of he aaysis o ue ust sut t be eted the coue o actua analyi propose to tae one peiod the 840 n Englad, and o eamine, n te conext o it clure, e erec mthod and coes I ave been dcssg The rt and mo strig fact as we bcg to sdy the 840 in a dret way is the degree to which the seectiv radition a worked on it A simple eample i n the eld of Tme the ewpapr for t i customar to think of craceriic paper o the period ad to draw our idea of early Vctoan journalsm om its pactce Certainy T Tm wa th leading day paper, but the mot widl read nwpape i hi decade were the Sunda papr, Dp Crole L/d' Wee and New of e Wold Thee had wha we ca now recognze a a dstinctly Sunda paper elctio of ew el Pe Dp ( 842) is bttled Sprng nd Poe ee d epper om, and a characteritc head iaring onpirac and ttpted
T
Te n uue Volation ustratd by a large woodcut ad baced by a dtaled sto. The tta crcuation o ewpapers of hs kid, at e end o he dcade, was aout 75,000, a compared wh a toal of 0000 fo te daly papers If we are xamg he actua culture of te period, we mut egin from t fact rather tha from the iolatio of e Tme which its contuing importace i a aditio ofhigh politic ha rought aout I th case oflitete the working ofthe seectie traditio is imlary obviou. thin of the peiod as that o ickes, Thackeray, harlot ad mil Bron, at the per leve ofhe ovel, ad ofElzabeth Gaell Kigley Drali, i a bsidar range e ow alo, a 'period athor�, Lytton, Maryat Reade Dces of coue, wa very Wel ad at the time Pw, o take one cample, had sold 4000 copies a nmber in peiodca puicaio, ad lae examles cimbed to 70,000 ad abovc Yet if we look at e ohr most wdey read witer of the peiod, we nd thc folowig lit, i oder fpoularty, givn by W H Smth bootals oened n 188: yttn, Marya P ame, James Gant M ncai Halibuto M Tloe, Lever, Mr Gaell, ae uste Te tw os poplar seres ofcheap novels, te Paou and alway braies 847 and 1849, incuded as their eadig autors . R. Jas (47 itle, yto 19, Ma () Maryat ( 1 5 Anworth (4) Mr Goe (O, rant (8) ratta 8) Maxwell (7) M Troop (7, Emma Robinon (6) Mayne Reid (6) Carleto (6, Jane Aten (6) Mr rey (6) lt oftle fom tese author gives a dea of the rage: gcor D Pom, pm E Tower ofodo c of Wr, Here Bre Srom Weroo g Amerc, Slp Her ody e or, Pde d Prjc Te Lle e In 8 Te Tme commcted: Ee aditOI o h wa piv mde o e ampo
s e CHer as t t lage pt aay a t acutd e e mmnt e t staion.
et
However tis ay be, cea at e cton entioned ws not erely e eading o te deaded poor but that at least for alwayjouneys, tis was the ste of persons of te bete cass we take he whole range of eae we must nlude an autor not yet entiond, G W M. Reyods, of whom he Be a h death said tat w the os popua wI·ite ofou me ' ang peviously said ad witen moe a sod fareater nube than Dcens Reynods was at is heigt in te new popla perocals of e 805 the d a ad is own s in whch appeare suc typica wors as t th q and t f th t . Weust add to is st of the ean oe pero wat as been described as a uge trade in pooapc boos lleay produced and distibute fo te lty celas of Holywell Steet' We must aso ad te works of Carlyle Ruskin, Macauay, M Thomas Arnold un ad of ennyson Bownin Clough, attew Anod and Rossett as selectons a gea body of phlosophca stocal egious and poetc wrin Te opeation of the selective tadtion to copose what we now think of as e caacterstic wo of te peod hardly ees stressn Aady, fom loon at the docu, weare ecessarily Jed out to the scia istoy of the peod We coe to see certain cucal canges cultual nstutions : te eective stablishent ofa popua Sunday pess as te ost sucess� ful eemet njouras the rowt ofnew nds ofpcrod� cal, cobining sensatonal and roantic cion t recipes ousehold hnts, and adce to corespondents as opposed to te oe sober popuar ao> journals of te peous decae (the e aaze ceased pblicaton 184, te year i which e ew-tpe d began) ; te coming of cheap ction, at one leve wit e peny dreaul, o 184, a note with hacrow ad sn Parou an Ralway Libares ipoant canes n te theatre w he eding o e monopoy of he Patent Theaes 1843, the eveopmet o mnor theatres and,
Th ;s e 73 fom 849 the se o te usic-halls Moeove tese cages at t situtoal levl, n dsbuion, elate to a vaety o causes hat ake us ar out to te wole history of the perod Thus tcchnica chages (in ewspapes devel ope sea-ptin ad oay peses; in ooks nk locg on clot povied par of the basis o e ped expansion. he raway boom led to new readig eeds and, more ceally to new poits of disibutio Ye te kid ofpeople wo ade us ofhee chica oppoues must equally attact ou atteo Tere s mpotan inceae in ths ecae, in the ety o pue specuators to these potabl businesses Lloyd and Bel n wspapers and periodicas, comiin (as id ods moe seously) a geeraie radcalism wit a shap commrial nsct; or n he heatre, the esseta beginig of the owership of teares y me ot drectly cocerne wih he ama bt ndin coecia oppotunity i buldng and etn to acto-managers ad compaies, a ethod tat as had a pofoun eet o Enlish teacal developet. Aai a ae pat o te ipetus o cheap peiodical pubishing was the desie to corol e development of wokigclass opion and in t the obseabe si o popua edua onalouras to family aganes (he atter the imedate ancestos of te woen's agazines of our on tie s sncan Respectale schees of moal ad omest improvement became deepy entaed wit te teaching and plicaton ofpacu social vaues in he ineests of te xisting class socety These canges n a wide el are necessay pts of the real cultural process tat we ust eamne As we move to tis wide ed we see, of course that the selecve traition operates cre s in the ocuets Te nsttutonal developmets ust oted epresentig a crtcal phase the commcia oaizaton o popuar cuture nerest us pmary because hey elate to a susequent aor trend o aso do developmets of a dieen nd n te same il e beins of pubc museums a ted Bi! in 8 public baies (me provisos n 8)
Lo 74 and publc parks (allowed from he rates n 18). The erce controvrsy urrounding thse nnovaons from e hags of xtravaganc to he anxous pas tha the workng peope mst be civlzed) ends to drop away, n or mnds, according o subseuen erpreaon. Th compeity we have to grasp, n h eld of cuural insttuons, s �at ths dead brough crucal dvlopmens n the omecl eploaon of clture n ts valuabl popuar panon and n nlighened pubc provon h s the realiy hat varous srands of he seve tradon tend to reduce seekng always a snge lne ofdevopmn h tru aso of he genral potial and soal tory of he perod As J sec , it is domnated by even fatur hee s h ruca Free rade vcoy i Repea o the orn Laws, n 146 Te s the vital rereaon o a newtye ory ary uder Drael, wt some inene from ideas ofYoung nglad Thr is th hart movment among oe ngs a majo sage in te devlopm oworknglass olca consousess T i the faory legslaion lmatg the en Hors Bill o There he compica stoy o the putive Poor aw and e aempt o amnd s opratio in 184 and 14 and nk w his by hadwck e g for the Pbl ealth At of 188. Ter s thc mporan renvolmnt of h chrche i dirent ways n soal conlit There te mao panon n heavy ndusrs an in cata nvestment noably in the raway Othr factors mig ay e added bu aready fom hes w can observe wo poms analyss irs ha hes facto' compos a nge story hough one ofgra compey and conict several ofhcm ar obvousy lnked, and none ofhem, n the ral life ofh perod can b onsde n isoaton. Sond tha each sbet o hghly selecve ntepeaton acordng o subseun dirctons and commms he cse of Casm mos obvous exampl Fw woud now egard It as dangero and wicked, as t was wdly rgarded a me: too may of s pinciple hav bn ubsequny Ult ino Biih way of fe or t to be easy openly o agre
e
te
5 wh acaulay, or exampl that uiversal srage s n compabl with vry see of ivzato' et oe ective magcs o the movemen remain powerful: a, ke he Genera Stke of 92, wa a tag exampe of the wrong way to ge cang, th gt way beng the atually succecdng phas; agan at was muddled and even rdcuous wth s oddly med supporters and s monsr petitons which were mply dregaded ut he fact is tha we have no adquac hsory ofCharsm ; wha\e ubstues for such a history on one o other of the paral verons hrown up by he selece tradton "e se fW his also he mporance of our hoetial obaton on one aspc of he workng of h sle adion ha it not only aeed even governed, by ubseen man lins ofgrow but also age, a wee etrosetvely, n tem of subequen age Th ateon now giv o e growh ofwoknglas moveme n the nneteenth ty wold ave seemed aburd n 1o ad s goverd now l by tc maeial sf tha y e knowldg of e fro o te movemn o ommment to tm Th res on eoomc hory as a ma a oretopeiv cage the cse of ltera, worg of e eleve a o ncds separate examinaton To a onidrabe tent t s a e wo we ow know fom te 80 is bt work o he eod : tha peaed radg n a arey of suaons has ftd the good from he good and ad e hee are other fao r akell ad probably Dsral sve by hscteon, but n bot the cases here ar other atng ements n r kell the documentary ineest ha s uscful o a socal hsory pocupd by his perod n srac the fac of hs subsequen fam in potc Kngsleys novels n my vw wold no hae svcd on terary me a all bt aan they ave ome documenay neres, and hs onbuon to nelleual hory n hrsan Socalism, has been togt mpotan hakray ckns and halote Bontsrvv on r leary m we see ha h bet woks ave arid neor works a n oh athors woul ave vansed. Emy Bron
Th Long Rvluon
would now be said by many criic o be the nest novelist o the deade bt WuhriHeght, ora long time wa rried by the fame of Charlotte and i majo imporane, now rated o hanges in twentieth-centuy itrare, mong towards he heme and langage of Wng Hegh and away from he main ctiona tradiion of the decade n which i wa writen. In ers we read Tnnn and Bowning for the nrinsic inter hough her reputaons have oeny tuated bu do not hk w shoud rd many of atthew Arnold's 1849 poem fh had no subsqueny aqured a reputation of a dierent kind We rad Clyle Ruskin, and Mill beause, n spite of obviou fa, hey are major wriers and additionally beong o ving intea aditions ut, whee we ead Thoma rnod i i becase ofhis eduaonal imporance; where we read Pugn, we have had toremake his sigicance, wih ou own emphass on the relations beween art and society whe we read Maauay, we read perhas with ess interes, not because his aiy seems less bu beause hs way ohinking seems neasgly rrelean Ths he seective adiion, wh we an be ceain wil ontinue to change is in part he emph of wors of general alue par the of pas work in tes of OU own gowth he seletive tradition whih reates to is perod deren from he peod slf, us as he period uue, consiously sdied is neessarily deren fm he culure as ived he work of onscious reconstrucion, ad of he seleve tradition tends to speciazaon of dierent cass of aetiv· iy and we ms look now at the area oraons btween hese, to se i our thoreica decripion o such rlaions id We hae already seen one mportant class ofrelaon p n the eld o cultural nstution. Suh cto in the oiety a he cas suation (particuly he range o mddeclass attitudes to the dissiden woring lass) he echnial expansion which folowed rom the gowh o an ndustrial economy and he kinds oonership and dibu io naural to sh an eonomy an be seen o have aeted such nstitutions as the press, ook pblishing and he
s
h Aa{ts ! ulue
77 theatre and the form o tese insiuo wh te purposes hey epressed had observble ees on some cultural work: new syles in ornalsm hages e novel b<se of serial pubiaion some adaptaion ofmteal in tesofhe new public being reaed. ih ths ind of nterraon we ar reasnably familiar but i is no te only kind A second ind in whih nowing e soiey we look for s drec recion in cuural work s, n th period qute cear. � h� seven general feaurs listed, om he politicl and soca hsory of he 1805 all are eenively reeced in contemporary iraure paruay in he novel fwe read only \O Barlo, S)'bil, COingsy Dom a read Alo Locke, Past al d resi/I, we moe direy ino h wo oC aism faoy legsaion, he Poor Law, he railways, he ovemnt o he huhes (he deade producd severa novels o he risis o eigous bef and aliaion) �nd he ?Oiti o Free Trade and Yong England Th t:a I Impo;, aan is not he ony knd and ed, we m atJonsps to his dir desiion and dsson we sal d i dilt o esimae even thes he rther ara o elatons ha we mst now exmine IS ha described and inerpeed by sch onceps as th . soc�al character and he srucure of feeing h domnant SCal ofhe period can bebriey ouin There is h e vaue o wor and tis is seen elaion to �I\vdual efor, with a song aahmcn to suess gained i aumed but soial poiion n.hese ts A lass soey s S creasmgly dened by aual satus raher han by brh Thepoor acsen as the m otheiron failing, and i i strongly hd tha he among hem w cmb ou ofhe class pnitve oor aw s neesy in order o simae e ort ; Ifa man coud fa bak on ri, withou gave hard shp I the form o separaion fom his amy, minimum Ssnanc, and such wor as one-beang or oakum ! ng, he wold ot pck make he neessary eor o provide o' hmsef n his and a wider ld seig is in on sense ennoblng in hat it teaches humity and ourage and leads
?
)Ul
d �
�
Te uJg /volti 80 a ociety baed ithr on birth o on indidua succe he concpion of a socity bsed on mutual aid and o-option c can n disinguish the social chaact operav h peiod and i is with th study o rlaon bteen thm at w ent h rality of the whol l. contribu o he growh oth sociy: h artoaic idas temperng hs omiddas ideals a h wort woking ideals enteing ino a fuitful and dcive combition th middc idal at h bst Th mddlcla social haacte mains domnan, and both astocats and worng popl in many epct com to tem wh it But qually h iddle-clas soia charactr i entrd te fort i in many epcs modid as he ori end. he values o wok and hlp, o social position by stat ahe tha birth, of the acity of mrage and t empha i on thit sobrity ad chaity ar ll dominant ut puniiv rhabilitation and he atitudes o wness and uern on which it res, hav ben whil not rected joind by a majo ida o pubc rvic in whch the eot towards cvilization is acvy pomoted by a gnuine altruism and h making of posv itutions This on lvl of chag and such analys necsary w ae o xpore the ality of h social characer In some specs th sructu ofling coresponds to the dominant ocal charact bu it is alo an prssion ohe intaction dcibd Again, howevr th trcure of ling i not uniom throughout th ociey it is primary vidnt n the dominan poductiv group A thi levl howev it din from any o th diinguhabl socia chacte, o it ha to dal not only wih he pubic idea but wi th omons and conenc, a livd we oo a cion o the oties w hall s hi arly. he popula ction o th piodicals o cally tudied by Dlzil is very inesing in his contet. At s ight w nd wha w expct h unhakable asmtion oa clas ociy, but with th LS on walth rate than bith (atoca inded beig oten psonally vicio) ; h con
A
Aass Cuu vction that th poo arc so by hi own fault thei tu pidity and depavity trssd the mutual help ignod th ab�lut $nctity of maiag th manipulation of plo to bg seual ondrs to actual suring he ght agains wakn howv trrible one o the man creaors o humbl viu this ofn cnciously didactic' i e d" xprssion of h domnant ocia chac, and h aumpions tnd to bcshared by th pious mproving cion (c Ms Tonna's Hm Fwood) d by t snsational cion which the mpov condemned ut thn we ar mndd o h xn to which popa cion tan older yste of value, on though tropd convnton of charact The fahionabl novel of high life ony bcam unashonabl ate in th dcad The ycal hro i som time th uccssful xponen of s-hlp but otn he i an olde ype th civatd gcnleman, h ode govrned by a cod of honou, en h man who n pleasu a bleing and work a cue To th ale heo loss ofncom and the nd to wok wr misoruns to e ndrd· o hav a saf orune w doubdly bet Th new ait �d to wok cam in ony sowly, or ndestandale reaons Odiny middle-class fe was sill hought oo plain and dull for a ealy ineesng novl Ft heroe o ihe kind a capab o strong ovet moion; hey can bur no pubic a o evn swoon ong mn used to do bu w 50 to do no mor Hoine ha mo cntinuy hy a wak dpnden and shown as glad bsoand of cou hey a bauiul and cht ne neesting faco obviouly rad to a continuing gnal attitude n h piod is tha schools almt without ecption, a ho aibl no ony a hey places oftmption and wicked ns? mn crul and eucationally idicuous but alo thy mfo o the home and family a way o bgng up chldn his is phap the las pod in which a majoriy o Englih pblic opinion bived tha home edcation wa h dal om the sxtenth century, his bli had ben gaining ground, and i complt revera, with the nw publicschool ho ater Arnold is o coideabl gneal
A
T Rvu importnce Bu the new atitud does no apar in tio until om Bow'! Scdy i 1857. I e oular con of e fores the, we d many maks ofoder ways offeelig, as we as faithl rodution of cetai standard feeings of the approvd soial haraer We d also in an ieesing way the ineration between es and atual eperiee he ccia poit i his eiod n the ed of succs and moey Th condnt aerions of the social haracer, hat succe followed eort and that weah was th mak of spet had o ted, only un cosiously, with a pacical wold in whih thig wer not so imple. The condence ofthis ction is oftn ony superia Wha comes hough wih geat fore is a pevasive amosphe of instailiy and debt A oma lmn, in thee ois, s the los of fou and this i hadly ve pseted i rms consstet with e socal haa: hat succe or faile corspod o pea quay D and un haun is appaly condn wold ad in a majoy of ases impy hape to th haater as a eu of a poes od tm. At on leve, te asmpions of ocal caatr a mainained ifyo o you fotune you get ou of the way you canot mara yosef o you finds y staying u this hless code is odinaly on· ed to subsidary characters : e parn ohero o heoie Fo h pople who matte, somc othr expedient is n ay t s foud ove the wole rage of ction, by \o device he nepcd legacy, and he Empire hese deces a extemly nteestig oh a he level of magic and a the vel of developing attitude necessary to h socety Magc is indeed esay, to ptpoe he coict ben the ethic and he epeiee t is widly usd in sua siuations, whee hero or hroine is tied o an unloved wife o husad while the true lover wai in he wings Solutios invoving idelity o rakig th marriage a omaly unhinkable, ad o a fomua s evoved, o standard use unstabe atnr is not mery lovd bt aoholic or insa; a a gi" n poit, and ate quied amont of
3 Anss f Gue resigne su ring, tee a onvnint, oen peacula dath, wnh unovig pae sows grat quatis of cae, duy, and iy; and thn, of coe, t ral love can consummated. In money, th pces i similar gacies at he crucia mome u up from almos anywhe and fotuns aeestod Nobody ha o go againt the riniple ha moey enral tosu u euay very fw have o e oud y the ethi peached to th poo tha he drig posp y o his met of chatig ma on crucal oint of diree betwen the sial chaace and the actual srucue of feelig he use of e Empie simila bu mor omple Of course here wee actal lgai, ad the vnually changd e efhelp et, i is implest om he magic a this stage ay in hei img Bu Empie was a more uversally availabl apcot black shee coud be lot i t rined or msundsood ho ould go ou and etun with fotuns; h wak of every kd oud be tas ferred to it to make a nw f n indeed, te mie s the sorc o e uepeced gay, and te wo devices a oind It is clea ha the u o e Empr rea to real factos in the ocity At a smpl eve gong out to new lads CQud e seen a selfhel and ntrpise of he puest ids. lso, in the nw lads, tee was a grat ned fo laourers and migaion as a soluo to woriglas prob em wa being widely rged oftn by mos umane critics of he existig system I 40, 9000 people a year were emigrating, and in 850 hee imes as many I a dieent way in trms of apial and tade the mpire had een one of h levers of indusalizaion ad was o rove one mor way of keeig the capitalit stm viab Th facors a ectcd in ion, though not o the same etet later in the century when mprialim had eme a coscious poliy eawhie, alogide this retion ofea facto hee was e use as magic: characters whos d nies could no be workd out witin the system a giv w simly put o h boat, a implr way o eolng the onit ewee hi and eience than any adal utioning
�
92
The
L vlt
ecded by he new sense ofwha it is o be an invi There i a imlar and related change I e cncetO of mans invidual poston ' in e T spek piion mplie relationships, and we are stll VC"y cio th But there is an evien chang, between medv and men thinkng in his icut conception f ma n sciety t accouns of medieval society tres the way wich a man was dend by his postin in e soi1 orer: an indiviua in he old sense dened by h membeship ofagroup A Eich Fromm has pu i t a peSO� ws ide.tcal wi h rle in sociey ; he was a peasant an art a kngh, and no a vdul who appeeto have ts t occpa n We can see tha his mu o a large tent have been tue, in a rigid sociey in which the of becoig something ese was comparavey vey A mblity incease, and a least some men culd change thc au the idea of being an ndiviual in a senssrb fromones oci ol obvisy gained n segth The grwth o capitam and the geat sci 1 chn aso;ated wih t encourage cain men to see the dvdual s a srce econmc activiy by hi ee psc'. wa less mat e f perfoig a cerain functio within a e l th o iniating ceain ind of av!ty, chog patJ: cl? il directions. he scal ad geograpcal mblty t wch some caes thes canges gave ise cd to a reeion f he ndividua - what 1 am - by extenio t wha I want 10 be' and what by my own e ] have become. Yet th i s a deniton o an individual in i scial r economic e an we can all obsve hat th kin of deion ha pe sed ino our own imes. I thin amog many exampe f te magstraes stin o Wiliam Morr n he dck, n 85 MrSundrs : "h yu? m is,d a litrarY,preywdl kow Ps I ti thrugot Erpe.
Te cutne of the quetio and yet orr mmeiate ucstading o i sick in my m for I knw my wn
Idvd a ct
93 action, hat the �nly anwe what are yu ? s a man , et wth the ccaty that the awe would be cnsidee lent, :u 1 cnide the uetin inolent Ad the questn wha are you , thinking othem in ejecting e accepabe ustion ad the whatis you work ?' I am hVlg out particula hitry in which w ceasngly consci of ndidual e e have become enc sepabe fro more mpot an an ccu e s a hing pao UcOn a SOCal ank. I can tink ofome peop n asoc have answercd he mastrates uon wih e who woul he proud an Englishman and ineed tha kin ofcs ciunss isa sge in the development. e have at ou co mad now a numbe fways fdeng ur exitece, in tems fnationaliy las, occupation an o n, which w pesnal dscription in te fmemberh e in fact oe a fo mt of us, when all hese em have ip ofa goup. Ye been use an area f conscious and vaued exsence rema s mode of escrpn cud nt be xpress whic in th eation tis aea of exsence that he at al It is in problem f the iniviual ad society tkes shape. Thu we can ace u ccep f the indi viul to tha cmplx oc age which we anays in s sepa able aspects �
d
�
h
as �he Renassance, the efmaIn, the beginnings of ecnmy captahst In eence i he absraci of he niv�ual fm he cmpex of eanship by whch he had hthero been nony eed The cunterp press w a simila abstracton f sociey a ofh whc h ha earie dc aed an acual reatnip _ ' the society ohis felows - but which in the late sxteent cenu devlop he more general moe ene f the began to m o cmmon e - socie a tng in itsl: Comte u ity eached the sam sage f devepmen in te seven een h centuy and State' had reched th stage athe earl havng add o its two earier eanings the cd the co�o lie, as i tae fhe aton' ; the iion of a condIo 01 statu a Ithe Kigs stae' - these signs of apparaus f the mmon life its famewrk o ne othe st ord. Thus w see te tems f elaihp separating t, unil
Th lmg R{un
94
Iivuals ad Socte
ndviual on the oe had, 'society ommunity a 'stae on the oher coud be conceive as absactio an absoluts. The major radition of subsqunt soia! hiing has pene othese escipons In England fom Hobb to the Ulitarians, a varty of syste share a cmmon startg-point: ma as a bae huma ig �he idivid i theogal stating-oint ofpsyhology thcs ad pol t is ae in his traition, to stat from he act that man born io elatonships Th absraon o h ba ha eg as a separate substance, is ordaily ten fograntd n other syst of hinkg the commu1ty wod e the axiom and indviual man he drivave Hre ndividual mn i he aiom, and socty the derivativ Hobbes vir· ally ops all mie erm between spaat iniviuas an the Sate, an, seing the ivials as na uraly selish, sessociey as a ratonal onstuctio to restra the esu tve lemnt in nividuas and o enforce co·oeaon ocke sees he rationa an co-operative elemens as aal, but simlaly pstulates spaate individuals wh cate society by onsent or contrac for the poeton of he iniviual interests. he whole Lbral tadon, folowg from ths begins with the indvidua ad his rights ad uging society as an arrangement to esur h e abstrat ght, argue normally for only th nessary mmum of govenment It is clar tha much ma good sued rom his emphasis in the actual libeaon ofmn r0 arbrary an opresie systems Yet it reste on escptons whch while corrspodg to the experince o man reaki out pece fom obsolete soial foms, am to cot wh ofhe icutes ofnew ins of orgniation Whie the absract dividal was dalie his ad· an altenaiv tradon sharng some ot .1 o s mov in the irection of the ieaization of sociey Roussau arguig ha we bgin roply 10 eome m only a e have bme czns saw he ommuy he sorce of vaues an henc as a oa person . Hgel eginnng rom the simiar emphasis tat man bcomes a
;
l
�
�
95
indviual hrough soiety and civzation, saw he Stae the orgn of he ighest human values an emboment of
what athew Aro alld 'or best sel. Y boh
�ussea a Hege with direcs of mhasis, saw the
Lmotance of actual communti an forms of ociati on
as th ecssary mdiaing emen bewen ndivdas an the lage Sociy is from this lie o thkng hat an
importan resion of the escriptions has flow W p re·
serve om he eary Lberalism he absots of' iividual and society bt we add o hese as mdiating terms
'ommunity an associaton to dcibe loa and face
oace relatonships thogh which the geat abstraction s of
Individa and Soiety opeate n dtail. A aricular and
crcal adiio was the oncept of ass which is quite
ierent om th staic oncepts of odr ad 'ran bcase it cdes this kind o midle m btw ' the idivida and 'soey -th idivida elaes to hssoc iety
through his cass Ye ' cla caris an emphis iern om ' commnity or 'assoation, bcaus it is not a face toace groupng ut k society self a absraction Marx are ha by their common memehi of a pa· tcular cls, m en wil thnk and act i certain ommon ways even though they d not blong to he same actual comuni ties, an that the processs of 'socey ar in fact bet under·
so in terms of the inteaction of these classes Thus, n
he
ninnh nr, whe th asract desiptions of 'indidual ad ' soiety reaine thir force a number of new escriptions were mae an emphasied hei gneral mot big the indiain of ariular kis of relato shi I s n this who rang risng as we have see, from a complx of hstorca changes and ril intllctual rados tha cera tweieh-centuy disciplines have
acted.
"
The iluce of ud as an analyst persoal and social behaiour has been vey gra an h reirce one ar ofthe tradition that we hav ben amnng For Frudian
T Long Revluon 98 Th onc of ocial haracter is simar to tthroo loica conep ofa ' att ofcultue
N I ye obse\'cd been abe 10 erdte the dF:rn in e tempent o th pcn� wo p t It IS a�",ys a eandtake. Te blm of the idvdua s �O{ :'?f by strng te agonsm etee eul{U�e .d te d\"dl, bt stg (ei ual ·enoet. Ins pp I so d it s i t osbl t dis pttes f ture th cOIl"dng seially hei ltn o didual psholy
A ' patern of culture lie a social carac is a slcti ?, spon o xpiec a lad systm offccg an actn i a parua ()c dic arus tat tS patrn Wll
Idividuals d Sctis
99 be ogial to a morty of te mm be s of t he o et, ad that herfor thy ca b tad to t i such a wa ; hat by be?�! mbrs oth oy t y wi adquatel exre thr dVdu alty Bt to othrs the patte will ot b 'ogeial , and thee wll eithr not c at a osibl heavy prc to ther ind onform or onorm dcult to now what wiht to PUt on dal dsires. t i atios Bedt actually dscb - conal : thvari dret reatio to utato ad gie look vcry li wha lared reso athogh th pro t othrs wold call the ae ' lard ad yt a dbm thn ars that r paulU ocy taches and appo t from those th ar but inat w a back to hu f ty ar Io an ature to dtood ow no as a sg thig u as coprsn be a IIat ra of tmpams h la o btw n he dvdual an socity ts bcos a nd of n wc a indiiua o paticua t pra m a wnn o lg cad h socity in w ch a pn 10 be bo VIc do ot y no\nay nough o pro or d ov tS hy (sis ut rprsts o attmpd sol O I 1 rct ra dnt from te gn a trn d soc1 psycoloy A antopoog ist Lto ds t sae code a iat, ic al deere aos ant
e s t aount esaiy th vas ·s!ns at"Os ilded as a whles o fo They 0't snpl) a o ams in h gts. \l se resposl fo the rmtio Ol
itn oe on to dcib, i th now famila way, th rao ofmatur idviduals by a d cultur pattr ad mhaz t t that t mn bchado
s i ht n th fm o ?1�i7 guis Ithcr han sipy deve oped b the . ndu o he bSsoexp(
Inclded i s ahg as pa ts of
o me rvg to t iddua whol pattr, ar a nds ad othe to atisfy oc al ncsstis'. Bu t carre oft hs pattr
10
Idividua nd Soitis
Th Lng Revlution
rganism and he h is imply acting as a • uit in the socisial o viduay. The soc oer rsources which c onstitte thatind in h chang wold uction o th individaity is id ual by sig h own n which the socity lis, the id pattern , in ordr t met rsurces can help to chang e . ; new problms On uat vd d hS o c(s pr the Yet wha, pecisly is far hology sow how h ordiary mpass of social psyc inking om th idea we ha moe a one lvel of orImu de is society e that the indvidal in som way n trough restait r ociety beng a seondary creatio ow stress th way I contract Mst social psychologssaat indiiduhas to b whic awarnss ofonsefas 1 sphas no idea ofhimslfas a leand by h infan ' h fan ad has put sepaate indidual As G. H. Me j itsf i say oal Te sf, a t hat whk can be ob xprn. trutur, d n a lvels f indviduay W Tis deno imlis dirc mar y indiua orgas can dstguish btwe he pi Th I usful but It and th self which is socally creasted laiy th t is oly by using y dicult termuaha andnaur· distinctio sinc he word 'idivid sepabe emets Perhaps ay icludes hs oreticaych d cribes he social process e most useful strss is that whi i\sid conscou aio : of maing ' selvs i trms of ind procs aris th direcs btwee indiiduals a )inginnate potentiaies, o begin with, indiduals hae " in varing way. Further and thus receiv socia inence ial chaactr or ' clture en i here is a common soc histoy , hs actal nor paern each indiiduals sociale he re t bas I?�. of rlaosips is in fac uqas te uniqu potntJaes vdualizing acors, bt agait he very fact of he owth ad the uiqu history inraces a disinet oganiatio, of sel_cosciousnss poduc selfdrecion 'au�oo capabl boh ofs1f-scutiy and l procss adcally ms self grows wihin a socia ned autonomy mas inuencs it but t degree o ga .
10
possibl h obsrd nt stage in which h dvidal can helpt chang modify te social pocess hat has iuecd and IS ucg him o thisita descrptio must b added another dstcion greatly rect socology The abstraction impi ·" stressed c ninmak . socey It dcult for us o reonz to l cay what In pactce we e qu clealy: tha ev in a ry Smpl socty it is hardly er one singl socia char actr or eult pern ha te indiidal encounts n comp sOCes keour own th ariations encouer ar so mard that we can speak of thm altatie systms wiin • a sociey Ths i obviouy er imporant fth aaSS of th idividual as rurned an abstracion actal pocesses ?f gowh so anaysi of socity h to ts rIed an abstraeo to e acua compex of ral s nstead of thikng of sociy a a sig and rl nshp , we loo at acua grups and the ratio form obJc hIps betwen the. inc tes reaionships can be not ony but aso of tnso ad conc t �hoe of ddual Wth sens of paticlar diecions nd majal in aternaive direcions o is societ makg pSbl for to exprss varan growh socal trms The rcogon ofgrops witin a socety is tus a con s.�rabl stp foward But o course it is possibe merely to shft the round of th abstraction makg th group in its aoutc En in e smples group ther trn a of tensI ad conict as well ar as I ocety relaons as of ep·ai h is as true of a face-oface goup lik a famly .o a vllag as of a commointres oup like a tade n or a OCa ca. ach of these w hae i di nc soca haracter or ' cuure paern, o which t wi seek 10 taU Its mmbr. Yet enclosing his will be h constant crct) f paticlar !ndiiduals and i such roups socety , new decns wl merge Agai sc h grop .1 ? in real reations wit othe groups te Pl0Ce of trag ad amndment wiin goup l b ar oft processs of trainng ad amedment of t larr socty A group may b a coeient mark o th
.01
1
•
i!
�r0
outo and behave in certain ways, b th need not be only the coversion of idividuals social prposes; t is also n vey many cases an expression of the societys desie to s those individal svive and gow accordig o e bes eperence the society has. \Ve mus tat by reconizg tha indviduas could not suve and row ecep wthin a socal pocess oome ind Given this the real crisi o thc autetic and h unautheic ' i both an idividal and a social process he valuabe elmet n the exstealit emphasis s the insist ence on coice and comitment It is true a nls a idividua the proces o his gowt, achieves a re peronal ideniy he is inomplee and can be dismied a unauthntic' He mst becom deeply coscous of he vaidity o is ways o hikg nd actn so ha e is not meely a care' of the sociy but also a indvidua, a ma in his own right Yc tis process in actual indivdual and n dieret ocieti, w b eceptionally varied It is oly vry raely litd to conscios appraa; i ordinary proces while includig conscios aprasal n some cases, is a ter of the ndividua' whoe oranizaon: his ner� vousyem, body as we as h conscios activiiesofhi brai. In ctual rowth he whole comple o eelng and behaviour hat contitutes hs idvidality wil stad in a cer ai relao o the compe ofeen and behaviour tha hi society The stage n his gowth which constut h integation s a pariclar individual will ineviably be orms o eatonship wit the whole oganzation of his ociety But te foms ofeatosp can ncde wat ave called he expeience o membership Particular individuas, i paricua societics can become authenic ca deepy commt themeves, in terms of her whole oraation, to the ving oazaton o he ociety to which ey blong The ocial' s no necesarily the nauthentic; it is capabe of bein e authentic' and the individual ' t it is then ncessary to dtiuish the kids of relationsip whc give etalist arumn heir sbtance is clearly poibe or an individua o acquiece in a way of
dDduas ad in wic in act fais to cOrepond with or satisfy his own personal organiation wll obey auhoiie he docs not personally accept carry out social unctions tha have no pronal meanng o h even feel and think n ways s foreign to is actual dcsire tat damae will be done to h own bcin oftn dep motioal diodes ofn phyic damae o hs own oranic procs he mark of his false conormity have bee very evidcn in ou socia eperi ence but i is wrog to iept them in terms o the od idividua and socety dichoomy Ve ca bes descibe tem as the roles o bject and sran, in conrast wth br. 1e sbjc, a whaever vioence o hielf ha to accep te way of l o his sociey a s own indicated place in t becaue thee is no other way in whih e ca maintain himslfa a oy y s kind ofobednce can he ea, sleep shlter o escape being dtroyd y others I is no hs way of life in ay sense hat mae bu he must conform to it o rvive I he case ofth srvat, the pessure i lss sevre though sll o m, iitibe he ubjec has o choice the sevant is given te illusion of choice and ivied o denty imslf with the way o life in wich place is deed I is an llusion of coice because aan ik the subec he has o obvous way o manaiing his lie e res Yet the iuion is impoant or it allows hm o pretend o an identication wih the sociy as if the choice had been real. he subec will have few illusio about te reationhp whic is deterinng h he will know a te way o lie is not i b mst be obeyed Te sevan on the oher hand ay come to ideiy himself with the way of life ha s deterining him he may even consciousy hi o himse as a membr (deed he old sene of member' allows ti fo if th indvidua i a oan of te oranism tat is socity, particular ndiidals wl be higher or lower orans yet sill fec eelv as e pars) e at many lees ofhis life, and paicuarly in certin situaions such a oiude and age the discepancy betwen he role th individua is playing and h actual sn ofhimJfwil bcome
h LOg Uvoon <6 manif ihr onoly or n terms of om physical or motonal dtban Gv righ conitions e a play rol a ifi wr rally h, bu aone or in aions voking hip prsonal flg, the nicaiobreak down. sem pobab, from he expe ha has been wdy rcorded, ha hi uaion oCh servan crucia in ou o kind ofocey h ubt a more em a orically though n htory an in mod undveope unrs t i ommon en nough Ad n moder Europe an h Und Sa here are ti subc hough pcrcn o ervant muh moe frequeny orded ha w ar tod w ar free, and that we ar haping our ommon dny; yt w vaying for many of u brak hroug o he onvico a h patcn of ubi activiy ha h nd vry tle o do wh ou priva desires Indd h ma moden forc o h dstnon bwcen 'h indvidua and sociy sprg fom his feelg i o1y om th rvan coplex a we ca bo aa onvcon and ye ray reed ha we bee, wholeearey in h prose of ou ocey h sentals ree ths compl, ad assers te rality o prsona loc From his poso, wih h reay of mmbrshi virua!y ecuded a a possbiity he whol rch rpory of mod indivduam pocees Yt it obo whn w uvey ths rang ha h mods o nononformity ar a ea as varied a h mods of conormty her w ha nO only h member but alo the ubject and h rvan, w av now no only e rebe bu alo Je an agrant h ia oh rtbtl sl carri a ong poiive auaon hough n fat rbe arc few he rb rmble t mmbr n that he ha ma a rong peonal ommmn to certai oial puross a posiv dntcaon of hi prona tenc with a pacular pattern of oa or h ways of hs ocey ar ot hi wa bu n rbng agais oe socal form he is ing o esabih anohr h ar obvoly imoran disincion ob w er, bewen he eoioayo he oead
Idividus d So 10 7 a h rform or cric o h oher or the reformr and h riti are in the denio I hae giv ember A sinr dr o chang hi o ha apec of geera way of lfe pfy compaibe wi ahece to i genra vau and w hat knd of inistcnc on he esnia on inuty an unty ofhe socety o whch rfoe and ri orinary ahere. Th voluionay by conr, ack ha n of mmbrhip of a paicuar oi which ake t poibl for e romer an ciic to supo hat thr own nd a� n c b ahievd wihin the oiey esing form. ouionary aioship wh h oiey i o of dcard oppoiion and uggle bu it is characers o im ha h oppo the ociey n term of the sruggl fo a dir socety h i obvio i the ca of poial rvoluonari, b he sam atern evden n ebel of ohr kind n at oraiy eigo The reb gh h way oH of his ociy bcause o hm eoaly i s wrog, art moray and eligio as morobvosly i oc h :w raity poose i oe a eonal og t a a new way ofi This ined i i sincion om x ad r/t, wich ar t mor uly invua oms T exe i a abol as he rbe i rcg he way of fe of hi ociety bt ad of ging it e gos away fen he is l the ub jet tha ules h cofoms he wi be deoyed or wil b unabl to mainain hi lif B he s unik e subjct i ha h ha maaged t sae or ha been alow o g away n som as, ndeed, h will g away to mmbhip o anoer oiety, in wich h nds h ponal reay hi v\a ym o aue ad aitudes conrmd. ore uuay perhap h wi an an xe uabl o go ck o h oty that h ha reced or ha ha rjed hm, y ually unab to form iporan elationship wh h ociey to whch h ha gon This is a "agic and characr soo whch ha bee ache agan an agan o uy h rebe whi oe xo o real danger n a h aakg s sQety a its crucal oins ha a egre of poiv laoship by y fac ha e s avely vg
108
The ng Revoluo out his ponal valus Th rue xle on h o hand i committd to waiing: whn is soity chang' ten he ca om hom, but the actual procss ofhang is on i whi he not involved. Whav been usd o thining ofxiles as mn driven from tir socity but an qua haracteric morn gr the sfx Te slf·eil ould f chos li at as soiy but to doso woul b e to deny his peronal rality Sometims h goes wa on principle, bu oftn e tays ye st! o principl, fl sepaae Th Bolshes ad a useful termforthis in ' irna mgr an jwe reaiz ha ths is no connd to politis w can us it to derib a vry porant mode raionsip This kind of sxile lives an movs about in h oet into wc was born but s s uros an episs its vaus, baue.of�ltra v rnls to wic his wol ersoal ratY s om mied Unlik th bl hedos not ghfor se pncples but waches and wai . H e knows msfo b dirn and th prsue of his activ s to preserve this i�rnc to mainta e ndiiua whih is te rm os spatnes Th isgeat tion in tis conditon for theotialy at las th selfexil wan t sociey o cang, s hat an st;r blonng o it and his inolves hm at last notioa rlaonshis But s nli e b i sage prsona dsnt has rma d at an h vn wt te is iul for hm to fom adeqa g snin oter dinr. He ma suppor t principl ofd auss, bu canot oi hm: h is oo wary of being caugt an ompomise Wat h has priiall to eend is i own ving patrn his own mind an almost any latiohip is a pocntial hrat o is H has bem or emaind h ' autnc slf ut ts ahnticy annot shard with o communicated to ot or if Io at communcaon is ma, e commitmn ivovd it l b harctrtially mimal. Whatver h ma com o sa or do he continus, eenall o walk alone in i oiey dfending a pincipl in himsef Tis condition must be diinguihd nall from that
India ad Soceies o ofth arat, whih in om ways it rsmls Te vagrant also stas in his own soci houg he nds its purposes mningless and its vales ieva Yet lacks th exl's prid and is m atacmnt to rinipl here is noing in parca at th varant wans o happ ; his maximum dman is tat sou e lf alon W te xile is usuay aiua i singuiig h esona position, h agran often nds as ittle maning in himelf as in soiety ndeed it i no oi o whih h objes bu essentialy, e conition of soc as su Vre o other oiety come thog as a parclar s of ra tonhips wih can bc aep!c o rtd to e vagran soety is a maningcss sis of accidn and pures wch as fa as possible h vas He wll do anting tat i nessay o urvive whi 8 but i atit wi av nith prsonal nor soial maning it is mrely a temporary way of kpng ali or gtting by For te vagn gon so far tha he cannot vn acknowlg socity even to opos it The vents hat others ntrp as oiey ar to him like su naral vnts as torm or sun; te farht pnipl he can s is one of bad luck or good luck by wh e smbe on money or wath, endu unil h can mov away from onsraint and cold These a morov, no inidens on a ourne, fo h i no gong anwher, in t sense of avig a particular ircion hi lifc isust appen ing o b pg his way hen we tink of the vaga w think natural of uch popl amps and h fing of soity o wic many rials blong but the odion ofhe vagant essential ngtion of raonips whch e embode i not conned to ese obvious xmpls. In om soieties i is posible t liv out this condion with considcrabl maeial uss an tr a sign, n som moen tkg, that t cono of te vagan is h ol availal ontion of man soiety : wa\r a man d i� is how h fs and, givn a pariclar soial amospr there is no need evn ptend ohwe Confomi and rcblio, service ad e, a a a ilean A man dos wat ke bt os not ght for chang; s
(0
Te umg Rvoluton
Iiiuas ad Sciet
ay mase fo immedat conveece or eavs any se, again as ovec and not pile dictaes The one hing the vagan is ean of is ha all th oe who ae no varas a ool, klling thmselv for mannglss manins pendin o mas whereas he oly ng ha mas s oneself: not ee a meanngful se bu smply a ogaism suh keepi gong We eed crios sch a membe, sub n seva o rebel, exi le ad vaga i we a to pat the imp of simple conomity o oconformy Bu ke ohr scrpons hese a ot absolues; hy ae simly anayses ofpatila foms ofrelaionshi Thee is no snle sociey' to w these ar vaying forms o adjusmen ndd 'ocety tselftas on th sam varations aodin to he aticla relaonshp ha s mbodied To the memb soey s hs own ommuiy the mems ofote omues may beyond s rogitio o sympathy. o e srvan, soety is an esabshmnt n whch ?s hi pac. To e subje soiety is an imosed sysm, In which hs plce is deermind. o he ee a paricua soiey a tyay; th aeave o wch e gs is a ew ad be sociy. o e exil socity s beyod him, bu may hange o th vaga soey s a ame fo oth people who ae his way o who can be us No ae thse mly subetv valaons al soct wll cssary vay acodng o he knds of idvda oganizatio which ompos thm he mmb\ ad the ommuni, he servan an the esablsmen, the subjct and th mposed sysm, he ebel an he yanny, h xil ad he los socit, he vagant an he meanglss soy are ll foms of av oganizatio, of acion an ntracto Fuh, th aa socieies he elatonships esrbe ae lmo alys omplica by he exsne of deent goups ad scal t s posible o be a member of a parcular ommuity, ye because of at ommuys ato to some ag socey o b i the posio of a sera 01 a subjc, a ebe or a vara, ceain areas o social exprec. Te rebl o he exle as we hae seen ca crai condions d
soial mmbersp a atrnative grop In fac because e grop an th atas ieloc the toal rcaliy of an ndvdua's relaons o sociy is oe a compoud ofth pacula ids of orgazaio dscibe 1oreovr, a et an st�s ofisgowth, the id" idua may move thoh vaos kds of orgaaon ide it is oonplace some socs fo aolese o moe hough he sag o rebel xle 01' vagra bfoe becoming membe Sans eas t i a form of oraniao an o a sigle subsane h iual's relaionshp th soty wil be a comlcad embodmnofa wd aea ofeal raoship aho wihn hs ceai forms of oraizaio such a thos desrbe may be dng.
' 0
'"
om he ealy escpions of th indual a socicty o he moe ecripios ofh compoay debae we an race a prsistet dncy to scibe livig pro cesses n trms that cofe on thm h appare staus of d an seable ocs T ms w c o scrib he xpeec aequatey mus e essaly acive ye vey nw despo we v sms o r moe 0 le aply ino a ojc ad t is e vy dicul boh to lafy xpec ad to ema faithful o i T rua fa is that evey scpton eery ore rreao s a e of owth us he a o h inividual was no only a eatio to h comple of socal coomi a e liios lns ; it was alo a eatv ineprtation of hem, as a way of liv To get id ofestrictiv ad obsolen eitions of stas o dach hman beng fom the soal fio o hch hey wrebor o shape the aw he Churh, he conomy he admnisraio, mn had o ropoe th bae human bg, as he commo een by whih evey kin of rstrctio and mormain could be chal lnged e iivdal had ev to be dtacc fom hs famly ifa soiy based ot o th but o works was o b esablished mlay he ea of socity had o wough o as a eaive dscipo if he olems o uma
Tiu
Long Reolution organzaon wee o be onsideed in er der than hose se by any pticular socia! system The late s on ommnity, and n he sial basis of indviduay, was agn a reative response praal dicues whch cod not be reoved while the dea o the indvidal as te bare human eing emaind dominant In he ng pr oal history some he dipons have ome to seem inadeqate bu all in dient dege have been rerged by expeiene oan mportant kd whh an appa"ntly be inerpreted n ony i way It i very diO or eample to live in a modern indsial soiety and not fe the fore othe indiidua and soiey disintn There s a deeplyfelt dontinuity, fo most o s, between what we as indvidals dse o d ad what by som appaently mysius process actally happens here ' in socety is feeling is peas even stronger now than was when te sarp distction was t made. Inidas eel radiay inscue when e ves a hanged by ores wh tey ano easy see o name, and a siecs have become arge and moe opaed and . a the powe o hange a enonment ad eal eaons withn it has geay ultiped, is insecity taly inreased Such isecriy is a consant source f knd of idivdualsm. As oceville ted: "
Indi�·alism i a ov exprin which a nl idea g·en brh a maur and almf<:in,h sp a cmbethe comui y vr his fo h as f s -eaue o raw aar h h faily a rn
It may n always mar and calm bt it is an bvios enugh movemen, speiay now in o own soey I cnnt agree with everything that Dstoyey's Zoima says in Bohes Krama.ov, bu there, que ceay, is the entral paadox y minain a Ihe wo is ging mre an mr un r an m� b\ tgthr i btely mm a! vo ac an StU hO\glm Hng houh h e ai. A, pu ai in such a b oio. Th i hr hua
Indifidua d Socels
1
13
obrthrly v and th soldaty fmkd � ore and or dng ou in e word, nd eed t ida i'mtmes trate with derson
.
his is ot te whoe tut, bt it s impotant part oth uth
Eveynesrv kech divdalt apart pbe wh o scre he grea(St psibl fn ofle for him5l e a hi ors sult O i aaig u li·ebutuman. se ducto, fo ad lf-za h ds b arivn a mpe SOltue. E\·e-ywhec the dy mc ae, the mckey ea d neta th c tcrit e u n al sl i y a a .n ioa dal eo. �
a
t
c
e
:
hs is ded how i ofte seems yet he endeny is eadiy ndrsandabe, as a rning towrds n in a manageable aa. Tis s n t n ly a isis but as ofa soiey ·1'he wam use detaed and . whee a man a ve as e WIhes, ad nd ceain sasfaon wt hs faily ad nds, macs ense, "g and again, in an essentialy ld ad imsal sy We an sy a e eort will ail, tha e slaon will be bkn, ut sl, vey any, t wl seem a god risk, agast e apparen CaHy o a r ad meaningess siey Indvid�aism was a tem ofowt fo the igidy ofa sy w t, whe secuing, also esticted dieted mens ata ves Any growth beyond ndividualism i neeaiy more than a retu to old and discedited ne4 petans. ·he experenee we have now o intepet inld oth the gains o individam and its im There is the inesapae at omual dependene, by whih alone as we ive, the hose can e supplied Such a meaning ha gown in nw ways, wi1 he denions of demoray and comuny B he these direct new cnegy he od mea!s e ontally recarged: the scpaaion beween he indiidal and society i� siby not beaing down In tis ontiuing tenson, the meaning ta wee terms of owh pass ove to eanigs at deny growh. Demo_ acy and commnity have again and again been made ove
t Long Roo1 "4 no the ol ind of etction an iecton Inviualm has passe nto Ci�hnss and derenc by the fats o ow ncompletss For thc tung way fc an a tue tward othr ndU an nt only o he ' im· ponal ociety f we an on ou ght as a bare human ig we c oced eithe to cognize that veyboy i in thisitat and has hese ights or, in denyng oemanng inent \0 hem, to dmnsh he ality of ou ow clam c oth iial into e ms, fomwhch we us sepaat res \c can gou othe nuas into paticla classes naton o ace a way f resng them iiual ecognition An some men wll b sted y thi we hy ae he divils n hrs te masse h eded gop. Ye, nevtay, y hs etenng poc w a all covete to mases o nowe, a wod composed, can our own ndlity b fully cognd othe; thy a tung awa om u o etabli h own 1i s th exernc we a: now \yng o fce an intepre, t th lm of th mng we know
v e pncipl we nee to ak though to n mann i tha of he fundamental rlaton bewn ognsm and oganition. In epng and escibig u epeiec w deeop a acu system in erms ofwhic we then v Evey organism boh embd and cnues an organi zon o s knd. Its pupo the reception and couni caton of exence in uch a fom a by adjstmnt and acon th oganzaon tf and heeo the aiuJa lf of e orgasm can b conued. ach oe o u ha wthi an appenty at iy a sysem f ob rvng seleng comparg austng an acing as laboae and comle a any socal ystm yet dcibd h paticlar gazai, tha we call he inviua xis in tns of much lg orgaaton wth which it i in cer aca wys contou Te pysc eoluton oman a a kd s th ars rm argognzaton he genetc hity f man i e strctu f hs ogana
dl d
ton ad u at it povd ways i which th w ion sl can o om x b change h inhertc o a contnuus f cangng oganao" ce n human eelng. an can a qt iea s l mslf in hi pant and in s l, , in a fO_ ofte am penc f thm n hmself et heanc f him alo to a much wd gop, wth whch agan n cean crumstacs e can fe s cnty Suc gaic heace rc nct ut rlatd nvdual wo le lso, oweve n ems of anoher nhtanc a gai city wi pala ssem o namng and communicatng actng nd actng whc idvdas mus earn thy a o ue and grow Ye fte h uman orgnzo it ad e oc! ogaton wh deveop t parcla way, l th growth o e nvdal in tems that ui a futh ort ofoanation by th iial himse H a man an a mmr of a octy t he oly bcomes e y becmig hml I s ul not rcocton, b geeaton. Te human neitnc i spe tm ofvaan. The social ntncewilvay wdely, d e w b dncs he ways dien oietes encouag ndal growth om ndng owa e epocon, othe was a ag range ofpo biltes. Fom hs actual netace te ndiual wB ry to come s ow oganzon wB spte ut ncessaiy b o vayn dge et h no seae ot alogethe f what e is oganizing he will to a mporan tent hae wth othe who also emain neeay o h own gowh Or odny thi we en o o two staes exprsse hr 'he idvdual 'ocy o mo actvey s prson d wod r en urpoes th tas a cent t hey match some pats of ou xprnce b i othe pa, equally they are cntnually bakng own We ar accustmed o nng of e g· erized othr whh w may c the word o cety b whc n my nds of eprience as dwn into paticuas. e oud peaps tink al o 'geneae
si
6
og Reun
sf, the iniviuay f whch we ar all conscius ye whih again, in experience beaks own int atiular and changing and variously relatd energies and form We have leaed to thnk o ceran relationshi, ntably with our amilies an immeiate friends, as partiula But many oher kins of relainship we cme t think o as betwen e 'gneralized self an the 'generalied oer: two ed states rathr than a cmplex of living prcsse Yt in the cre o living t now ourselves and our wr we have continually to break down thee ed states int he aual peses whih ar changing us and whih we h to change W a in practica cona wih a vast number o particular rganiains an o know any f these we are orced t recognin of it rlationships with other s We ave t distinguish an organiatin efre we can kw it bt the nes we daw in recgnition, ae always, ponialy e Jines felatiship. Ifw soate e invida we g n divie hm int body mnd and so eeng, wng an hiking; cnsious an uncnscis; ego sueego an id; ut to stuy any f these is sdy its relatins with the others Ifwe islate society we g on t divide t int groups casses assiations, bu to study any f hse is agan to sudy relatins with the thrs 1fwe slate the mateial wl wegn t dive it int mater and energy and ino particu ar frms of these an n again hat in studying these we are stuying forms frlationship Yet we smetimes suppse against this experience ha we can stae he sstances nviual ity an maerial wld in such a way hat here ar no rlationships beween hm unti, as i wr some sgnal is given and having dene the substanes a in hemelv( hey are, we can go on nw to stuy the ·elatins eween hem ut in act these subsan ar forms f raionship which we can never nally oate sine the orgniain trug is in interoking tes \V ben to ealize, frm experince that e relatonshps ar iheren and hat eah rganiation is, peely, an embodiment of reatinships, he live and living isty of respnses to and rm hr orgaizains Oganiatin that is to say s
Indvdua S enactd in he rganism an t know eitr fully is the her
"7
10 know
n the case of e nual ad soiey we nee t lean ways of thnking and feeng wh will able us genuinely
to know each in the her's terms whih is as nar as we can r inaily g � sang that we are studng f oforgni n a contnu zaOn
o procs: the brain the neo sytem
Ihe bdy he amily hegroup, he soiy man There is no
real poin a which w an break ths pro to olatean inependen subsane Ye euay we nnoselectanyne of them an make the othe epnden on it I the o individualism artiially islae the 'bae hma being h is qual danger in certain trends in \he new sociology whch soat te grup the siey o he cutue as an aslte pnt f refeene. The inos proess f r human rganation is itself a ntinous ation an adjustment in relation to all tha snt huan, and the nra act of his acin and asmnt is a procss of learning an communicaon wih has gown though ontnua vai aton and the t ansmit varia W mst not
ny f soiy Of h gru ting n te iue t as omany nique iividuas, trugh a press of commniaon raing an whre necessay extnding th oganzation by which thy wil ontinue to
be shape It is right to eogni tha w became human iniviuas in terms of a sial proess, but sl inividuals
ar unique hrough a partiua heredy epressed n a parcar istory And t poin abut hi uniqueness s
that is craive as wel a ceatd : nw forms an Aow fm
his particular frm and en n i e whoe rganiatin, whch s in any case being oa renew and ehanged nue inividuals inhei and ntinue i. This regniin o indiviual uniqens and f the rain of i creativity to general human patterns o our, the pr manent asis of h ase or dmoracy as a system fgvernmen It is te tat the value and eet of any partcular uniueness wll vary consideably f wi mege only in a system of real relationshps, whih wil set terms to is
,8
Lo RJfo
eree f cmmunicabiiy an relanc an beyn hi her will be wiely arying egre f ucce cw( iniiual in reain an aaiy ecribe he fa remain, hweer ha all human iniiual ae unque i wa ne f he wr rul f he iniiual im ha in ain he impance f era nivial, i me nily r ucncuy eying e imance her Whn wee pa h raliz la iivain i in fa genal prc ur hmaiy a ha i hug iniviuain an cmuniai ha we have learne an are learning e we m regnze an rpc he rue cal an cmpeiy fh prce whch n ne f an n grup, i in a iin uneran e alne eek n fman i enialy a learning reaing an cmmniaing eig he ny cial rganiain auae hi naure i a pariipain emcray, in which al u a unque iniual lean, mmniae an cnl Any ler, icie yem i imply waeful f Or rue eurce; in wang niiual by ing c frm eecie paripain i i aagin u e cmn prce The lng cnic bewen ' e inivial an 'ciey ele if a we reach u i hee way i he culy f ain hi inrlckin prc f rnim an ganiain which a n ncw em fr inual an ciey bu way f eriin a cninu rce wihin whih h arc The wr rul f aracin he inial an iy i ha i limS u hinin qen ainhip beween hem \Ve ay hi ini iual g beae h iv in a way ha iy vlu; cey i g becae alw vil (0 e in hing an inial in bng ie y he nm i iy may b uppein a varan wic cul cme eeray valuable a iey y mn cerain ariain may ery Jf 01" h eie r par i nirnmcn Thee ral iue can ny e lke a aqaeJy i we rccgnize he ninui een he many kin f raniain whih mpe he wh liin
Idiida ad Soi "9 prce T arac erain a an he e rm hem which ha ben he nrma meh f aprahing hi ein whly inaequa Dil a any nw ncepn may be i eem abluly neceary ry frmae an hen learn frm i pibly aeae new aprah In raccal erm T hnk uh apahe wil e he i y pacn an rainhp n a whle pe wc we a e a h analyi f clr Ther in e paie f reai mmuican, an he makng f niun i he cmn pr f enal an cia grw
si
ME EY
hking about society is a ong debate between abstracons and actal rlatonshps Th ralit o socy is he living organiation of mn, womn and childrn n many ways materalized n may ways consanty canging At the same time our absract ideas about socty or aout any particular socty arc bo persistent and subject to chang W hav to s tm as intrprtations as ways of dscribng h organiaton and of concivng ationhips ncssary to establih he reality of social le b aso ndr conual prsur from xpinc In crtan periods the nterpretaons satsfy princ in such a way tha thr is hardly any dispu at eel : h dscpos and concpts ar deeply but in and accepted In oh prods thr ar degs of disrpancy a gvn dscrption is elt to b nadquat, and s disptd ; or a dscripon accurae yt s challenged by an aernave conception of rlaionships so tat th whol stas and future of th socey are pt into qustion sally wh dp von and controversy. W av seen how in such periods of tension and chang, th dea o socity sel grew and deveoped It changd rst from mmdat socy of on's fows to the mor gnra sysm of common lif, and cangcd laer from efernce o a particular system to abstraction o al such systems, th gnra stae of socty There was gan and loss in ths procss, fo on t on hand w nd the bility and rang of he vared concpta thnking whch the abstracton mad possbl and on he other and i ou thning is to b rlvan w nd tc coinua prssr of actual laonshps, an actua comon lie from whc th procss odescripon draws substanc I poposc o examne some f th commonr mages of socty, whch av bccn
Imags ofSoci important n our history to cosidr tr cts on ou prsnt nkng about reatonsps and to look a t ther signcanc n t actual procss of social chang
Th ky to any descrption is s satigpoi th paricuar epinc thas sizd as drmning In general, n thinig about a �oty, w sart rom ths popl in hs plac bt s very unusual o rtain h simplcity Thr is a pariclar man organation a paticuar envionment b w commony dscrb and inrpt t in trms o som leading elem, wc w sc as ts organzng princpl Th dicty s a tis lmnt can b vry varously dnd. For eamp y larg amoun of odinary socal ining has sarted in eOt rom e Kng. I s not these peope in his plac, bu th ng o hs plac and hs sbcts Ths emphasis on vry rapidy an unconscousy adopcd s of cose followed y detailed description: th naur of th pace and e peope th system of goernmet and proprty th organizaon of producton and rade h rpot on nstittions and customs Bt th mphasis colours e dscrpon W a not meely descibing h organzation but assumng s pupos Agan and agan in all nds of stdy, w s hs practical ontaion 1t is no merey that his is sn as ce system but tat th mainnance ots system s seen a th dominant socia prpos You sart om th ng or from t xising soa order, and hn vryng hat happn s rlatd to that Ths src at court n th army or n the lds h sgnican social actiity and lfe oLtside such ncons s concivd and glad to such ends. Tnkng about law and isitos is in ms of t mor prfect nctionng of tis sysm ad t sgna imag s hat of th sing orgaism n wich eac peso n te socit has his pat to play Of cors many actual socs hav bn acuately dscibd in ts trms smpicity of thning of ths pop n is plac was not abandoned accdntaly, bu
The Lon Rlfi because h facs we a he ves of h pople wer qie unally gardd: thy w sen, pacicay hogh the neds o th staished od Mos feda and asto crac socia hining is deply detmind by this fundamnal inepcaion and it maks sense lt h ida o socity a somhing ohe an a particula sstm should hae en a th m w such socities w big powy chaegd \Vhat is mo spisig h ways of nkng aut socict) which a asonabe ony whi he absolute characte o e system is maintained should ha·c suivd with such powr io apparny dn sociis illos opop in Briain a appaently coen o dcrib thmsvs as HrtislL subects' whic claly, n oe rms ey ar o and ought ot to b. Stll an impoan pa o aw and pacical social hinking s concned wth h gs and duties o Qun's subjects as if thee had ever ee the fundameally dir claim of th gs o ma . 1n par is h prssece o vebal hat but o cosdab xnt s a contivd pesistnc I as n bee the cae or many cers ha e meaings and pposs f iti socity wre summd up n the prson o Kng o Qun but it has sicd may succssiv knds o soca odr o salish h ptc hat this is so Th cav ieprtaion of sociey as a ie human oganzaon has ben opposd and limid by ts dien ind of hkg and a succession o compomiss has d o adical conusions o sc a mislading pras fo ampl a the ibries ohe subject' w libeis means 0 frdom (though or rhorical puposes this colouig added bu smpy a prmissiv ara i h magin o an unuesionabl duy. Just as pns a pracicaly subolnat to ns ofa dened social odr so h plac i which ey lie undergoe a smiar tanson3ton r s a vital diernce be hnking abot the pac in which we v and of oulves in rlatio to it and he id o hning about Iitn o aout Englad' which i is se ae ot ea places ut paicula intpetations wic icd dnios ofdy fucon and chaac. Te ac that rtan
Ias S
and ngland hav en sccssively vy din places suj to consta change is obscud by a mode odcscrip� ion wich, ke h ighs and duties o h Queen's subecs' suggss somhng absoe and permaent rat th somehig clate and changing. Doing soming o Brtan' o o ngland' may o may o b dong something or ou<v in a paticuar place y th spel o ths abstactions is suc tha t can sem mo honouabl to do soming o iain than o do somethig or ousevs he naionstate i subly dieent ways, thus poweully continued a way ofhinkg about sociey which stated om an isting order and subodinated to this te neds o aCal psons certain respcts he denio made sens eal needs as o scurity somms concided wth e neds that followd rom deiitio u hey hav v necessarly done so any mo tha he ds of he s ncssaily cdd the manteace o is lord Any rue commo interest ms ncude ou own ineres bt i we sta om an abstracd socal od we can b pesade o couss wic may actualy am a maoy o S Th a usio whcthr e sca ord actual srvs ou eds cano askd whn ou socal hinng is dee mied y th assumption a i is om e ord ta w ms star. h most powul aly challengs to his ingaind way of ining wee, rst n tms othe rg o puu can acies wic the dnd ord ehcr orbad o rgulad; scod in ems o h gnrad righs o man he issu othe rs calnge has bee ovtal impoanc and rom i slow}, rtan emgd a wholly dicen socity. n par this was th gwh o democracy, but it is pobably ru that dmocracy has ne establshcd a rally dp socia image, f dstnct kind, in Briain. JUt becaus in the main t gw sowly, and by gadual cottutional amendment and compromis t as always ben dcult he osaat th pncplcofdmocracy from abiual loyalty to an estaihment symbols o democacy n the nlis mnd ac as likly o be nstitios opower ad
T Lng Roluio
antquiy such a the Palace ofWesster, as the actve pross of opular decision, such s a ommie or jury. A more deciiv socia mage came om he oher part of th movmen : the r of economc individalm Hee, tead of thnking of society s an taish<' ordr you ink of t essentially as a maret Th t f (in the age) fee mart inolves adica disent rom any gid recrve establshmen: n ts sne it continually oeaps wth h kind of dmocratic pt whh omnd it But th mos imporant ect uimatly, s ha a new ement in he wole oganio s slected a cntral You do not now start rom e Kng or th eablished ocial
ordr: you star frm he activtie ofproducion and tradng, n increingly hee ar sen te esentia pupose of
the sociey,
terms of wch ote actiiies ms sumit to
bjdged All forms of uman orgaaon, from e famly and he comunity o the educaional sysem, must be r-
shaed i the light of his dominant cconomic acivy At the ame time ice it wa the fr conomic aciity of ind iduals that w at rt mphasized whoe idea of social proe undeent racal nge " he he fomer purse had bee the mantence o an tablished order ad . thu i these pescribed tems oitiv the new roe was at rs largy negai socety xid to create cond ions in wh the free economic ntrprie of indidual was not hampeed. Socety rovded a market and kept it e Later, however, the image ws more fully develod With the further devlomnt of capias, o s coporate stag ociety was no loger ought of a mry poviding a mark: the organzao o society itself ws esenially a market ogizaion. \'hereas in saing from
an
etab-
lhed oder he dea of h indivdua wa esntialy comr my sttion and s dutis, th idea of ndivdua n a market sociey wa st he reponsibl e agent and, later the mn th omething to sel Obligation and service had been changed by freedom and ponibiliybut then n th nal image uyig and sling became tes which all human acivity coud be asssed I he wentieth
g
2
century as pehap never befor in hstory pope could tout loss of repec alk of sng tmseves an oeraton wth achc onnion wh th deil), of thei shop window', of sdying th market' and being demand evn we the roce wr ngaged n we not comm n any o I have d tse images of o to ty o clari hem but oeour5C n acual hitory hey hve ben bot comeiive intracting Th strength of he mark image in mod gan r tessing: we often spa o t naion as wer a arg rm wit oher naons s coiors V speak of work labor make' and are abo educaion rmarily n erms othe neds o te coomy t he am w aready t h prss ways f tnkng wh r from te Queen or from an abtaction o ' Englnd . One ery powrfu model wokng tis direction, has ofcore ben h modn ay whh wth conscipion extended its o th sene of wol y th k on corpoa , igl pupos powerly taught v gneration a w of thnking abot relationhi tha has erhaps gone much deeer than we know \hen we thnk ow many iniduas in ou cenury have passed thog his mode uay n peiod of gra moional ress h eect s hardy sursn. It is rmarkabl hw mn soia ogaiations wt ut general and ordinar socia purposs een ofa acift refo ng or free e ut al kd) peak of recruing membe, and of thei lle' An cn ay sprises me hat o many mddlecass peole spak of thir ordinary holiday lave' h iberal emnt n the early stgs of a mke sociey ha o a db extent ben ovrridden by cio sion of the m nd e eablshed order [ is mossible o watc men n actual reatonshis n the yical modern ndstrial or comercl organzaton or i an ordinay govenment or oca authority srvice withou seg s odd image f a meda ot (as n the graded sn of s on committe ab blended with a
i
Te Long
sings mod amy unit (paicl ons of voc and ofh body) clam, nd all tis, oddly, in a socty wich would ialy the tainly on public occasions, that is e absou me oft scond main clleng to th ida ofan A a ordr: o n ow e frc mark but the ighs of m m�ght certai stag th markt and th abolut ord zd orga th tually fus by th uxpectd rocss o imag bd mat coming h asolute ordr Uu th uncomromo th rights ofman would w might think b ' man ing Th diiculty h bccn of ours tha whil hts ha s bn ounds absolut enoug intrraion ofrg ua is not orm h vl ordinarily slcive; indd a on pac oh far om that ofth ibry of subjc. Muc from tica substanc of ights of man was dawn y ms socit civi alth: convons of a trading commonw assur , ad dd mn agais crain kds o absosm ida s thir by to do ctan kds of hig Thus abl b av opl oftn rathr limitd ad gav, ad p s ng o us i, on thir ow behaH� whi o adm vace to oth kinds o opl - h poor unduatd, of forignrs, mn with dAn skins. is h imag ou and dmocracy, wic can b absolut OI' oslvs s, nds bu aivc for ohrs Thc basc diculty, prha par , i ntioa cov has b tha th ida is n pa abstrac: it has souh to un h ncessary liming ida of h bety of th bjct, and th ncssaily univrsal dea of th brothcrhood of man. Idas drivd from th tablishd ordr or from the markt ar ontinualy nours hd by practical organizations n thr own s whera is ofman hts h rg of th rvoluionary lmn, in he ida ard a much in dsai' and aspraio as in convnon and practic. Earlier absrac imags ofa socity can b sn to ha\· mirrored ad y in a sns rncndd thir pracical contrpars Thus h cy of God drw sb stanc from te actal organizaio o Chuc and Stat, b did o oly raionali tepoa ow (h r as appoind of God) ; it also ranscdd tmporl powr, by
127
Images f Socier
Rvoilton
sttin a m ad a lim to it. A s hghst soca pr pos, 1I suc a mag, was to liv in God s ways through th mporal and spirtual ahoy o a sabishd order b wit ulimat ppos byond this in th avnl; kingdom n mporan par of h ida of human broer hood undriting th rights of ma, was draw om tis me sourc, rssd as quality bfor od et givn ths rfrec, h rights o man a· to a cosidrabl tcn dmind by an assumpion of cetain absolut rao_ ships which rescrb mans status and dn his dtis he ida of th ights of man bam unvally rl\ant only when uman brotrhood was dd i rimariy huma ms hn gad somthng of h �impicit of thse opl n this pac, 'h no sby drmiing prscrp tn of n odr o wIh y arc maetly comitd Yt at am im od no b loca ad sc ( this pc bcam is wold " o btt, hs lacs) : lxibiy ad gosy o cocion wr pacicaly ba<Cd by is ncvitabldg o absracion Th mos owl mbomn ad caicaio of the mag of h broood o man a b i h abour movm ad n iing adg to socialism Of cours brothrhood as of bn imd in h actua hisory : i as bcn amd ad cad suc insiions as trade uios and co-oprativs, bu ths, in an acual t; have bn as of a brohrood against somthing mdg ohe m as fo somng h ida ofa nw socia odr rahr han a sris ofdfnsiv movmnts was necessay o transcnd hs limitaton and socialism hs bn h main a tem to dene such an ordr A sriousdicul ases at S sag f wha s proosed is a nw sabihd ordr indd to b lbrating i ha i stars from the neds ofall men on a basis ofpraca eualiy ahr than from gradd nds according to ran or t lvls stablished by t fe pay of t market j n pai, howvr, n som sns dermng, i ha it ncssaiy poposs crtan kids of rlaiosi and duy Moov is an odr wc has to b stablisd y ovrcomi or ougowing
g
The Lo Rvolution est real relationships and it can hardly be denied that whle socialms ongerm veio of hman socey s brotherhood, i short-term version is ofa very deep colict a hndred ways, e sociajt version of hman elaton sip has been shapd y hese conditions It descipton of socal clas ws oered a at once an analy of sg soey and a gde o changng it Bt the tage hs been reached when the emphas on class hs been seen as Lhe most obvos denial of berhood and when rsntmen against an xsng or rememered cass situation have bn massvely anferred to hose who cone to ta about class At the same time the htory of socialist parties work g fo a new oder, and of socialist soctes engaged n bldng t has provded ampe evidece of the practcal rest ofa genune theoretical dclty the commtmet to a pecise order which is intended to be generly lierating bt which in being worked oward hs usuay ncuded conct, restrcto ad even repeon The imag of hma brotherhood i sll hre and only tere b t ha een o drkened by the rea pocess of atemptng to crate t ot of societies powefully orgazd i oer terms ha t a bee radically confused. On mportan consquence of o acta ory wh t perstnce of tinkg n terms of an abolute orde with ts btle tranfomaton of the fre market nto e aw of te maket, and wth ts cofusio of the idea of brotherhood, has been he penal evo that s modern idviduam Erlier fors of indidalism were prmarly the asserton ofrghs to do and say certan things ocety wsudged and shaped to garantee he exercise of thi postve freedom Modrn indvidalism i part contnues thi tendency, bt on the whole s moe emphass on a ncgave freedom: the ght of he ndvdua o be le aone here has ben a vey wdespread etreat from socia hnking rationazed by the formula that almost all good things are done by diua, almot al bad thn by sociee Th image of socety s then of somethng herey bad a retrictv rfring indernt pocess whether it claims the vrt of an etab-
Images jSocy 129 hed order or the reaton of hmn brotherhood n thi personl revot nobody is deceived by wh ocees say hey are dmg; whateve his may be e indvdal kly to suer and the est he ca hope for o mne t pr sures by detchment by apathy nd sceticm by seeig that at last he and h famly are a rght t s s ncceary o acknowedge he great strngth ad emoional bstane of hi revo as to pont o t very dang conqencs Sch an dea ofsociety cold only gan cency in a context omaor social ailr and t s no e tng to eat i down y epetition of the ides (dut rsponiblity rothr hd) which have habitually accompaned h hated res sures and faires Te perece hs been ived and h to be expeed. But o coue he wtdawal om ocal thnk ig leaves he bad society a t deed t is commony aumed that things wil eman much a they are that fundametal change i inconceivable or wod oly make tngs worse bt that dvidas f tey trn back o themeles and on ral tet can get by or even b happy We mu observe the ect of th way of thnng o the ceaio o he ! rcent ida of soety: that of the mss h s a vey complicated dea, whch of corse in part simply rpeats, n a ew way he dea ofthe abolte order te maory o people ar th ' mes, and are goved organied, nsructed and entertaind by an lite o t Sch a society ay or may not be an etld orde, for he lite wil sometime b largely hedtary or the lies may b continally reslecd y compettion o olicl alaon. Yet howve the lt a compsed th prac cal rlation wh the ' msss ae thn ded as dirctg and drectd in other kd oaolt orde t the dea of mass scety aso repeas n a new way, he idea of the market he mas cxert ther inece o the dcetons of he socety not by articpaon but by expresng a pattern of demands ad prereces the laws oa ew nd omarkt and th fo the te a artg-pont to be caefy stded by uch techniques as market rarch and T-,
h LOg &oluti
Images f Soc
opnion polls) and hen worked on When these wo coneptions ar joined, hey compos a vry powrul mage which obvosly orresponds wih mportant lments of our eprene n vey large soete: the concentraton of polia and economc power but on a basis of a patrn of demand; h cenaed ontro of highly cnt techique o popar ommuncaion agan on a bass of a patte of preferenes. his combation of wid pubc efenc and a narow area of atua power is nded a signican mode bt what we mus noce about it is t eenta mpeonality he les nealy ar no conceed wth individals, but wth avagd gurs d genalzd rnds in he mass patrn. Ths tehnque whch undrwries and valdas hir functons bcomes evt ably an habual way of hnkng about soiety Almost on feels n such a sociey, that nobody lvs h: only clss, consumrs and conventons But fths s the funional way o hnkng of he ltes, t s aso powefuy nrcd by element o he vey reacion agains t h prsona revol assrts indvidualiy in ths world o impesonal abstatons, bu th assrion ommonly, is a lso a wthdrawa from soal hinking I and my famly and ends ar al h s s h systm. t hs when sucenly xndd, no only onrms he te's valuaion of othr peope as masss It also in its dena o lmiation ofrea relaonshps, hlps pope to egard hmslves, in the soia relaonshps, as masses It is no acdn but an element o hs structure of hnkng ha the terms ofhe personal revolt ofn inlude onmpt for othe persons he owd th hrd h benghted mass es A point can b reachd when he only realt 'I and the owd and he vacuum this leaves is d by accepane of the impersona sem Romant indviduam and ahoriarian and abstrac soal hinking hav agan and agan in modern societis, endd vnually to nterock Power n suh cases is tmaly aionalzed by despa ut n any evn for oen individualsm wll no go so fa a pratical dvision betwen he s oal and he pronal, bewen puc' and private', wll b commonly enfored
he last image ofsoey and in our own day the most powerfu is tha which has separaed socety fom man
13
II Th domnan socal imag s that w hav ihertd - h
ab s olut order h organizd mrke, h l and them ss even broherhood a s expre ss d n he s truggle for power _ are alk in h s : tha they nd to duc soiey to wo sphee s ofere s two ind s ofhig, two vo ofsocia elaion s h p: polc (he s y s tem ofdecion) and conom
(the �yt7m o manna). It naual for ruling g roup s
to tun I S way and to s th r s t of l hrough he se ca�egor s ha ar mos ty clo sly nvolvd wh the powe It IS l s s natural for he s t o u s to s e socety as lmied in h s way, yt s sig ncant tha ven th mo s powerfu
reformng grou s ommit thm s lve s to such a ve ion. Fo
what el se i s there?, we s ometm s a sk. V'hcn YO hav s aid
polit s and onomc s you have s aid s octy; h e s t s
peonal and indental o imt a socity to s sysm of dcson and mainen ae is n fat rduos. We must lea to se i as a con dtoned · o various form ofclass socity in wch he naure of soety a hman oganzaton for comon eeds was nfat ltered through henrt n power and popery whh were natura to ulig oups has been h gavest eror of socaism in revot against lass socetie o imit tef so ofen, to the tens of it opponens popose a potal and onomc oder athe han a human ordr is ofoe neesary to s the fats of power and prop�y as osaes to th ordr bu the atatve siet tha proposed mus be n wder tr, ift s to gnate th ll energies neary for s reaon nded he poiical ad onom change mght com and h human ordr b very le changd uness the onneons a mad A good partular ampe of ths genral poblm s the quon of he dn of wok whch has bn dussed and thn negected in he socat adon Our common maning ofwork ha s ecom eort rwadd by money comarale
Lng Rn or itr oa privat or pubc knd, may b much work, but i descrbd as lesurtm acvty or cuously, 'good wors h raon between work and or wch is cntal conclusion from xperence has thus bcom urrd by the foms ofa partcuar knd ofsocety maing a dstinction bwn work undrakn ' in ons o interest or for som vounay social purpose and work undrkn for money It dcl no to se s as a sp retion of a OC y organized on a b of wgeabor wch a dirn verion of soia relatonshps ough adically to callng n capat socty, th dculty of h soca hnker s to know wha to say abo actie tha a no h production and Jchage of thing We tend to fall bac iter on th od don of sere " aed by the persent nuenc of thnkng ofan stablshed order, o on th curious da of lsur whic is a in ofgrac th mal. Ths manngs may be a ru verc on present xrienc: that prsonal interests ad srvic o the ommuity hae to be set n a sparat categoy from our ordinary work Bu ardy somthg o b acceted by cials as a mod e negraon of work and fe and h nclusion of te actvts we call cutral in t ordy soca orgaaton a he basic trms of an aternav form ofsoty In their ght, the stm of decion bcoms some ng mor than adional vrson of poitics; i nce srly ncds for xample, control over h reion and a of our labo. Smlay just s m ad ter work becom par of h ocss of common socl dson working couniy rathe han th laour mark) s body of actua nres, • pvat as wl publc isr as w s 'work bcom h socal purpos The radton whch I dscd n C and ocy impon it bass socal hinkng on or geneal humanity hr than on h nds of a recevd sysem u it an ndicaon of th tnacity of od ways of thng hat ths hould ha bn intrprtd as wha s called a pa for the placoth arts for h aor caton we a pctd o plad and some kns secm pmanly e h ral
'
Imag S 3 clam, ssand by th magncnt and neceary releanc of h arts o OUl" gnral humanity or to nothng, was ta soial thinkng must start fom the same uman umo jdgng work and poit ad proper by t gnral nds of all h popl in th socety rar han undrwring a aticuar sysm and worg with is dons Ifsocial sm accps t distiction of 'work om , whc as hn o be writtn leiue and eonal inrsts f ss polt as govrnmnt, rar hn s te procs of common decson and admnitation i connue to edcaton s trainng for a system, and at as ga aftr meals (wh perhap poposing mor tranng and a rahr longr gac) f s imitd n tes way t i simply a la form of capitalt olitcs, or the mor ecnt organiza ton of human bngs around a sysm of dustrial prodcon h moral deelin of socaism is eact eatio o s sris ofcompomses wih oldr mages of socety ad o its fa u to sustain and cai th se of an altrnatv human orde. Man socety was tratoy dend a man n socia rlaoshps bd on a i order a rceed order or an establised order Ts was thn edd s by teos of h mare later by socats such as Mar o man n social rlatonshps based on conomc acties as e activtis cang so he oder mut change Ts was ber b t sil lef out too much t w ronab to rat th systm o dcson politi to he system of mainanc (conomics,· bu two maor kds of latoshp wer stll xeludd hese we rs th systm ofarng and com mnicaton, wich as cntral o man as he sysms of dcson and mainenanc; scond, the comlex of ratonshis based on h gnraon and nurtc of li n many way gly varabl and agan prd n pacular s Sinc he vta systm were cludd fom ordinary social thnking or ge merly subodnat laces it was inevitabe hat saate sccs shoud be deoped to study and account fo tm. Much of th roce ofing and cmmucation coud be reaonably pained as soca
,Th g ln
Imagu oSet
siilary basic, since poducon and stribuo are no ony eentia for he manteace olie b the highly vari ableways in whch th ca be organied ite clealycolour our whoe existece, ad i some ases appear to deemne it The th about a socety it woud seem s to be oud i the acua elatios always ecptionally complicaed, beween he sysem oecsio he sysem of communcation ad leaig te syem of maintenace a the system of generation and e. t is not a o of ooking or some asolut oml by whic te structre oftese elatons can be invaraly deemined he foma tha matts is that which rst makes the eena cocxos beee what ae ever really separabe systems ad secod shows the histoica variabii ofeach of these systms, and herefo o the eal organizatios within which they operate and are ved Thus i certn societies, he famly is aoa directly ecoomic oganiation ad its system o decso covers a wide area oacvty. Heethe elationships betwee persos wll be of a compl ye uie uied ki i tat evey peso is ivved w evey othe in me a one kid of ac6viY : the relationshps tat aise whethe of sympathy tension or conct ave o be worke ot over the whole el I diere ociees, simlarly relatoships ar n the end wokd out over the whoe ld bu the odina situa on ad therefore heordiar eperience is ofan aggegate o appaetly sepaate ronhs here of work tee of family there again of decion or leang I s the dvelop men of soceties of hs which has led to o conven tioal descrptions ad sepations altough in any actua society, f we ae geiely ope to epeience e deciptons ad sepaations wi! be cotiay breakng down: obody can o docs actually live as e moel of separate orders would suggest Ou conempoary peiece ofwo, love, ough leig decision ad play is more fag mened than n ay oher recoded kind of oiety yet st necearly, we t to mak conions to achieve ntet ad o gain contol, ad in part w succeed he mphss falls again in or analysis of these dcrip
on of society o the fact ha they are o have bee o go Poiis onom aetheti, psychol are a , par systems o rues ed i a oce ivig suaton, ad mpy pepetuated But each simi arly, n pat a creative eot t exploe nw situaios ad to reac fo a nerstadig whc s also a esponse ad a �ay of corol an agc. f n sdyn uman oaza n we lavepaszed o oy lanss but vaaiity, t to S cUCal uestion at a oig of chage ta we ac ievtaly drected
1 37
w
h
The stems ofdecision itcnace, eingand genera tio ae ne�riy covetioa, in tha tey embody u whIch . cer any real socety u ve deep Further they e ofen materalized ad in eiting hem as nsU_ io:s we he a rea eomet whic shapes us but wch we aso chage. We ea his envirome n our bode ad we are tau he covenos Thee is a real tenso always as the evionmet ad te conventios are compa ad t copais aes pace oh ndvidualy ad socally 1divuas arve at diee rests, but in g and commuca compaing em cn wok for or etablh diert conventios by whch we coiously chage or evionent while i any event, from the ve teson betw h ived nvonmnt and the eceived convetio
a proce oes conscious change wll coiue. Aganst this teoeical backgron, we ca ook at cer tai nds o chage tese actually occu A lage part of o hstoy S o cage y coest we an alie goup is poweful noh t tae te ytm of deiso or a ral part o h frecnt occnc of change of tis md as e naually o he soato of poltics as th key o change, ad to inpetaton of the system of desi as the stem of power is cear evehes that the results o coquet have been vey vared ideed he stem of decisio set up by the coqueor must i pactice na with all te other elemet in the conqueed sey A onomy
a
1
Long Revolution
can be radcaly changed by alen decson So ca the whole sytcm oflarning and communication even to the extt o a language being supprs and footten ad a alen language replacng t Yet it as ofte happens that elemen oe conquered socety wll pest ether by olerance or in spte ofintolcrane even when the conque is plonged. A structure of rea! rlatios of a whole oca kd will in fact emerge, even f e whole ytem of decion as een taen ove For he ystem of decion however powerf a o opeae n real matrial and covtional enviromnt he conquerors may change wt he coneed and even in xteme caes become nditngshable from hem More ually, a continually varied alance will rult Of he Norman conqu of England for example it is impible o say tha dd not changc English society, ut qually the eventual resl was a very comple change, ca seen most clarly in the hstoy of e language which emerged neihe as orman renc nor as d Englh a a new language deeply aected by oth Thus whe political change wl ofte be decve t wll hadly eve be aotely detemining Conque grow out of a sructure of real relation that is oen so large cae that its relevance to relaon within the conquerd sciety i etremely ndirec This s the measure o is dierence fm the otherwse smilar capture othesysmofdecson y agrouporcla wthn the soicty Whether this sudden and dramatic a in civ war and revolution or a low process of iltrtion ad cangng cotrol t will commonly have moe meanng the whole dvlopment of he acta ocey: e potical cange wll epess a whole compex of geel cage. Economc expanato oh o conque and o teal politica change, have comparaly deeeed our nderadng of hstoy by taing u eyond tha nd o gar polcs whic aum" power a a domna end i tself and y howng us hat the stem of decsion s not abstract, bu hapd by the ue i decdng. But the isolaion of economicsas the key to change has led in ts urn, to implication
39 ad abtraction It s deed mpible to ndertand the moden world without ndertanding the gowth and natre of capilim, but remains rue that capitalis soet comparable tage of development, ar till very dierent sociees in may respects and that thee diereces re ot accessle to th most reied kind of polaleconom aaly Te dager i whn t ha ce al7ed, hat we wi mae a ew asaco o the ubtace of thce di eee a n my theores of cltue it i aeady a eosy of aguage that ociety commoly ndcates a otcal ad economc ytem ad socal life (the ordnary material of ociology) the whole range of activies and relatohp whch are not drctly political or economc he paeo meanng and alues through which people conduc their whole lives can e een for a me s autonomous and as evoving withn own term but t s quite ureal ulim ately to epte thi patter from a precse polical and ecoomic yem whc can exed is inluece ito he mot nepected J'egons oeing ad ehavor. To isolate the yem of leang and commnicaton a th key to chage urcalitic Te commo precrpto o education as he ey to change, ignore the fac hat the form and cotet of educaton ar aeced and n ome caes deter mned, by the actual ystems of decson ad mainnance hinkers and atsts reveal nw meanings and valu as well s epessing cventonal meanns and alues but to solat the mot evident creao as te kcy to change s as uneatc a to overoo them i ome pocal or ecoomic demnim. hes ad at and he etenso of edcation have vily acced soa change t only wi the eceay coet of commu\o. Peoe us art ad ogt oe deply otg actl wos to conm her ow pate a leat a eqetly a they really lea from them And lre whle a school learn from thei whole ocial envronment a well as from he particular curriculum to ay nohng of he fact hat when they leave chool they have comparc what hey have leaed with the actual practces of ther iety Similarly, [mag ofScit!
10
g olUon
we ca aept t argumet that 1anges in primary reationhips parclarly betee paren and dr ave ovable soia eec, and i possble to argue tat ange$ of i nd suh he grow of love and he apaciy fo lovig ar nametal in th developmen of a sociey can be immeiaely agred at muc of our deepest humany ead in thse elatioships but here s aso a vry dp crsis at he point o rasfer ofrcsponss and values leaed clos worl to he rponss a values onventionaze i a worig social system. Once agan we ar rtued to he organiation as a w ole bt e atv snse ta he oganzaton both eiss and a onually to be renwd: nier he system domiats nor e arning trasorm people ang and ar hange We an see lookig bac, at 'our ideas of e nature of oca ag wer limitd by atua societi and heir corresponing onceptios ofatiohips so at te mpass naurally ell o hges in ower an property in ter commo fom of conuest revolution, or e e ad fa of lasss he counteremphas o inviuas an o larig ad ommiation was slfa socia esos not only to arowns of soity onste as powcr nd propety but to r g, wi wr actally libeaig more ad more iuals, and wi wr bldg ver dning and mor powful mea of earning an com muiaton. ]n te prst situatio w ae tying to pss beyon bot te emphasis an t outremphasis, to a nw ad gnera onpon of ag Our creativ power most evidcnt our ng iustal revoluton whch s ontinually OJig our apaty to cange ou word and lading o vey much mor op lg more ea wlg to change an any eaie ocepio ould ave orese e emocraic rvoluion similaly is nsistely craiv ts appea o al of us o take power to dire our own livs. And w a sing increasingly a ew knd of ange by t simpl fat o te tnsion o om mnicaios an by ou coseuent experien of an expadig ue The rse o vernacular laguages as new
Ime Sce '4 cannel of geeral eag ; the coming of prntg, and n r, nema, and tviion the "tension ofraiways motorways, and air ravl; th gow o literay an yst of uiversal eduaon hs have ransorme socia hage itsel Y wheth ese means ae use for creive row merely as ew w) o organi g older huma ym, is opn usio Boh e usra re\o aJ h rol c mia r oy fuly gped i te o rogs o ory w no b d to p poi al c ut nsists ny, o opos of op o iety a o fey co opeatg indivuals which alon a pb of relasing t creaie pottiality o ge woing sils ad commuication T log vo, whi is now a e ene of our hisory is ot or emoacy as a politial systcm alon, no for h etable istrbuio of more prod nor o g ra acss to e means of eang ad oo. S g l nog in mselves dv eg on ny rom ew o· cpto o nd soity wich many hae worke to dr ad ierprt Peps thes conp o ca only b given in epree c mapors of eativiy and growh se to act m but th pressur, ow mus be towars particulars, or r nowere tey arc onrmd \ have easonably adequate an coninuig aounts o te ise o nusry and gowth of emocracy i ran Bu w v no aquate history of epadig cultu pars of the pro hae ee docum, but ave e too ote bee d to vo o ng wich sm to m o b base o ouy 01 u onoy on prej udies t c a o o ontepo
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z
c
0
j
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Long Rtv{uli m aring-pon: where laning and ommaon a aual, an whee hugh hem w e he hape of a oey. Wha we n h way we a hen try o pu o in a muh we aea W an y o ay how, wh w ve we growh an hange ehaps i nw wa ha ae deiey alrig QUI' reeve cal hinkng '4
The
.
PART WO
I
EDUCAON AN BRITSH SOCIEY
•
THgRE ac lear n obvious onnos etwee the qality oCa lture an e qt otssst oeatio, I OUf own te we hae settl to sn hat the improe. e o or ure i a e o ipron n tend o natonal eton an n one see ths is obioy t Ye we speak soetes s eton wee a xe abstaton a settle bo o teah n ean an s the on poble t prsen to s s tht o stron: this ont or hs peo o e to this or that op he bsness o oniz eton - en pes o nstton ein len o ors een ono oent n on etn otn Yetto ont ts bsiess s t were the stio o spe po who slen It � not on th the w n whh eaon s oane n be se to epess onsos and nonsos the wer onation o tre an soe so tt wat h been toht os sile strb on s n at a te shn to pt soi ens t slso tht e onent oeaon wh s sbjet to eat histol ration n xprsses in both onsosly an nonsously etn b een n the tue what s thoh o 'n eation ben n t pat a eto ptlr set o ephs a oissons Fhe whe this seletio o ontent s xine o osely it wll bcseen 10 eoeohe eie tosaet sbUon the lturl hoes nole n he seeon o ontent ae n oni elon to the soi oi nole in the prl onaon If we re to eon ete we st eine n hstoril an aalt ts th oi eation o to be onsios o oe ae is to e onsios o rthe n tena
'46
The
LOlg Revoutn
choces avaabl ad at a t when canges uner a multiud opressus l in any case occur ths egree of consciousness is ital W canno bgn w the as of ucaton as absact dnitons J look at actual eucatona ses, w can dsngu t gnal purposes, but her caracter suc a w can by no mans separat tem V can for xampl distinguish a ajor gnal purpos at of ning the mebrs of a group to soci caracte or pan of cultu hch is ominan n he goup or by ic t group livs To t etent that ths social characr is generally accpted, ucaton toards ll not normy b thougt oas on possib aining amongany but as a naura ing whch vry one il the socity ust acqure cn, as oen happens e soca characer s cangng, or wn again, hre ar alternae soci characters ihin a gie socety his naural traning' can be somethng ery dint a ca b se by ohes, as inoctnaton . Some wrters snguish his socal rainng fro h tachg of parclar slls e forr beng geral atosphere or acgroun the atter bing specal ize instrucion Y e social charactr s always an eerwhere uc or han partcular habits ofcity an bhavou is also the transmio of a paricua ssem ofvalus n tbe el of group loyalty atoryustice, ad lvng puposes I know of no ucationa syse whch fails to contain ths knd of tranng, an the importa pont is that it is mposibl utimaly to sparat this trinng om the spcialized t·aining h eacing of skills prepars a sng generaion or h vart of adu work u this work, an all t latons govenng i, wl e found to exit wtn th givn social character; ined one nction of he scal characr s o mak t availale kns of work an t valuatons an relaions whch are fm hem accptable An ifw canot separate genral socl raning fom spcialzed training, since one s gien, conscously o unconsciously, in ters ot or neither can e sparat rd dstngusabl pupos: hat e cal a geeal
Edca/jO l Brish Siy
'47
educao', or, n i Fre Clarks erm eucaon for cultur' Scematcaly on can sa that a cid mus b agh, st, he accepte behaour an vaues ols socty; scon he gnra nowldge an aues appropria to an eucated man and hir, a particu skll y whc h will a is living an coriu\ o hfarofissocity In fatust a the paricular skll an theacccpd beaiour an valu$ ar necssarily elate s e shll nd ot ar at o an lp to etrin tbe kn of genal know lg an attitudes appropate to an ducated ma is nv a purely artrary selecton, nor a simple pocss o indocrnaion or i te goernng social caractr is accepte vn only by a rulng minorit i is accped n o its lue he genea traning necary to a man is boun to be sen n the Oet of te vaucs ic te socal characr embodi an transit. f e believe n a par cular social caace a prtcuar set o atuds an alus we aturally eve a the gena ducaton ic follows o ese s h est that can be oered o anyone i ocs ot l li inocatio' , or en traning' ; fs like oeg to s a th bes at can be gven If w turn to sorcal analys the porace of ts pon becomes ca for we shal see ot only te arations of t bst that can be gen' bUi h actul an complex rl�ions betwen the thre as cted se thc trainng of soc3 characer sadng into specalzd tainng fo partcular kns ofo"k, an theenitons ofgenral eucation taking their colour fo bth I prope to amn t s tory of Englis euction from ths partcula poin ofvi: o s t canging copl of actual reations in social raining, sujcs taught, denions o genra ucaion in th conext of a developing sociy And since w oulv ar no at te end of hsory but a a point n his complx lopmn, t hstorical account wil cessarly lead t an anays of our on eucaoal vaues and mtos. h bgnngs o ngsh ucato sho ery early
Lo eui ose raionshps between raning or a oaon, ranng to a so ara ad trang a paiuar vzaton. T r Elsh soo from t ate xt r ad a pimaiy oaona ntno bt hs was s a i iped a paiuar soca trang ad a partar dn on o a popr ga kowd ono ojct o te eaysoos atad o atdras ad o monai w to tran dng pis ad on o ond ad ndad o t Cu and o rad Bb and t wring o h Chran Far e break si wdrwa o Roma powr and w smts by peope o a drn aguag f a pop ary wto Lan at a tm wh t donat rgion ad a arg pr o a aaab ag, w he known angage Augusi as b w dsrbd a omg to oert ngand 'w e an-si book on ad ad t Lan graa th oh (Lah wo ind of hoo otn in pra ond w nsttted: e ama soo o ta an and ong oo to ah hur sging Nary iw of ir obs paizd trang o bo ths shoo wa pa of a gnra raing to Crisanity ad partuar soa at t te rrid Y t gamar oo pay od ot b ond o s mtd am Or g eres om bfor th omng o hs soos to Egad basd, as they were on Gek nd Roman mods) un t ers bor Rnssane a rua argum about ontnt o hr duaon mo ersgy n edne Lain us b aug or h Cr oud ot ontue, but aby n ed no oy o he Bib and atr b aso to wo rng oan erat ad paga pioophy h prob ms hi raisd ar w ustrad n a tte rom Pop Gregory o Bop Didr a; . A cimsane ame o o noe whhnno be menoed wLho hame namey ha yo, o ohe gv lesons n gamma Ts ne sh anoyane ad dsust ha al ou joy a he ood we had head eale s ned o soo ad dr, ne e ame lp ano s he ase ofove and he
Edco Bh S
a of C. Consde yos ho eou d hokn ha a sho sold e ay nale en o a os ayman ave aleady ad e gannofyo r ey n mid and unoed y doubt oded s nfoao has ome to u ha have een rovd maLl Ue and yo wl no e shon sed yo me on he oles ofsela leae
e gramar basis o ew soos wa o nd· sood at t tm a mry bones oa anuag tha s ony a a mda mann ; i wa a prparaon or rad ing spiay rading aod ad wa takn o no ompenson ad ommny so ta on wa nsep arab O bot edatona ad regious grods e rmarbook w h pdt resotd o rst aoogy wh not oy mad a aty o tts aaab b od se em o gronds of sabiiy o onen atr th yma amma and the tang daogues inq dnt oud and dd rad hr spa no Vrg ad d bu aur o adion was su hat a arge par o asa oug paay n poophy and s rmand ngetd Sera ata rriua a om dow to rom t ary prod Bd spaks of eodore ad Hadra a Carbu ahing 't rus o metr atronomy ad he ompu as w as t wors o sants and us aou o ang a ork rr o amar roi aw pory asronomy ara hsory, tm gomtry msi, ad Srp tes , wh w ook at aua boo w s ow ts ub w oand by donan prinip o Lan ad te Crh p was era sbe and rhetor eahng wa may a udy o eba orms Bb amar was h tag o ain and esiatio wa t am ont tog at times dd o reat to pory n auar Matmats ndg aro omy wa ctd on ra o t Cr ada smp gnra r big an inrodton o te a ipora omp� nred on te onroersy abou t dat o Etr Mus and aw wr oaona udis or
LI oio the sevcs and admiiration o th Chrh and th naural so y ontrast wh he toelan, was lterary and aecdota Gograpy hitoy, and naura cene found plac n suh a chme hogh t mt be remembered that Bede wth hs teachg woe a atal hsoy o Eglan s dc to be crtan how f at all his kid of duation wa made avalable o othe than nteng pet ad moks Tee wa pobably a occaioa exeno, ad her are certainly som recorded ases o th ducaton o young memers of royal ad nobe fale In ngan, n any case he developen of e schoos wa ncptcd y te Danh invasons to sh an xent hat he sytm ad to be rconucd uer e nluenc of Alfred and we hav ltle postve evdee agan u te ehandelvent centr new paern is very smlar 10 he old, evn afer the Norman invaon when Fech replaced nglih a the vernacula me for teahng Lan There a grammar schools and song schools attached to ahedral, monaere and colegate churche an he vocatioa crr lum s till evident Ten he welfh century thre s an mporant epaion both n nsuon and ahig. Te ahedral choo mltipe and i thc followng en ury n Ofod, the rt olleges and the dea ofa unversy apeared he moveme wa coey rlaed to eeno of the urculum i ta rheoic a e pary tage, gew to rank equally wh gammar while n t seconda sages and certaly in he uerste ee was a major gwh logc reatd to the icreang availablty of ome of he maor wring of rstote and an eenson and ecalza tion i e advanced faculte oaw medcine, ad theoo lhough ecation remae wtn a rm Chran frame wor the conep oa eral ducaton a a preparaon for the pecialied tuy o law mdne o theology c be een haping tef e ocep o e Seve beral rs (he (r';u of grammar retorc and dalecc the uai of usc a·hmeic, gcomery an asoomy goe back o at la fth century u was only now hat
Eucio riis oie
' egan to e ealed wth any adeuay a new matral from lacal learning and new atitudes owards owed n. eaces nstead of big apponted wer ow more fomaly esd (unversiy degees wre lien5 teah) Some ension of ds o pratal sccua eeds also ee, a or exaple in he teachng of eewtng a growng ned as adnistraon became more compex. There some evdence of writighool a dint fro gamma ad ong chool a whih eerwrting an prac ical acountng were taught for a new l. Some hools agan, oug eedg o be lcensed by h hurch, were otherwe independnt. A ve large par o mdiel duation remane voatoa bU he deveopme o ploophy edcne, a law had he eec of moving parts of th educatonal ystem fro he drcc upevon of the Curh and he nveite ght for the dependence, a corporae larnd bodis decidng hr own ondions for grantng dgree an hence lcences 10 teah was to a impotant exnt ucesful etween the theenh and he end o e fteenth cnures the nework ofgrammar and ong shools atahe to athedras moaeie colgiate churche an cae, was add�d to by he creao of vtaly ndepedent school uch a Wncter and ton in cloe relaton wh ew colege at xfod and Camdge ure ar qite uncertain, bu has een etated y he et auhority, ah tha for a poplaton o he eve of the Refomaton of ome 2 mllon thee may have been many a 4 schools or on chool o 6 people In 86 tee wa on gramma hool to every 23,70 people) Ye two oter aspect of meva euo must b noted: he apprenticehip yte i te craf and trad, and he chivalry yte by whc yong boy o noble family wee e a pages to gat es d ved hough a gadaed ourse o aining o knighhood he eence of tese wo system aongde the academ ym remds of te detrng eect o educao ofthe acua ocal ucte he laborng poor were argely left out ofaoun, alhoug
J 52
Rei
he ar ntabe eses findvdual bs gtting a cmplet ducatn, thrugh scho and unve�y b outstanding prmi ad mert. Fr the es eduan ws gied gneral relaon to a rm structure f nheited and dested stasand cnditin: the c apprentices the fUUreknghts, th future cersy. he system hle cear is not perfect for academi ducation sems on the he o have rn demand ven ih somethng Jke on oained cek o frt of the populatin, thre was nt rm or al ih an academi ducaio t ive by t, and the oe ranks of he cer wr i any ce very p the the esy ws perhaps reied from a moe varid social background han n the drectly ls-based apprntcship and ch\·al ssems Prvion n lmos a eal undains fo ' por sehoas an be varousy inerptd, but at es th sstem s resonably open In hs nnexon the natre of the nw ndependent schools such as Winhster and Eton, is parclaly mpotant A nchester apar om funrs kin thre ee to be commners paying e own st, h old be uling-lass bys and pr and needy schlars, f good haracter and elconioned of genle manly habts, abe fr shol competly learncd n eaing pansng and ld Donatus (atn rammar). Baue of hr indendent status, such schs wr nt tcd t n calty, and admsin on a natnal bis s bgn I t h n suggsed perhaps th rsn that suh an ttutn ws ud to dcvelop it he pubicshool a we kow t draing increasingl on a sgle es and combng in ts a f lie th eduationl methds f the ramar shos an the scial trang, by barng-ut of the hvalrc sysem In vew of he lose oein btween these schools an eoges f the uvcsites any such deveopment ws bound t aect the ducatna sysm as a whlc
Mathew Anold nce arued tha muh had been lot in nglh ducatn bause wh the schos wcre reorgan ized b the mation her thing ws nt edireted by
Ei m Bfh
53
the Renac In th ma factul hoos th Refrm aton of course made man changes closng r reduing in status a number f ld funda, instg prhap an equal number f new The ntr instituton rmaned th Gammar Schol bu thre is an poan change in sonsorship of a kind st evdnt n the ifteenh nt here the al mva grammar shoo had been a hrh founation, e tpica new gmr shl as a prvat fonaton survsed in vaiabe deee by Chrc an Stae Yet he dcational tradiion of he gramma shols survived wth lttl change and e can ag wth lton and Ad that ths was damaing Gr and sometimes Hebrew wre added to the mn Lat eurieu u and the man gain was an pason n the sud f teraure But th gmmar shols kd f eachg and even moe that of the unive emaincd id and nar r and foms such as the thme and the dsputati whh had one been creatve re islatc nd mechancal The majO achevcmns f the enaissancc n the crnacua !teates in geogaphica discovery n ncw painting and musc n the new spit in phisp and phscl nu channg attiudes t he ndividua had litte ct n the standad forms of geneal educatin et outsid hs tadtnal insttions, prmay scho nglish m t have ncreased in a wlderng vaiet o om rangng rom instrucon b pri pvate adventu shls often a sidln to shpping and ade 1n man cas he' petes or ACs wer poper schos smemes ned o the amma schos smtims here ld endowments had shrun rtually taing ve grammar schools. I addi n thee as some dvepmn of riti schoos , teach ing scrvenes Engish and th casting of accounts an obvios eed n the cnsiderable epansion f trade and in sme ases sc teachng bame nopo"aed n gamma schools t is a mp pattrn et three tends ar cear t ncrease n venacuar taching the ilure of the radi ina insttns o adapt ethe to a changng nom or to an expanding culture, and the passng of mos f th
og Re/to
ladn schools from sponsohp by a naona iuo to priva bnefactio In he sevntenh cntury, thr we mporant dcvelopments n educational heoy, ome o whch had ractcal ect Th main ducatioal or of the Raac paricula he idal of th scolacourti, had had litt eect on Enh intutons and nded had e paadoical eec ofducing the staus ofschool a such, and etg h altratve patn, drawi n pa on chaic adion, of educato a hom throu a pate Uto: a prfer ence, in many famili, which lasted w no th netnth cntury. Spcic profsiona utions, parualy in aw, ained n impoace, u manwhil, to sve a dnt c new neral institons h Diening Academi, wre binng o appea. Nonconfomis, aer th Rstor aon, were sosy dimiated aant by t adtional insttutions, and plid y stting up h own academic at a hhe conday or unvety leve of teachn he varid consideraly i qualty, but it can fairy be caimed that n th bes of thm, th eightcnth cuy, a nw dniion of th contn of a nral education was workd o and p no pracce Here for the time he curculum bis to ak its modn hap, with addion of mathmatcs, eogapy, moden laguage, ad cuciay, th physical scincs h older gammar schools in th m peod changed i dn ways he n ladn chools, ven of hm boardig intitutio, pt mainly to th radiona curcuum of t clasic, ad whi lss socally xclu\ than they were o ecom tendd on h who o sve h aristocacy and te suiachy on a naoal ba T majoy of dowd amma choos eed hir mmdae localities, with a reasonay boad cal bse bu still mainly wh h od curriculum Bu hoe old school ituad th la citie, greatly inunced by the may mrcha and tdmn whom they srved, comined n the henh centu a uite vared social compoition with some badening ofth curi· cuum, pacualy n mahmacs and aua cinces.
Edon d Brs Soy
55
The unvss ectd t compx pcture, for whie h wa ubaia adhence to t od curculum, and wha sems 10 hae bn a dcn in achig tandad, her wa om ou dvopmet i mahmatic and h inc ad pecenta of ' poo students - so of fame casmen mall tadmn - hough fallng dung th century was ill qute ubtaia. Of the tre old pof($So t y was t aly vd by t univeri ti, w aw ad mdcine wr mainy now outid tem Of Ih new profssio, patiula'y in scic, neng ad at a majoty of enta wr tained ouside the ui, a w alo mo of the nw merchans ad mauar. Te hnth cnuy s rmarkabl for t owh of a numb of new vocaona acadmis srng cmmc ngineeg, th a ad t armd rvic A fo pmary duca, t hapazad ytm ofpari and pate advue school sti suived and ther was m growth in ppaaoy schools rvn h vaious academics and od foundations But icraing uania ton wa asin nw poblm to whch soluon wre very slow in coming he Charity School momnt from he end of he \enh century rpsnt th main eort, ad its combation ofa nw kin ofntnton - he moral rescu a oppod to h moal ntucto ofth poor- wh a more fomal dnition oflementary edcation as tha appopate o a patcular ocial lass, cat it sadow ahad By th lat qua of eihth nty, wh quicng of pa of the Idutia Revolution, the whole ducaonal system wa ndr nw pesur whch woud ventually
tranform it
n th sveny yas tween 1 751 and 182 h poplaon of h Bsh mainland doubled, from ev to fourtcn
miio ad by 187 a wysi mllions, it had nearly doubd aan. n additon to his rmaablexpansion the propoon of he popuation living i towns, ncluding he nw idual tow and alo the propotion o cidren i
Educaton ald B
h Lng Rtluion
e populaon s whol agai rmarkably nased These changs would have been enough to dsorganize a uch bettr sys: ofeducaon han h ghtth ntury acuay had, and the haofh ntenh cny full ofreports shong h uer nadeuacy in par reveled, n preatd y h ocia and eonom rafomaion. h ds to Qganize ducaon, on a fullr bs han hhro wa he motive of any of thee por but a te sme ors oppoed o any genea reform wr ry song In o 1200 parshs xmnd 3500 had no chool 00 had ndowed schools of v�rying a an 5,° had unndowd shools of a qua eve more varabl Bu o do anyhng abou hs t rorm had o g pas e epesentav opinon o a Justce of he Peace n 1807 oube dsabe hat he po shoul be generaly iscd r;ng, i it were oly o he est of purposes ha they may ead he Spes. As t wlg an ( i ma e ppehdd hat s a gre o kowlede would produc i thm a
-
dislish o e laborio ocupaions flie.
t s true a a no prevous prod had he oo a a whle bn ducate, althoh ecpional arish h am was made. ut ther had bcenrovision agin a again, r h xcptional p" oy o gt o h univrsiy Undr he new dspensaion, eduaion was organie on a more rigd cass basis. To \e he a scol aig'd Res fr U rn and od forvy mid. (Cabe)
Only C last clause was unt But the process o hange from a system of oial orde d on localtes o a naional system of soal cl a hange etending from he enth to e lae ighnh ntie was now virtuay complee, and i elt was a new kind of adeerind eduaion Highr edcaion came a vtual monopoly xcluding h nw workng cla d e ida of unveal educaon cpt withn the narrow
Scier
lmis of 'moral esce, wa widely oposed a a mar of prncipe he irs nw duaonal iiions of te ndstrial Rvolution were h idutrial scools provding manual trainng and elemenary insruion and mch mor m potan th Snay shoos, avalable t adul as wll hildn and, whil varing in methos, mainly orgzd on h prncpl note that for moral reason th poor mus ar to ·ead h Bibe bu tha wrng and arhmet, to say nothing of ore dangros subjec wer le ncessay or even harml. In he nw inds o day shol der h rival systms o Lacaster and Bel ahng ws smilarly bsd on il but by a nw mhod what Bel called he TEAM E N C I of he ORL WD which y e us of moos ad standard rpeve xrcss allowd on maser o tach many hundrds of cilren simultanosly in one room has bcn simatd ha wih dvelopment of nay schoos an th new day schools, and Wih h survving arish and advnre shls, som 8700 cildren, ot f a possble 1 00000 aendd a school ofsome ind fr some priod in 1, and hat n 8 the gur was 450,000 ou of 170000. o assess hes gurs adquatey, we mus remmr ha te same inquiris showd an avrage duraon of scol attndanc, in 1835, of on y From th egheenth cenu some assstanc o schools from the rat had been mowred in a fw place and from the 3 hr was a bgining ofaon istance n school bul. By 5 e avrage duraio of school attendan had b aed o o yers, and y 6 an simated 2, childe out o a poil 2500 may have been n som form ofschoo andan though sl o very mid al and wth he maort laving bor hey wer levn he crrculum ws broadnng a litle usually now including wring and arhmetic andn somshools ohr general sjec h Red ode of 862 insied a sym of pamnt by resul i relaion o dn sandards n readi, wring, ad arithme (rading a short paragraph in a nwspar; writing smiar
eo ad nabld ndowd and propir choo ofte t ad second grads to am at som rcgied natioa standard of scondary educatin and the tnsion ofe examinaion sysm by ocial and pssiona bodi had h same ationlig ect Th campaign for te secondary educaon of gr w begng to show rult ad hen in 8 Wals took the lead with an Intrmediae Education Act which succedd i estabhg an organzed scondary system lking the boad and voluntay emnary schools with the univi nd rovidng or both boys and girls n 90 h craon of ocal ducation Authorii, with ponsibity for th full ducationl ncds of the ra aid the bas or a naiona sstem of secondary educatio Th idgrad school had een ovraken y the raing of the emntary schooeaving age and was o craton of t nd secondgrad sconday schols that th new auhori with vyg ener appd hmsv h Board of Educaion had come into existence in 199, and n 94 it dened a fouryar secondary cours leading to a cercat in nglish language and lrature geogaphy history a langage other han Engsh, mathematic scinc drawing manual work, physical taing and hoehold craf for girs f we ook frm is o h ghteenhcny curriculum of h Dissenng Academis w shall see whr the main line of he radion lies Meanwhil in the cose of he century unvsiy educaion had been radicay changd. The insituion o public aminatios, Cambridge from ightnh cnury n Oford from the ely years ofhe ninetnh had an imporant ect on teachg, which did ot pass witho rots that te amnaion sysm was mkng ducaon mechani cl A thc same time h rigious xcluiveness of the two ancen unveis and he ecve restricon of hr curriculum o ics and mathematic ld o tfoundaion of Lndon Univeriy (8836) whi th new University of urham 82 though goved by he Church ad a oaby roadr curriclum. Rormng ovemns at ford and Cambridge led to subsntial staory changes
cao Bh SCey i 850$ wi he dul am of broadning th ang of subject ocd and enuing a socia representaon wider ha hat of ' prospciv parson pspecve lawyer, ad] young mn of rank and forun Furthe legslaive chang in e and 8 and te reorganzation and eeio of facuies led o h achevmen of modern univeit saus Meanwhi ivrsiy coegs wer sringing up and e fondaions of Manchester Noingham Reading, Souhampton eeds Liool, held and rmingham, togcthrih th thre Wlsh collegs wre being lad he nintnhcnty achievement vidtly a majo rorganaton of elemenar secondar, and nivsiy dcaion along lnes which in genera w stil follow. Boh in knds of nsitution and in he maer and manr of educaio it shows the rorganizaton o arning by a radicaly cangd sociy in which he growth of industr and of democracy wee h lding lemn ad n te of change bo n the donan soca characr and in yps of adlt work At no im n England hav te eect of thes inluencs on th very concep ofdcaon been clearer, but precly becase h ws so a fundamenal argmn about the urpe of duetion was e centuys mt intreng contribution wo strn ofhis agumnt can b sparad: he ida of educaion or all and the denition of a liberal ducation Th formr as we have sen was ercely argd and the hisory of he cntury rpresns th victory o those who, i the early decad had ben a nority Two maor faco can be disigsed th r ofan organzd workig cl, wch dmandd dcaion and h needs of an anng and changing conomy. In pracice hse wr closy interovn in he long dbate and he victory of rformrs sd on lemns a gnuine rspons to the rowh of democracy in mn lke Mill Calyle Rk and Anold; proctive rpos nw vesion of morl rsc very vident in h agments for he 870 Educaion Act in rclaion o h franchise xtensions of J our fur masters . should at et earn heir letter; ad the practica respone perhaps decive whch ld
T-
The LO evli
Edn d ih e
Foer n 170 to use as hs prnpal argumen upon te speedy proision of elementary ducaon depends our ndustrial prprity n e growh ofsonday eduaton tiseconomargumnw ven more entrl The dmorti and the industril rgumens re bot sound, but he great persasivenss o later ld o e denition o educao s o futue dul work wit he paael cuse ofteching he eurd soca lacer abts oregulary 'sdcplne obediece nd traed eort Such a dnion wa llegd from wo sides, by tose wth wde symhies wh gneral grow of demoacy, nd by he wi n ode oncepton of lera! eduation in rlaon o mans elh s a spiritu beng is inerestng liance boadly tha wh I tracd as a radton n Cl/e ad Siey, and te edutional gument was aways nar the ere of tis oninuing adiio. On the one hand i w gued by mn w wdel derng attitdes to he se of democy and of worgcss organizao, tht me hd nral human rght o b educated, nd h any god socey depded o govern ments accepng ts pncple as ter dy O oher and, ofen by men deeply opposed to dmocry, t was argued tt mans sprual ealt depended o ind of educaion wi was mo tn a raning fo some spcal ized work, a kind vaously desribed s liberl humane or ultura e grea omplexy of egnrl argument whih is sill unnished can be seen from the ft th the publi edutors, s we my call the rst grou wee frequenly n allince wih powu grou wc promotd eduin n rms of tang nd scplining te oo, s woes d iies whle e defedes of ' bal duca to wer commonly agaist both agast the fomer be ause lbeal duon wod be ulgaried by exeson o the ' masses ; ginst he latr beaus lbral eduaton would e destroyed by bng turnd nto a system of special zed and echnial training Ye te pubc ducao neviby drew on the argumnts of e defnders of hc od liberal eduation, s a way of prevenng uniel educa
ion being narrowed to a system of peindustral nstruon e three goups the public eduators th industial tran and tJe old humant a sll o be distinguhed n our o tm and we sal see laer, her inuene n tweetntury deeopments In general, currulum wch te nneeeth ceury evolved n be sen as a ompromse bewn U hee goups, bu wh the idusr ainers redomina The signnt case s th long ontrovrsy ovr snce and tchn eduction If we loo at te rg of scnc dsovery ben e seenee and he end of he inetnt euries it s ca at ts mportac li oy n in ts rnsfomton of te teniques of producton and communcaon ndeed lies equally n ts tansformton of mns ew of himlf and o hs world Y he deive eduionl inerpreton of tis new knowledge was not in trms of nial conributon to ber sdies bu i erms o techicl tang for a particlar class f mn. Te old humanss muddled he ssue by laimng fudamnl disintion btwee r radional larnig nd th of he new dscines d it ws from tis nd o hinng ha er devlopd he bsurd dfnsv eion th aU real leag ws undetaken whou hough o prccl dvanag. n fc s the educonal istory ows the lssial linguistic disciplins wre prmaily cional but hese pacul" ocions had acqued a parae tditonal dgny wich w refused to ios now of equl humn relevce Thus nsted of the nw lernng brodenng a genral curicuum i was neglectd, nd in nd rluctantly admttd on th grounds th t ws of rely ecnil ind he ressre of t ndusr rs evenully prevald ough no wh y gene aduacy unt Thnl Istrucio At of 8 and een here, sgicy, it ws ' nsuion her t 'ducao . Ths hsoy was damaging bo to genr educaion and to new kinds of ocatonal trining nd ye it ws only an eponal man suc as Huxley wo ould see his at the time and conequeny ague in the oly adequa wy: hat senCe must become a prt of genera
,6
he Og apls sho. h onud stnc of a ntok of pat duaton n h ppaatory ad plc schoos, mayor may ot soally dsral but any as shos th knd o daton, and th nssa vl of vsmnt in t, hh a paular al group accpts as adqua fo its Th lag cass o xampl h hauntd pub duaton from th gnnng: fOm Lanasrs 00 chdrn undr o mas, through h 6080 o th ran oard shols o th l ommon -5° of ou on day In th prat ok vry much smar lasss ad th ncssary stm o nsu hm ha n apd as a prvat dUY a ut· drn ay from h ntrprtaon of pl dUy n !h Hona sysm. marly, y hc sam soal group th ncssry mmum l oducaon oa s m has n s as a las th scodad schoo, usuay olod y rhr proonal tra g, has h p dnon o h mmcs ofhr socal gps s at h o nmm oha sll vy muh od thrd gd gan h nmm h md soal gop s st d lch ac n) aalal o a nory of 1 soy Jc 1t no asy o argu that hs lm soal gp ha o rh povd h duaton ns 01' s o mms ut th cotrasts tn hs and t gnral povso sho ry ary svval ofa fal knd of lass hng hch has mtd h pratal xon of a omally acd ublc y. In th analyss ofo prsnt datonal ths pon usualy ngct n faor o an argumnt n t"mS of lls of cllg and t is on argud tht fa holly n poms in th cducao of th mass bcaus lcls of masurd ntllgn ary �o dly Th arc plms ndd, ut n t th duon of hs lm soa lass has throughou s hstory had o dal th this sam kn of mna araton and t has bn th l of duato c<]ud y a mmr of th lass rathr than th l thought approp to a arcula mal masucm hat as n a god ts organaon. If put th matr n ths ay hat bcaus a chd ths nd
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EdO ad B oy oalt ms b rought o a gvn dg ofcdaton, an gn to s th patn mor claly ns n larng alty obvosly xs, but hr gat dang makng ths o sparat and absolu atgos I s rght tat a chld shoud b taught n a ay approprat to hs la1ng ay t aus hs tscl dpds on hs hol dopmnt nludng no only qusions of prsonal haatr groth but also usons of a soal nonmnt and h smuaton from t too ay a dision nto ntlltua grads n pat rat orng to mt Th t of th suaton hh s stmulaon on nllual pcroman has bn ntrsngly dscd n or pst ontx by Profssor o
s
Afc in Bian we do ge igger dvergenes n nronm al tiua on Chlr ac nowa anag en th)shoul b rn pkx ons and ods of oug and the kds of oln Ho gamar der a ocr shools ogCle h h eent ua cls of i oms ay "c ae T grwh he majy lea hool and c e �Jo hi do l lc cxrc her 'rans an tei esre u ar mosl on-iuaing But a cg m inoiy o1inuc to ei llal Mmulao o 7 8, 2 1 or aer an ar me ll o ne obs whee hy us mns, and to nulge i ura liuI-im uui. enc we woul cet, a h n eay rovd a eduaon ung h ns ds a!e e lae a u i tllnc lecl T man wth ull oday and un' duaon on the a\erage a Q ont adana V n w a quall iclc at but as a rhr ation ine In
l
2
This is th ralty hnd th ondn usomna masur mt o raty gradd sycms o duaton. To ak ntllgn as a d utty from th ordnary hnking of mhanal matalsm s a dnal of h rcalts of groth and o ntlgcn sl n h a ntrst of a patular odl oh soal systm o s can xpan h ry odd prnpl that has bn bl nto mod Engsh duato that thos ho ar sos to lan shoud hav h
lu
Educato a Britsh Se
Long Rvoluton
shortst time in whic to lea, whl those who lan quckly w be abe to exend the proces for as much a sevn years beyond thm? his i the reality of quaity ofoppornity whch a vry dierent ing fom ral ocia quality Te truth s that while fO hildn ofa paticular scial class we hae a onception howevr impect of a equird minimm of gneral eduation whacv hir measud intelli ne migh be we have no uch oncption 01 a muh lower oneption for he majoiy of those ouid this la h fac in itelf oeher with othe oca poc maie natura ineuaii in a persistnt way. For of ourse there s i no aboute orreation bwen intigence and mmbrhip of a partcular occuptional gop. e man IQ of cildren of uh groups vas but he dir es within groups ar grae than os betwn he rups nd hen, if onge educaton can e bough by a fw and if mor favorabl anng nvronments a perpeuated by he socia ineality rcsuing fom prvou inqualitis of real opotunity, natua incqualite are again magned and ake on a dict ocial rlvace. f on aked, at any pont in tis poce, to stop beng utopian and conid he had fat about ducating t masse, it very diut to be paient. Whl we shall always be faced with subantial diecnces in earning ablity among al[ hldrn we hae to face the rea!y ad fact w are now meeng thi probem in a paticular way which ev in h nd to magnify the dierenes and thn pas hm o as a natural ordr. We an only hang this way i w ge d of onsious or unconsio ass thinking and bgin onideringduational organization in tem ofkping c arning pe going, for ong poibl in eery if Instead of he rting and ading proes natual a l cit w should regard human learning in a genuinly opn way he mo auable real reource we hav and theefore a somethg whih we hould hae to produc a specal argumnt to imit rather han a spcial argment o xnd e w perhap ony ge to this when we hav arnd to thn ofa gnuily open cure
169
The oneption ofgradd sconday schools n nineteenthet�ry thinking rsted my on he asumpon that the eXtg cla truur would be rproduced The duca iona sandard amd at we in consuence cla tandards wat a genleman o a pofsonal man or a mall trademan would ned " have now addd what a tehniian or an operativ w need u ae s far hort of the prinipe I am trying o etablish: what a mmbr of an eduated and paiiatig democacy need. Advane o i piniple h been ofud by on rl change ad rform ar now a aware that de\'eopmt in th profions (includng teaching) a a sult of epanded ca ervies in dninsaio as a rsult of h owth of age sale oaaons, both democaic and commcrcial and in indusry a ut of hihy dvloped od ctve tchniqS hav catd a nw and epandng class quite charatr rom th od gntr and th od ourn I geisie n on way this w clas has much more n common wh he od woig cass, in at i vs nithr by roery no by d but y og its our or hi At t same ie, he laour or i ofa skilld id ruing speci tra1g and thoug ths s ao inceaingy tu of the wok ng ca el, it hs hapeed that the pepaao tang of he new cas has bn caid ou within he eduationa sysem whil tC wokng class is sl argly tran< on the ob . o ta ti new class t old edua tion of gnemen a been a'gcly racd by th new eduaton of pubi sevants; i was indd in this onnxion at te ideoloy of evi wa galy empized . rt the reformed public schools ate in he ondary tm mdeed on them n fac a evr stge and il ay proi on fo h ducaio ofis new lass has lagged 5eoly blnd aCal nd at t und the inuene of trdional eduational idea latr by eltanc to face the et of thi ned on { older lass sytem By th scond halfofe nineeenth centuy it wa obvou that he eitng upp and idd asse coud not by hemslvs, supply t expandng demand, and the ational organzation of
�
Q Reti sconday ucaon was n fac h layd racca rcog· iion ofhis ansforming saion T blk o h c mn would si com om h sablishd pr and midd classs, bu faciis woud b pod for owrmid cass and wokngcass boys o l h rsid of vacancs Tis olicy ad h moal apal of ming wa was l o b h mos subsanal crcism o sng sysm: ha poo boys of cona abiy migh no g i" ccc , migh b wasd T sady pansion osh facs has n a sisn aways ba am o kp ac wih h conining xpansion of s nw cass, an h ging incipl in sconay dcaion has consuny bn h suply o is sanad o sk sic a dniion wich ld nauraly o a slci rincil bad on mna masumn ah an on socia ogin I was now no so much h coninuing caion of a cass (ogh in rva nwok his mphasis rmaind) as h graing an ramn o a gn uaniy of aw maa, o supy h paning pofssonal admnisav and inusal procss. uch ainng in isf is ssnia, b h fac ha scondary ducaion and h sciv ocus givng nry o i, ha bcn concci almos woly n such narow ms has bn ry damagng bo in pacic and a h lv of ucaonal oy. Insad of or o rinrp conmoray clr an o dn a gna dcaion o or socy as a whol h mhasis boh in oganiaon o inuons, and in h hning of ducaos, has bn on h prosssosoring an grang. Sch cangs and xnsons as h hav bn in h sconday criclum av agan b lary drm by cangs n h chaac o h wo o his nw class T rlvan social haaccr a raining n iabii, h wiingnss o ak rsonsiby wihn a givn ramwo and h noon oflarship in acc a concion apopria o upr an mid svans aing of oca cono and niiav wiin a haiy mphaszd absou oyal o insiuion o wich h lad bongs) was agan workd o n h '70
7
dati ad ih Sie fomd pbic schoos, an widy and sccsf imia in naiona sysm he anav raditon of pubc edcaon, whh led o pnci osconday duaon r all, as rmaind ravy weak. On has ony omparc t sile lass hning of te Taunon Commission's ecommnd grades wh Hadow Spns and orwoo rors, and h pracica cs of 1 9\4 Eucaion Ac o s ssn al conniy spi changs in conomy o a par oining drawn om a rgi lass socy, wih s gading by birh lang o occupaon an hcn assimad o a changng socy wi a nwsysm ograding Th aion of bic ucaion, on o han ss on a bad inaion of Iins of soca chang I rcognzs h occuaona hangcs as vialy imoan b insiss ha s r ony on aspc o ou gnral dvlomn By sow ss no comp uni a 192 0S, Ban as bcom a dmocacy basd on nsa suag, and hs fac, by which h sonsbiy o dcing major socal oicy is ansrrd o opl as a wo is obviosy o cnral and nscaab rvanc o dcaon Agan h rmarab growh o culra communcaion sysms om dlopd naiona prss o cnma, rado an vision has pac qay of whol naonal cu in h ands of opl as a whol, o is ncrasingy obvious hat sandads se in wd l aAec he sandads of mos nacousy guar mnoiy cuur. Frr, h occupaona cangs a dloping on such a sca, an scm crain o connu o o so obaby a an acclaing rac a h scv caon of a nw skl cass is no onger a pobm of deang wh a mnory, bu s becomng a pobm oft pcparO1 r all ins of wok. nion as bcn O1nrac by cics in h pblic dcaO aiion, organzaion of scondary duca on on w a common gna ducaon, o a gnny sconday nd, w b aaab o all T a poosas fo hs ar rsing and many sccssful primns hav alray bn ndan Y i rmans _
M
that the uial queston, any uh pog, at ofcurriulm and teahig mehod and it dcult fel a h p gammar-hoo urricuum o is partial imitaion and loa xnsion by he sondary mode schoo is of such a kind th he oblm merey on of dribung i mor widely An datioal curriu m as we hav n agai and again i pat peiods resse a compromc betw an inhcrid selcion of nersts d empasi o new ies. t vag poin omprom ay b ong deayd and i history evn will on b muddled T fa aout our prn curri l s ha i wa nially ceated y e neenh nu ollowing om ghnh-nury modl and eaing lemnts oftc mcdival ricuum ar its re se can b made for evry iem in it yet its omsio ae artig. Te oial sudes, even o an elmena nd ar rualy omid a he level which eycld an b cerain of rchg yt it would b dicul o agu that a deaild drpton of th· worig of parlamnary ad loal govmn of the law ad pbli amitration o he orgazaton of industr of he evoluton and haracter of mode sil groups, of th tehniu by which a moden oy udid ad inund i les rean an ay the detaled dripions of he gogaphy ofSouth Ameria whi now have tradiioal santon Where eduaion in h oial stdie is given at all xcept i exceonal schools, i is outside 'buin as modrn langage ad science we outsde busin in h nnnth century, and it eahing ai qualiy from simp dcption o th casual and horatory proe a ru desendan of moral rescue kowas 'civi In he ars milary it is a meag rpon o our uural rdon and roblem o each oide lieratu, litt more than paal drawing ad mui, wh hdy anyattcmpt o bgin cier e hior and rii im of music and sua ar fos, or he riticism of thse oms oflm leved drama, ad jaz o which every child will go home Ev in Englih dspe th or o many n ah, most chidrn wLlcave ev gram schools
Ea h 73 wihout v having paced the riial adig of news pap magin propaganda and advrtimens whih will orm he u of the acual adul eading Meanwhil, in cien, he vas and ciing of ei dcovey and its social wl have been given qui inada anio H not ony a quson of subec Our eachng meods epeiy n grama schoos are sil o a on iderable en deemined y radoa attes of thk ing, som of wih ae relvan Modr languag a sil widly taugh y mthd delopd for th teacg of a dad lauage and it s surly remarkble in he n sate ofirnaioa commnicaios that an Englhman shold be eachng J
, 74
Edaton and Briish Sciy 1 75 (b) Gneal kowede oure a OU vironmen tauh a e ay ag a� parat aadm cples but enl kodg ra frm p ch elar a hr stae i.. i bil pyclgy (i) ial h soy, aw d pol al iiu n soioly,
The mg Revluin
change Ve can se a certai way ahad, on extg nes : maig beer provsion for the traning of each and or more adequae schoo! buiding; reducng th sz ofcass ag th leavngag to sxtee. hs a pactca ad nssay efoms bt we mst ask whthe hag made em we shal be much be placed to give an adqae geeal edcaon In pactice w stll th of eqed vlsofgeneal cre accodng to cain ces ofwok ad some people wold terpe his as classss edcaton ecaus vey child s give e opporuty to go s ar as can o choose' he class he wll ente Bt th hoc h nd o[oPP0tniy depds on coicidec oa patlar cilds larg aty wit cetan dnd corse and furthr, w cannot n or kd o socety call a edcaonal systm adeqate ifi leavs ay large numbr opople a a leve of geeral kowldg ad cult elow tha requird y a partcipang dmocracy ad ats dependt on popla sppo FO the mjoy ofor peopl dcaio now ed a feen tha is to say a a age wh, ev fthe ducaton pecedi had ee whoy satsacoy may of h dtncv adl pocesss d coices to whos aliy edca ton can clealy cor, wi ot hae becom rlva f childre of modrae la ailiy caot acquie, in the tm now giv e essetials oa compory genra dcato the only snsibl answr s to ve mo tm, no o disms som of h esstals wih a rsged ee e shall hav to think (a wh diculty pople he etnh cnuy leaned o thnk, eachg lvels we now all accpt) of even rthe pansion govend by or eeds ahe than by o nhed modls Wat ae these essentals? T s o la cosenss becase we ave no o th wol bee tnkg in ts way beng preoccupe by oganization ad otherw smply paring a netenthcnury dniion A a ass o dscussion I would p dow h ollowig as te mium to am a or evey edcatoally orma child a Eeie patie i h fudamtal laguage of glish an mahemats ;
dcsnpve
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d$tr and trd ii phys nd h (c) Ho ty ad iti l ue t al a msi ramat pfor< b ds pe and ahieclur:' d si �ce;n dmai prc ilud me1g, oa ad t setion ad cdc ea i ma gaizai Exsi· ae h s o Ja: npap ad maaz{s ra an tiin rgames, a ot oucs main n ad pIn; !ti to a lat o c lure lig i a ly ghy iu a at' b v i pa y vii d xhage
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I terms of Sc a iio w cl eis ur stos We ogh� peraps t o p lescs at shoos of the presn kd yod se a whih ae t lest he man gowth has ed a w sa Much of he mos wok i h ciculm miht e do atr is Le�sg age a muc gaer variey nsituios ha we ow av and w h pros o in my cses or h nnn of . te coning gneal spec vocatol rag aloH ducaOn mong pol insitutions are the couny co eges chmal collcs \·i g sites uo college eato loc 1 UvCS sandwih coss coges of apencshp dayes "gaizations overses schoos adenue schools Te criteon sould b ta veyone shold have some form of coiuin« duao t s a condiion of al os of mplo t t h d IS ssy roidd for As e ate o wok chage thee ess h h he was to pople o io wha wa thoh o as h lu mrke' ad if he itions ae oa acptal to olscts ad yo adlts, and
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fthe demcc inng i e substae b hi parcia in the immee gmnt f he tutin ey aed we ld gral dmih the already dhg ea an eduatin whch fr e maj i s in erm f he needs fchldr ad whch damningy is se f lile relevane e adult liing hat lis ahad. ariety nsiutins, a is peod f growt mor ikly to mee Ih proes of varying capay and nst t he cue raing ofwo o ree typ fmnd', olwe by leaving n larg ype' o iLS ow devies There i a ad endency in ur cult, fr pople betwen abu stn ad twnye to hink f hmsJ as a dtinct group, sein their wn stndard and refusig to hldren on day and matre adult e nex. Hr s the eat eduaonal challene and pporu which we can ny ris we ae secndar eduatio as a preration fr this phas We migt then be ping h shape of or own soiey raher han reroduig pate hes tpian hining s at wih suposes w sal g an edcated and partiating democracy, indsti ad series wi adequae umn mmuications, ad a nnn cultue f high quy, by prclaiming vi of ose hings ad a\ing ur tranin iniuns as thy ar 1 do t doubt ha h poposals sued abe wll be cald tpan bu he r in fat the ree i a quesin f whther we can p the ral natre f ur soiety or whehr we pr in oial d dcatina patrns baed n a limid rling cla, a ddle prfessional s, a lae perative 1ass, cmed by fo ha cano halgd and wl t be haned he privieges ad ares of an nhi kd, will n any as go dow t i oy a usio fwhter we epae hem by the r pay o th mart r by a plic euaton desined express and e the al f an eduatd demray and a cmmo cure
x
H GOWH OF R PBLC is pen to isoran o hoos svral dent dates for
h bginninofa readig pblic in Biai aong he variabl interpreatin whih such a term arris t is only n our own nuy that the regular readng e f newspape hs rachd a marity fur peple and nly ur wn generatin h the regular readngofboos has rached a bare marity Yet n the inteenh entur hre w a maor ad a m specacuar pansin n readig while in the eigtnh cury ere w again an imprta pansio whh bo crated egulr ounaism and hangd te soal basis of ierare Going ack end hs ens w nd eal f uen owh in h seen teenh nury, ad t n ouslvs ai h develpmet bak to th ioducion of prnig in he 1 470. fa oweve, if w ta minmum denition an l fr h rguar prdutin muipl copi fbks we must g ack in his cunt a least to th ighth cenur Rme i had bn the pracice anze multple prduc tion by a tem f"OUP opyig from ditain ad it has been laimed h in tis way a diion of twe e hudred and a housand cpie cu b ompled whn a ay ofhe eivry of t work. A siiar mhod publca of e mnasteries, to was eaily adoted in th and we have a ror ofsh produon from k i e i of Ain hough vey sow by mode sadads (th don in a da dpended on thosands of availabe slas an if e wold be eceptional) it s asy o udesimat he numbr f boks hu made avilable and while much f he copig was f course fr immeate profesonal pur es ther is me eidce f book eing sld utside e
Ln Rlio
he Growt h Radng Public
monsteis nd ler ousid h unversts, whc oned he monastis oduction Craily in h outenh ad nth nuis, bore he inoduction of rntin, mnscri books werc bng sold by ees at as by dlrs, ad in London by shokp inciplly goce and ms It sms a to conclud th he lagely roessonal rding publi o h cgy, of sholars and suts o docors an lwys gew sdiy hroou he Middl Ages nd h hy jond in th a ntui by a sal bu sgnicn numb o gl reds is sng ha hn Caxon begn rning som o most omnnt publicaionsee n the eld o geer lierc d in he verncul, which whi ponng o mo ends o h fuu, cn b secn so as a resonse o known demand fom h la mnuscpt eod. We know very ll, unoatey, o hc gro a his im o a kd of radg vey dien no ony om he meeva soc of h Scires he Chisia Fahrs an n d Grk scula auhos b aso from he scoo books, th vencuar anslaons d oems stos an romances. Ye h o\ay of e cboo h jesook h balla ad boas es at les fom he sixtenth cey d his esposs a adig pblc howev small nd rgula of gcncr kind Estimes o litracy tis im vy om h mN ha 50% imled by oe ( r mor tan fowrc rtcs o all h whole divided into nn ou e ad nglshe yet ) to ardnes 'not th hndred pa of h eame n 1 Copland wo in drama ly o n uhos rqu o h to in his book : · IhY i b u B O s : i p ss The dy dkc d b n bas, t) b n s a .
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Ceaiy, f we oo pis h gst e income even
' 79
o piss and schoomase t is asy o undrstad is omplain pohec s i is o so may o com The hs hrdly ben a gnatio sncc in which 'oes b not se by thr times s as, I ges hs no ben eed, by some of the diey oncd t the wer enoug book around nd paenly in dmad o mak Co, at t Pauls School ' bbnysh and cxclud such ork s y my be alld bloerur thenne lirue The ppence o his no familia udgmn makes on f at a ls c bgnnin o u ding pblic n o h probs eve snce assocad wih i we hen in n h isoy oh ading bic a ayhng more han a tnial vel, s n ac complcad, rogho by wo vy dcu, and ote conused roblems ovaluc, whih i my ases av cd ven a eco! On on hn hre is he ea ha s cc o ads ends, sndars decne and re b ratnd by bou" Rlad o his u invoving othe reu is has ee ssnially cal a ha h common mn ads boh quaity and orr somimes h on snng o oe wl e hened ntnse engs bot h hra to quliy v ld oo oen o c uistic ous o e cual isoy o cading o h ' hn am Defoe o ' hn ame Tit-/IJ' kd of delg t h sm m, din aUhois hav t ean eos ony etd po o evcn o imi h h o adig o o pvnt o m he dcion rom whc i urlly oos o iue is mo ntl n th hory o ou cuur o h gumen bou qualiy d h agmet abou dmray arc here so dy incrined s o ppr nsrbe, nd h as ld gan nd gain o a ddlock n h culal gumn hich has b oondly dsouagng and conusing mus ry o look he cord gn sting omul asid Th disinion bee desbl nd udesble rading s ough hse y cnis oth ormao ofa dig publi, scally docrinal in relaion o lgio Fo svral
he o7 Roon cntu we hav sen in or study of ducaon th dtinction bween impovng Chrian auho and dis racng or debing pagan> auho was repeatedly rged In e later Mddle Ag hre was a signcan break from hs disincion and he Rnaisance spiri bought more and mor ree and Lan author om he pagan ino h 'clasical category Y hs gain was limid, and in part cancelld by two orcs: rs the long perod of elgous conrovrsy in formaion and counr-ormaon, which led o new denitions of he deal and the undesae n tems of ohodoxy and heresy; scond, he nwal by Poestanim of od disincon bwn wors whch mprove and works whh disrac or corrup h nd In the form cas, a poclamation of 1538 st up a cnohip over os in Englh whether homcprodcd or mpored and an c of 154, for h advancment of tru rligion and fo he aolihment of the ontrar forade reading of any English Bible by arcr oymen svgmen ndr the rank ofyoman handm aborer and al women other than hose of nole or gente rank. eanwhil n the area of ecular literaure, e was a conious campaign against pays and omances, which wer no srious readng (a disinction tha survves o h day in ntrpreting public library statistics as contrasted wih ooks on manne and behaour household management avel natral hto, and public aai usually not con emporay). uch inrventions and judgemen as these of course nuenced the devlopmet of rading, bu hey dd no in e end, determine i A gra dea of ction and omance could dsguied as works of ave hsory or manns ad he same mens, ogehe wth an oherwse siled conempoary comment and cricism wee e asis of the popular trad in chapoos and broadshets and ballads As la a e Ezabehn pod espc for the manscip and disase for h pulishng maket ad mporant eecs on th circulation o eture and here were many ofh courtly psuason as wel the Puan opponen ofcion o complicat th qestion ofe reading
k Gowh he &adng Pb pbc nd ts standards. Yt h publicaton of th play of Shakspee,Jonon and ohers mrk a tmporary advan her wa high literatr sng on ot ssical and popular tradons and vidnly pnnen, in spite of Purtan objcon o idle pla h corly obcton o h vulgaty of he book rade and the acadmic ocion to the claim at English pays cold be egarded as tru itray wok hs wa also great period ofranlaions and he qualy of books available o he English reading plc n fact rose adly hough in way tha c acro mos co emporay deio of' standards inic to consider how many of the works for which we now honour he period would hav ben condmned by subtanal sectons of opnon idDe ofhe dlens nd lga of t times Th e in readg and in quaity was in fact stdy Prices ranged from Holinshed a 26s to Shakespar a 4d or 6d (the latter however he pice of wo dinne). The nme of prnters had isen om to or three at the begin nng of h enh cenry o 1 n 155 4 in 56, 0 n 57, and as many 97 beteen 1590 and 595 ade proection, trough paet latr limid the numbr of hos, ut here wer a least 60 in London in 649 and agan in 660 and in the 6o a quit raid her epan sion bgan, epaly ino h pronces It is dicult o tma h acual oput of book a dtinushd from balads nd pamphles but he trend is eviden from ur of 13 ties in 510, 8 in 155 in 150 to perhaps 5 in 581, a gue gneray mainained unil he rhr rapid ris in he eiod ofh Cvi War and ommonwealh Roaion ·ought a decline and the average annal production sled a abou 0 il n h midde of h ighteenth cntury A he sae tme sizes of ediions roe from he sieenh-cnu limi of ome 1500 ceping grammars and payerbooks which wen o 300) to an average ofooo which was mantained nti we on ino the egheenth centr Parad Los sld 100 copies in wo years, and th ey popular Ees ad H�ogphs o Qual 0in two yas Meanwhe we can gage the sie
2 n Reluti of h more general readng puic by notng tha one of he many popr prognotcatng Almanacks sod n arage of mor an 6,00 copie betwn 66 and 648 nd the ballad roadsee and chapoo pblc ms hae ben t lest of th order of 20000 In thse erly stags of the formatio of the radng publc we can se a pttrn to be rpeated at on much lagr scle: the steady grow of publc ntrted n litertur phosophy nd simlar work; the moe rpi gowth o pblic interested primrl in mor occsonal and ephemral reading Th distintion of quality s not boe however for a ppoton of th occasional reding epecily in pmphlts tcs nd baad, marks on th on had the rnsfr of popular trdiol msements into prnt on th other hd a rs i social ad especilly poical inteess rachig a cm in th Cv War Ae e Resoation, the situon comes emly dicult o anays h imprfct eec th we ha i a number ofeds, suggess on th on and a continutio ofte gnl patte o th expason sow grow of h sious ublc mo rpid growth of t occasnl pc, bu lso the pnt conemen of the ean to the growng mde ca. he attitu o popular ducatio ws undoubtedly dTrnt n e new peiod nd sems probae that geneal ieracy dd ot ncese ad may evn hav decld n he perod w e Restoron ad the nd of e ighteenth century Jt is from th 6 th the gowth ofa new knd ofmiddlcclss dng pubc beom vidnt n drt relation o th growth in siz nd mportace of a midde cl deined as merchants, tradsmn, shopkeprs nd dminstati and clercl workers Nw fo ofreadng in the nepaper the pil nd the gzine accoun for h major xpnsion nd bhind hem coms the noel, in coe relaton from its beginin this paricular public h 60 London priing houss t the Restoraion hd becom by 1724 ad btween 50 nd 200 by 77 By the 70 he G(tl JH�e ws sing 3000 an issue nd eading newspprs were n t
y
he Gwh th RMdi Pbli same nge. h sales ofnovel incrasd for eampleJ Andes sellig 6,0 copis in titn months Rdk Rndo ,000 n a year Chls GQdO 600 in ew monts These dvloms ctd the whole trutr of eHionship� btwe wites booksllr and read and Defo could nO in 2 Wg i b osb B Englsh s Cmerc. Th Bks M E) T 5v \'ie, As py, Sb-\V al Oher o P o b �1-C
This olrvtion was conrtd by Gdsith ino the famiir qutidgm of
613 ol t b n s onvrted
Moe ha ly ta n he arlr ped t sprad of prn could b se s thra \0 rtr and leang and condmaton of light pdcas o wsaers and of nos ws ofn mad Ain ho we jdgement ecomes dcu wn s i hstorical persecv Th newspars and ecal d as thy o wee sm as new foms sote cul r gan wil pptio of the novls must sn as a mao rary cotrbtn comprl n imponce to th hgh Eibtan drm, wich h"d itslrsted on a lage mount oiferior work Yt whle hi epaion continued thr was rngy ltte cnge n h nl outpt of boos. Untl weU fr md·eenury the anua nmbe of ttl remain wha it hd bn n th svnteenth cntuy ad p of 0 opi oohson's D too mo than four years to sel. Vhn ook at pric, his sitution becoms clarer Pope' Iad sold sx gunes te SC a olum o laren dons o at s. ckss at £5 anwhil nol were sold at 3s boud, or 2 d unnd per om ta o oes cold e oht fo 8s t 35. 6( whle Robn e, dirnt form ws aala 5 t
m
84 Lng &i hese prc book-buying ws obously socally limited, and it is sgnicat that he gheh-ntu publi depened to a considerable etnt, on deices of coorate bUYg. oprietary lbraries sally attahed to Literary and hlosophicalsoieties, dlt mainly with htory phlosophy poer theology and scien Book lubs devclope m�y tow buying more generaly For tO the rcuang lbraries chaacteisticay rs pominent in the spas, 6d spread rapidy though the subsrption at lowes and per was again alimiting faor Evennwspa their pices rekoned in pence wee wdey read rough coeehouses and cbs Thse faors detemined the rate of epaio of he middle-class public but if poplar educa tion had been betr a more neral expansion wold have been possibe, sng smilar deces. As it was the demad fr amanacs capboo, balads, broadseets and paples sems no to hav slackened and may weB have icreased. Paphles sold at 3d to S., chapbook and broadsheets a Id to 6d ballas a d to d and we know of a las one pamphet selling 105,000 copies in '750 A nmber of ove w sealizd i nwspape d hapbooks and it sems probable hat in London and he arger towns the eang pubic (an e read-o pubc) was reasonably large. It s i the t third of th cenry that ew acor ent hrogh he Methodiss who gorousy organzed popular readng an produced ract to serve it ad hrough the der Snday-sch movemen he beginnins of a moe gnera xpansion ae isibe he rse i ticl ieres produed a tuaton oghy comparabc wth hat eore he Cvil Wa. In 17 6 rice's Oburalns 01 Nure oj Cvl Liberty sold 0,000 copes and in 791, Paines Rights Man, evn at 3. sold 50,00 copies wthin a few wees and in its cheape editio sold very wdey indeed thogh the saed gure of 1500000 is diclt to believe It sees ear tha the exnsio of poliical ierest coniderably broadend h readng public by colectng a new elas of eade" from grops hardly ouched by he arlier expan-
Grw 1m Rd Pblc sion The anal output of books was now also rising sharply and averaged 7 in the years 1 7921802, as ompared wih the 0 a whch it was sill stuck i the 1 750 e mar o pice, a uios situation emerged i his perod i tha the odiay price rose ve shapy ae 80 and small edtio a high prce bame more popular with publishe than lage editions a mid-century prices. On the other had te st eglar cheap repits date om the same h and pa at as low peiod; Bl's o d ollowed by othe stdard reprint seris cluding on The deveopment of seralization whch had ben popar oughout the centry was a noable adane, ad while he orhodo ubhe went on asing prices may newcome, sing evythng fro respecable reprint ser to iang and ndercting permanently enlged the booreang publc o a pnt were came io propoton with the expanded pubc fo newspapes and periodicals Once agai the basi tends of the growth of a eadng pbic areein b he perio now beingentcred broght so markcd an inrease in e pace o he geeral pansion hat he problem of proporon beame acute. The rcal break to a vey aid expansion did no come unil the 830 he gneraio of the Fre Rcvolo ad that of Petoo, wa deepy aected in its reang, by th poca cisis a umber o wa The eighenh-cenury epaion conined along familiar lines wth a marked ncrease in th anna ssue o books from 372 i e yeas 1 720 to an average of 580 etween 0 and 1827 A large part of ths nreae wa in ction and direly related to he suce of the circulaing braie The annal isse of novels r sharpy i e [780s ad wcn Lcreang at a rapd rae Yet book prices alo contined to ris ad the readng pb did o increase pporonately with the incse in titles The ordary sie of eios varied m an average of 0 formoe seros works o about 1 50 fo a ciruang-libary ovel. The most popular auhor Scott sold 000 copies of Ain n a yar at 3 6d, and 100 ofb at th sae price in a forgh These gres repesent ony a
8
Th Rlu s a rsult o th 870 duation Ac. he as history o teay he centuy s to e a seady panion lcd y he town (though unvenly ewe new and old) and y men and this smple epanson was als a scady developmn of real radng apait s the length of shooling nreed Whil th panson aected he readg pulic gvng som basis or amp fo the rada n� Sunday prs it s leading o thiothegene�l xpanon ofhe readngpublic a t this time in simp raon to h uon but aso n agazm and f ay No only in newpap th pandd readng pulc at midcntur wa still wll blow the lowt possibl stmate for geneal tay he true history s muh mor he ringing of heper reading mattr to the already ltrate p of the populaon If w make a rough alulaion of the siuaton n 830 and thn in 860 tranlating sales into eadhip and xpring hi as a prcentage of the adt ppula ?O we nd the following ults Tn 180 te pubic radmg daily newpaprs is abot % tat for Snday newpapr us over tha or magaines aout % and that or ocasional roadshs about 0 In 1860 e daly newpaper pulc as risn to % t Sunday newspapr pbli to 12, the magain puic o neary 0% All thee gres ar wel elow the actualy ieate poporto of the poplaon, at iter period. If we tu to w nd a imilar ate of gowt n aual dition hogh the nber of tls had grealy increased Where Ldy f had sod 200 in a year, In Mmm sold 000 m ts rs gheen month and th Ls � ncn R 46000 in a hap dton n ction Vl T' C n 18 sold 5,00 n he t si months u ths was ecton While Dens and Reynolds gh reach 1000 sea orm hackrays estimate of his eadership in 8 as 500 and a mard suess lik Georg Eliots Ad Bd sold i i st yar 0 in its oigina edition, and 100 in a caper edition t would sem that the booeading pulic, a midntury was still a tiny m nority thoug it was crtaily incrsing bo as a proporUon ofthe popla
i
u
e Gw h Rd Pbc ton and in a gus Howeve wth the general epanson ndr way t reationship etween what an e called the itrary puli and the mor genral eading plic was signiicanty changing The dierence ad always een thre ; te prognosticatng Almanak had sold en tm more widely han Pd /, j t as he Nw h Wd now sold tn im mor widly than m B. ut the dispa atua gu now becomngsaring and the amila amnt abou quality wih the deeopmen oa 'ma radng pubic acqurd a new ·geny n fat s we hav sen te w no ' mass publi a this stag n the most popua fo of adng, e nwpapr thre ws o evn a majory puli until our own nu Sday paprs reachig tis stage efor the 1 9 18 war ad daiy paps ae Yet te n ofthe rst po of mjo panso n te 8o e outne of th new pblising tuto was snty clea n e 830s, b! o a a inrasig ae the adg pubic was eom i g lge nough to ta nw id of specuato. os dscition of witng a a ey onsdrable Bran of t glis Comm an of i organiation in h typical foms o aptaist indusry ad ben a arat foeight o a itaton wih oly y eva ielf whn th mart became ly arg. B in newpapes atnac in oadsheets Loyd in peny ction were he orerunne o a new kn o oganization. e polem ofditribution was rial and in oos y the mdle of t inetenth cety th sucess of th cirulating libai had reahd th pont whre he tastes and demands of thr propito had an importan ee on wha was publshed At the sam te seing that par o h public h old aord n annual subscription of a guinea (at a me when the avrag lowrmiddlcass ncome was £0 and th middecass ang ws £1000 th iulating liies tndd to eep pries igh and to imit paion Scveral ao comiJ to bea trough thi ituation, ad to revoution the distribution not only of agazin and nepapers ut o ook he raiway sysem is the most evdnt for
Th Lng &voio
ws
1
W. H.
the ooksalls t the ew statio otaly those o
Smih, ht h pulc could be reched n ew way.
he c hap Palor Liay, d hn e Raiwy iba oured though th new ot: h yllow-acks with ng gossy lustratd in colou nd caryng advrs on thei back The at tes wr whdw from ncw wa paprs, advrtimens, ad pape inng machnery ss pre ng ing apidly improe and ew paper-ak ) s (spato from 186 wood pup from e 80 wre sccs fully delopd Tc gea icome lcl was rsing ad t ly rapd mddle and lowe mddl clsses in picul wee s w expanding in a chagng ocit nd economy T� t the peio ofoppoity, ut whl h speclatos szeold h plishe of traditional ooks, largly tied to the lat circuaing-brry pubc wee y slow to rec. A IB8, Matthw A'old obved A or na gos more vz
a a rea o readng cm t preal mre widey, e sysem hi kees up te re1 exrbta pe ew Egla he y ledg ibraies ro wh � are hred, wl e ee be as i is ccnrc aral ad usaisr n he ghes degee I s a mahi te mpcao and prio o bad lera\re, anfo epg god bk dear.
:
nsed of nw wring of qlity ing immedly al at he low prices now posblc h mark ws eng domiate y lke awdy a cheap lerature hdeus and igoble aset, ay sais, d
r raw nve hi a e bkles f s prodced or Ie u la i hih see deged, as s muh else h a ' stadrd of le p or mdde-lass seems deg r ife.
roblms o It wi ecinly help u to ndesd the d ofjudgiar k paion we rememer n ths now fami o te 'midle et Anold ascripon of a low sadr hd from s class . For th eal agumt /ust e dec low or ordry confuson wt vicaous conemp
h Gw h Readg Pubc
91 soca group. e whole rue ou chp lture . h ben opoid y t us a afoofcla-dsinctio wereas he r proem aways th rlaton e\ ieprice a th way his s mt Crtanly, in a mitd way it wold do midde-lass peop good o rmbe hat th probms dd ot rve wh wog_cls iecy; t w mdl-class goups d he ae mistaks and wee a eey xpoied shal nevr see hs rolm stai�ht if we convet i to he ruly nds ggr n! o ?e vd (he mos corut cuur ow g B I� h oad rge ofughng t h cc woig ces Im 1Hr Da's Dy to k fm Hte, from th Da legraph o the D 1\rr an ·om h veage t End rv to h parypice wc youg ucad pop p musg Omo ccs) To b agast ope wo fac e w poblms s a rivial eaion o the ral su which Aol hough himslf a s ui ofjust his rrr oth dened nd workd to reso n. h sond hafofh nneeh cery h size of te ubshg duy hs ' Brnch fth gl Commerc :wa gwig y rapdly J t ws a impotant ncw period I t exp io of magaines, and n bks, vtually, . ceap rep ses f andrd itcrat to thr plac ngd t yllow-k. igprice crculag r owl dd, and y h ed of te cnuy cheapr hbras otably �IS' from goo wre takng r plac Wh a e pubic Te publc liri grow g owly om md-cuy dded cragy mpot ascto By 90, e chactic mod forms of orgaaon o h rcing pblic had e iscoed and s d both th d" atags nd i liio were d he hsoy ow cme o o xpo wh hs form grt pon n nwsppcs d mag wil stdd epraey book puicatio, t nua isue s from O n h. I5 o 6,0H 901 ad to ,379 n 9 aUg dung d Jus te Ft i was ac to 129 nludg 90 ep in 94, and by
�
-
The Gt the uar J
Th Lg Revu
publ was n f esablshed, n nothe wy hs ws hug he uon of he Sudy pper w atulrly frm he oo on wholly deent chter and fntn frm dly pess Polclly, hese ppers were rdl bu her mn emphass ws no plcl but a mseany of maera bascally smlr n ype t he older form f popular lteraure: bllds, chpbooks almnacs, ores of muders and eeuns. Fom 40 n the most wdey selln Ensh newspap was not e Tmts, but one or other of hes hep (penny) Sundy papers In 55 wh he removl of he last of he tes on newspapers the dly pess was nsformed A chea (penny metropola day pess ed by he egraph qucky ook ove leadershp m papes f hc ode yp led by he ies, d aned apdly n epdng lowemdde lss t te sm provc dy pess ws rmly esbshed Wh mrovemes pnng, w fang pces or wspn and wh ralwy dsbu cclaos gew rpdly and were od 00000 n 80 Sl, hwever e Sdy pss ws n e led d 90 hd reched 720 wh edg pe selg eary mon. n th t 7 d ! 80s menwhe ew kd eveng per, n muh f s jnlsc meod from he Sudy pess was suessfuy lnced In te os afe pod ofenewed pnso n ppu l peodals h spead of e dly pape hrough e rapdlygrown lwemddle lss especlly n he ge towns ws noably forwadd by a chepe dly paper, the hlfpenny D.a/- a onsous mon o Tmes for a derent publ h bss f e hane was eonm the substuon o he ld nd of omme sppor of new revenue basd on te new mss advertsng By o the daly pub had lmbed n a st qute gadul ve to 5O000 and by 10 o 2,000,000 he Sunday pre was stll wel n he lead, wt s older ad somewha derent pub n 0 aer h dmnd fo news n he w he dy publ ws abve 5000000 d the Suday pubc bve
by
9 1 I ws now n he peod beween he ws hat epnson f he dy pss wokng cass ellyb n louh by 7 he duly pulc ws sl mller h he Suday publ hd bee n 90. was ow also h th rnsformo of conen of the dly p ers adclly ourd he course of ace or ulaon d hus for he msasng revnue whou whch he ppes woud be Un e l The \J ws oveken y a nw typ o paper, he r whch crd he o pla pape and maazne mHny mh futhe hn hero mte lealy vsble n hanng ppear ne [h ull epnsn, 0 somehng lke he ful redn publ oo plae e dy press dung the Seod ar eahn ov1 15,00000 19 Te Sunday press mea whLle, had creased t ove 29,000000 Te eay seep �\es nd he eal esabshment f ouar pess, occu n he Sundy press bewee 910 d 17 n the dly press ween 90 ad 1947. was an elshment mv, s n he les, for he ess s a whole h rdo ontn d mehods of te Sundy sn e s, nd seod tems o he nw ecomc bss newspaps rnin a oss d mkng u wh e eeue from mss' desg n hs sme peod, ow er ew ye f Sundy pper Ob ua is ensslY mg e mehods o he ode day press won a ow publ we he sng oldersyle pps also makedy ned Dun h last deade ofh mjor epnon new type of ppe he Da 1/o" tok oe leadershp om he xpJJ and s nw clearly hed h n even fuhe pplcaon ofe echnqe f combnng news shee wth a mscelany> nd nvoved furher hnge o ppearne In me and nen the r dr ptly n he tradonl Sundy newspper py on te echnq of the new dvrs whch ws ow te dly paper's emeral bass he 1950, he geeal expanson ws sowed he whole redg puc eeely coverd nd what h e hppned and s sll n he 0s connung happn
PPCS
2
Te QI Rtn
was a knd of polarization, w succss goin on te one and to the m exrem form of papermisceany, on the otr and to t mos clearly suiing newpaprs of te olde style. Papers repesentg carlier sage ofte mxure bewen newsape and mscellay losng rades* Now te qusions one asks from cadna points (wch need to be amplied om e fullr accoun at foow are ese Firs, wa is te eal social basi of e popuJa p as ow abs ? grew in cnen and syle from an old popular leratue, t tr va ansoming fo: e vat impovement in poductive and distributi � meods caused by indusiazaon second he OC caos ad h widning france agai caused by nsiaiaio and th strul fo dmocracy; ird te isiution as a sis or nancn wspape of a kid of adertsig made ncsay by a nw kind of eonomic organition ad a denty oraid pubc itracy was not a rnsomin acor sl een sppos g at the 1870 Act was e bass of popua acy, whc t was no Tere wre eouh rate adus in Biain n 850 to buy moe an te total copis of h now sold eac day. Literacy was oy a aco in trms of he othr caes n skngmpove i th popa prss, refore wile is wise work fo a ghr eacy we sall only arive a the centre of th ma by skig sos about e social orgaiation of an indusria societ abou s economic oranaion ad abou h ways n wich is srvices suc as newspapr re pad for econd wat s e communicaionb o the popula pr The eieenhcnury dtr an the ninencntu Ti had as heir bais, image of a paricular kind o eadr in an identiiab ca o wic the owne and journass temsves belongd e wnie_ cenury popula press as as it image, a pa·icula fou whic beginnng peraps i h 840, as bn rapidy eloped since te nstuion of th nw advrisin in t 90s ormua is tha o h ' mass or mass a par icular knd ofmperonal ouping cresponng o apcts
Gow ft pu ss
o te socia an industial oranaion of our ind of capalist and dsralid society h ssenial ovely of te wentcenry popua pe its dscovey an sccessful exploitation of s formua ad th impotan uesion o ask abou i while i is w o atend to e eailed device of the foula is a quson about te rla on of te ma fomula o h actual naure o our sey o t xpansion o our cultur and o h strue for scia demracy ese questions a a onc te mans of unde nding ou press in some depth and te mca:S ofundesand te natre and conditions of U xpandIg ctr to whIch It is so mpota a i To ask tm, ad toloo or answes in t il which hcy open, is t ra sequnce of ou acual pss hsory Wh w hod to stin formlas we shall as won stons, or be lft to th strle debate twe ose who say that at ay at e ps is f ad hos wo say tha at any pice s tial and draded ed o et byod ts dadoc an th istoy of te prss is h means u ow o aca hitoy sve priods 66 6 early mieclass pcss 686 th suggle for pr fedo an t nw poplar ps; 183655 he popla prss xpading; 8556 th scod pase panson; 86920 th thd phas I 9o, eansion compltd th 950, and he ew dnC wt acivd pansio. ) 6656 Thesory of te foundaion of he Enlish rs is, in sge he sory of th growh of a middlc ein pubic Te s alf f te gcnt cntu S a cca priod in e xanson of Engis cultue and te newpaper and peoliC ar amon its most importan produc tgeter wit h popula ovel ad e domesc drama he epansion is sgncant in a took place over a wie range an at many de lvl dvelopmnt of te prss fuly elects e range ad th les, and ses a pat
The Grwh h Po
Th Lg vlti and shipping Of hom nws a prcipl itm is t Pices of Stoc Cous of Exchng, ad Naes and Desipon ofrons bcoming Bakrup ' Lists of epot and impots are gin and af hs co fw iscanou ts of suh oth news as marrgs deahs, and inquss. Fnally comes e mtial which was in ct to sustan th igh nhcntuy nwspapr h body of small commeral dverents \Vih th growh of r;d his lst it b c meor tm h p" ncipal fetur, and h 3 convy mrk hs mphass. 1 bgn a strcly comercil sh ad then rodnd ilf hen adrise ments wr �hor, to nclod bes ad frest acoun of ccrrenc! oign and Domek ' 1\ beme he ladng md-geenh-ceuy nwpaper ad e rori i gav to adveisemnts, puting th a an ew on fron pge, iad a foa of oio suequent ipor. At the a ti howvr, broadr e of the rsing las we bn serd any ev<s, b e per odal p. Th dy ewps asined om pocal oen, no ecus om wa ogh uessy beaus i od obvouy e ore con ney one podia publiaion o Wk "w s th rs of hc poial peioias, ad it had any scssors nd mitaors he was alo owr, h nd r soca ommary o mannrs nd polieraure d he thae hi was m by th ar whih agan was wdely itated. er th rs phase of sablen of thes class of prodicl a wde paion ook plc bwen 730 nd 16 h word magazin' convenenly agaars he expansion, bginning wih t n 730 and goin on, n rising sale o h L ai, th a agai, h Tw Cut a xf \g, he ae ofai, and e ad a:e Maga{i Th pblicaons usrae ey claly th broadeing cura aiios of the cassofead hy srd hir coens ary n uaty and ntention fro oriinal wok at can proprly b
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lassed as raure though poite jouam to an obvios diges function It what one hs le nd o cogn as charaeisi o such ag of pansion in a culre: a rag o pbao serng everyon from the wo wa a -hand acquainanc wih fas lrau nd opon to hose who wan he n sumry nd connnt form s a means of apid cua acquiston n th whole id is an pessiv reord o work hog i mus ot b idlied he much gd wig, but also uch self-conscious < pedigsd' stuion as and bhiou and som exploiaion of such ccopanying nes gosip and scand abou proient prso hre o ony ees / b r de a Rir Mls ele T y ws he aho of
Ma f i bh S o ony Johnos eay i e UIs! h/ bt also e Gr e o ; Uir i,
omprsg a t 5 ro fu or eeanig i aga iew oe o o aoad Te ac w a u pa so all i levls of intres and seiouess ad oe w o of te lves eplotd h han srvd awh, h daily newpapcr wa ngng aike n cs, orgnizaion, d abio Ineagy, fatus at had ben f o h piodcal ps wee eng asorbd to te daly papers : come geeal ws ad mgan ter sch as hcaral noi g litraur and ws hs pnsion took plc on e bsis ofa solid and growng ommcal funcon Snce th 4os adring had grown in olue and a succssfu nwspapr ws an ncrngy protble bsiness entise On ark of hs dlopmn s t bgnng of a n p of ownhp rdnarily h pap had ben h propety ofprinter who had wlcomed thir reglar prning a a way of kping puly occupd Frm sideine paper w bcomg in so insancs a main civty a dvlopn wich a whol is ot cople ul e eary nineteen century In ths stuaon th oatng of join sock opans to n
6 T o Reouon nepaper e ine bing id agen ather an pot a a natura mmeal depme of th ime he ir u ompany a frmed H8 o un the oo < and the hange a la [0 b f cnider abe impan. Ciulaon ninued e. A ttal anual al of 200 i ' 1 1 had eom 000 75 Rad hip a muh ag thn aI f m a ere aken i by ee-hou and imilar intituin than by pivat individual. The iing of th amp Duy n 7 dd n mre ohck h panin han had h gna mtin. Te me a oming fat, he h increed po pit pap uld apie a ig plitica atu h politica imtan a alady ucny g nied make hm e bject o ei Goenen bby : Valpe, / eamp, pad m than £0000 t eae and pampe i at en year oh adinan time a mg he the fedm oth p a a pa inttuti in on ight ould euy clamd e ey e i th a t feedom o epot Palaay peedng, ad e the edca ad ben n te an Ca bega et aamtay debae 36 in he C/as Jaga<. n n 38 thi a dclad a bah o piege, Cae coinued t publih pot a the nate f li and in 752 umd dire epo i nly he and lt lte of peak name h battle a n y on ut the clam had been takd F nxt the quarte f a cenuy h freedm ad liia tatu of e p dominaig e n i dvelmn h ne"pape had brkn ut int th e make and had popercd t no ugh ih all the h hiy had ben mla ak a gatr ha in th gvernmn f he unry
I
(ii) 1 7608 The t ume f Wlke No Bo, 6 i a c venien ntodun h ong battle fr independe ilk ote
0 ibe t Pss is e b r t a n ad l t d rt bwark h ir<' h y y e d f h decad h by had ben takn in th emarale i of Ler f n n a daly npp he old mmia kind e Pb 1s Ten, in ' a ilk intigatin \al ap bgan pning fll Pliamenay rpr� and rig thugh ot f mally t ade a uully ded Thi victory h v a ome en by Lod Manldudiial inpetatn o th la f lbel n a ce arng fom a uniu le hi had th ect omakig he n rahr han aury dide hth a n pubcaon a ibllu, and ere eral pren and t< on pnt inthee m untl h Lef 792 ered he decn of uan to ure. Yet he ndidal inter red t r a a hol a uya n e ya T y mpora neaper te o hoe ad he \og P foundd 7 an 72 ectiy. tee te ondo daiy pe had rahed th cginng i pitica eal met. h me lloed n '785 Althugh t tam y had en agan aed n ] 7 crclao coincd to gr he 00000 toal anual ae 73 ad eom 12 20000 in 76 ad by 8 J a 0 ach 422000. I J 78 h r igh Lndn mng a i 790 fu DtbutO had bn mpvcd t by e o ing f he Mai oah i J 8+ and thn in 1 785 by h paain fneap diibutin frm the odnay mal Te ula evenig ape appeaed a el ofh mpvemen in 88 he hih gaind a irculan f 20 he I" folld n 8, ad eahd a icu lain f0 The leadingmonig npapr a hi tim had irulan ·ing been t and th huand and a pot ld b hn n thi he h HQ Pos temparly delined in the 1 70 cicuatin fcl t 0 bf le a theaned Meah in 79 the t nday pae, he o, ad appead ad ao led by many ho-lived mtao ad by her ded
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Evr sic s priod thr has een an imoa facta sp wn h ' paupr prss xressng new inds poltca and soca onin and th 'sctae pes, advancng to nacal ndependence and dora dependnc win trms of' respectae opinon It s asy to wrte th history of h prss n trm of h latte aon b th hstOry o the indpendent adica prss is fudamtally mporant Agans pn pn Cobbt \>Voor Carl Heherigton and mny ohrs fought hard and wll and h Chast prss w an potant tmporary succ Bu the cnmc ba of such papers was and has eand pofoudly dcul. A h line s followed down rogh lachord and Lasbuy o h Daily Worku ad Trb o our ow day, is a sory of contia nancia pressur m by perst volutay r lpad /ort no oly y journalists ut y colcos ad slrs svng a causc rathr han a comca eeprs. The resoces of t rspcab pss, in advrsg rn ad orgaizd dsruon, hav hardly vr n avaal s knd of pap, yt he ew vetres ave ke comg, drec c!ao o ascs of pol hang \hu is dssg prss, istoy no oy of junasm t o pocs and oo wud e vy er T ac is tha economic organzaon f h pss i Brai as be rdomany in terms o th commecial middl class wc th nwspaprs st srd en pars oganizd n hs way reached ot to a wid pblic, thy brought in h nw eaders on a maket basi and not by mans f participation or gnu cmmn anhp h nw public appeared n th m of Cobtt the bgiing of th� long hiso was evden h communty as a whol was nO providing is nwspaprs but havng hm providd or t by parcula interests The radical prss divrgd, on pocal sis whi he :spctal p wet on to commrcal depednc nt only rom th Govrmn vualy om t sociey Th yars wen 820 and 5 n wch th depnden radcal pss mad ts rst ssaid r, saw
A
m mo to a w oson posing te ovmnt on Peoo, takg th popar side n t Quen Caroln Onrovsy seadily emgd a prncpal ogan of espcta Refor w a chrn ad gowng mddl· class publc. Its sals had racd ,00 by 82 and i h Carolin ontroversy ros temporaly to morc than 1,000 Wth ts mo adcal rvals opnly ppd movd ahad on th bs of s sold commrcial organzaton wh growng advesng suppot fm he cla whch politicaly prsnd a h Tm took h ad, raher than som oth pap of th am gnral nd, s due to h combina· ton of s conomic bs for dpendnc wth dcs v ds fo n the adpton of a om polcy n h crcal yas bwen 815 and 832 Te anoth, chnca rason From is fudao Th Tms had been cosey cnc wh mprvemcs in prinng ( was n fac fondd to aderts he nw ogoaphc pss) Now ts decsv pid, t was aways cnca aad s stam rng mach n wold pd h Ts n 1814 (afte epemes scc 180 rom 20 ss houy a was rasd t I I 00 and en 1800 o oh sds ad frt mpovmns, n h m c asd s by 187 to 000 o ot sdes pasio o crculaon had bn lmtd prvusly, by hs nngra faco Tu ts commecia staus its pocy ofmddlecass rform and cnca p gave Th Tms s dcsv lad h actos ar ineatd fo alk n is cmmcal political and chncl lmns h m was th prfec organ of the mddlclass rading public whch had ceated h npap p and was now ca g wth o a shae n th gont oh country eain oh spec of pre dvopmen n ths prod mus b bey noted. h mo mpont is th gowth of th Sunday paprs wos bgnings av bn nod By 180 had cculatos well aove thc f h daly paps wh a leadg crculaton of 10000 whch was no o b achd by h m nl 0 Most of ad ng paps we fo Rform and had a imporan polca
Th Lng 22 nence. At the same time however led by he Dach, hey were bennng to gie a good dea o space to detailed aouns of murde raps sedutions and smlar maera and aso to spor (racing wrstlng and przeghtg) From 85 on his tendency is larly mard and a typical ont page of the 1 from B L , dscbes is content as ' mbinng wih the N of he ee a h Repitory of ashon Wt and Humour and e ieresng Incidens of Rea Lfe whh pie mean a oumn offoreign news a oumn repor ofa ivly lecton meeng, hafa umn of general domesti ne an account ofsome musing cases of orpueny and a miseany inuding reports of two murders, a prnbr attempt, and a robbey he sye of reporing is diec and there ar only smal headlins Sine te incrse in Samp Duy al papers had ued smal and ose prnt, nd aoded any waste of space Al are onsequeny very dicult to rad compared een wit eighteenthcentury papers t should be noed, cidentaly that rpatd atmpt we mde to declare Suday newspapers ilegal but n spite of great srngth of feeing in the matter all te attemps faled. Whie along for the terms of pomic n this conext it sees probable hat the Sunday papers eached poorer peope thn id the 'respectable daily press The oer man deelopment in s perod w in ga ines The suful quarterlies werejoned by sc month lies as Bck (11 and the Ln ( 18� and by a nw type ofweelywidely regarded sndalo, iJ B whh quicy ahieved a 0,0 ccula· tion. here we susful new leray weekes and en in he eary 830$ the etraordnar y succ heap magazn Ch', Y and Sa, all fonded i 83 which achieved cruatio aryng beween 5000 and 200 - a de pasion nto a new reading s Howevr hough ntended for the woring ass hese mganes seem larely o hae ben bough by ddleclss ad wermddeass people who were sti sard of pri t was said in 3 tha a midleclass househod with
a
Th wh h p ss an income of £0-£00 p.a could not aord a ted daiy paper at d per isse, and it was eidenly to suh peope that the penny magaznes mainly appeled The expanion of daily newspapers ino this puic had to await the ne mporan legislaion aeng he press, whch iniaed a new period (ii) : 86- n 183, Stamp UY was redued from d to d and in 183 te AdversmC Ta had ben redued fom s o S 6< per inserion hse changs ed to a cosiderable expansion, boh in he daily prs, dominad now y Th Ts nd, more rcmakably n he unday press oug at eptiona mes in th enties the crculaon had isen oaoe 1000 is arag circulation n 0 as aou 000 Ts rose a lttle n 831 bu y 83 was dsncy lowr ha ad een in 0 Te olicl mpoance of he ape ws aready established t its nx hase o expansion dd not egn unil aer he 1 rcducon, and hen ms nay in he 40 rom 1 1 00 n 1837 clbed o 30000 n 1 and coninued o clmb unil i had reaced nealy 6,000 n 1855. Th su prising ing at rs sg, abou se gurs is hat te se n iculaton was not even geater fo h now had no real compto - the oher dali were all sill below 100 he key price for a d or d a paper ofones own w lmed to a stll naow ncome range. The Da Nw 1 86) reached a crculaion of 00 at !d but w nsuiently apialied and fel bac eanwhle howeer mke from nonal int by he rise of Th the expanson th one look for w taig pae in he Sunday prss Already by 1837 to Sunday papers he sach and h wee seling abou 00 an i and in he 1 tee is a rerkble generl re in a erey ompetive sphere The to tica paper a ys Wk ( 1 4) and he Nws h W ( 843 By 155 boh had crcuations n he reon of 0,000 e estmated tota Snday ciculation in 10 was 7500
a
T Lng Reu;l 4 aganst 00 fo total daly ccuton Here, t s cle s he phas of xpon o th mode commrcl p h contns of Sunday papers n he 18�s have l>cn ote an th ew papes of e were her ue succsos ake th prdomnantly Raical ton an n h co of ws At rs owvr o avod vn te d. stmp Lo)d Wk pubhed no acual news hUI ser sors nd cttous nws th ampe lutratons By 3 howev t had conod o th oldr style, nd dsnc· iv 'Snay pap look had ben stabished. A few examples ca be gvn Fom Fbuay 27 [ t s B' Py Di/c, ubi Spig Poi Gz ard Nwsp j Rom. Th m halne s Dag Con spacy nd eptd Violaton ad this s illutrtd y a rge woodcut and baced by detaled stoY Ths wa n odnay format, though t shoud be noted tha he numbr o te New of the Wrd gvs t (unconncctd) • Extaordnay Chge o Duggng ad Volation a very sall headln an no lustato h povnc of this clss ofjornim is in fac ot J to sck Thre is ong hstory of chapbooks d d cyng h kind of matea, especay n rlton to u de, excutons nd elopns hese ad been ecep onally popul n the ghtnth centuy and th woodcut llustaton wih ie headle had en typcal o th oma he contiud nto h ineeen centuy nd th crclaton of compabe cto smilaly epandd but he im c we e nwspper wt is vs met rvus ts poliical ncws ad opnon nd ts supo echnques s cay th m ctve mans of buyng nd slng th sme teraust as the ghtnth-ent nwspaprad absob a popoton of ' mgzn nest, so hes nent·cntu papes ab th chapbook ballad an lmnac est and a m caper price hs i he recuring cy he hstoy of ouna: the absopon ofma fomrly communic n widly yng wys nto one cheapy poduced and ealy db ud gnra-purpose shct Th nocs of h newsppe
Th owth Ie pua " busness hd, fom te gnnng set th coue nd t cea how ppropate thee factos of concntaton and chpns we cotnay xpang cuue. A wde ange ointeres wa bng og o a iae fom and t pione o ah xpaso was he cept a mot extv prit
(v 96 n 5 th l;s pnny of h tmp Ta s od n in 18 he Adversment x had aso ally dsppared hs chngs cam at a m whn th pess was lready expadng ad lo whn ncw chi wscoltio an in dstrbio wr ginig to b widly expoied T combn c of es cos was a nw and rerk bl phase of gnral xpanson efo e u o examne hs, howev, e should try o me some stmate n soc trs o ho ar th xpanson had arady gone, and of othe soc factor such as ltracy wch wee obvously o act i A dsncon mu be cly dw bwen t day ad he Lda? pss if w a o udrtd ths poc o xpasIO any ccuacy T mpesion on gns, m th begng of Sundy nespps s a ca dent om d of h daly pre was eng cateed for ro he ve day of r pubicaton thy wee ne pa othe spcabe pss, an, t s dcads ofh tee cury, th ras wcr ommony idntid as t low clas typical Sdy pape o 8s sold a 7d o a pa wh aiy paprs, ad a ts pce fw evn among mdl-clss popc woud nomally hc bought h The ey hee as n h arlr hso of th day pcss s byng by nsttton Nw coe-houss \ee tard whch aly hnr paprs an maga_ s wee avaac ad a ypica pce o eadg at on o t hog xtn hor mae possibl y gaght wa Id Paps we also colcvy bogt ad evn ra aoud i wokshops ut e pubc-house nd the barbs sop wee ncasngly h an ding pc n both
Lng vt ths places, Sunday moig ws th mst ppular im and s undobtedly is te explaaion h lea in xpansn that wa an by he Sunday pss in he rst half f the nieh nie h cntu; a lead it shud b noed noed ta hs been maintaind maintain d t our ow ow day Eve as he pie pi e of pap came dow and mr ppe col by pra cops, th Sunday paprs reta heir aaa aaa snce hey appeard o h nly day on whch h majory fpcpl had any real sur he gu gur� r� already ud fr fr 5 50 0 � 7500 tl Snday crcuaio 6000 a daly � shw laly ou te wo pubcs, anl he ispay in reaeshp was poby n grear tha his sice it sems liy that a r poporio of Sday paprs were cllecivey bough and read a h time. W i is r remmbed ha distibion was o a l<e dge sill nccrad n Lodn, mdcentury a Sunday prss ha can it wold sem ha b nuney cd popular was ly establishd i h pial, and ha h hio fh pain a who mst be rwin hse rms The daily prs padd, thug th rest f h cery largey io an expandin middle class Th hstry o h popular pr in nneeeh cey is hory of h epadig Snday prss amed a a laely dierent publc Bew 1816 ad 86, h piod of th 4 . Samp ax here w a 3 rise wspap sals Bet Betw w 6 6 and 5 th rs wa 70% n h quartrcenury quartr cenury follo follong 856 ris was at ast 0% and th maor pasio had ben. As a dirc es f e 1 855 ax aboliin wo new lemnts appard a cheap etrpolin daiy press, rosead ad ad a widspread prcal daily press Whe hse rose ourshd h Suday pape and h more exci\' daily pap aso achd ot to larg nw ciculans Condins for expason were exepioay faorabe this peid quite qui te apar apar from from e e ct ct ofte ax abliions abli ions atthis at her was si rgular mprovmn in pring tchis: te urly rate f 4000 in 7 had ben rasd to 20000 n again a ram which had 857 h prce ofpapr was faln again cs 55. i 4 45 5 but by by 855 855 was dw dwn n co 1 94 cs
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T Gw jtM T jtM "7 40s Paper duy was abolished i 60 and here was consdrabe sbsequ imprvmt manfactring c . qus h pric f his main raw marial cnind t ll Gena improm i commece ld o a risig dmand r adrisin spac altouh most wspaprs we sow o creae hei aes and ake l aantage f fthis this In he colci ofnws of nws th lec lec c laph lap h had bn availab since 7 and had en ruarly sed sinc 4 hoh full ploiatio ploi atio was o o me me unti h 17° 17° Di Dissrb rb to by railway was comg wdly ava avaiab iab, , and by 1 87 1 sleoun disuto o raiway boosals ad becom tablished ll s acto pratd wthin he gneral mod f he wh comy wich was cndet and epa pe oh Samp a ecame law onJn 0 55 and o h sme smeday day h newspap appar wih fr ty yea was o o ad a d h epanson f h hee daiy dai y prss Daiy Tilegh. Whin thre mnths it ws sen at ad by at d 186 a a ciculaio of 141 00 Th oin appead i 856 an e reducd o in 85 Wih J\tWS and as pncpal c cmp mpi i rs h had reachd nealy 20000 i 870 870,, 20000 in 180 and 0,00 i 8 8 Fo 80 nw machies wre prig at ,0 an hu Th Di Tdtgrph, wc se he pac in ths ris of he cheap da y pre was conceved as sig 'an iry ew public wh vr sw he wes and mo monhlis i was t papr ofh man on he kfeboad f the om omibu ibuss n syle had cea obious rcs frm the early Vitorian m bu i ws ot, fcos f cos \·c i th daily pr he wpap wpaper er to adp a liht syl syl of oforna rnall m m \lin o o h pioneers in s h s had be h and h bak in h 1 70, and w mus rmmb rmmber er a h Oian im was sf much aer in manner han a ay arir stage i it carr lchr eeed of oft t ha when ns niy uted wh lear ar
adard andd
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o of"spaes, hy ully e em e dire t k j! erav . .
TIe Lng Reo Reoo! o! ownes s ohe Teeraph w he he pni p ning ng am am oe e The owne bu Laohs ipliaion ha he sepaaon oiau and ounalism was nw is mpossil o ap. Th spaa on bwen wi andounaiss is la, in spie ooa sional oe oelaps laps beoe beoe he h e nd o h gheenh n and pnownhip had alwas been ommon Vha is ain ha L had a new kind opap opap in mind: min d: wha ha we wan sa human no he sud nw enan enanss o he tftgroph, no e aumed o be he s o o it and poliis ms no eads ahw Anold, obseing h sul alled i h nwounalism ounalism nw n e ems ms o onens, i is no no eall new ne w Bu B u undoubdl undoubdl n hs piod, an aeon o re, sual ioe and human oddiies made is wa om h Snda ino hs dal papes and aso o old paps lk h Am Pst. As al as 788 he J Jg g P had win
Nespe have o h theve n a n totay th eean eean f era eraure ure a ea o ae, e p of e dy O owever ew pap ar t o b;m te ptr pb.
h
h
The oan "mi1g t ha had d beom beom spabl u u unde ohwi (98 i ain pubshed pos p os o ime imes s Th ew ounais is mp mpx x base h xpansio xpansio was poding somhng nw ds i lls o seousness wihn h dail pess. Te pod o 85 s in one onesense sense h delopmn delopmn oa ew e w ad adb b ounalism wih a muh ga emphasis on ns han n he aionddn s hal halohe ohe enu n a pod pod whih saw h onsoliaion o senin om he middl a upwads upwa ds a uni uni o senin qu qu srong nough nough o ain onsiuiona pa! onlis mos nwspaps wee abl o dop he ani pamphleeing, and o e h pub h nws and a gulaed dies oopinion o opinion On he oh hand h ange n polal amosph had o a lage xn emod emod poliis o om m h pim pa whih i had in hap pess o ohe he s haohe nu, ad allowd h nw emphasis on a moe geneal news misllan
The rwh of the opua Pm
29 and a ew o h olde paps sd he sabshd asss wih a w and moe obje jounalis; the eeaph ad h new paps sd a nw ow ad ising midd lass, wih a new journalism in whih linss was applid no onl o poliis u o oh knds o news h odina aion o rad o h imS was h same as h la! aion o he alfpenn Day \a: l ll l bu ud and lg lg I mus mu s again be emphasiz emphasiz ha no ion o h nw jounalism would ha had anhng o ah igenhujounal i n he a ofude udeness ness and ugai bu, gien h a o pansion pansion h mphasis was now idn Eraordina Disoe Disoe o a an oman oman a Bmingham , announed h degaph in 86 uious ssaul on a mal, i 85; and so on an and d so on unham a dsdan o he ail ail ho rmand rm and assoaed wh he eleaj) wis hs hiso o h pap
t os rae a spue ta D r Rw
Suh ms a a heoumn dsipo o h hanging o a woman ind us ha a popla old im i hap a e was nw salishng il in h dai pss. hr is also, a hs m an ide hange n h se opin due o h ow reua us o he eegam Th old sl was a is ha o books a is wos, wha he lanuage eooks sll al jornaese whih has suid longes signal, in oal nwspapers whih lms muh les The ds o ompion o sa one on he wi ld o shoer senens and a ga emphasis o k ga kwos wos h s on on a gain in sim pi and ak oadding oaddin g on a lo lo in h smpliaion o ompaed sus, sus, and h disoing enden o he mphai kwod Th balane in hs sus has ! sn n uiaI n wspap sle. I n one ohe wa, he D elap w a pon. t shad wh e i and oes h ogaiao o pubi appals u was a lad n ogang pubi ions
220 e Lg &voiu (such brnn ng g 3,0 chldr chldrn n to Hyde Park for for the 1 �7 Jublee), and n selfadvrsing stuns such as the cmpa� to kp the ephantumbo, in 882 On he oer hand t wa sll, typogaphicaUy, consrvatve: at i to say it adhered to th dense daly pape' o which had beD establhed hed n the expensive expe nsive days ofsamped pape and which had aedy been abandond by the Sunday prs he eaer ayout and rathr arger headlins of the pr of the pio elf roughy compaabl o th nteth-century new pags of T w wr r freqenl freqenly y ondmnd an certainly nglectd To be d with th Sunday pape was rally what e cheap daiy pes fard Manwhil Manwhil from 8, a lourishng lourishng daily provincial press w bing stablished Sventeennw Sventeen nw paprs ofhs ofhs ind were esaished n n 185 aone, and the developmnt of nws agencis ncrasngy frd hem fom dpndce o he odn prss Th most sccssul rachd ciculaions of 40000 hog his is sma fo fo piod, he spead of up to 40000 so many of ese papers represns a cosidrae frhr epansion of he nwspaper puic ecase of hi pro vical vic al posi posiion ion they t hey escaped the compeon compe on fo for di diffrnt levels of h public whih was apparing n the Lodon daly press. Seekng to seve all the reades in h aa hy foowed a gneral rathr th any ngd pocy It no accidnt that sevral ofthem hav deveoped ino som oh bet newpaprs of our own tme he forcs maing for chap nwspaprs gahered stenth as the prss movd into h 870 an 1880s A unsuccssl halnny nwspae (t d Hany Nwspapr) ha appeard n 86 but there wer sccssful hal pape in h pvincs from from 855 85 5 In ondon th vng Eh came ou outa ta ta halfpenny halfpenny in 868 868 and was was n eveg pape pape te sventies and eightis, that th new stag of th thchap in chap inrst rst in sport, spor t, par par culy prss began Wh th rise of in football thc evening paper had a nw function and the new London evenings of the eighti (Een Nws 188; St 1888 wee evntually to found hemls on this as a man interes The n'g Nw was at rst unsuccessl, s a
221 poliica pae nac by he Consvaves ut wa made succssl y Norhie in he nine ies. By thn here ws a succfu modl S, wich in mhod is a lanmark lanmark chniu sch as th t h intrviw he coss-hading, coss-hading, and and American-syl hadns ad ben inoducd by Sad's Pal \i \ial al :e (f (fo od dd d 18 186 6 dited by Stadfom Stad fom 883), and an d thsand oher o her as as oh oh nwjouasm nwjouasm we takn fhe" by OCoos S. Connor pomised pomised 'Ve 'V e sall e dly h htt on( rti il l Lm , an i t I il uu ua ally b c ed i ih hi a I I c co o . The o( t te ess Q e da wl lll e dC C T Gw f th th Ppl Ppl P Pm m
tt l t lef, poine ed d d plai -spken . 'Ye beieve t adr f e dl jounal 10 fo o e er ea aiig ta r r polit litr rs, s, d a al l rre hm wit ith h l ln n e ettiry Uli liil it trratue - some umros m m patec ' a a, ata e ra o ahis and he a r of house: kp g g o ad CI, a ama.c c ad c crque alc. In our ]> ]> g oum w we e s s al o away w t th he h ha ac ed ty o bsl j jo ols s ; a e !en a wmen a u in th fOm r Ja o sa e preene a they a e liv ivg bn 'ah hii lS, i lhs o n a a mel by h e ad w -
ords hey u te tell'.
h scripion is ap t O'C 'Co oos poi i iss a dmark ot a vio Th tdncis ha ha n o d d in h chap mong paps w wrc now ig x xdd n he new product cheap veing paper. h sia novy of he Sa arr is tat e nw is isruo on n o nrst which te sccond hal of he ;tn cenu had rough s t about was 10W Ipogphic ic l conmd Fom no on th new
�
jom'nalis beg ega an o o o ook li li what i w. h rs ss of he Slar so solld 14600 pis s;; th Dai Tttgaph wa sl at aound 300000 B th eall y big ciculaio io wr s ll in h Sunda pre I 15 e total o� he Sday papers h ha ad r ris is n o aot 4000
lead g :pr a J 07000 By h hee d ofh hiis po o . tota tall �Icula laon w wa as aou 25000 and adg p pa aper, oyd' Week N�s, was a oo,ooo in 0 and 0000 00 00 I 1896 A preVo ou usly empaiz izd h gowth of a largcirculaon prss was fom the 820, led b he Su day
f
'"
he Lng ReftiQ
prss, ad xstce of rulos lke these bfor Nothcl, s a radical factr i assessng h naur of th Northc Rvolun. Th cots of thse scssl Sunda paprs ar what ne wuld epet from hr tadtion Jackthppcr murdc' for ampl, did much push Ll)' Wttkb ;lU:S wrds th heghs lso the Sund paprs gav h ns f the whole ek and re ths lo t a publ hch sll ar th epann nted dd not bu a daly paper (v : 11920 Whn th epansion f h period 185596 is evied mor csely, ibecomes vidn a he most rapd adae cm in th perod 850, and hat ere was then a sowgdown Cultin of daly paprs trbl between 8 nd 860 and dubd aga beween 860 ad 1870 Betwen 187 and 18 xpson is js ude 3%; been 88 d 80 ab t ohe had e mn pansion of culaion th rona day pss cm bten 87 and 8o d h ning pess as growng marked from 880 o Thr ar me exLOry factos i he prss idus ty tsef n parla th growg mprae ofa nw kid oadrsing T cmmrcal prosprity of t old nespap had depndd n a large numbe osmll aders mns o h nd now call cassed I oe media nabl bilpsing, th sle of d\ersng hd be ehngg sin th [ 80 but h atud of th press mad auous ]n prclar drs wre eremly resstant o an brkup in h gular clumn laout f thr pages and hen o an nceas in dsplay p Adsrs trd in man ays o gt round h, bu wh littl suce, and thprssu n nspapers o dapt hemsves to tcniqus dra from h postr (which ere eetually rell tohange th fac of ornalism) bgan o b suceful only n h 88os. Th hang had cm irs in t llustrated magazis th a p of purt nuds a smilar gres dtisng pis, soaps ad h other pierso new advertsng methds.
,e Gow/h jIe Ppar Press
Evtally, wh Norc i te lad h nwspaps drppd hr column ue, nd allowed larg yp and llusans It was notd in 1897 h e Tm tself as prmitting adversemenu n wh IhL' ya ago would ave bn cnsir oy th S rng wl h on pag o the Day Ma already hld rws f drawings frm h nw departmen s o raher basful m�n in Courtsy Svic and Intgr acqud h flagp bstratons hnd es change wer mpo'nt hag in h comy he great bulk f poduts o the aly stages of th fctr systm had ben sold wthout etnsv adversng ch had gon up many n ration o novlis and ng podut Such drising as e was of basic arls, was mnly y shpkep e lassd dvrtis mens wh he nwsppers had lw arried In hs compaately smpe has, arg-sl dersg ad te bradnamg of goods wr cessa oly t th margin or n gnuinely ew ngs I h sond half f h cntu; th ang deed bandng is spcay nal in h new pn oods but wa not ntl e 8s that th mpasis depy chngd Te Gr Deprsso wh n gal domated th od from 873 t mddl 189 hugh rn b ocasona rcoHres and loc stngths) maks he turng pon beeen two moods, nds o indusil oranza and two bcally dn appr�hcs t dsbUon Afer the rsso and i bg alls I "cs, hr was a mor gneral and gong fear of prdcv capay marked ndny o ganiz indsrial wnrshp no largr units and combns and a groing dsre o rgani and wher pbl contro th mart dvsng then took on a new imporac nd as applid o a nceasg range of produts as par of he sst make oO h, a full dlpmc, cldd trs ad peeen aeas ar tas ad apagns pc g y manfaturers and eonom
The Goth he Po/mlaT ress .
T L Revotin
Newnes sarted, and whih was to be a major lling-oint n popuar r ntl h 1930) ; othrs in the form ofgam bling (sovrign au-hunt £ a wek for l fo win ning gssing ompeion and so on. At las two o he latte were oon delad llgal, but by hn th ick had been don no only n ttn radr bu tig mony fo furhr invsmnt n thi nd o pr For ample oh Answers o 12,00 of ts t and a th end of a ya old 8000 Th cam h -a-we-for-lfe comon, atr dd al, and wih i sals limbd in the second yar o 2,000. Agan is not o mch h ournalisic novlty in h sit se hat marks h ad vane but h aaran ofa new kind of ales and adv tisi olicy e tenfold increase in orcli' ot enabled him to pand: t o othr periodial mic Cus Forgemo and Hom h hn o uyin he EI New and nally on he ues of these ew enterie to he Dai Ma. n 8 he lad day pa th T rah, wa ling aound 00,000 ops: a t nial rad xpanion i had reahd ately at prod orth, wh his hafpnny par ad on a diere cono ontion took th paon no L� nex sag A rt h Jis averae al wa about 00, and in 88 oer 00,000 By 190 i had reahed 99,ooo ad a nw riod had deciivly om t mt b mphasizd a h ont that by comarion with h Sunday ars th }Wail wa rela tivly tradonal n mhod there wr aderemns on i front pae ad h a nws-page W sima to h nw eveng ap n ayout wh sne-olumn hadlne ross-hd and a nrl htenn of h pae lood and wa ma o oo no nlik he itin moning ap i han wr matts of der ues, and t dominan of the pre in t immedate erod, ar remarkably imilar, in analytic erm to the se o The T1J arieri hecenury or s, it was bas on aear oncion of h onomi basis of a nwar a arg volum of advtiin intacting with ruatio; scond, a
e e
a
22
t w tchaly n te ad, bo n poduction and dis mehods ; hird t purud a poua olicl - th Imeri�1 sntmn in the Jail corpondig to th Reform sentLmen The mu. Just as The Tmes a�hd r: peak wh the Rfo Bil onoversy the At rahd I st pak wh h Soh African War. The Tmes ublic had ben th omrcial mddle las· h A', prmary, ws Ih or-mddle cas of ;mal bnmn ls and artsan The o the sucss '
o l ai wa o doubl the daynwaper_buying bhc th p:od �896-1906 ad then, wth is compet o to doble It bYhe outbrea of war n 9 he expanSOn but It must b remmbered that ve afe he furthe ncrease durng th war years which o obVIOU reaons brouht a coidably incraed demad dalynwspaer byrs wer ll n 920, only 5430,oo� a coard wih v J,00000 n 947 ar-scale xpan of th daly nwpap ino h wokngass pb dd not tak ac ntil h ya bwcn h was an th wa o 93945 Th Snday pre was cidrably ahad hroughou dd n this peiod 896920, which apa to b domad by h is of the Day Ma h bi epansion is again in he Sunday pape. y /92 theold 3000 nay wo ad a haftimes the oal ubic and a gue no to be eachd by res until th war ya of99. he hstoy of th te popula daly evenin and wekly pres throughout an expansion of hse yps of ap nto a public alrady srvdy hSunday pss innaly a discssions ofth hitoyofthe pss this fact nod n faorof h dea f a Iew blic whh had ad nothg n h 870 Educa tion At had akn ec h l novlty of this eod, m aain be mpa sid is a chang in the onom of newapr pubihng The ect of th Day Aa/ mbodyng he nw concepon on he exsg aers conceivd in older ways is vey strik ng T£mes, o coue had already bn outdisaned by he eap ad ths i oa tems, ms to rcord he l
I
The g Reoluon
nrig mphasis on th dision of th mddl cla into pper nd lowe scto sctons, ns, with h Telrap sevg th mcal lgr ltte'. From 7 he rculaion of T4 Tm hd be dlining; by 1 gaS it ws dow to le han it had been n 5 55 5 and an d i ws ought by Northl, Northl, afr afr a struggl wth rson The Telegrh, tself ouditncd b th J\fai, l rade slowl i ws dow dow o 18000 by by 920 Of h oth popla penny pap he Standad dned d ned hly hly ad ased pblcaon 7 hl h New also dclnd ntil lowered ts price to �d �d Ths Ths fac fac ae signii gniiccn ntt n showng tht th Aal dd ot ot s· only a nwdail nw dail pblc, U sustnta pa of he oder puc. Folowng Fol owng ohcl ohcl, , rso rson n sttd a dai ape of h new yp (1g Hrald ater Day Expss) n 1· The oter member of e trio o pen-w pen-weel eel pulsher pulsher Nwn hd trid ad aild w a penn ppr the Day COner in 1896. I terms ojourns journsc c metd te Eprs ws mre novel an the ail: t ad news o s fro pag om the ginng olowing he fson of ccf cheap eveng paps) and was the st to nodce same eadlins hen Nohce noduccd athe new ppe th Dai Mrror (03), wc fled s oignal des desgn gn s paper fo fo wome women n ut ut succeded whn was reducd o hapn nd tuned to t st pct trr-n -nwspap pap From 1 on rrr hd an even larger crculon than th Mal - reached its mon he dal ppr to do so in 11-E! Thus the chng in he economcs ofncwspapr pulhg le o chang n mthod mthodss of ownehip of farrach farrachng ng impotnce impo tnce ccsonlly, n ealer peds th same pn o proptor had owned two or thre smllcrculton ppe bu the ule, hougho had en the owrhp of a singl pap hr y prner prnting mily, o a on-stock company Now around the new d of specu at owne who groups of ppers nd periodc we ng collected o g gun Captl wa t p w t successul entprs h pennyweekl eld, then invested ew periodcs whch n eir tun wee the bas r
h Gowh h Gowh � he Plar Plar
"9 stt tin ing g nw p p pe o acqurng o olld ons T T us Anwe was cp c p aalizd to srt the Dai ai Mal and then h Daiy Mail w cpitali ieed th th t tm mee a a d daay y n nwspapr had gon to he pubc. h end o 1908 Norcle h haad n no o on�y group o peodcls ls bu he Dai Mal nd Dai iyy 1"or a I Iw nterpise ses s and Th m wo Snda p p per Obrv and Dpah nd an ng pper (Nw) acqud. P on at he sm t tm me, had h g grrop of peodc c ls saand t th h h Daiy pr, nw, nd Stadad E.enig tandard n ncludn ng g the St Jam' ' az ) acqurd Other sm miil lrr org rgaanzer were waing n h h ng nd mong nw ppes fondcd n th general way we th Sunda Pital (Roth theenere 1 9 1 5 ) , da Graphi (then Illusratd unda H a ald; Hlto ton n, 1 9 1 5 Hult lto on aady owned �h p C Ch hr rn ni/ SU d da Chrnic, Da Dip pa ah h k kech ch)) ; S S /da E,pr rsss (B �nd DOI (Ba b broo 9 1 8 ) . Ths s 1 he genel expanso on n, and condit itoned b t tee new knd of mass' adcrtsg the ral Norc ci i Roluto' i ak kng the .n h prss occurred, a .neewsp sp per fom its ts s sas as Id I dep epeendnt pr rv va nt trp rpise to i iss embership of a nw nd of cpit it list com Th eal as of th th twni ieeth cenury p po opul p pss w waas t th hus cv veel l l laaid -
(vi : 92047 (vi Btwn nd nd 10 her had bn n expaion o redshp red shp n nd concentraon concentraon o ownershp. A Aer er the xpnsion o rdrship cond, the concnration o ow.ners�p appred n new aeas aeas o o h h prss prss whl whl rlng h 1 others and, for for h h rst tme h whole hitoy of th prss declie began in h ctua num ofnews ofnews pper The pos and negat ct of xpnion a h basi aco aco wthn h perod to be xmd Expnson ofredershp of redershp took place n two phas 90 37 and 93 937 77 7 ]n ] n th rst rst phase ma man n expns expnso o in the naional daily prss d hs was pomoed, is well known know n b extraordnay o-onlistc measurs of th nd gun y the Dai grah and rpid devl�ped y wn, Person and Nohce Nohce th orgnzaton of
Long Revl1tion
d ad a a sua isu ing g of i thee oerin ig s, th paig amp d am ad ctio ons a fncti ly a i od fo he D wood uwo Su d by S ped ope vo larlly dv cular riicu w par (nw (n ip ip de h ea eade ih s wi oods ood f g ds s kid ny ki ny a f m g ig i e e Herald) se hse h i he he ch a ih w es e apes la pap pula popu alll e po al Si Si e e e e g, h isi eisi dve ciall adv cia mm mm mss of issiC fm act cteei ara har h an h ah han hip ah ship ads ad i i anssi xpan al xp eal ge was a g e be ad h as , p, spap ewspa ew din ng n adi gl a sig e f a si ge mge o al Oal ly O aily m a dai om h.. Fo g wh ioss f g io lie alie al i ea rma nrm d achd each ad e s h had s ap ap g p ng nn n al ial ai a h h 2 2 00 n 1 9 00 -3 5-3 5 ad ' e h el' thel th 19 19 In 7 937 93 1 n 7i 27 2 9 ad 99 9 7 i 9 7 , 6, 86 ; i 9 i lai cula ircu pu uss ir n-p linh a illi ih r wi apr ben wO pap e e d ad a lio lio o m wo w o abo O ab WO 3 W '93 e v v;; i '9 e w e w e 3 2, 1 9 i n d n l ad a t o d ued ue o co Th Mail ad c iion. Th a vcc a abv ab idid m tra aM. By te d Htr and e E.\JlSS an te y t by s b ,s p, en p then as th was U w bU s sses classe al cla cal soc all so o a o e acce n had a nsn pans xpa ies he x iies i g yi buyi bu y e a he h m im hs s i h a a ly h h nt ugh h hug g ig uyi buy hay b an q a,, an bo 00 a ya ab ps a oup gou inccome g in h p t oup grou gr u 0, 50, 5 £ 0 an an 250 25 n c c wc bew p be oup gou g h n h d a a s h les le s y c inc in g is ig n £ 1 5 and [50 byi n w bew be mcme c Te . T igh. y ligh iy ri par opa w £ 12 co low up blo oup go h in h 93 93 1 a t: ant: fcan fc sg sg ll sll s is s s ap ap p ay nday Sund h Su ith o wit riso paris pa , S, S 8 o a a ly aly a inss a d gain aga 0, 600, tall f 1 460 ay ta ay S S d od lll be o . It wl 4. ,4 ,9°, ns 9,9° gaiins aga 00 7000 7, 1 70 97, 6;; in 9 6 0 1 9 n e e twe betw be n s sn xp xp y d a S ra ra 1 he h1 ow how : a o: o ns pans pa ly a a n a an wN a slowN slo u 37 is mu 1937 ad 19 in hil wh !1aw ls !1a sals al sa i se i ase a s a 8°" ais agai as ag 0% as na n e e bu bu l a al a a si asi xpa xp i is s h h s s p a p ncia inci po oi the p . . c dec h de igh slig sl
h pi pid d had wh cosidale dicli h ps Nwpi which had £1 a o i '914 wasa £4 in 192, and £22 n '92; y ' 93 i t was dp aai [10 h ay yas o hih coss sveral nws papes cead cead pliai pliai d h mni cs o the op piiin f clai inoced his edncy e tee 91 and , he ne aioa oi pap eclied fm 2 9 ad aia da m 1 4 o 10 Poicial mi paps dcle o t h sa peid, a prvncial eein papes m 9 t
Grow/hh e Ppul ress ress Grow/
23
ss cli n e pca ld th 79· s ad wi
n s pmay cas was hc xsio o comine col it la aas picia pss an owneship o povil o paps ineased om om 2 22 2 i 1921 ad o pncia evin pap fm 6 3% 1937, 7" 431 % . hee wa al an iase i cmin we w eshp shp he Sday Sdaypess pess 864% 4711 t in h daily nata pss cOol y he Iadi omns am ss di h pd lin m 5% to 22% h ma yl e popla p was led etwe d 19 y h Daiy pss Th a maked m Ameica wspape pacicc n m yls and pac-cmosi e is also assla ass lao o o w eisi eisi Elis nwspap nwspap yles yles : a o isad paps lik inT ad o h maazi sy Sday paps The Eress s , 1914, has a sea sea hadlin i i sal s al yp ad en a pa wh diay sai-con se an mall hadls whi a lil o a coss-eads ecep a wo o may appa a ac iem By 197 ( ada hane havi ce in h a 1920) h hades a mh lare c s c oe illsan an h pa s mad i he now f tagg isaw Th nwss o 914 as } cls o oinay pin nw 7 l; 193 ExprsS ons y 193, e h paps hi yp ae a val imain o o he deeped x ha e !\a il as adisems s n pa awil awil he sa a h illsatd \; ;"" r and kech i oly a a hd o hi paps \ o pa dia pnd ew ewss. n h pid e '93 and 197 i spi o nwsp nwspi i ha d h wa w a is is hee wa a makal h h pas h ps as a hole oal daily sals ose m 90>7 i 1937 o 15449,1 in 197 and nday sals os \ m sily om ',0,0 293000 h was al a epaio i Lno vcni pape 16910 301,99 e pa o is epasi is mwha ad o a daily papes wo nw oo
is
238
The Long uli
such Aian laguag as Hdustani an Perian have velopd ad sparat, hrough history from a mmon oot. nd stl, i simple socits there sanalmos icredibl varaton whin iny regos so that viags SL, o ight mils apart ca o haly dersta on aoth or on an islad of 10000 popl the can b as may as fory ialc oen mutually incomprehsibl a gop vlops it o ay o li which may xten ovr a fw mis or ov hafa continent, it il part o th dveop mnt creat is ow [orms o agag. Th vy facor hich gves th grop ts social cohsion can become th factor cng it o to an imorant tnt from similar grops elswh B, on the other had ad specially no as commnitis com larger and velp gatly mprove commuication sytems crtai langag (of hic ngih i noably one) pan an ourih, serving as a common basis for may rent groups vn wihn thse commo laguags howver a aongside he powr fu tnncs to xpadd commuity of sech, th pocsss of growth and variao w! contie i dnt ays in iert groups spakig th cmmon togu Th variaions may beofa gional o ofa cls kin ad th c ofcl spe particulay impoat for hr he teio b commnity an vaation may e sn at its mt snsiv A class is a gop wthin a gogaphical commuy an no a commity in its own right I ceta eeme cass a class wll so emphasz its distinctio from he commity of which it is a par that it w nfactuseasparatlaguag: ithr one ofth varous hieraclangag sch Sanskt or, as in nietenhcnty Russia, a forgn laguage, rnch whch is thought of as a mark of cl ral suerioty Mor sally, hov cass spech will b a form of th orary sech oth rgio and th eations we his cass dilect ad th ordiay seech of th gio whch ll suay self b frther sbregionally vared om a omp of great importac i the vlopment of a languag In he cse of nglish th sesiivty f his compl
239 vryhigh a vrylarg numbr o Eglishmn have com tee an anxios abt h way in hich thy spea heir on anguage Ths roblem has a d beaig o th develoment o Eglish socity b is st o vry ceay �dstd The is comoly a ac o histoical pesc tv, a here a aso may rejdices boh hoc ad pactical Ye nglis has ben servd by many schola an hoa ad ith crtin able gaps he matria for a eter udeading availabl I rop t rviw te isocal materal as a way o ganng prsctive, a to sgges m h eviw, crtain ecessary clarcaos. !he period whch we ar o livig s of cptioal mportac Egsl ad h history an h theory w c suely all el th pssurs o a coml socal experce
Gowt f'Staldrd Egish
II
n ngland ar th Nora Conquest wo drent auags wre soke Frc ad Egsh and a third Lat as not oly the teaa lagage o lag was spoen ad devlop by scholars he dviso betwe Frch a Engsh as on class i; it is bst descrbed by th hoiclr known as obert of Glouceser• wriig i ab 100 ad hr translaed:
Tu me to Nrnd' d m m l sp ol i nd poke Fe j h id me. nd h r t e me pol f nk oy o e f blood l Sik Ie sm le tt i\·ed em fo m kw e l wi i i im lr J ll tk El d
y
B
U i 04 Normay as ost o the Englsh c ad he ch ofthc NO·ans egan to evo aog sea ae s, and w iucc rm Eglsh. ld Eglsh il had changed by his time, aecd by h Nomas' ech Gadually, a e languag dveoe, h pdct of both hes chaging togs ad at the egal cogton of English i 36, the groh of common aguage
240
T Lng
Reluo
.
w paramount, g a cogzably mrn form abQut 1 5, n relatve staby by a lu 70. e socia pocs nvolved hSoy ae ofget . net W can race he o elics of clss prejudc e an quaion of moal aliis wih cls name: h(t, villa, and chrl for the po; /1d,jre �t /olt, buasoand for the rich Bu a r pornt gacy was that acn the wh�l anguag of \an mouhs of he English pa during h sepaaon t uneucatd and te pwelss Thus ga r at of he vocabuary fl an pow tgchr th th bulk of the vocabula) ofa ich way ofhvn cam from oan souces T ony subtanal aternaiv soue n h ma was La and dow to h fourteenth cn ry h . was taught in t ama schoos thouh h dIUm of Fench Ofcors onc t common lanuag rg the whole vocabuary was thotically availab o B !he log conuaion ofducain resicd to a o, whch larnd Lain and Frnch as wl as spak wn lan guage ave his imd class a accS o h urccs of th own langua wch for h mat, remd mU h m icult. Touh widr educaion can rs�l ts, extenin the area f he uy ommon lanuage I prob aby stll ptan in tat o much of the lanage ofleanig shoul hav specIa ofss smp A fuh cnsequnce of th patcua htr he spting of nglh i many mo diaec than ld English had ha thre or four Iporant rna �ac bu win ths e wee mpoan ndecis n an language i is h vl ?pn
_
The Growth 'Stadd English
241 te reaon of the cere o h ouln a w more comp than hitheto Howver th cealizig teneci coniud to operat an slow ly th spech of the centre became accepd the basis o the nw com(n language h d t Midland dalec wi h se inuences fom ohr rgio bcae the bass of h oon lanuage of h cnre. Y it i lss he ris on ronal dialct tha e mrgne ofa class diact Th rg advana ofbe gspoken i an. aa ionl diact had reacn o h capial London and e wo univrits ofd a nd Cambride Bu e nw common laguage om mark renc from th spch h bennn showd f he ordinay iabian of hes ctie. f we y the spch w hat of London Oxr an Cambrdge w men the evolve common spch ofall tho who had to ke prt n ovement and lear c 10 hse cer nin raer han ofh jritis who a en born h n wtten laguage paull thI d\egene wa s uite vdnt and it w laly frm the frms of is wi n lanuae spokn by mn who had bn taind in ths e cnrs an one back to hei reions tha the nw comm n n�and e exstence of a com anage spead ove mon write language whn spoken si shwd h eult of reon S the rst key t the subsequn htoy of cl iaet in Ean Trouh th mergence of a com on wtt aga . ke rIna speech variaions sill cntind evn at t he ct ewn he sixtenh and e nd he egeenth cenuris, nlismn in touch wit cnal insttui wrte a langua, but sti n diiishin egree spok I n izaban ondon, he divrgn cs ofeducad spcake wr s quit arke d, but he sign s f unas and slfcnsciousss abu t we arad begin nin to show Palsrave in 1530 ake he rst rcorde mein ofa 'true
?
wrote:
kynde ofpountacon, and Puten ham
Ou makr herore at
th¢e day sl OI flow Pi "! plowm nr Gow Lydgou or Ca ut, f Ihei lguag w out T.
�
24
o ReIJluin of we ilh US; ether $ha he take the teme of Nothenme, 5uh a the n day take, hehe hey be obe cn o geneme or of he aks, a s a mater; no n !et a seah wed beyod he ve oTt hogh o ma a den b tha he s the puer Egh Saxon l th a, yet t ot so Cor or so uan : or Sothee Egh i o more the far Vstee man peh Y sha therfoe tae the ua seh o the ourt and hat of Lodon an the sr I about Lodon thn L ;, and no muh aboe . I sa ot ths ut tha e shre of Engand thee getemen ad othes hat speae, b a rte, good othee a e of Mddex o Sre do, b no he omon eope of eer he, o hom the etem ad aso the earned a do for the most pa ondeed; but and othe her w are aread ed b h'gsh Dtoa oo te b eaed men, ad heefore t neeeh oe oer dreto that eae
s, nded s th sap of ngs to come, but manw e wrttn langua as its stil cangg re ws a ve mpota accssion o Lan voablay and se orms, patcula n t sixte and ar svenent� ctures, alog pars of ts inene ere aer dIsivl rejeted. And ter was aso te valzing nec of t stll vard spc on e wtten forms: an nuenc at its greatst a t tm of Eliabeta dramatsts xtraordinary invgoraio of nglsh at is prod ca be sn as t ow of t livng and varied spee no te naroer ommo itten anguage. Onl we tis exnson had n mad oud e tndency toards unfomy prvail over te vared strengts of t spe . uttnam spaks signicantl of dctnares bu the real inuenc of sch nstrumens a neal two entuies aead e languae ws stiJ canging thoug me sloy an n prvious cnures, and cang n t ocial strucre of ngand er now to ert a dsie ec Te poess of standadng t wrtten laguage continued t growng condnc t e sou of te standard was no a mattr o dsp \en Pteam rote te standard as vdentl te Cour ad te Mtropolis wit an afterougt of acnowdgcment o arned m' Bu
The Growth f 'Stad English 243 he Cour ar the Restoration, with a forig n-inuenced mannr hat hd ashion or a perio was no longr n fac a cntr and Swi acknowng s fone pr-nence came to descrbe it as te orst school n England for tha accoml. shment ' mlary, dprved o the rea Court oma� pra in hs Hstr ofIhe R'al Scie y, ooed for a Imparta
!
Cou o loqunce accordng to wose censur� a oo or autos shoud citr stand or faU yt rommeded a e nake�. aural wa osaki ive expeon s; la e a n\e easss bgn ag;tin near Ihe mathc-
,
malIea as
a
a
Ihy can; and prefein the auag o
asas onrymen and mehant, beforetha fwis orshola.
T casstetu ofEnglad as now dcsvely can ging a t benng ofa o d an b esu med p as te eot ofth rsng midd class o esabs its own com spec By te nneteen centur, aer man mp mon . ortan
changs, 5 ad en aheved and
hn that we rs a o tadard gs' y wic stma nt spee : a very g from th itt dren thn n sandad' estashd so muc ealir ndd s amng as standad wt t mplicaton no onger oa comon ut o fa mod represens e full coming to onscosn ofa nwlanguage of e.ass spec ow no longer mrl t fn conp; iona con vnte?c f� mropoan c lass, ut t mean s and empass n I ofsocIal dstncto to e o ofs poss a mus now trn H
a svntn and egteent u sa a srenuos or to ratonalie ngis b �cnt num ofdenty ?0tva grops 1e Royal Socts er Comttee for
provm th English tongu (164)
sns the eor ofa n scentc pilosop to carify repr e lag age for rp ss of ts
own kind o disouse. A dirent gro ? p ung fro� Addson and S to Pope an d Johson, conc
d w te asnce ofa politstadard' i ne�
The n &vun society Yet bhind these itcua gups ee was th pactical prssure of a newy powerfu an socous midl ass which, like most groups whch thmsele suddy posessd o social stanig but cit in socal aditio thog coectess a systmac thng wch had simply be acquied Eigheenth-cntu Lodon aboudd splling-maters ad pociatio
i
h Gwt Sdd Eish' '45 into speling but into soud The pcil o foong he spelg canged th soun into ffmdntofd into u ito wh, sip ito p huu 01 e ito h, wkit into wi ad so on i a list that could b tediously polong Wos ike tes ae among the prsure points o tinctio betwe ed caed' an unducat' spcch, yet th case is smply tha th unducate o to the otries o orectn ave pe he taitioal pronuiation. n amusing idligh on ths proce s the dlopment, litcatue an joaism, o a othgraphy o the unducated' t has b o oft pincipal ammen o the nglish mile class to rco th hiQusss of pople who say w ven though ths can sp the standad ponunciaions h or cs�ts i supposing tat the odiay splg indicats ow pop popl spak We may look a one cas amog thousas, fom a curre deecv novl wrte by a Oxfod ns wife in whih there is an awf ot-coutry do:
)'
kSS
F 910d nn nd u ilns sld oodnl. Mr Lnk ou m v ofso np ' ( roound nd
\U
he diculy e is how a ice pes (wthout chilblains) wold hav ponouc them. If he ha followd th plai spllig his chanc wou hav bn as likly to b Not country as ayhing ls a s oc woul ot have been nglish at all Submrged i th dmostation infact, ae the udesod valus o ahC to mak it quite cetai and W but that belong to chil and the ioran) t icult to stimate wh people will ow nough abou thir ow lanage to stop ths, so hat ake preu dice o longr goes bowig raously down the stree eanwhile w ca try to s whn it s It is usc in lizabtha pays to inicat such foig lmets as \lsh soldics o omest pasans, a Retoatio ply thc ar the bginins of nr disictios, socially based, wheth in h actd pucation offops, or the eo'
24
Th Ln Revfutio he f those from outside th fasnabl word B s in ightent ntry in noves and pas, hat the al develop· y me is nceabl and fcrs by the nteent nur dcl th � it in spat J nd it inteestng t s bsid . mnt the actal lers o ightnth-nty aSraC -a womn whih oai suh ass and s gsy as these:
f
beween yo and I, Si Peg and me, m ople thins sa�\·e sartly lare lea) solars Frydy Mud, bed gm wt down o h ks j aoi e maH;, h wa ha bn wndrfull st, he s raale l agae 1 dn t s no lyhod of her dyn
(1),
Tes lers shw also a tne whi the axiosl ort mddle class soght t eform
belev shalble my Gts Qt beween ths and rusell sr
(Ae ns f Straod I was a er Gae oShewsber's w h s e red.oue in her al han ee he od all e Cmpa a ey a a sbe wa ery much OUI of ho o a ting owing p . htes lie h (nne ns oStr) I daned wit Ld ere and he s n t oa or I 10g si hi ae. Lad arah e Se s femenine he rea degree augs mos erly a a dyoe u ner k� one ady Saah
)
\ an of COUe see th stadad chaging witi hs lass itself as Ms Behn ound er st Mnwhi as a st ges t the rthgraphy of th dad w mig! st dwn in i rthX mann t spec a edated lat ightecntury getlman a�ordng 10 kown pro niatons tat lass a at ped
k. L
Ae h's a OU5 fller, f e a dd ps re bl
'47
Gwh 'Standar Enlsh fuer as ih was sme maran ofowcumb or reddses. And e wa a ap ad wkit le slant a i i hi ee ie some chay Inj Yo w a id IL s inrestng t se hw muh f ti wud nw s int t fasinal midd-lass sktc of vgarit etwee abo 1 7 ad 35, wat was latr ald Ried Stanard prnniation cagd markdly n o the cruil changs was the lengtning f he vwel in suh wrds s as and ph: nw a md of lass spe bt nti this perod a rgioal ad rstic ab. Bed ost its bled ponuation, as did almost a the word ad te pnunciatin (daing rm about in crrct Lnon speec) in wrs ke vn ad a als wnt ot, ect i e o wo wors such as clek ad De, whh, amusing a ow ig valued fr tr anma in lass speech Han veged twads head and m, as oe an still hea T ' r in mst wrds was frhr wakened mr mng wards maw and he digs o such words as atr diminshing to a mre glid o te oice opping t i sch wods as bir podued a nw and vad w sun i what reaed hs and simiar changs wre sad by imrd mmniatins, bt he main agncy· dbtdl, in ng hm as class spe was te ncw lt of unom in te pli scools I was a mture o oecss naral evopmnt, and aectaon b i bame it w mbalmd I t w no lnge on kind nglh r n a sef ommon dialect bt 'crrect Eglish 'god Engish pue gsh sadard Engis I is name osads of pole ha ben capab o h vulgar inlne ofling o nglismen tha ty d not nw hw t spak thir wn langag. And as dcatin was etded, nde mainl midleclass dirctin tis aitude srad o g simp a ass distnion o a pon wr it was pssible to denti he makng f thsc nds wit being dcatd and tusans o tacrs and larners rm poor hmes becam ashamed fe speec f teir athrs. t this aks on nto the cntiuig social angs of TJ
a
'50,
a
S
h m Rlu ly'' a�dcly itss chang av ben widc ip pl, it ini prin mad on tis pr u n B m o r l f ona re bly re zab rogniza an cp v in man plop h vlo dard wa mpy h ta Sta d S ivd css, ' Rciv reespc r r hr oh u c c o o e m a It n d a , fo f o cu uar Son c mt o a r e n p a s r c e il n il w . Ths, w nt. sss clment � s in pury ls tain ta ln I vol vo in of r lin gner he g h in ard was in nda ed Sand e R e ct of ,I� fact fa h e t b i i h t m o spcs i move away rsp t r ot urs eou ih h a particular la Of eo wi i g ini ing omin ng as accas t II broa n an t ion ucatio in ntnch in en am e a a b e m o p l d l n a ion io a na t on n et dee e an o ha wd t i 1g r p e op o guisic poss wa ing me t oiay lin im m i sam h sa h �ag" nec, n ?ccom?g iindsosocal � he ohr h through h IS ac ch iable as Pubc Scoo Engs , wc dni ra irrs wer ra i n rain ba ion crripio t dc at m accua s ag ga a o o b av ha s h gneral aoption and hs it g agains it a g I n h a g n and broadca ion t c in dcaio u a c c bc b , io io dccrable varia od co cce i alrady c tin ng, nrsti nda an sa acccptal The s ivrsay a lecct i no univ ale s da las thee la th o!ten a s i s r o a n e m m c o ineer o ain nra op po a of he p h lcc choo� or s pudo-American as Publ or x I aVdd b an lx nal compl on clas ad rgo ' e'llaive, a synhetc a . ub Shoo ghh Pu m, as ff P , ined fO a m d k o l o I rr-Reonal ph, bu It now h fctive In woul l h em quit cerain tha wil no b n te forms hn nd (an n (a ion s dis ncio as m for ca om thee fo d.. Ery u o th gd sag vsa env tss cac o hi of cos ha b widspa) ued. t caon c n d c h bomig a ru common sp ll acors ntull (fa ia a sucs (f g an maei ing anin a pow l rrong fel aon wa counte b ia makig fo its imi an r b o no n o a a n a i hum p i in h exp in i aain an y b n w o s h t s oul go wa wo a hing w wa rntm The w th undu of th ap h ' o�ogap on of h on g adapa ing sin is paru s gs g n E o o c S c off Pub y o phy d 10 an orhograph d a hee Bs f o lieed to Wyld ' bs cass ocrs h la pli g : Rgula Amy, e g i h hn h a fhm, b u 3 h ta hassing t ha ah pah ofp of c h n h c c h d e h \Ve \V
�
llh. h l,, enh bl lu lu 'c smed maw \'c
Gwh Gwh Sn Sn Enh
Hr h la form ncounr th powrul urrnt of prouiation y spelling, and of corse onc h so-caed Rece Standad cou coud d ued no ony fo for coi coicc rpcnta rpcn taion b so as a disincion dis incion om crrectness' crrectness' of ponnciaion by spl splg, g, s cances o o omo omonn aop io i site of al he owfu aco� n is aour wr mall Wat i fac happend i a Public School Engis oo hay calle Rvd Sana ha isf bgun bg un o hed ceran sounds fond fond wrong on orec orec ness pncipe ad ua ntr-rgional speec hat is delong is comiaio comiaionn ood Rceivd Rceivd Stan Sta ndar dardd ' a some o he more moan oded Regional oms Th eahed sond whc ac acko kowle wledg dges es t t h n wa w a and simla wrds countd a no Rced Sandad in t nineten-weni, eco ecoming ming nom nomll vn i eeid Stanar spake bc
Long Revlution
Restoaon writes and a some of te ely Augustan. Of te twentywo writes sted he oigins of twenty-one are know. n the smalle total, there is a ropotionate swing back towards the nobiy ad gentry, who provde nine epresentativs (two and seve espetively Sven ae from professiona families ree (oe of wom d not publish il the eighteent ceUY om trade and two (one of hem Bunyan) from asmen It is oth a moe limited and a mr eay classbased cultue than tha which peceded it he importance of Ofod and ambrdge is sll evident h th uvesities akng thrteen of he tweny-one fo whom there is iformation Three others wet to rh and one to a Fenh university we two of the fou emaining ae noblemen and to poor. Of te eighteen fo whom thee i nformation on scooling, si went away to natioa grammar schools sven went to ocal gramm schoo one went to a dseting academy, and four were eduated at home n method ofiving, the smaller numbe of damatist were s largly based o te fewr theaes and hese acunt for mot of te ten who lived by te vocation Eight wee emloyed sgnicantly oen now in goveen servicewhie four wee wholly independe n the nt peiod 68o, we are loog at e Augustans and the md-eighteeh-centuy novliss, poets dramatts and philosophers On he whoe bewn abou 6 and the 730 ee had been a slong-dow i te general epanson of the naional literature, and popo tioatel less witers ae ecoded. he period 16801 shows a marked change in socia origin wit hirteen out of niete witers sted comg fom professional famiies ofa mainly middlelass kin oy two from he nobility ad gny, and fo oe two one fom te mechas, tades men and caftsmen The reatve impotance o Scots ad r is mc highe, and fo the t time ls than ha those listed eig au! of nietee) wet to Oxford o Cambidge Of hose for whom there infoation on shooling si went away to aona gramma schools ie wn to local gramar soos, and two wre eucated at
The Social Hoy EIh Wrs
2 59
home n method of living, only two of these wit wee w�ol1y inependent It was becomig possible fo some \te to ve whoy if oen inadeqay by thei pofesSn ad te emergence o a lass of professoal wtes of them hack ws noted in he peiod. Mt of he we now read combie autorshp with some form of empoyment nomally n the pfeios (inlding the churc but ess oen than in eaie peods) an in some ases 10 the old fom ofservic as secretary o tuto. Moe
government osts were as becoming avaiabe Moey notabe 1 a number o cases This wa to�gh ma'age IS a peod ofatoage, ad ohe emegence alongsid iofa moe oganze bookslngmarket The ordiay caeer of � good wte wa exceptonally ven, wih iega ome from a vaiety of sources, an with a good deal of
hadt.omouh livg nt some favourale oppotuny ethe o fom the market tued up Tere is a sene of emeging clses of we wit a dvSon betwee those folOWing tradition for usuay tsome patonage and tose adaptng to the new mket
Bu I sevea aree t division was bured fo he whoe
peo is one ofovelapping ofdrensyste� adfoms.
perod 1730-, we a ooking a late In he net eghteenth tu writers and some of te s generatio of omantc� wtes. he pedominnce of wies fom pofesioa families continues with eeven out of twety_ ve sted Oy two ae from te nobity ad none fom the gentry he new elemet is the greater representatio fom tadesmen farmers ad crasmen wo beween them suppy ven (fo, fou, ree an equal num with he rofessios Oe s from a meran's famly Te reative mp?tance o Scot and Iish onnues Again as in te eaer period the sigcae of Oxfo and Camridge is : nw only eight out of weny-ve, went to either vesty. our wt o Irish or Sottis univeses bt tteen went to no univesity n schooling fou wet to nanal gammar schools eight o oca nglish gramma choos, ve to Scottis o Iris schools and hree includng
L Revouin 6 seve s iry-) he emaig i came frm he amiis f radesm ad craftsme his is a tay less vaied scal igi h disavatage t prer grups tha th aer prt f he it cetuy schl ig t wt t atil grammar schools, sxte t glish lcal grmmr schls, seve \0 lca Ssh ad sh scls, tw t diseig acdmis ad sv wre therse eductd ( wme ad t m adeualy a hm h hs iadqUHly he eltive imrtac f Oxfrd ad Cambrdg is maiied etyfur ut f the y-thr lised Ni et t ch r rh u verses s t ter Eglish ivrstes ad furtee t uisity wr idpdt i med f lg ad eight er mpyd awy frm te wr by hich they ar k h via asis, ithr h eaded maret fr bs ad mgaies, r i relevat stis such as uversis is very car i t prid. magtive itrs ar me vrid i very espect th he philsprs ad histras h i maj"y ll a yia career f rfessa famy ata gramma schl ad frd amidg th a prid 093° e are ig maly at h riers f -wr yas, a at ctmprary iters bf 20 scia rg� he pater is asicay similar 1 tat f t prvis prid h e fm t biity, ad thiy-e ut f tythr frm the f clsly ratd gry ad mehat ad prfssial fmilies (sv t hiry h impta f rfesial famlies s th largst sigl surce is mard as i earlr ids Frm th famlis f tradesme fa'rs cram d labur th ar thie f th ftytree lisd (v, t fur ad t hee ar table dieeces th ducatial ptt h the t mde majrity frm the aal grammar (w publi schls thirty-t ut f yre ight wt t gish lcal g'ammar schls t t priat scs fr lemetay scs ly ad fur ildig t wm) er educatd at me hitytw wet xfd r amidge e t a rs ursy
Sci Hs f Enh Wri 23 u hr Engish universies, ne to aGeman university nd ft to no univrst The ypical care ned i t rlr iod for hstoians and pilsophers is o mor genraly sad: profssinal famy, ubli scho, Oxfor r Cmbidg. Fur of the ty-thee had subsantil independent mans hee wee mloyd aay from th rk by hh ty rc nn nd the majorty had a fairly ar vnal bass, in th d ofboks, magaznes and lat stitus \V n a resen tk h facual inqui n furthr
sn thre s i n standard lis for rters on sin 920. l� hs bn genrally ssumed tat thre has been som sif n he yas sine 1945 'om the regulr majrty pate of arli�r eriod.. A ugh check, on the basis of a prsonal
frers f \s g wo have ttracted aticula an, dd shows a more vrid socia rigin (sx o f
tv fm te amies of radsme nd erc1 ad industial woes) a dicn atern of scholing wo
pli �h sevcn local grammar scho, re ote local
aUh'y scols) a conng laive importance of
e vid f tis whl qury is bsly lmed vale d ill d t b cheed ad amlied by lgr sarch far s it gs hw I d it tstg v he i ly rms geral impresss f the wrters f erid gid by ther meas. Lg trugh the bdy f dtai, it s imssble t ccp the extrem vie, sill hld y sm pl that te gh a atial teature is whlly atmus, aected by varats istutis
h L Rluon audienes, soca and educatonal oppouny and aailabl mehod of livng nded s a ew is so nreanabe ha would probably not be hed at al h onvere were no ofen ated in a smilarly etrcm and uneabe ay Thus he ocial oign and ducaonal hio of wriers early oen inunce her ork but o think prmarily of ia a and ntution and hen of ndivid a mery her reprentae, i wholy mileadng Not only, in cerain importan ca, do indiiduals diate om the gop of origin, but alo he hoe proe of indida growth is more complcated than any simpe aigment o gup woud ndiate qually however sice he idd ua gow n reatio o a learned pattern whih is of oal gicae, he assumpton of autonomos reaio - he reative ididua actng wholy freey - s mseadig ad ae. i worh oong biey though he evidece o e what inds of orato ee a oy ad ts leraure are reasonable he relao fTudo eatre o ts soia nte seem ui ea ad roadeng ito Eliza beha leraure ems cetany oneced wth the geaer oa ary cvdened i it rs s dult o say ho far h should be taken bu here seem a poibe laon bewen he majorty orgi of the Elabhan dramatit in rng oa grop ad the swig ak fom i heir Jacobean and Carolne ucceors The ange the charatcr o he drama ove these ya thc swng back fom a popular drama oa mor oaly med drama, follow this lin. Moreor th linc i oued to the period of the fankly clasbad Resoration hctrc Again i he eary ighteenth entU) hcre a car oreation between h majorityofwrer from pfessonal and trading famii ad the new form and mod ofwha ha often been dscbed as a middlelas liteature. he aer eigheent uy how o uch imple oelation t oially a vey aried piod for ite bu the outading liray deelopme tha of omac poetry hows no onssen elaon h the socal hoy ois reaor Ideed t a
h cal Hty ofEh Wt moemen n wich al soial laes, cduatoa paern ad methods of e are epresced ofc th mked ndvidual aiao fom nheed socal no; perhap the oy faor tha s ignan, ie his woud ceranly have a relation th par of the harae of e movemet. Te imporance of new oa goups muh of he mo original soa thnkng of he nietnt etury, and of the groups ad of women in he mjo perod of the Voria nol i a pive orreaon I he perod bween about 1870 and 950 perhaps the m sgnn correation negive. It h been dly noed ha an uuua roporon of he mpoant magatve eraure of hee year a wrtte by people o�ic he majoy Engsh ate Ts had ee rue o some exen of he Voran ove, b tes lae year reatve mpor_ ance ofi fom abroad o fommnortygoups a wel as of om maked. Hardy Jam a Synge, Yat, Eo Conad Lace O'aeyoy Thomas compoe a o list ofsome sgiace not te a a, wth the excepo oCt Irs ay parca mnoy s notieable bu tha dicu qestos ae raed aot majoiy patn th normal Engs moe wh ealy seem i per elatvely uative. Sne ugements of aly ar voved hcre te analysis s ot impe, bu Seem to me thre ome evdce of a socal and imagna_ iv arrowig w can e rlated to he emgene of a mor sandard ocal htory o the prcpal ontibutor. Th mrgne ofcetinncw eme n mood ad onen i moe recent yea mg hn be fauay related to c imied araio whh eem to have orred in h tadad pattcrn There i no nge reato beween he aure of a oiey and h character of i litrare bu there arc sgnian and poibly sgnat elaos wih cm o vary wth the actual isoy Sie ocial orgn a been faually relaed in arying ays oth o edaonal opportny and to meho oflf hh aec a r' folong h vocaton it ca be said tha hi ompex is of permanen
The umg Revoui(m ,6 signian and has sbly ac parS o our lieray deeopm Yt the mphass shod no al oly on oigins he harar o lita is also is ly �C, n varying ways by th nat o ommaon system an by th hanging haraer o adiees Vhn we se th mportan mergnc ofwirs from a new socal gr we ms oo no only a thm, but at th nw insiutio and orms cead by h wier soa group o whic hey belog he zabean theatr is an cpionally omlex ample sine as a instiuion it was lagly reatd by individual mid-ass speculators, and was supped with plays by wre rom largy midle-cass and trading and artisa amiis y n a was steadiy opposed by th ommrial mdl-lass ad ogh seig popula adiens, survid through he pocon o h or and he nobiy Th very proetion ater seaily narrow both dama and audcnes n Resoion a ery narrow lass ws setg h domina ton The omation i th eighteenh eny o an organzd middl-cass audne an b sen as in at de o rta wrrs om h sam soial grop but aso, an prhaps many, as an ndepende ormaio wh thn drew es wite o it an gae thm thr oppornity h pansio and rthe organaon o hs mddl-lass aien can be sn to hae onned ntil he la nnen enry drawing i n new wrs rom ar soial origs bt ging them, though s majoity instutions, a gna homogny is general siuaio has persised b alrady in he nnetenth enry thee were sgns o a ba w di ials iating rom the majory pas, ad by he nd o e ceny, a disinc and ogani mnoty eviaon The soal situaio o raure in the twnth nury has b argy e intation o conuing maoiy parns wih an nreasgly sandard rout into hem ad his mare dssning minority whh as end d to sppor and alue wrers rom outsid e majory parn, a o roid an alernatie outl and aliation or ssnng mmbs ofthe maorygops Iw comar
�
e Scial Hsto f Eglish Wrim �67 e soia basis olitcrate betwe 85 a !870 an tha btween ' 9 1 9 and '939 w nd i both ass an organe middl-cass reading pubi as h majo clemet b whras in th eair priod litratre was ompara ely homogeos, with mo ois aO draw 'om the sam social grop a e actual pbc, in [h ar pio he is vie o two pblis a majoity and a minoiy, h omer oining ye o iohp te a while arag ndidual dners, ing is maj ges rom otside ithe om anth ct or rom ote soial goups A arge part of imporan mode lratur may nols, many plays amot a pory as ben ommuncad throgh th instituions o th minoity pub, in shap orast with h midoian saon whe the maory insutions wer stil( closely rlate o the mt impont work ohe m The appar anc o ontribors m w social grops witin e ture, which has atrae anon in et yea has ben normally rogh the insitons o his miorty Most o h new wiers rom he amlis o lrial a ndusial worrs ar n a bing rad ot by he social gos rom wih thy com bt by he disidn mid ass h expading adee o novcls and play ertainly incldes mmbrs o nw soca grs b gnral hy ar smpy bing absorbe ino he xisng majO'ity bl T dang o his sitation s ha th miori1 ubi may soon e the only idntial gop with an ve and pala socal aation dd largly though n sty datio. The is some evie ha th sparaio o he maoy ub om s mos creative mmrs s laig a cra aCm asy pntad om ousid. Th rapid mraniaion mst oe poplar arorms can undtood hs trms a a m wh so mch o th bs Enlh a and inking is sly rla o an ideiabl oa ioity whch wh a md cdaton sysem most Briish pol hav o real hane o entring Thus he rlations bctw itrat and sociy can b seen o vary onsidaly in hanging histoial tuations
27 he R(oluo nsutns rs n edan secnd n means f cmmnan unt hese hae an eee enea relan the e s cture f he sey s that bh wres and aud enes an ce hruh n er wn ters We are s m hs u wn scey, tat we can say wth cerany . a he sal hry f wrters whch we hae been ra ntnue t ane
E O C A H T O R Y OF D R A M A C O R �'l S
W are sed say that drama ne f the mot scal f al art frms, and n ertan bus scc ths edenty rue he dramas l the et nelst ws n lanuae create a atuar ranatn eerence bu the natue f he ranzatn s case s n erms f erfmane: he wrds he has arraned wll b sen and aed by te arss the actrs, n the nrma rcess f mmuncatn Already, by rtue f ts, and n se the fact tha he relan between et and erfrmance, he lterary wr and e acted dama ars raly drn eds and scts, te etensn frm an nddual rae t t a scal cea act s cear. Aan, wereas s nmal n te case f O and nels fr he wrk be reccd, n the rst nstae by temraly slated nddals s nrmal (tuh n unersal) fr dama t be red y a ru an acual audene Tus nt nly transmssn but als n recetn and rese dama nrmally eates n an bus scal cnte, and hs seems t be te easn why e sca htry f drama s n any ways easer t arah han e sal hsry f se hr as As a ractcal exermen n the ssblty hs nd nry I rose t lk brey at the scal hstry fnlsh drama artly a sa way fdesrbn acual chanes n the relatns bewccn drama ad scety n he e mUe enral cha n the scey as a whe; arly als, as a way f arachn a much mr dcul uestn as 0 whher any relansh an bc dscercd etween suh scal hanes and actua canes n the frms drama hanes an astc knd. ae ued the eneral dea that sme relatn must xs eween scal and
2)2
e Log
Revolution
a"tisti change bu in dtail his is away very dit to demonstt, and bcaue of the diculty many pople nd good reason fojoining n h gnral rerea c ould pomote or relegae ar o an auonomous aea. If w an nd ertandemonsrablaons ofh kin in rama and if, w cannot nd hem, can ook rankly at he diculie a a way ofrevising th gnal idea, may ae made ra prog in the whole eld of h(C aios ofa ind uel n our nquiis into obviousy social ars.
h medieval peod in Englh dama is a rst glance a parcuarly cear cae of an evidn elation btw soa d dramati forms The earlest plays tok ther form from he lury and were mariy a way ofilstang par of he sto of h scip to congregaion fe of whom coud ae undstood tis sto whn it was read n Lain hus the form of he ite Qum Quaerit? play shong he angl spakng to the women at he empty om ofJeu a cear xampl ofdirect dramairfrenceto hepurpose of a major oca ogaizaton Bgnning as dramac insets wiin e fom of worp e mediea religious drama med ou into a proeioal funon: he poco owads and hin the chuh later he pocion thoug e own As a ocial development hi of considerale impotance the integration of dramati prfomance, not only wit he eligiou festival but also with t f of the medal to and he oganaion o tade and industry beame nually oe he Corpus Chisti procession with th cys of myry and miacle pays, wr no only oca evn n h life of he ons, ut wee ognid though he tade guild ach of hh had a partular pay as its ontinuing responibiy (as he akrs The LaJt Suppe; the ane he Fll Luc e Webses he Day Judgm). The form tha had bgun it he sa· ion of paricar events in the Chsian tory, tyng prae of te liy to damati enactmnt, tendd o a form of ial preenao of the who sto from he Creaion o
Th ocial
Hto ofamat For 2 73 he Acenion and he e ofthe ant. The mmedate form in eah epiod was dermined y th primay lustra fncio but he hol form as i devloped' came a particular kind of episodc dama, deemind by t fact basic onsruion became a popula o processin. is tadiion hch as one of e man lments hat at ombined to make ctan of the wholy nw and character isically Engli form of th liabthan dama To lsar reaion etween a oialfuncio and method ofogaation and a parcuar dramai form can addd the eually inesting relaon ben medival soci and � mr sopisicatd damaic rms o he moay and IS succe th inerlu. Te moaity play akes is ole orm and mod rom pattrn ofeing charatisic of mdievI igi?n an sociey is unlk he mytry and mace hat t I not damazing a liiou narraie u the .shape of a faith and a common uman detiny obVoly only n ctan soieies at crtain tages of hi devlopmen tha he ida of veryman can be deply con cved Whn her ae u common meanings in th basc isues of ife and and erefo hen the sen of a ly uniersal dstny can be nauraly fet the fom of he morali ith i absract epnaie gure, and t damaaon of genal human quas and eakns ha ecae hy ae fe a gnral ned no id to ndividal uman prsons takes oganic shape Yt hi 1!trcsg orm is no t ol on o h soy. vn he moaliy, we the inunce of oher knds of wn mginative consuction. EItfman's House of Salvation s srcualy atd o catle in T Cafdl oPerseveance hich ha oous ais not ony wih pace of qu n the long adition of magical folk stoies which had been dvloped in hisan romances but alo wih ra emn n te oganiaion of sociy - enral plac Uh astlc, Of hi hch in a pacal way exprsses the ommutys sns of il (it is unied and communica tha pae) an which tn a natal obct of e arch for alue and ecurity gain th deeopment of e
;
!
�
T-,
276 e o elu rnt parts of he untry h poplr elious dma had in fct broken down in its old univsl fom. W cn lae h no only to han(s in rligious eeling � w ih ere up in adical chnges in eligis oO bu lso o oial chnge dircly conetd wth he raa. By Tudo im he guilds on which th main orgn zan o he old dama had ed had bom vou uncton and in om ases hd cesd altoghe o be popua organiaon having ben takn ovr y mcan he onc bwen e iners in a new conomy m whh aftsman and ad· wa sharpning Erly Tudo drma hows some suivals ofth oldsocl onition but show aso importn devopmen o he n orniation wih growh of ompe of oing actors peormmg nnyds, and ofperfomans onw kinds ofply in chools ollgs and grea houss Throuh s rlated hnn:ls and epcialy hough the cose soctIO o dama wth places open to eeral inunc both ocssI d m nd he nw dra of h Rnissnc major nw dctos w md posible, specialy sin th ativ popu dma had weakened Th decisive dvopmnt occrd n h 570s when h irs htes bga t? b built ypically the oaniaion of th dm pssd IIto th hands o seculators, and he hees e bt .on th dgs of London stil row s a trdmg cnr, I p to at audienc fom ravll in and ou o te cptl At the ae me, he cirumtances in which the tatres wre uilt rmind u o h growin ension betwn powl cil goup, which in he nx century ws o dsup he drama boh phyically and ocially Th n the 1ke . e old ourgcompans atred th powrul pos" o he ommecal middl la tht had tbshd t power in he owns he drm W kept gon houghout e pod o liahan ratnss by populr suppor ertinly, bu by a kd o popar U ort tha would hve ben cushd h cout and he noblt) hd ot ended acv paoae Th bevity o th get priod is emrkble a h gretnes its, nd we cn see both
77 e Socal Ho rama Frm tem of a mrkble bu ncssariy pory ion of mny compex elms in the ntonl emns which a ie a wre to y rt Fo thi brieiod, he colour and richness o he Euop eniac nterced wih h vigour and raism o he populr diion to reae wholly new national orms. most srikng nw lemen is a high onciou of indvidul perience, whch he mdieval and ly udo dm set in mkdly dieen sia hough prns had obously lked n redy and omanc his n lmen epsed in a new knd of horic aed h drma o unapld intnsiy. Vioen rapid and complictd ction w the pysical xprion ofhee w mods oprsonl ling nd t nw drmast, hemevs chstcally upootd and posed sed he lng to comprbe lity nd power Y hse lement w n intrcio with older ways ofeling here ty wrc no 3S i he di xmpls o Euphuism nd he ' clss dram ssocited wih h Countss of Pembo the nw uncs n way into mningls dispay on the one hnd articil nmen o h othe n he mn body o populr Eizbhan drm i i clea ha elemnt o n oldr aditon re resnt ot merly as survivas bu a equl fto i is powe The sns ofsm_ oli uncio wthin a ordered pan o vlue, nie wih he olo nd richness o bsolute inddu eps sion no only n the ga traedes where the laon ween hee modes is gin nd ga h ssentil thme bu also in h high omdy of h lr Shkesp ndJonson nd hen boh h indivdual spiion and h immanen paen ake vigorous lf hrough h lngage from the aul lie of h im until it sm th or t biefeod a ha s ceativ in th nnl l n eprssion in bewilderngly vriou and surprising drma cusomry o se his xctin delopmen cut o by h growth o powr of a new urtn emn markd by he cloing o he htres in 64 t the disingtion of his naonal dram h yn par o the elmens whch had oosed i, had bgn much erlie or perhp he
h og Rvoo
h So HO Dam Fom
lat fn yars of th rign o Eat, an h rs f yars of th eign o ams, the conon exse fo th drama to r h mainsream o te naonal , a a high tnsion orponng to t conct hich soon to bak out in e ovly poa ld Alay a th bnning of th w ry we ec the beginning of th momt o a la drama hich had ben incpin in alir Tudor dvlopm Th ' pIia thats, though fact opn to th pbli bega to depend on an actually narow audin hre prouly the cout had pro· etd a popular drama agan th ommrcial middlc clas, now incrasingly ih the groing alination of th cout m dciiv lmns in th natona lf th dama tlf bgan o hang in caacter n h on an, wa an incrasng ndny o laboaon an spectacl a formal lmnts to b concd an njoyed rth tan a lment in dramaicexerinc sel n th othr han an specially in comy he i a seady movement rogh Midleon and Massigr, eaumon and Fetc to Sly an rom in dircon ofw sts and w tandad, lang narally to he Resoao comedy of manners. As Dyde la obrve, lecher ncrsod an imated h ovesation of gentmen muc tter an haspar and thi dvopmnt only one mark of te nceaing proupaion i socal itrgu, ith sht ing cla laton anl with fasho, a th drama naows toad idniaion ith a ng cla in a changing an dsintgrating soity Boh th national cleme hich ha been o vital in th drama of h 1590, and th tadtional patrn modying h val of an oldr ind of ity lowly dappard n omedy the movemet was tod th xcitemen offasion and apit which podud t fom of th comdy ofmannrs, gainig in ophiticaion i t lot in general human referece n tagdy th movemnt as towards th aracion of impuls, i paticular th abstraon of honou 1 om a social funcon to a mar of brding: so tha fom a man conog a stny oh particular and unv and m a ho prssing (a n
h �vlod honic lay) a natonal irit, tr as a d o postu of hoor and tiy, withi an ar a soa maily moated y ntigu, n th heOC drama . Igns of ths dvelopmnt an b trad ak to the grat pro bu wh th narrowing of th oca ba thy became mc more vidnt a many of th old I!t"s fald B th time of th closig of th thear 1642 h aonal dam had bcom a la drama a h manne of it retoration w to make obvio
IC
279
cOlext
toration drama a basd on he wo Patnt Thatrs athoized by has 1 i 1 60. The ates r ofa I knd th tae half-way fom he izabthan platform to h mod pIure-age As th heas wr n cort atonae e adncs e rtuay mite to cout an� H aheens, ad te was conina dcty n matIg hates as cessu entriss on o naro a be. n ee wa at rs a velont o th ma msc an sctac wit mor elaat thea eny wc ha s be cvint i h Jao an pt ha e an en n maqs and opera An . who recd o o t wo nw hat, had ot ony t an eay eoc lay o a oo [634 bt dUing h closg of t thatr had prodcd a opa S ofRh, whc bndd h hroic pay Wth th devlomnt ofmsic ad spcacl tsfend y rnh and talian xampl o ollow h devlopmn of hroi drama i to wat I hav aled th absra on ofmpu i;ceasing formalizatio of ontion ?f oor and nnonce tansorming h yl of tragedy to an laoa mannrism h reduction of matur lizatha and Jacobean blank \' with s eloess to orm of od\r} spech, thcr into h heroic couplet or no th Ilted toration lank ers, i a cntral mark of h gnral ange Ye, een after ths cang t aa, and o th revid lank-ver form of hrOIC tragey wih cceede , bea lit sstantal rlaon
Olm,
Lng RQ
Th Sal Ht oD s
vn o he arowed if whch he heatr oed o ve h tu growh of he perod was in h developd comdy of mar, wich had a gnin corepondnce wih th narow ocey on whch i was asd. We mus diinguish wo prod of Rtoaon comdy which corspond inrsingy wh acual priods i �he ha' forues From af hPlagu and h Fr, o he reewd polica cisi i 69 th ru eoaion tha, wih its scly mitd audinc upportd a is rpnaive, hcg and \ychrley, i whom h dic eaio we fom and audenc is mo ovou The acrs, ew o he sag wih he oraio cucia i hi fom which s an laorat illuaio of h rul of h fashionale sexgame· Th vy fac ha comdy of i kind was withdrawn, y is coe fo oth ocia groups ad tir araiv felings ad valu peid a uniy of feling ad sye wich in is own m, is a makd adance on alier inrigucomdis still compliad by a concous of oher sandards Evn we as in Ehg ad ealy Wychrey e plays a mpy aing c ios of h liv of hr audic e ctaiy o ration poduc a characistic poany and livli o cicize hse plays o genral moral gonds may wll b ecesay a a ne sag of judgemet u i i foolih o allow this o oscure the mpoay uccs ofe formon i ow ms Y alrealy i Wychrly Pla Deal 676 he moaliy of h cod ilf is eig qustiod: h aack on prona ayal and selhness is dicu o coain thin a fom which a its implt ducd al qusio of haviou o a coec if bitl gaey I th 68o i he mounting poica cisis which saw h middl la succsy aching fo the s stags of pow, h thatw n dicuLs, and rlapscd o ival as domian policy M 69 a w heaical radion is obous, wth th of acomanagr who was o alo he playwigt Y hen n a bif period fom 1693 o 75, at a tim wn he ue Roraon priod wa ov, wh ciin ad hei adis wr eging o and h thatr mor frequently,
and whe oartocraic ahor we icrasingly i evidc, h cod and more an pha of wha we cal esoraio comedy ared and died Vanbrgh and early Fauhar ar a uioS sval of h modes of Eherg and Wychly bu Cov, a such a m scceds in W he Wld i aing he comdy of maners o it highes poin Y whn r poducd, the lay was no sucssfl, ad h whol piod is a curous xample ofhc compx laonhp b audcs ad forms a Farquha w can s the nuenc of new modes offg cosoant with simntal comdy whch w can alo dat from h G0 Bu of onvs a f h Wol w mut ot h ciou fac of a fom ning i e xpon a a m when t social ais, if no okn up wa rapdly appaig Il somtimes happns i e ioy of a at, ha a form ac is highes poi of dvopm w i snial condions ar alay aisng givn h unvs of ocial an indiidal dvlopm i n not be uping The mauyan poi of he Qem i eropc, relad o fact tha wa a fa a h Resoatio fom of he comdy of mas cold b tak he comple udand g of t pattn is alo i c a conldg ad valuing mmay of tm" an afom cags, as h ec ru of chages nsocy, we mt a vy dicul polm in ciicism for qi ofn happn ha a local judgemnt will show fom h has bn ough to a high lvl of kill and mauiy eg eplaced y form ha ae laively cd an usuc csful Wih the edng ofa oraio dama aed on a astocaic an fahonal audinc and i pacem by a y micd midlcla drma ased on a wide soa roup, w s oe of h cat and mot famous of these os ciics have n nar Cavali, ad have repestd the chang a a dia for h dam. Y it is surely ncay o ak a log viw Te limited chaacer of Resoraon dama ad h diintgraion of a gera audinc which had pecdd i, we alo damaging. Again
28
666
a t
he LO Roion 282 wile the ey producs of igeenh-centy mide-clss ultre were regaed ofen wihjusice s vulgar we mus to el he whole soy foow the deeopmen d?wn to he os where the uga' novel ecme maJo erar� form nd where he espised fom of ougeoIS tgey nd senmena comey served in her mtuiy wide rea ofou moen dam Te devopmen fmd-ss rma is in f one ofhe mos eestng ses we hve ofa hnging soiety leding direcy ail innovtions form the omeil mil , pposiion to he hete eent cenr and he eewed ean c trced bck to he sx vey roke we of criicism, from h 169Os, whih efecti ins litle spirit in one w cont he Restortion drmiciicis f';ew J Short (A llier m ofo t is new Behind he wih the Immorali! ad Pofaene oft/ Engish Stae, 1698) of urent itemzed compin aginst th liceniousnesssuh ca be
comedies he ol hosity to te thetenscaae an deected.'Bu ow, wih the cou chnge class
th� heare, midlno longe cive proecing Vn moe seous, n whle oppiion hd o ten ofa�augh eplied in ind Faquhar an a new soo o meet tC Immedae s onscious refomeditheofdam of n deque Judgeen ojecions. he so n sfrom he fac th : me eighteenh-en amedollow eucntl o suecfm cses foms wee ng one ; in oh e.s?s new respoe to the new mor expeSSOn ordiscove s aposesn we made exenson n mixed esul s une eable of e ne\ spir This 6805 Fro udiences. ers of he atul hngehdin begu es to aend he theat merchas nd heir wives nt i te udience lme his y ad i he eigeeh entu n hngo' fom grew sedi Ye hereewtonosude s esetle mddles dissolute ot udie e ot uil Vioran tmseat diee' ineed it wasthea his n tl ee respe une� oordinon in thees eighe enh entuy is thtof w The re siuti
28 elemes o e risng middle ass oing sil fshonle here pulic, e when h pulic one ohe cour nd arisoryad itslen moiied. Many auos bega to be awn fom te ommeria mde-class ubic; is is peod in which he oneply uthor is Krceri gr_ I is ai 0 ay an moan a! of eighenh cey rama ore cnious mage o he mdle class nd is vies ut he creatie possibiiies of this new on siousness wee ey ueen, n in he am piculaly tey wee fuer imie. The uncany n mai forms combined wih he sng fashionable elemen in the audi ence o produe onention ointees on acOs s suh Weever Lis aens ad pays n oeqene e vued rimay s eiles fo priculr aing alens he dram ens to eome mixed nd eecti hus one nds, in eigtecn-euy am chers ntees i thetrica ec fr its ow sake n i is in is coe he new forms hd to ae their limied wy enimenal omedy is he les rciv othe ewfrms, tough it as coniud to od he sge a a mjriy for ofEngh drm, o our own day ¥e n tae s concious deveopmen fro ibes Loe's Lst Sh (696) ad e C Hbd 14 ad el's h J;g Love 73) ements of s prticuar ocousnes can indeed e trced from m elier i he ceuy, u the diet paion o cntemoray eaviou s ow muc more obvous A passag from eeles preface o h :g Le learly so the new emhis: He - ls o\, t , d i is bu i e h ct e o i eh wit tc pcin d reo hi ite o ns dng iefin gol . _ . he ngu ec xpes th ulsrr becn oy ild nd tnde lr t t is� e hp, iu ru o oedy ut r y jui o e o at: d he Soi istoy oDmti Forms
oh ue bin rqey pdd t it i hg ti e l ne dr ocsio f ih te iC hi e l ou ut 1 ougt nble ·o
e
Th Log Reoluo Th ssntial point h a dscrip tion of th new fom te mxture o comdy ad pathos wi an expcit mora rfrenc that ld to te altenav dsciptions o wecpng comdy o th 'comedy o simens (moral opnions)
a
'
th wo lments utg i th compcad histo o the word 'stmntal Yt we must noe also th cous way nwhich the compctio ad remor a apoce, or hi emen o ifth-ac refom, aft a th ctemens of csomary drmatc ntge, becam the bass o continued charg o hyprsy and sentimentality ejoy t while it lts, then say youre sory. Gldsmith had his in mind whn in attacking sentmental comedy he wrote:
:
they happen t have au o fil he spetar s at not ol t pad, but t appa hem, onsideraton of he gdnCfthe hear.
Ths crtcsm eaches home, i may such plays ad aspct of sntimnta comedy has bn so esten that Codsmiths words could be tansrd, as hey s and to a consderable part o modn drama He contius: Bt there s one arguent favur ofmental d hih llkep t n the stage i spteofal that an be sad ains i It
faUthe the mt eai wten The ablt ht n har ut a no are flly ucet o the podution fa imental oy t s oly sucn rase the haacters a le; t dck ut he hero h a riband ge th herine a ttle ten t puta p aloge who aae r humu t ti mu gie hem mighy goo ear! e ne othe fh a ew set of e a pathetic scee or wo th a sprinklin o f nde eanchol covaio hrough he whle ad there s o oubt ut all he ai< wil c ad all gelemen appad
Ts agai s ust, bt he sual disssal o e noe ould mak us paus oth noels and sntimntal comedies were otn, crtainly coctons o this knd an Gol smth espisd thm by een to ode sandards (hS attack o mxing comedy and pathos was in classcist trms s a consion o te old istinct kins) t, whil th ad mles mutied th felings which they exhbte wre
�
T ocal
Hor fDmac F at o th new cosciousss ad cou not i act b sum marly dismss he aility to tae a udgnt gh though as in diioal agedy and comedy hwig sn ladig to disitgaio ad iast c ad rro to t rough idicue std on a moe asoute morali ty, basd the on eligious sanc ions 0 he stict sandards of an establshd socty han e new midde cl actualy had Alady n Elza(ha dama and ceaily in some
,
s
sentenhcnty deoment w· s the tradtoal nds and hi bas attiudes otn conuscd and the mods of udgmnt utd rOT simlar asos Romantic comedy had pioneeed I way ofentimental comdy, and h-act or m where spite ofevything a happy cnd g must b conried, is eitom Shapcae. Restoa ion com"dy oais hse eleme, but ains a mease o n y o li by eoden j dgemc wt eerence to a vey limi ted social scae: o on aain polt society was o b dvn nut oit and thaL s that; bu equally o oend a<is Gol ad a i repeg the polite code w fogivae At dfen lees ad o ome god asons t nw midd-css dm trid 10 go eyon ths to a nw id of jdgeme Cetaily lie i predecssos [ ontved apy ndng, d padded he a o he old c�medy Oe on se�ietal onds Bt aso in dang wth contmpoay l iI ecessry hallenged h tmpo_ ay crt its oheesoaion omedy omanncI" oeng as absolut ·tes he santty of maiae he e o the and h ca f te wek Tese had ben neglcted, amly or mad dculos n Rstoaton comedy, simpy becaus the class hich t sved was paasic e tru consquences of behaVOu had nev to he lly lv out Naow as th ?ew ugos moality was i a t eat red to a socity wh1h cosequnce was acua ad in which thr w more to d than kep up with th mods o an articialy potected clss When we seak or the senmentaliy' o appeals to hes valus ad of th smuness of wha we thin e can dismss ;lS merely domesc vrue , w shold b qut sue whe w sad ouselves he denicao
:
1
\
286
T LOg Rvl1ti/
whch som Cs sm to mak n pantasy twn thmslvs ad nocanc o avai raks ad whor sually idiculous f on gos on to ask to wha moral rado thy thmslvs practcally blog. No s i t only rspct n whch fw a honst w shall conf� OUsl th his of th ightnhcntuy borgOI h wd asis ofsntimnta comdy, and oa man tradtion i th novl, was that pacuar kind ohumantarian flg h tong finartculat appa o a fundamntal goodn of hart ' th sns o vy indivduals clonss to c and olly so that pty for thir mplars s th mot rvan motio, an Oy ad habiltatio must b bd n th ss naly that thr a fw absolut valus and tat tolanc and ndnss a majr tus buking th sntmntal comdy as in bo ts ay xampls an t sbsqunt hstoy sms nssay o do w shod b ppar to rcogz tat n h pint omoral asmptins and oa wo COlw.qunt fling aout l most o us a ts lood atons timnta comdy ll ad ontns to fal aus t nv woks thouh to any po oftnsty coct btwn t lf that cta scal vtus a paamoun and yt that ood m can ond agast thm s hstoy is an ason o ths conct y atical soons o sink ling of td mlanchoy s sigcan tha wh n spc ofal prona latonss h w bougos m wa a alu n rpct o can proprty atoships th bas ofarly boos tragdy it ucc h thf th dishonst apprntic, th murdr or sd for gai, wntstragh toa m and abolutudgmnt N\rthles n hr th fom ncuds a chaactrsc pathos pty pibl and al so long as th judgmnt s cutd n Lllo' T Ld .\ J(f(ha (731) th apprHic anwll led o to thft and mudr by s sducr tillwood gos with hr to t gallows n n atmoph a combin th crtais of an od molity Uess w :k wht dcw her rui on Ad, by vidng - ren OLr ow
Th S so fmtc Fm
wth th nw pahos
28
Wh bleedng hea d eepi eyes e show hun enroL scnse o hr'
A
T pity hr, s in van wihout th jdmnt and it lsson and th fling a th intgatd wth th acton in a way that was not odnarly posbl in snmnal comdy Th i o borgoi tagdy s y important h had n Eliabthan domstic tragd, ut it was stll flt in h ay ighnth cntuy, that rca tragdy wa ncssaly cond o pons of g social ank ow nsistntly th cam w mad that tagi fling was � gnal human ]opy and tha n th odinary and th yday a srous agic ama cold b basd: S.p'd o Rel Pop d ig Show
I Me ICots a Tle of riae \,
ors p Dstr m omo encs i , hI Broher d jur \Yi.
A
'e th caim ad to b gd ; coud ot b assumd From lower e we dw or encs D n yor Eqls moe yor ess This vlopmt aow as at rst it was s a bvous anl ncay as for all srious modr dama f t rcogni tio of traic stuaon in ordiary ivs was at st con to crain soca! catgoi th consqunc of dbt, taaganc fals dalng gd stll th advac is al h ran of labthan tragdy is on of major human aspiaons ld out n t of a whol natural odr and ' S on g fom th vy scal and intnsty o th apIraOns whch h mdal dama had no known u he hight ha alrady bn ost y th tim whn hroc drama hd th ld and th pudocasica tragdy o Rstoation and Augstan wrt shows a smar dcln Bougis tagy s an atmpt to gin aan ad t s a mor levant catv actvy a oc ad sudo claical cs 1 is socal tagdy oftn narrow ad
2 Th g RJoluo cude in its tems but universal tragedy had aleady gone, more tan a century before this bourgo attempt began. e works in T Andon Nfchal is one of the few cati Engish eighteent-century drama and its essentia suprio� y to works
the older manner ike Cao and Dugla., IS
evdnt e thid interestng new fom of this prod is the blad opera, and this again s a conscious middle-css change to aoatic tte e extraordnay success of e baad
opea ws shot-ived, but one pncipal
for his w
sae and at a arge part of tir impulse was a nave A 137 this w cut o by the icensg Act of
cange to the fasonabe tte for Ialia opra which ad begun in 1 70S, Tht Bgar's Ope (q28) and its suc cessors ae genuinly crative in sty and fehng and the oss ofthis aditon was very damaging
Te curous fact abo eighteh-cury drama as a
whol is tha a creaive response bougois tagy ad baad-opea was in fact made in this aly peiod ofmddle class culture y then in cct is was ot (The s a simiar casc of challcnge and relaps in Hoga an t subsequnt tradion) h dvlopmn of bog�is tragedy passd to Fance and Gcrmay and ngan .dd o get it back, at any seious leve unt! late th ne tecnth cntury when bsen was raisng it to a major form he baad-opera dsappeared, and th weake tradition of comic opera had aain to sere Englan until our own centuy he realt novel, a creatve rspose of the same peiod and by the same cs, 5 always much strong, but it too went back, except fo soated examps, beween 750 and te I 83OS. s f h midde la, hang made damatc challenge, aced, at east t th theatre the organization to carry this though he rsult � a whoe \: an panding thre butne ooded by a vey ofo os n 16 here had been six success hatrs in Lndon; in 70 a the narrowng of Restoration therwere ony two By 1 7 though th:wo Panthatres wee sti dominant thee we v other theas and an
9 o�erahouse and at least ve thatres shionable" pro VnCal cents. By oo, th posion n Lodon was little mprovd b there were now about forty heats in the provce. y 1 o, thre wre wntyone theares i ondon, and about seventy- in the provinc B oo aer the period of eal expnsion thre wr sx-tree heatres London, foy msichals and more an tree undred teatr in the provincs t looks fom this as f ee could from ' 750, ave een a genuine drmatc pansion at many dieren vs but in fact the peiod 7o to 18o is he most brn in our dramatic histor Ift wrk of an lasting aue we ae looing fo nly the bfrevval ofhgh comdy by Goldsith and Sheridan i the 77? stands out h xplaation of he padox an xpadI theatre and a dlinng dramalis i on crucial fct: ha hroughout tis priod wit th tmporary ecep tons of Goldsmith an Sherdan t connon btwn the thatre and ierate ws viruay lot. Th w cass was served in pint no ony by n popuar work but by a eray tradition ad a nw radtion of srious dvl0pg jornalsm n the thatr althoug th crative rsponse had been mad te m
8
B
g RvlUn dm, rom Fa o PCj n byod ut aso the usess form o th cosme-intrgue whch, while thaticay successful was act a dead end. The complicad nur of h rltions bwen a new cl nd eecive new orms is hus very ede, the histoy o Engs middle-class drm e can prhap look agai t the ime-scale o such a devlopmnt discourng as ths The eightenthcenty idde css broke up e od forms whch rested on menings nd intr hat hd dcayed. Aernaive forms w crtd but wee relivly isolatd or empory in her succs Only much latr when th class had bu its majo socil istitions, w there n e<"ie uring towads th mking of a disctive cu tural trdion ll lvls o srousnss n he heate th was latr than in pin mainy becuse o th ths tied ssocaion wh h fings of th class ather tan it cenr By he 3s he solid expnsion i ewsppr peiodicals books; and hats, is c, d i is in ths gerion, in nmbr of ways Rfo Bill 18, Samp Duty dcion 83 6 Patnt Theare monopoly eded 184 Sap Duty aolshed [55 h th stctios o oldr social orms ar rmovd Only from this peiod is ere cuural dvae ove he whoe eld. In the thetr, cer tiy, his was o remn sow: though nw and more seous udiencs wee now bing gatheed it ws no uil he sxties, with Robetson that te ttemp bgun by llo nd Gy ws seriously rsumcd, nd t lvl as crude as ithre hd bcn no precedents Yet then n a wave o here building (7 new theares in h West End betwen 180 nd o, ogether wih rapid pnsion in he suurb nd pvincs he revv moved icly, and by he turn o he cenury nglnd again had srious nd well-atnded drm Beore w o his ltt phe we ust gn also t th growh o the mic-hll, rom he 184. With the ending ote moopoly ohe nt Thets th mino thees o Londo movd incringly into lgitimat drama thy hd previously been ep o llegiime orm because o he monopoy, hough this wa nver bsoute
I
29 nd he lins were no esiy drwn) Te musichs at rt ttaced to tvers nd then akng ove or buildng new pemis, sprng up as he od iegitimate' theres went legitimate and much hat thy did was a contiution o hei tradions t is common to mke a seimt vlu tion o the music-halls as xpressig the sprt of Ol d ngnd' which is nonsns in tat what they expressed w not old or as sns o geat cural aliy In fc he music-hall ws a very mied istution, nd here is a diec line from the chaos ofhe eightnth-centuy thetre hrough he musichalls o th mss o maril now on telvion nd in he cim which i is stupid to overook o compln ofcontmpoy wok of thse kinds fom striptee shows o pop' singers nd to s th musi-hal s n mpe o cotrsing vtality or helh s to igore te e evdence tha was the illegtimat heats and the usic-hals which establishd hese kinds o etetainmnt yo dot lke i oe century, you cant asonbly lie it i nohr nd the aenda fatres of fshionabl booms fntasc saries and hgh-pressu pubcy r al qay evident in music-hall hstory Vhat ca be sid however and wh emis imporant in similar work tody, is that aongside he Champagne Chas nd he plush-dtisel extava gzas and he ingo specacls d sogs hre wr some peromers - G oss Sam Hal, hey weep ') Jeny Hill Dan eo, Alt heae Mai Lloyd and others who brought to prormne new knds ad aras o perence which the legitimte drama negected or unreasonbly dpised he uban worng clss creted i te ndstrial evoution found in hese perorm the mos authenic \·oie, and this part of th music-l rd ion crinly to e honoured. u in th ghteenth century he crtive response hd to ke is plac in vey mied institutions often pusung quit erent ends so tht iis easy eher to ovrook or to ovelu it Th qick of ew life isnmsakably the, bit coud o more sablish iself in whole orms and insttio, ha ealier esponses in periods of compable change Sci H Daa m
Te Lg vtn
The ood of farces melodamas and specaces has never slackeed and ndeed a arge P< of he histoy of modern dama, wh he epason of distrbution throgh he ciema, wless, ad tlvson, mly a conuaon of he igheehenury toy. Fuher he majoy orm of seros dama Ega etg on a seady mdde·class adience has ben sentimenta comedy - eed in many ways by he inec o he ove whh had tae ths fom of feling o cosderable eels o achievement; ye st lay afte pay h ecogzable conguaon of fashionale sentiments ede melancholy and good· heated eo he serios evival s no hee, bu mainly in e muig of bogeos agedy ad n cetai eviva of the comedy of maners (Wde and social sae (Shaw) Bogeoi tagedy has scceeded absoely in one of aims: he admso oodnay oemoay eienc o agic satus ndeed the success s such tha borgeois can be dropped ad wha w then hav he impotant modn fom of soca ragdy The dincon hat mae by comparson wh Gree or Renassance agedy s that the cene of nerest he moden fom i in eeen of a socia! ad scula ind h tagc heo is no a man caugh in some nivesal pae b a odds wh hs socey ad s parca moa laws he distinghing feare of the bet wo this fom fom Ibsen o Mle is he inense citica serouness, ually in conact wh ajor eecual iees ha has been bogh o the wokng·o of sch epeience. I i sgnca alo, tha he form matued a a me whe he v o bourgeos socety, whch ary bou· geos dama had been ceated o demosrae and eond wee beg radcaly cced in a w peod of change ocal agdy wh s oshoo he poblem lay has been nomaly ogressve n thi ese t a nead of showing as bougeos daa o a aow bae had shaed with Grek and Rena�ae agedy in showing) a man udgd by an absolu law ha lage measre bee concrned w
il Ht Daa
'93 eciicsm ofsch laws in the Ugh opariclar expeience has been libera i he importan sene a i reresents a new ag of individualsm. alie agedy had shown the height of individual aspiaos, bu had ended by vndi atig the law wch opposed them The moden heo in soal ragedy s caacterisically a man who rebes agas some law n any of is posble m h hroism lie n he ebellon and i vindcated een defea n ome wok, fuhe the ebelon s genealied, n tem of alenave vae and laws the lbeal heo become he hero as lberao I fac hi work has esed o a pacula nd of ocial uo wih audences drawn om grous committed o eform or at lea eared o gve a heaing Th incre in uch grous, in the las decades o he neeeh century wa reeced n heate audiencc n Fanc, Gemany, ussia and Englad and he new dama esed subanaly o his tendncy, which in ts un i treghened One notable socal development s the gowh of free heatres and theae·bs, whch daes fom hc 870s and whih provded an eectve aleave aorm fo e new wok ee tll n this peiod he hisory of English dama and theae n he 15 Theatre Wokshop, Roya Co maes clea ess, subsanially o an mpoa owh of middleclass dissidence from the maoiy vales of te sociey and a brogh social agedy, and aso socil satie to heir presen sreng has also snce 9 exended the social scale of such drama to workingclass life houg thi whi gowing, is stil a mnor lme Ths, aongsde he conniy of he maoy middle·cas theae an moant new movement has realizd may of the poentalies of he more eous eaer foms Ye e acual histoy s no sued u by contiuity and th one new movmnt Inded e m ofocial tagedy were sill only being mared whe hey wee aleady powerflly challenged The cee of ierest sch foms was odin aily conned o he concs ofan ndividal wth a paticu society Yet he qesong of vaes by dden gops
'94
Lng Revolutio
was often in trm w han odiy social icim. For ceain id ofxpre eopm mt of o foms eed ndte o he dopm was su ta h ol [o"m w bro ad nw lment or nw whol orms wr crtd omeime as in th rh heatr a aicua national onsousns unite fo a time in a singl movmnt ot h marg of ocil dama n th delopme and io o w in of ay T C of natio gnds or oil mia fow from h romanti rama of F�I nd Pr G) which ad ithro n isola xampl of th tranfoaion ofsuch maial (common noug in ornry cotumintrig by its us as a mic basis fo xpeien of igiou o hiosopi i ima in c o k or Rnssa tagdy n h rh har fo a im hi vlopmn, minly by Yats, foun auies and hrore ontact wh the woring the bcaus i was art oa geneal naional dama ti mom t has also fon auins swhr, piculay i rnc whee h o ls my a ben o gre imoc Englnd in t seous exms o thse mst ngish from use o tOical o gnay matial for snim comdy or ohr oldr orms it has bn s uccssul ng a soial asis. t ha dndd in f O two in o audiene: t on asso wih hh whh som c has po oe s wor, and wi wa the eective bs or he inouctio oflios 1\Irdu i h Ca/Jd!; cond atularly wh clasial matrial a limi publc with om lassial caon, uually by mority broasting athe an by re A oni part o eious mo dm hs be n li io ut i h bn ime a tim v 'lll y hed y th tuity of it lins w he woring thar an by h nssaily mitd charatr os natua auins t the am m h om of oal dma wr bng xtened d omms broen b h p f Hl xpi n ey bUgoi gy t o e rtany of it n;IW mon n emnt o parnly
T SoiaL Histor of Dramati, Frm 295 on-social xprnc was vident : n emnt b ded
s . Thi ordinarily oate i r o nure by worgout o a lws hy were
ot
law y wr f not rovn and at h
stag hen rachd ey suportd rthr han challng th form. n hwor of benven h in h obiouly social
pay thi lmnt o fI wil omtims u i th old way to or ion dtrm n ohr gous mu b en nally in a qite lin ig. Fat i e o din kins o xperin whih h ocial "tio o drama will no amit. t is h ssur o ohr kin o xrinc whch d o th ransfomation, by a numbr o writers o th odinary social orms By t o on-
raiti clemns with a rit amwo hc ma ws
xndd in ircio ltimately imila o hoe o h
dvo omantc rm Vhthr t ato wa fomaly
cont�porary and soal 0" hisoral d gnda h �x:nc ow anld ws not cond to h phr o 1dLalsoity latioshi fo whc he fom b iginy vd I Jbn prtiury, i dvlop. mn IS ar a moat, n h w dma of C$sntially 'ymboli nd uni\·r characr whatev ts _
;
mdiat ond ha imporat aan g in that
sard from onvio wh whih ince wee amilia
Yt th esuc oin, i oth rion. Te y o bogeoIs dam wi is stilly onrson po ad bn adqua or t nds ropo bt eme mau for ths uher urpos Naturaism h sy ha com to all retd ssntialy on th oigna asm I : ha I tc apnt aton of ydy l esna l v us cou! e emon�te Th olt again IS essally growig ii i i i aturm ct posibl Te imotanc o 'unonscious an any cas unxprssd xprn s on ctor n his. nohr aor larly s th gowing conction ta humn alus canot b a ualy oid i trm of xing oal aue md ws pt of te oiginal eol wich brough ocial dama to its maui Tus bae of th
d
�
Rvn
Rasm and Cntma Nvl
descbe thisew kid reality ut stll with wholyrealsti enios? Te quetions are bvsly very dilt ut e way apprahg an aswer o thm may e t take hs rdiary el that we have abadoncd (deveJo�cd eyond) therealiticnov ad to st beie itmy. wn fee that there s a ormal gap in mode o whch make t icapae o expresig on ind of expeene a kin experiene which I ind pariculaly impoant ad r hCh i my mnd the wrd ' realim eep suggig itel Nw the ovel i o so much a literary frm a wole lierature in itclf Withi it wide budarie, there is rom or almst evcry kind ofcnemporary wtg Gea �rm
relaihips arc studied, or arc e diduals meely ilustatins of apes he way Evey apet o persoal lie s radially aeced by he quality he geeal lie yet the gecal lie s een at is mot mprtat n com pletely personal terms We atted with our whole ens to every aspcct o the general l, ye he cee o value alway in the idivdual ha person t ay one iolaed pes ut he many pesn wh are e reality o the geeral ie Tosoy ad George lot i parcular, oen ad i much these term that it w th view hey were tryig ralize Withi his reast radiio there ar frse devaia_ ti o degre ofsuccss, but suh a ep a paticlar apprehesion a elaton between idivduals and ociety may be se a a mode t mut be rememeed hat his viewpont ief the produ of matrty; the htry o the novl om the eighteeh centuy i senally an e ploation twards ths poiion wh many preiminay ailre hc eighteenthcentury nve is forally ms lie ou ow, undr omparabe preue and nceraiti ad it was in te deepeig udersading o the relations etween individual and cietie tha le orm actuay mat ured Whe it is pt t me tha the realit tradiio has re down, i s his mature viewpoint tat I se as havig ee lot uder new presures paiular periece I do ot mea tha it i, or shld e, ted t ay pauar style he kid o realisic (or a we ow ay aturaltic) desriptio that 'went ut with the hansm ca way eenLa ot t was even perhaps, i wters lke Benet a sutitte or t Suh vin is ot reaed by detad tocktakg descrpti of shops or akparlou r satio waingms hee may be sed as elemens of the at but they are ot this sential realsm. tey put i or the ae odsriptin as uch they may i fact destry he balance that i te essce o hi mehd they may fr eample raser atenin om the peple t he things It wa atu aly th very eelg that i th id yfrnihed nv vythig wa pree but actual idividual lfe that lcd i
34
a
s done o thc radiion ofion, and the ney ral
discuion f i f' e ovel i euaed with ay one kid proe work t was such a wog cuatin whi mad Tlty ay o IVar (d Peac: i t is not a ove. A or wh? n at cudes Middma and Al/a d F, Wfr tgh d HukleF, Th Raibow ad Th Aag Jzan i indced as I ave sad more lie a whoe erae n draw-
ig atten to wat em to me ow a omal gap, I use do ot mea at ths wole va fom hold be direted ling it B beaue it is like a whole literatue, ay fmal gap in the ovel seem partiulary importat. Whe I thik of e as traditin i ti, I ik he knd vel whch creaes and judge the uaty o a whle way of lie term the qualite of peros The balane ivlved i ths achevement perhap e mst mpoant thing abou i It oks at st si�t so geera a a and thig the or f hig mt ove do It IS wh�t .Ptae dcs' what Middlemarch des; w hat T Rbow does
Ye the dincio ofhis ind is that it oer a valuing a wle way o lie a sciey that s argr than any o the ndivduas ompsng i ad at the same e valuig reatios huma bengs who while elongng to and aected y and helpig todene this way ofeae al, i teir.w end n temselve Neither elemet, neter he
or the individual, is here as a priority. The
oiey i ot a ackgrud agant whih e perona
305
he evti
eJm a e mp Nvel
the 19:S, to th disput of' alism Th extreme eation was i Vrgiia ools he were all te fu�ur, and ven he physa odies hav gone out o he wdw, and w are left with voics ad feelings, voices i te ai an quay damagig unbalac, as we can now sc It may indd b ossibl to writ the history of the modr ?ve n trms oa olarizatio o styls, objet-realt and sJect mpessionist but th mo ssential polaato, has mainy occurred snc oo, is th ivision o\ whh ha cratd th sustac and qualty oa way oCe terms of the substan and qualiti of persos into tW seaate taditions, th 'social novl ad th ' pesoa novel I the socal ov there may b aurate obsrvato ad descriptio of the geeral lfe, the aggregatio; in the ponal novel ther may be accuat obsevation d ds B eah laks a dmens, riptio ofesos, h mts. or e way of is nither aggrcgation no unit, bu a wole idivisic process. We now omonly mak his distico between 's?i�l ad 'psoal novls; idd i oe way w ake thS dStitio of iterst for ganed y lookig a some exampes, th sustatia issu may made lear. There are ow two mai kinds of soia ovl. Thr is, rst the desrti social nov, the documetay This reaes, as prioity a geneal way oif, a paticula social o 'ithi ths, ofcours, arc characters, soes q Ut aefully draw Bu what w say aout such ovels is t�at fwe at to kow about lif i a miing tow, or n a uLverty or on a merhat shi or o a atrol i Burm this is th boo I fact many noves of his kid are valuabl; the good documntary is usuay nterestig. It s ight that ove of ths kind should go o beig writt a wth he g eatt pible va'iY of se1tig ct the dimnsio that we miss is obious: the charactrs are miers, dons, soldies irst; illustrations of the way of life. t s ot the empasis I av be trying to dscri in which thc prsos are of absolue inteest i themselves and ar ye see as parts of a whoe way o livg. Of al cu;ret ids of ovel, this kid, at i best s
ppt narest to what I am callig he east novel but
306
V
307
th crucial distinctio isue apparent in radg th social dscrtiv funco is fat th shaping roty A very vly knd of social ovl quite dirent fom this is now signicantly opula The tor, here not esci tion ut th nding ad matcrializaon of m aout socity A aticular atte s abstactd fom th sum of socal xrce and a soty is eated fm th pattern h simlcs xampls ar i th eld of the futu-story wh th futur dic (usually only a dvice, for narly aways it s obviousy tempoary sciety hat i bing writtn about; dd this is bcomg the man way of wing about socal experice) rmoves the ordiay ten sio betwn the selcted patter ad orma observaton ve New l EghF, hhit 15, a owerful social ctio i whih a patte take frm co tmporary socity is materialized, as a whoe, n anoer tm or ace. Other xampls are Goldgs Ld fe and ad ncay a! sious siee cion . Mos of e tse ar writen to rsemble ealisti novels, and opea in t sam esscnil erms Most of them ontai, damen taly, a conception o h ation eween ndiiduas ad socity; odinarily a virtuous indvidua, o smal pesonal gou agains a vie socity Th action ormaly, s a re las of tsios i this personal-soa compl, but say reas an not wokng-out becuse ordiarily th dcvc sutly alts th tsios aces hm a seleted light so that it is not so much that they a eplored but indulgd e xric of solatio, of alination ad of sf-exil is an imortat art of th contemora structure of fling and any contmoary ealist novel would ha to com to ral trms with it (t roic cdetally, tat it was com totrms with and workd 0 a olutio vry diernt fom t conmoray foula of ile ve su masss stalemat at svral oints i h realist tradiio, otably n me hmZt and trough Bezukov, in ¥ e.) Our fomua ovs are lvely, because they ar aou lively socia feings but th obvious dimesio they lack is that of a
F
3'
TIe g Rvoo
persona knd the novel of the ponal formua: Hee as in the ove of social foma, a particular patten abstracted fom he sum ofexperiece ad no now socitis b human idivduals are reaed from [he pattr his has bee he method of werful and in i ow tcrm val io t it em t me to e rapidly reaing a new mode h ctIOn ospea leadn n onos e . ke oy one peson seously, but th vcy � I not seriouly indeed Joes Pat A h bu ontai it as a main empha And to mentIn s remarkable work is to acknowledge the acual gain n inten sity the real development of ictioal method, which his em�hasis embodied word is acalized on one m n s senses no arraed, o held at arm's ength, but tae as lived oyce sowed he magnice advaages of method when in Ube he actualed a wold no throgh one person ut through three the are three ways ofscg tree worlds of Stepen Bloom ad Moy, yt t hree worlds as in fact compose on wold te whoe wor oth e nove dos not mainan tis alace throgho; . is maly the rs third o th book at t ssenal composition is done wit the last secton as a coda Y e was te realist tradition n a ew fom altered echque bu continuous in xperiene Since Ue, this ahivement as bn lute as the tenique as also een diute arys T Ho�' o an inteesting eample for in it on wa sg a bee ilated and the world ted to that. analI I also he key to the popular new kind of oel represented by miss T Ucea Feelg and ain's Lg paradox of these novels is ta on the on .hand tey em the mt real kind of onemporay wng they were welcomed beaus they recordd so may atual feeligs and yet on the othe had th nal version of reality is paodi and faria. TS Illutrats th< gral dilma these writers sta with real personal feegs, bt o sustain and ssantiate tem in ti gven fom the wod of action in whih thy oate has o be pessd as
S
:
�
Rl te Como Novl
i ere ievably towards caratue (his was also the process o Dickns a the limit of what he coul openy see or sate, and ariatu and semenality are i th sense opposite sdes of the same coin used to avoi te real ngotiation·) To set thes eeing in our atual word rather than in this wold farcialy trnsfomed at cris, woul be n oqto te ing to go on from tem o ve diult ton of reality nstead of th real tension what we get is a pantasy release swearing on te t\epone giving a moklecue nding a pe-gur 0 whi aggression an e conentrated Becaus thee are our live ie writers t ilstrate our ontmpoary dclty most leary Te gap bewen our eeng a our socia observa tion is dangeously wid he icon of a ca n a fm those many onemporary oels which aking one persons eeings ad eeds as absot ceae othe prsons i heseso terms Tis ouises n te sgcatly poplar r-person arativ wch is nomaly s smply fo tis Hb Fi/, n its de secos, creas a geera eaity with wich psonal narrative gais breadth Saingers C e R as a savg iony, yet lacks this other dimension a limitao inceasingy obvious as he nove proees Braies Roo breaks dow alto gether, bcause thee is no other reality to efer o we are left with the famlar ieraction of cudity and self-pity a negatie moral gesture at best. Compare for eample Carson Culle "ee f Wddg whl has its realist dimension and n which the raltyo"pernal feeling growing into phantasy, interats at the necessar nsion wit he wod in which te feling mus be lied ou again on th oposite side, here is Sagans Bju Tte whee he persons ar presend almost objctily, but are ten made to at in aordace wth th phantasy of the enal charatr omparso of cCulls and Sagan is the comparison of ealism an ts badown. nd is te beak dow unfortunately of wch w have most eamps; te rt-prso narrative wich so mc tecnica biance
Th Lg Rvluio individua and socity no absoluts wc we have sn rctd in form e rly crave eor o ur tim is te struggle for relaionshps of a wole kind, ad is possible o see tis as bo personal and social : t practal larng of x/di rlaionsips Ram as mbodd in is grat tradition is a touchsone in this for it shows, in dtail, tat ta inerpentraion ida ino flig, pson into communiy change into settlmen which we ned, as growing poits, in o own diided tim In the igst alism socity is sen in ndamentay pronl tcrms and esons trough rlationsips in fundamenlly social terms The integration is conolling y ofcours it is no to b acived by an ac o wil. Ifit comes at all, s a craiv discovry and can prhaps only be corded within t stuctue and substanc of e ealis ovl Yet, since it is discovry and no recovery sinc ostala and mitaion ae not only irrlvant ut hindng any nw ralism wll be dien fom h radition and wil comphend the discovies in prsona ealism which arc te mai wntiecury acvmnt Th pint a be put thortically in laion o modrn dscovris i prcpion and comucaion. old, na'v raism is n ay ce dad for it dpndd on a thory of natral sig wic now impossible n w toght wc had only o open our yes o see a common world w could suppose hat ralism was a simpl coding procss from which any daon was vountary We know ow tha we iraly ca wold we e, and hat tis human crcation a dcovery of how we can liv in te material world w nhabit is nc sariy dynamic and aciv; th old static ralism of th pive o is mey a hadnd convntion Whn it w ft discovrd tha man livs trough h prcptul world which is a human interprtation o he maria world outside m, is was tougt to be a basis for the rejion of ealism ony a ponal vision w possibl. But art is more ha percepion; is a particar kid o acve rspons, and a par of all man commnicatio Ray, or rms, is tat wic ma bngs make commo by wor
Ralsm and he CQntmpry Nl 3 15 or languag. Tus, in h vy acs o rception and comui�aion is praccal ntracton of wha s prsonaly sen, I\rprtd ad organzd ad wha ca b socially rogzc know and formd
�
.
is ricy and sutly mai-
fcstd t IS ry dcul o grasp his fudamntal intr. cton ut er undoubed
ly h lue w seek nO only � I? our luLkg about pcrna vion and social communiaI bu aso in our tinking abut the ndividual and �y: TI�e indiidual inhris an evovd bain which g 1m S comon uman b H arns to sc, throug
tS Itanc and troug the form whic cu eaces. But sinc te aing is aciv ad since e world he is w�cig is canng and bing hagd, ew acs of percOI, Iterrctaion and organzaio arc ot ony posbl, b dpy Icssary Tis is man growt in pe.sonal trms but ssa growt is in the intracon wc n can occur, i h individual's or to couun_ cat wat e as lead, o match it w own raiy and y wok nd ngug o a a nw ralty Ray is connuaUy sabid, by comn ot ad ar s one of gs oms �r i pocss Yt he csio can b great In cssar dcult struggl o sablsh raliy, and ay kLds of lure and bakdow are ossible. sms to e a i a prod ofxciona growt as ors as ben ad W continue to be t son w be cionally lg, and cra! �nd of faile and brcakdown may of ceaive eor com charactrsc 1 h ecordg o
� ?
epore su bakdowns is no always asy to dinguish from the Smp, otn rawly cxcig oiaion of brak do\n Or else hre is � ung away, ino own fDs w L:h nd WI ofprcusy arnd aliti and seck, by s remd 10 sablish pobabilty of a nd Thus t tnsion can ir b lowrd as in t ordinary socia no' ? played on in odnary prsoa novel Ether sul a deparu from ralis in t snse tat am oring For alis is prcisly s livng tnson acied in a couabl OI· "t s is scn s a rolm of te dvdua 1I socity or as a prolm of ord
:
Th ng Routon deipon an te known dscrion, the creativ c· leDg sm. Te acvment of ream s a coninu acvment o baanc n te ordnary absn o bnce, n t or o contempory nov ca e seen bo a wrning nd a chllenge. Jt s crtain tht ny fort to iev contemorary baance wi e com nd di ncessry ct t t eot s necessry n ram we e man cvc
a
PT THREE
BRTAN IN HE
19605
hav n tyng dvlop hd of aayss whc vr a age from litratue to soca nstitons can arculae atua strucurs f feeling th eanngs and values whc a d in woks an relaoshs ad clafy t processes of hstrcal eeopment hug wich hese sructure fom an change I shal attmp in hs at, a esc"on ofcntempoary itan n ths sense; necearly ony n oune ndng epanson by Ohe kns of analys mcasumn bu oerng an accunt o he essntal languag craed and cat manng whch ur nhrtd aly tcachs and though whch new reaity fom an i gotia he cotet I gi o ths pacular scion s h hstorca prcss whc j hav called he og rvouon. WE
_
As w ntr 1 9605 th ectv hstrcal paerns Brth scty seem reasonably clar h ndustra relutin n an mptant echncal ph i connung h cultural xpanson agan wth nw ehncal develpmens as conus. the demcratc revolutio, Bitain as rcnty been may in a efsve postion as t conal pops mov o mancptin At hom t is gneraly assumd at th mocratc pss has n ssetialy cmplt wth paamtay an loca governmnt soldy esablshd on uversal surag, an wth t class system appanty bakng up Brtan sms, m tese pattrns a cuntry wth a aly bvous fuu inustrally aanc scurely deocrat an wth a steaily rsng gneal level ofducaon an culu Ther s substantal tuh n hs readng. I s i nt only the
320
Ang olui
gneal consensus, but most attmpts o challenge it seem unreasonable ; ven powerful loa criisms do not unda· mentally dstrb te se of steady and geeral advance Yet in deper ways that av prhaps no yt ben articulaed this ida of a gd sciey naturally unfolding i �lf may be xceptonally msleading It is prhaps a inuitve sense of tis hat has givn sch emonal force to the tota denunatons, the sweeping rjections so caacterisc of recent yeas for ven when the can be shown to be based on selctive edence ad particuar miorty tnsios, the experience tey attest still not sily st aside t sees to me at te rst dicuty ies n te common habit of supposing our socity to be goverd y single pat erns arived at by averng the overall teds in amilar categories of conomic acivity, poiical behaviour and cultura deveopmen As I see the siuatio we nd que drnt forms o analyis whic would enabl us to rcognie the important conadictio within eac of the patte described and ven more ccially, the cotradictions beween dierent pars of te geeral process of chage It not oy tat the analy sould be more exible bu a new categories and descrpons ar neded al e fac ar to be ecognizd. In particla lds w have made some rors with ese but in our most general descpton we are all sl visibly umbng, leang an uncetay asiy eploed by the bandest versions o a naral and healthy evoluion and certainy not rdeemed by such general ntrus as te g or sociaism wich remains ar a in erms of this country, almost wolly undend We have to observe for ampl, that h ordinary optim m about Britain's economic tre can bc reasonably seen as simple complaccncy. t is vey far from certain tha on prese evidence and given lly devlopmets the direc os and rae ofgrowth of te economy garante us over say ty yea, a steadily ring standard of living in this econoically posed and crowdd and oh te rapid rate of economic groh eswhere and the cetainty of steady industrialization o many areas now undvelope
rain n h 1960$
3"
se omino signs for a cony dependent on rade and in fac given prosperity by is arly industal strt (now beig apidly overtaen) and y its Empie now eihr dis apparing or canng its caacter. Longterm thining o this kind is in fact benning but the gap btween thning ad vigorus acton o implmnt it seems no orina inera ut th consequence o hai whh, in othr pars ofour if se satictoy and een admirabe The dee rvulion gains general planning which makes sense again nd agan in many detais ofour ecoomi activity may b really di1bling in thi ong run And th reuion itse in part aconeuence ofone aspectofthe dmocrac rvolu tion the detemnaon o to be cgimted Her i a sustatia contadction hat I think now runs ver deep Th vey stong case for general planing no simply o avoid wt ut to promot essential dvelopment resac and eorganiaion is practically nulled by a wolly creditable eotion: ha we rec he idea of tis kind o conomic system controlng our livs rue, we ar con trolled ow and will conue to be controlled by a quie dieren sys with its o denials and rigidities but n he rt place this is vcry much harde to idtiy and secondly by is vy srcture and idoloy, it appears to oer and in ust enough paces does oer, te feelig of edom t seems ulikely that th cae for general planning will ver be widly acceptd unt not ony do i forms seem ensib, but aso its methods seem cmpatibl with us ing of freedom Dmocratic plannng is an asy phrse bt obody eally knows ow would work, ad he spectaclar successes of economic planning elsewhere have aer not coexsed with any genera democrac his te seer damage of h contradiction bcaus it is th asy tosuppos that we have found good reasons for ot planning whn i ac e ned remains urgen and te problm wil not dappear bcause on balance we d hm too dcult osolve. It rmain very dicult in fact to think aout our genra conomc actity at all oh its successes ad its
Long Rvlut furs rmn obsntly locl nd o ths knd o dscrp on (prulr succs�s ouc by hr mkrs pr culr lurs no nnounc unl hy rupt in crss) h only ordn lnv is lmos slss msrmn o tol proucon s som sngl hg w bg prouc. Ecoomss hv one goo dl o mk hs qustons sgncn bu ordnry hnkng s hr hs succss h ur, or hs mslngly smpl nrl rph W cn ony hk n rl rms w know wh rl hngs r bg produc n sk rlvn quson bou n quly Som p o h producon my b uly ncssry, bu h mor kly suon h h blc bwn vrous knds o roucon wll b wron or vn bsur. h usul nswr o ths nd o son s prc lr dscrpon th mkt whch supposly rgls uons o n n quly I t s nd bcs s ouh; wcr no bouh would no b md' Of cou hs lvs ou onc jor consdro n: whh nd nd bly o buy rc chd B n ny cs h dscp on s crud bcus t lvs ou oo much To mch h lock ur o proucon w r or nohr block g h comr h populy of conmr' s comorry m svs som non I s sgnct cus rs uncocosly xprcsss lly vry od nd pr vrson o h purpos o conomc ctvy th m s drwn rom h urnc or h somch yc how mny hn h r w nhr nor burn) nd scon mrlzs s n ndvl gur prhps monsrous s bu nvul bhvo - h prso wh s whch hgocs o h kt o supply y consumr o tk h pon? \ hv o go bck o h o mk o hs clr A mrk s obvosy snsl pc whr crn ncssry goos r md vlbl bu h mg o th plc lngs wh h pocss o supply n nd hs n c bn tnsorm W sd o go o mr n shops s cusomrs why w rgr now s consumrs Th rdc chn s h ncsnly h dvpmn o lgsc nustr 322
T
tan n he 1960s proucon s ncssy o pn h o know h mk n Wh w now cll mk rsrch ws nd s rsonbl provison or h: mnd s s vrd so h prodcon cn b orgnz u n c, nc prodcon s no gcnrlly pnn b h rsul of h cons o mny compn rms mrk rsrch hs nbly bcom volvd wih vrn whch ha sl hnd om h proc o nofn v suly o sys of smuln nd rc dmd omms ths smulon s owrs ths vrso o produc rhr h (Moi r Be), bu rqunly s smu o of nw dn T Need Pocke R or rvv of n dmn Dna Pnta l Dy. n h chn ng ccmstncs h smp dc o k ha on: h hucksr stns levl wh h supplr I s hn cl why consmr, s scro s so poplr, or whl r p of o conoc cvy s obvouly dvod o sply n kown nds consrbl nd ncrcng pr o os o nsrin ht w cosum wh ustry nds cnvnn o roduc As hs dncy strnhns bcoms ncrly obvous h socy s no corolln conoc f b n pr ng conrolld by . h wknn of purposv socl hnkn s rct cons quc of hs powrul xprcc whch ss o dc humn cvy to rcbl rn o mn w wr no comr, bu s w mh ook sociy vy rny o h concp o us nvolvs l hm mcns w nd o kow how o usc hgs nd wh w r usg hm fo n so h cts o prtculr uss o or nrl l - whrs consumpon wh s crd ndomouh prn nds o cnc hs quson rplc hm by h smud n conrol bsorpon o th proucts o n xr uonomous sysm W hv no o ll h wy wh hs nw ndncy nd r sl osion o rvr bu s psuv prns hv ch of owr of our socy bhn hcm. An qully mporn ct o th consmr dscpon ht mrzn n ndvul gur prvns u
324
Bi i lh
he Lng eIuin
thinkng adequately about the true ange of ue of our eonom avty. There are many thing, of major mport ance whh we do not ue o eonume indvdually, n the ordinary ene but ocially It s a poo way oe n whh we cannot think of ocal ue a one teron of our eonomc a yet t toward th that w ar beng puhed by the 'coume empha by he uppoed aw o he maket and by the yem of poducton and druton fom whh thee derve It begnnng to e wdely recognized n Brtn n the 60S that a erou te o unalance beteen provon or ocal and ndvdua need now ex and ee kely to increae It eay to ge a ene ofpenty om he hop wndow of ontempoary Btan, bu i we look at the chool he hopal, the road he lbaie we n chronic horage ar too oten Even when thng a at ally connected in dect aly epeene a n the pectac lar eampe o the lood o new a and he ludo nadeuacy o our road yem the pell of th ivded thinkng eem too poweu to break Cre o h kind eem certain to domnate ou economy n the year ahea fo even when late very late we egn thnkng about the ocial coneuence o our ndividual paen o ue, to ay nothing about ocal purpoe n ther own ght, we eem t nd tvery dcut o thnk about ocal proion n a genu nely ocial way hu we thnk of our ndval paer o e in the favouae e of penng and ataction b o our oal patern of ue n the uvourable em f epivaton and taaton I t eem a undamenta dt of our ociety that ocal purpoe are largely nanced out of ndividua income by method o ate and e whh make t very eay for u to feel that ocety a hng hat connuay deprve and lmt u - wthot th yem we ould all be protaby pendng Who ha no head that mpaoned cry o the moden arcade: b 're pe n a h; we y n ? And t doent help much to pont out that hady any of u could get ay money or even ive fo moe than a ew day, ecept n te of a highly oganzed oca ytem whh we too eay
96
325 fo granted rememe a mner ayng to me o omeone wewee dcung He the or o man who geS up in the morng and pree a witch and epec the lght to come on We are a to ome eten, in h poton n that our moe o hinng habay uppre large ara oou ea rlaonhp nludng our real dependence on other We hn of my money my ght n thee nave er be cae pat of our very dea o oey ar whered at oot We can hardly have any onepton, n our preent yem ofthe nancng of ocal pupoe om he ocial product a meod whch woul ontinually how u in real term what or ociey i and doe In a ocety whoe produt depen almot enrly on ntate and contnuou cooperaion and oal oganation we epec to conme a we wee olated inddual mang ou own way We a ten forced nto the tupd omparon of ndvual con mption and oal taaon - one derabe and to be tended the other regrettaby neeary an to be lmted From th kind o thnng th phycal unbaance follow eviably Unle we acheve ome realc ene of ommuny, or te tandard olivng wil contnue to be dtorted A i to thnk about econom avit in the lmted erm of the onme and he maket actuay digse what many o are doing and how the pattern oeconomc e any changng Even now one peron in fou of the workng populaton i engaged nehe n producon nor n dibu on t n pu admntraton and varou of genea erve For a long time h poporton ha been teady ng and it eem ertan that it w ontnue to e Ye it a knd of economc atvty whh annot be laned though may be dtorted, y uch decrpton a the onumer and the maket A ther one n thiteen work in tranpot and gnant tha the ordnary gment aou ou tranport ytem epecay the al way nual!y dcut and oued, a the poblem of ng any creon more aeuae than conumpon any mehod o accountng more realt han drect prt and
The LOlg Reoltio
Briai in Ik 1960J
ritain? We are tod ta it is canging but whe this s i obioly true t can be argue ta te patterns of tinng and behaiour it promoes have neer been more stong. To the reduction o us to consumption aready disussed we must add t wdesprad (tnion of te 'slling ethi what se goes and to sl a ting i to vaidate t nd also, I tin, the sibe mora decline o te labour movem ent ot politically and industrially some section of he abor moement have gon oer almost ompety, to ways of thiningwhh they stil ormlly oppe e man chaUeng to capitalism wa sociaism, but t s almot wholy ost any contmporary meaning and it s not surpring a many peope now s in the Labour Pay merly an alterna tivepowergoup an n te radeunion moement merely a set of men paying the make in very muc e term of the employrs tey oppos Any uch development s generally daaging, fo the octy unliely to be abe to grow signcanty iit has no rea aave pattern a the on of coice. I emember tat urpised man people, in Culf and SocidY, by caiming at te insution o the abou moement - te tde unon, te cooperaties e abou ay - were a geat cr<e aheemen o e workng people and aso te rig basis or te woe organi zation of any good sociey of he te m now tdraw ng tis caim, in speaking o moral deline The poin s a 1 see it tat my caim reted on te nw social patterns t institutions oered 1 reognie tat te mot for their fondaon, and consquntly their pacice mt be sen as med Setiona deence and setiona sntere ndoubtedy playd their pat But also the wa is steady oering and doery of ways of ling that could be ex tended to the who soiey wich cud quite rcsonably be organzed on a basis ofoective democrati instituions an e substitution of ooperaie equaity for competition s the pinciple of soia and economi poiy. In te actua histoy, tere has been a stady preure, om e itng organization of sociey to onvet tse nitutios to aim and patterns whih woud not oer ts kind of haenge
e ooperatives soul be simpy tradg organzations te trae unions simpy inutria organiaions with no othr interests c union keeping o i own sphere, and the abour arty simpy an alternatie goernment in the pr�ent systm - the country needs an eecive opposit ion l1S pressurc could not hav been s successful as it as if jst these aims ad no ben part of the orgal impet o the nstitutons: ertan lements in eir patrn hae been enouraged certain cemen steadiy opped and wak ed And in evey ase o coure to accept the proposcd itation of aims may lead to mportant sorrn gais in practica ecency; te mn win ese instutions who aept the lmitaon oen mae moe mmediate sens But it quite ca ing n the 19605, ta te pont has been cachd when ea of tes inttions icovering hat te pae in existing society propoed fo it i it agrees to imit i ams is essentially suordn< e wde chalenge hasbeen draind out, and wa et can be asorbed within xting trms For many reasons ts a sapped he morale of e initutions but aso fotuatly led to cris and arumet itn the Te coice a it preents iteis be een qalied acceptance n a ubodinate capacty or te newal o an apparently opeess callenge Te pratia benets o te former ave to b baanced aganst the pro foud ofinspration in the absence oft lae fI secm ecentric in ontinuing to look to tese nstittions for eetive aternatie pattn whie seeng all too early r present lmitations J can only repeat tat ey can go er way and tat ti rsis i not yet permanenty oved. The situaion is omplcatd by e fact at rea hang hae occrrd n the cie, through the pressure of thee iitutions aded by rforming eemnts within the existng patterns Th tnson of social serces, including cduca tion, i an undoubted gan o knd which must not be ndrestmated by toe wo ave sipy inerited t Bt t mains true not only hat te social e·ces re imite to operation in te intetics of a pivatownership society
329
330
he g RO
bu alo tha in their acual operatio the rmain lmit by assumptio and rgulaio belnging t t the new ciy bU he old (a uan brliantl dcribed by ra AbelSm in v). Th her bantial cange, e aioalzain f cain dures ad servic, ha been v mre deply cpmd he d ad vaabe pincip f prdcio or u ad t fr pot ha e fought a stadtill inst hs ld. he sstem aen nto pblic .owhip wee i fac thoe d sysems o lnger prt term cal railwa, w system aractv equiig hav ial inven (arway ad s frmrly municipay r pblicy dvlpd ga elecric Sm these stms ave een muc mr cceu tha i generall allowed, but it rmain true rt tat thy have o ny failed to alter the 'prit befe u mphais i the general conomy ut have also ee teadly hmselv edced t th old crtrin; and secnd that thc have reprduce somms wih appalling accuracy, the huma attern, managem and wking relanhp mdustrie baed on qui dirent scial prnciple he muipicatin f uch eec indeed unnviting ad the eay identica�i of inutos as typ f the sup· psed new oct has added t h gna confuio I being draggd back t h prcesses the ld stem et a the same me ered s witnss h new they have o dpy damaged any alteatve prcipe in h conoy a t ave ptied ri calism of any eeciv mng The ppal adm thi frma vacu deacing the Labur Pa fm a u cmmitment t calim he make ene f a kind, the practical ackowedgemen of a eig ituatio il perhaps o remmber tha the containment ad eventua caelation f any real chal ege t capitalit ociet ha been f me tan a cntur t wrk f capitalist cey isel. . Tcse ar ar gain n capita way f hinkng nd ea t verwheld b them Meanwhil capialim can pt t it uccee in pandig cnumpn ad t its etei of a huge ytm coumer cred which o
Bita i he 19 ts OWJ rms, ceate on kid f pprity.
33'
ly he
coumer i mind as a pin f ecnmic refernc hi s t aily challgd Aga taing the p abu retric in ofwhp capiam h g etnd wneip b pmtin a wide oldg ha. Thi eply chac tcritic hat it mie he pt f cicm ad pr pe rfm in rm he ym criicied The bcti was ol n pat rricd indvidual owerhip whch i any c stil holds) ; i wa maily to o cial owerhip The extnin of har holdig t aou fn adults abe mre f u mke mny a a bypduct h ytem atifyg gneral nd mne made i fact wrk f th ohr ouree) bu i o nthg to eur hat e need ar gnral r tat he ditrbuin f eergy ad rsorces i rght in cmmon te"m he latet device of om limited cotrol of h ditriution b ha nellig pblic m in privatwned em, nl a futher eampl f the wa which he very aprain f he igial chalenge o capitalim ar ued as a mans f tgenig it Fia capiam (and i ciali apgits mphaiz te decine in cntl by haehlder an rnc cmmet f cur o e etein of shares which is he no a w knd of wnrhip bt impy an xei of plang the marke) and th re i imptace f the manags ad echicans n fac the ecnom wile trlld by rdinary haedrs, i n cnrld b manager and tecnicia ihe ut by pwerfu erlc ing private inin ha in fac cmmand what me abou pliticia ill wiful call he cmmandig hight f he ecnmy Eve if th maagia revouio had occurd and he real rvolu is the passig f pw t nancal intituin and ef-nancing crprai) h ignal challege wud ! b l, r the direc ur cmn cmc li wod hav ee edcd a fchica dciin witu nthig mr th a mat refernce he kd f ociy cmy hud uain The cetral pt i h ctiou d, s ha he concpt f he organized mak ad the coum nw
10
33'
T g Revoution
deterine f economc l d wth t mh of th t o our oety and that hallgs to thm hve been eectvly onfsed hat hardly any prncpld opposton emain, only e prpal hggng and brnss of the wage clm a he srk I s dcult to bv tht we hal remn tfed by i ao whch s oinually ettg us agt eh ohr and vry rapdly promotg patts of crude eonoc yim yet to which no cea nd pratical altrnave xsts The hlege to ete new mngs d to subsat thm, wll ave to be m that ppenly obvou fre s ft o be ralzd
H he progrss of dmocracy n Bt s depy actd by what s happeig in he ecoomy bt also by othr factor. he aspration to cotrol the geerl drcos of our eono life an esnti lmt of democrt gowt but s stll very fr from bg rzd. Byod is gneral ontrol lie a fhr sprato now equy ditan nd ofsd I s diclt to fel a we are rly goveng ouelvs ifin so trl a par of or lvng a or work most of us have o share i deions that immdaty act us he dicults of procdurl kid i eurg thi shae are deed seve nd becau of th vaey of tittos n whch w work thr o sigle answer. Yet if h mpulse s some way can b foud d tdly mpove from xprnc. I now from my ow exprice i hepig o wor out suc ways i my own ob some of h dcles yt lso som of te ral gas From prac exprn alone I a with Brk tha
ve eer s pla
t ndd by osaons o hs wo w much neror n undendg th peTo wh took he led n Ev h smllst huma gop produes ler hough not wa the me ad fo ll projecs The dicuy le interprtg just wht hs leadeshp mens he mry ptter o ur oty pally work, oer a
n n 190 333 tpretton wh not ony·s leader o l sort of ccumtane but ecourge them to believe that it not onlythr right but the duty mak ndependnt desions n to be rsolute n ng them o After ll dog do ep a m and th tke the d imsel Thr are si may natra autorat in or octy and t trouble ty caus s yod reckonng More dagerou phps, ba less ealy idend re those sklld in wt wa all n t rmy m aagmnt he point ere a 1 remmber that of ouse you hav t omnd, ht sc led hs to be followd he m be dgntly ttiv o he sae ofmid of thos he s edig : mst try to ndrd them t to them ao thir problems (not bot hs own by th wy) get pctur o tr stte of d Thn havig takn these soundi hng raly ot th feel of hs peop, h wll pont the wy forrd I kow fw rtr soil paures in otemporay Ba, than at ofwtchg m-mgmet, for id ts prctors arc lmo evrhr t i trutht hey r lly vry bd at i athough they nvraby thk temselvs vy good Te calmly ppag eys narrowd bout an ghth o nch more would look suspiou) the gentle siJnc the gig procs ofdrwg the man out though hav wtchd he o ofte, I nd them be most plays And th ar he hrocs of our publc lf, th sod weight of mal mio behd them An eptonly lrge pr ow pss or poltcal commen try s now publc dicsso o a party lader's ommad of ths kll how will the Prme Mnst or the Leadr of th Oppito hde ti or tht wkward lment'; how l he tme hs own nterventio f he says hs how cn h avoid syng that? he relly funy thig aout ths knd of omentry is tt t publ; prtd and drbted in llos ofshes rd by lmot vryoy lung wwrd ms' Te dlie ar s beom public yth ad s rr to se i aged Ths vdenly s what dmorc ladrshp s supposd to b In fat, of CUe t i te tact of a defensve tocracy
1
Tt LOg RtOluio
Briai i ht 1960s
(and people do no have o born n an ara acquire s habs). The re procs of democrac decsion s hat, wih al he facs made availabe, th uson n discussed and is rsn openly arrved a eter by simple maorty voe or a seres of vounay hanges o arrve a a consensus The skills of the good tener and the clarer are ndeed exceptonaly necssary in such a process bt he arc crucally dieren from he Sance of he eader who is merey lscnng to the dsuion ds- cover he erms n which he can ge hs own way he inri cate devices worked ou by democraic organaons o ere te fl record of facs he freedom of general con ibu�n the re openness of decson and h opporuniy o revew the way in which decsons are ae deed invaluable some people hogh was okng I mentoned coee pocedure a par f ur cura hertage but he joke is hem if hey arc serious a emocracy for hese a he means f s working Ye Jus because hey ar intricae h are easy abused by th man-manages : one even ears boass abo he ways n whch his ha commee has been 'handled I would only ay tha have never sen sch handlng repuedy rad as a way ofavoiding oube, ead o anyhng bu ube For once men ar reasonably fee hey w in e end asser her nress, and f hese have no been uly nvoved in he decson (as opposed o colleced and borne n mnd he real suaion will evenually asser oen wih a berne hat shows how bad he realy ar Our man rouble now s ha we have many of the fo ofdemocracy b nd these conualy coed by he accs of those who do not really believe n who ar genUney afraid of common decisons openy arved a and who have unrtunaey parly scceeded n weakenng he paen of feelng of democracy whch alone cod sub staniate e nsuons We ms add a noe on e ones of conempoay di cusson fhs suaon s be fll ndersood Mos people wo pass hough universes Jan ran conventons of
cssion whch pass no public process. e mos poran of hese s a hab of enaie saemen charac terisicaly inroduced such phases as I shoud ave tough ha or I don know bu i seems o me is manner is someimes merly supercial e he gamb of te Oxfrd lecrer who begins by sayng ha he knows praccally nohng a he sbec of he lecure and in any case has forgoen hs noes (I once saw h pracsed by tree lecre rnnng on an audence offore gaduates; tey were n chmd and indeed concded ha he eturr were no ue as good as h suppose themselve to be a no wholly naua dagnosis of a sance of modesy wic in fa am hrough as insung hese defects ar evden swh fr ceran nds of dis cssion he nns have he advanages ese can mos easly e seen by conras wh e convenions f arg en f many waanrs parcualy manua woers b not always rade-union ocers wo ave someimes leaned oruousness o a eally amazng procency A , he blunness of samn and asserion s frsn afr long a couse of sud hae hough B one noces w easy sc dscussions pons of w m n ove w e peonal presige fhe speake he opion canno be aacked whu aackng hm as a man and he ann mdf t wout wha looks like clmbng down ave lsened n despar o many argumens f his knd ere n he ed wld really be easer adourn and g in he yard a e sgns of phsca aesson ad chalenge eng already more eden han he uesxcep oforse hat tomorrow the dscon would only have to egin agan he value of he conventon f ntave sae ment is ha opnon an e reasonaby deached from he personal presige of h speaker, n a way that s umaely necCa" f a common nn s arived a he frank speakng f he Labor moveen has been on alan a grea gan he ssues are forced no he n aa fom the man-manage and e cpboarded auocras. Bu a he same ime he wokings of democracy have ben severely
34
?
335
Te Long Rvluon
damaged by habts 'of aessive sseron (persoed in many a roaring old man a te rostrm) whih mus be se qute cleary as predemocrat : he lanuage of uneal shouin�fo teir pace i the wold, and sometimes enung, y ng a common pocss to a ser of peronal demonrations, that common improvement will not e go It lear, o baance, hat we do not get enough prace in the wokng of democacy even whee i fos t !OI ofus ae no epected to e eade and arpriipaly nstructd at coo ad esewee, i the values ofplie and oyalty which a eal valu ony i we sharc n e decio o whch they efer Those who a r xpected to be eade are mainly ained to thepaternofleadrhp I have een disssing cened on te genera deveopmn of ondnce bu in fac that a eader should be slf-oden enogh to be capabe of ada doubt s rarly mnioned and raely aught. he neessary pratie o the dult proesses of common decison and xecuion is l, on the whole, o hit or miss ad the resu ot uexpetely, is often oh.A :eakning of belief in he possibiy of demoay i te mevtable and we prefer to lament th geea inds ipline' (trade-union leades annot ontrol their memer party eaders ar no rm eoug; it is al sloppy dssson nd ak and then p eope bhaing unreoaby) rathe tha �oriing and deepening he pro to whh in any cse m any probable fuue, we ae commtted The ounterpat of th feeling, eifoed by the au of demoati instituto n h ounry. an approah to vmet wch isclfsevery limis ac ve demoay A tghtly oanzed patystm ndparlam e eem to ave coved te aional acse no the on of a cou A ndividuas we st oe aiona e voe a nteas ofseveal yas o a rang ofpolii and p ons towads ar dCS whch t is virually imposibe to have one singe atide. Fom s necearily rude poc ess' a ourt ofnisters emeres (n par daw m peop e who ave not ben eleced at all)· and t is then vey d ul for any ofus o fee even the smallest direct sare n the gove
Briain in th 160 337 men ofour aairs Approaces hugh he party organiza kig advanage of he fat hat at east here ar cous, are more pacable but no only it gneally rue hat innerpart democracy epionay dcult in bo arg pares; it s also he ae that the rgh no to be ied no to be prly commd, is inrengly laimed by both sts of eader Thc gnerl iuece of ublic oinion un for somehng since in he log ru he cou as o be -ltd Bu he p od is xepoaly ong ven he ate and range of deveopment in ontem pory politics n he four and a al yea between the eetons of 5 and 99 several wholly nforesee majo e deveoped and puic opnon i fat oeny utuated, o be m in genral only by he bland ondece ofthe co in its ow prems: ha he du ofhe gover ment is o goven, for the Quens governmet mst be carrcd o It is fai to say hat dos not even sond like democracy and we must be fai o o leades, o�eding them a leas consisteny, in thir obous assmpn hat ire popuar governmen is not what demoay about It is ue that any adstration shold have reasonable me o develop s poies b hs s not e same hing as the curent uncritca belief n the mporne of srong govenment ' : ceainly oe hopes hat a good govenment wll be strong but a governmnt that is boh song and bd (mos pepe r agreed that we had suh governments I he 3s; 1 thik we have had one or wo since) almos e wort possible public el I see no raon why twoye . eras of e-eleion of a least a subsnal part of the House of Commo shod ot be ou immediat obective sie seem vital for the halh ofour dmoray hat moe of us soud fe direcy nvovd n it Suh a hange cued wih working reforms now being anvae n Par lamen and with an impovemet of he �emcrac pro wihin the paries, would be a subsana ye reasonable gai e aenatve s ot oy l rapid xensio of man management, monstosly magnd by th e of modern communications as is geea devie, bt lso he unpeasan T-M
38
LOlg
Britin il
Revolutin
delopment of ranized pressu·groups, pushing into the antrooms f he eO On fuhe c amendmt sems to b a xed a fo he pridic ecios for to cced chice f this da to the curt tslf s psy hoog cally que wog: we ho o hae to wai th broad imit fo the court to as our appoal; he i �ht f election but ou * S n thes
. hee chanes in hemsves
woul
mak oy a limited
de�ence but they wuld at eas g some way towards alt: the res atmophre f Bith dmocracy
w powerd by
IceasOly forma and impesonal,
and
than h belifthat a coice feaders shoud be peioicay a\aabl Th nt feld of refo is biousy he eecl systm, wic sems dsgd to epua the eis irpetais. Is most obvius chaactisti is that it exaeates somemes grossly, com aavey sli tdecies i opi. Pstwa ecoal hisry sgsts a viot ucuati fii from a ry srng Labu t a very srong Cosrvave goenme. B actua opon, rec kodin ems pl as canged m aout Cl'rnt poca cm much le Wha oc mntary 1S tha 1 IS poccuped by eslts at he el fh crt ath tan y he rgise opii of actual er�IS; a�d s hwev nata it may be pepc wo l vng m anteooms is qut udmocratic i spii It is dculos to talk f an o\whmg dosmet of o srvatm in the ection f 1959, whcn ls than haf h eplc oin in fact vtd onseati and when ofaduls tld to vote oy jus Oe a third i fac appoved the verthless very strn nmen to which al of us wer cmmitted for as ng as yeas Th same is ru of oue, of pevius 'oewhelmi Labour icoies �nd the mode of d'Siin sugsts that wc a not in the tems thiki abo real pople at all beli that roccss of c?mm1 ecisin C\'cn as cudely regisee by sg ccaSOnal Vtes mus e carid thuh withu such isttion into th rma pocess gemet ifwe more
ar o a
the 1960s
339
ioa hnkg by poicans is aganst is tndcy bt such cneioal ining wh it is tac t s suces is agi the acical wsom fa dfesie auocacy caied thugh ineia ad lak f challenge io what s claimd to be a ry it sociey I s i ict as w lk ver this whole Jd to ass cn i pasi to the ordinary rpii that th dmcac revoluion i virtally compet At this criical point te elati absnc of demcacy in ohr lare aeas of our li\s is speciay relevat The situatin can b hd as i is not ly becae dmocacy has been limid a th natal eel to th pcss of lting a cout bu also because u scial raniaio elewhere is cotiuay oeg non·dmi paes of cisio his s e a powr institios hat they acticy each aticula ways f feeli, ad is at nce eide tha we ha ot eary eog isuins which pactically ach emcracy Th ccal aea s i wr whr spte of limid eeimets i jo consltan, the dinary ecisio pcess i roted i an xceptally gi a nly sca heachy, t wich e nly possibl rdiary espnses, f th gra maity o us who ae si to share i decisons arc apathy he mak o respctfl tions r rl. fw se a cosderabe umbr fstikes a the evidce suggess as cls in ths sese, w ca se moe cearly te sagc fopme w have eac. e dfensiv tactic, once agai, is manmaagemnt ow more randly rnamd peonel managmnt T an advace on simle autcracy but as an answe to c poblms of human latins a work nly shows again how waly the dmcrati imusestill us Itsemsobius hat industa demcracy is deeply rltc to uestons of ownshp the arumt agant the plitical ve was always ha the new peple vin ' the maes had no stae i he country e devlmn of nw foms of wnership th smed an essenal at f any demcraic advanc ahog i fact th plitcal suge eventually brok aha this Te da of ubc ownsip seemed o be a soluton bt thee is
1
umg Revluon
sm th in he agum tt little is gained by substituting a seris o sl lagely authoitaria sate monpols fo a eries o piate moplies (something is gaied, heve, the etent tha th stae is iLsemcaiay direted) is bviou that a complx largesale ecoomy may cerl decisios ill have b taken ad that hei' machi ry aly becomes breaura and pcd rm geeal ctrl At his lel the ca be o dubt that th spaat demoratic managmet idust is Wworkable. The true line f ad ane is making this mahiney dietly rspnsible to the lectd gvem prbay thgh itemediate ords hh combine ersenn o the ndusy 01 service ih lctd plitical presentaivs Widl this amewk st as f ampl it is some etent st n educatial administratio the devepment of dirc papatio in the la dcisions f particula eterises culd be atemped h iultes a sevre an thr n sg solin It seem o m hat a govrnment which w eius about th uld nitiat a sris f varied ei ments, in diert kis cn ang frm cn iona mhdssh as h refm o cmpay law prmog actual ad cntraual mmbehip ith diie ives· mes ad igh in h coc mtho� that wold b oss in coce1S aledy publicly wd, whih leted councils eie frm a common oll 01 at 't repsenting nteess an agre prn, uld ha ers of deisi within the accpted ata famrk t is om mnly bjcted that mder ork is to echal t be ubjeted to he democratic press but it is signican that in rtain is otay ca a mdicie, th ecs sarily cmplicated pesss f inlvig membrs in selgnment alead mch furh adancd ha i wo whc hsevice ritri is nt acpd, tugh i a s i aimd Eucation an mce arc no es tc al o seiazed but tey have a lss bius class struc_ ture which is doty imrant h ssary pinipl is hat res of a ins, ncding maagers should e araed e neesary nditins including boh
Brta in t 1960
34'
seuiy and freedm f thei a�tual wr, reise ways abu at e rcly cmatible Wh neral the vera dircio th enterpse. Boars o
eleted y sharhes w give suh �irecis, 'd�rly
ithl sc'ity and fredm fr all kds frkes sne tes ar t reprseted. I publicly ned idusties and sees ad in refrmd companies the pple ads elcted by thc mmbe o the idstry or sece operae
ihn the reed atonal famC'ork, is suely nt di�cut. There wul be a lng ad cinus pcess fstg-up ad imrvng schmahiey andmanyseriusandlagely ureen problems uld undoubtdly arie. Bu the bi f th hle argumet fr dmocay is that the subsa?� f thee prblems wud n any case xs, ad th�t partIaon h prcse ecisin ads tmoe aonal ad ponsibe slutis thn the od sW Ig bewen apathy cessio and revolt. Oe othr d i hch the rh ofdmocracy see
rgly nessary is th rdiay press o dei abu devlpmnt of ur commities. 'h� has bee apprached, but is sill vy mu�dle?, an It S ufortna:ly re tha there evn mre dsatsfato ad osqunt
apathy abut local govem ha abut th ata
cou. Authritara pattrs at the cnre seem to b Wdely
reproducd i ur lal cU �cils here ch mre ?� he prces s i t pe and wlun ur o�mary exprce, unfortnatly in its rdina cours gvg a too muh y is dt. Sll he
dence ho sily democrac actve th ad od pblems hre ar qit wi?ly ude; strugge aainst dstoro IS 'ag Me rusly ? . bhd his srgl is a famar ra ld SOC fm
Hosin s an celent exampe, beause th c�mm�n p( of hmes ad stats is so VOusly seb 1 rm ciple ad arady tending beyd the mre ef epinal ned Why then ds sh an exeI o
rthe xtesi leave may of s qUIte cld ? On ase certainly s the way such hus and estates ar cmmoy mnaged, by supposedly demraic authti. 1 have seen
The Log Rvoltio
Brtan e 1960s
tts to tants rom counc hos ols th lmo m my hr sn on n n th rbrary a lbl rulon omay sc stas sjusl oorous Wh s c st b al sa oLabour athors, s to l ha h st o mor hs b y p or wJa W soul a pbl ocl o pcl pst ma to m rsom ms so ot to h c-n-owho hs on caOnr hrm to h whol lopmt o socl roso ? Pl I supos bcus h ss so may jacks--o bo hm or nra I th bus h ans a tos o larshp n mnson a sll prmorac h usssman n wh usomrs, hs ln 10 b plasan so, su s th pu oa a But hr ar
n mocracy as ' h rh to ot th rht to r sph, so o pttrn ol whh s ll th oh 'Jb oh subjc wh a sbsh uthoy. Th pssr ow a w aa oor soa H soul b owrs ara moa whh was ma o nol popl mh mor losly n h rocss osl-omt a a t
34'
ublic oils wo regrd suh peopl s counil-hous
nts s nturl ros an hy spa n wrt corly Th rmy o ous s not to th thm m-mm o r o op mora orms w ths aras o pub roson Wy sou h mam o hos st ot s ot commt o rpsas o h lt aUor n lct rpsta\s o th popl who on t hl a nc olcy obousl rss wh h whol commnty hr s w ara o cso, o th way h hoss r us a man on st acs n on y cssary guaios, whih coud be negoid
ou s annls mor mabl n k mor nl ths r as b w shol now mor about n osr xn t as n bn tr hr s n mmat l n whh th workn
ofdmoraic parciion coud b sted L'bour counils,
rtcular ouht couall o b hk hs was or s t o h ola mom s orgizaios ar pesel ensi\'e ad !gaYe (as i
th on Tnans Assoato
; s Lao wh
hs mos to os fi llows emoa" o wdle to a seris
o s assocons an h mmal manr o
ngle lced admnsraon. Th rsur has bn o
343
II
Bh srpon o h s o O coomy a o or polal a soa l was o hnk bot lss, whch Ba th 9605 sm coll uct onus r, s a m o u, w must o bc rom or or mas to ou xp. I show Culr d Scy th lss, s a soc m cm to ornary sh us n th pro o th c b o th Inusrl Roluto ha by hs prcl hstory t om h rs cos r, pot to boh soal a oo cs ws chrac rstc o po o mpon ason Ths ouson rtuny, has ma, w ar sl ot su wht h rmnn cor or mcmbrsh o sol clss s or brth o OU ul wor Vor-css has trtolly scbc th rt bo o w wo cam tohr rto to t w mthos opouc o muh oom ho, ts ss s turll o ts wh th po clsss: opl who ow l o othr mns o roco, n mploy w-lbor Thus, o th on h h work cass ou b conast wh t a-ow rsoc on h ohcr han, mor usull wth th c o cats But hn who socall wr h captlss s hy wr usall ot arstocras A o wa socl ass sml nt
C , [ j�" 743 7!
Since wrling u of 'as s mo 5, o h o od d $C o u o T dn sod b OI< to h p xon; n \" C oy o n n n $ n n n .
Long Rvltn
4
empoyer shopkeprs, smal fame and professional men blong? From hese o quos am o ansr: h middng lases latr seld as he mddle classs' ut tere re obviosy vr wid vaaos her fom he arg employr to the sma sopkeper and om he succesfu profesiona man o loa indepedet crafsman. Evenuay hn te dd cas w ino pper and or dio, but e upper dvon, ame richr wa nreingy invovd and mingd WIt th od aristocray or uppr lass nd movemen beten the okng lass and t lowr-mdde a was aso farly ommon apar om te duly as h charactr o or chan<d and mny wage-arning obs hat w not he od s nse manual wr crad o drawng any ca ie been te orkers' ad hese oer-middle-cl ag a. hse dcus ad omplxs ar a s wh s oday and anyo who s used o ehe profinl or amater attmp at soi sicion wl kow ow intricat ha al become h qustion we need to ask howv and it s ony ry rarely asked s hat al his ascaon is for, wa aua purpoes in th society it sves Some pple ook forward o incrasig acuay clication and popose nw fomlas Otr speak of amendng the old class desripos o brng hem into ne with modern epernce My own poon is lIa e mgh get rd ofmos ofhi5 classcaon, and save ourslvs much needless troub we ooked igorously a what s there o do Mo peoe Bria 10W tk ofems a mddl lass' or orking cls Bu e rt poin o make is ha hese are ot ru aternati aernaives to dde are loe and ppr ; he ateaiv wokng' ndependnt or proeed wodrfu mudde ar ow i pig maily om this cfon at on trm has a prmary scia, h othr a prmary conoc efrenc. en peope re askd if hy beong o h worg a many of hem agre; when ey ar akd if thy blong to h oe ass man e age Yt h p -
;
0
Btan n 960s 35 sistnt uggeio of mddle' is ha he orkng cass is owr ad it hardy suprisng hat mny wagearners wan o hink o heles as middl lass f owr is piiy or impliity e aenaive drpion Agn, may midle-cass' pop ar ndignan at he suggson 0 man that ey do no rk bcause hy do o bong o he okng caes They ar que rght o be indgnant ut thy hav only hemslves to blame i hey ave ctrhu ay y to he confusion btween he ecoom descrpton h agarg ork casses', and th ocal mlication ha ts peol ar e owe s seems tha we ha o ask no only ha purpo are srved by h caton bu a what purpos ar srvd by so eisnt a coon. The fac ha w a l n a ag of ransio fom a soi sraicao basd brt toobasd o monyad actual posio The dri\ owads th aer kind ofsociy s vry srong; it is both b into or conomic sem and ontiuay smlated by But e do not hae o look far Brai o nd ode ays of hikig h pricipa nction of he ohers nignicant upper class s to kep dsnio by brth and amily aiv A simp dcripion of poe n Ban might sh he rreeane of his but tr ar l ar a he monarchy Hos of Lod ad a systm of hour nvog chang of famy name and stu So far from th sysems big rgarded a mr h vstiges of an older ocity thy ae no so inesvely propagated hat r raccal ect is si coniderale By hr ry remova from the harh and cotroia opn exercise of por heir oca prsig is e\en ehd But why is ts o in a hangngociey h itnsepropaganda of monarchy (by a hed miue of magnnce and odass whch i cra nomatbiy ear a th igns o funoa magc) seems a consiou rocedur againt radicl change The empas o he uty oyaty and famy atmospere of e Ques ubec i o easy o rcoc h th fats o Briih f b as an idal, hough sy caches jst enugh real deses, and jt sucny
T Log Ren onfuses consciousness o real obstals, o b a powerul resrve o f feJig in favor of hins as ey ar. Ths mlo w ds k thn spreads over he anillary powe system, still imporant many areas of aual dso n in whih people hon by amy staUs and o t by he dmo rati po ce cr o n in a special po siton, wcther in the Hoe o Lo rds or as chairmn o many ofiial and oiaI but inlentia committees (a proess still criosly known as vo luntary public work, n which i he practitio n are dsco ered to hae the common touch the mai i e mo r pont) his o uld hardly have happned i the rising midde ca had rmained independnt, or raind any real condence in sel So mewhee in the nineteenth nur tho uh thee are ealier sigs) the Engis mddle class lost it nrve, so cially, and tho roughly compromised with e class it ad vrally dated Dirctd persona!ly owards the old system of amily stas it adopd as its so cial dal a denie class system, blured at he o p ut lar below sel e distincio n o puic schoo ls f ro m grammar shools l ed to a sres o compomises: in the uricm whejs nough nw sjects wee inodcd o serve mddle-class traini but ust nogh od subjets kep to preserve he ode cltivation o gentleme; and in socal harae where just eno uh emphasis o n the suprioriy o the wo ass was shrewdly mxed with a rorous train i o nceps o auhority and sevice, so hat a o rma sm ould be maned and yet ot disturbd he pricipal diuly in preservin this system was that ncw middle-cass roups kept rising behind tho s who had mad their peac Ho weer clo sey the grammar scho ol s imitated tho s fw of heir number that had en renamed pubc schoo ls, it was necessary or distanc to be kept, and 'rmmr shool in some ars, soon so unded like 'so p kitchen. - Th prinipal tension in recent English so cial life, has been btwn he ed characer o the arrived middl lass, wit h s carelly condiio ned ways o f speakig ad bhaving, and the later arrivas or those still strugglin o ariv. Th worst snob· beies sl o me with an extraordinary self-realin bash
h 1.605
347 ness, from people wo if ml wee really e soial citeion would be nggibe Te ompromis aks cae o hat, o it ad icldd wat th aisocay was not nwllin o er) the aolad o espabliy on wo and especially he makig o money by wok h nabled he pattn to b kpt moble wihout altring aracte I s ue now, Mr Ralph Samul has aued, ha he captan of indusy has bcome he ocial hro, but disinc tily, in Btain the capan o industry hisel wth a famiy title and status expressin prstie in ole term And sin honous are asy, in th sns that they can be coinually cratd and etndd, it as been possible to wok out a system whereby h rss oindi\·dua ort merit ca be conirmd in tems of ediary valus Tre is een a very ni gading, qu ormalized n he pbic sevie in wic th patiuar point ahd in limbng the ouroisdmoaic ladd is macally asformed into a pacua eda grad: a rm Minister quas a Ea, a Pemannt rary a Kngh and so This uda mental ass sysm, wth fo o rising idde cass righ beind it, ruires a ow cass f i is to ran any social meann Th pope cast fo his low rol k rn in roud i s e, and poinng t same Gne a ose low em hs s th basic ueality o h middl lass in ritain, ad also thexplaaon ois vagness. remem br siing w a roup of small sopepes wo w tin to eplain o me how you cod never rust hat ass o peope I (shop assstans it semd n th m co lorf l phra hat thy always had thir ngs the toes he partcua clima of his dcu for me was a dsripion o th roup by one of is mmb as t b en; his wnt down very wl Here, i fat was a solid assumpion of middl-lass membrshp and disinion by a group of pople who if they mo onl a lile way up this same mddl lass woud at on b pcd ad dspisd, much as th shop assas r pacd and despisd hy w robaby al w\SS iss wih as th normal mode of addrss o a yog nmarid woma y t
Bra he 96
Lng Revolutio
eightethcentury gny is of couse now obviously 'ow). But so ong as a group can d anohr oup to turn round nd point a, the contradictios seem hardly to e nod clas distincion i iai is donard uder he mlo dk om te vy to And i sms vry doutl i fi t ill sply wither away fo for h oio od elier btween socia and onomic dsriptio has, as xpaid uilt into th system he dv fo mony power and poson wic ight av reatd h sparat ideal of sf-mad prtige has een natly drt io the oldr ystem at a ost consion hich we are all stil paying. n this respet I blong to e aard squad who have n discussed a god dal si the ar Many pople have told s that e reo o or our irest i l i ha we ar srated to nd tha educatioal moili is ot quite social moility; that howvr far w hav go w sll id n odr systm above s This a very rvaling accou of the csfe cs feng ng o someone o ojust just too far far do i the iddle cl but b ut sti sti accepg it i t hos That sese of di dire re mobiliy is just he confusion tha many middl-lass groups counter ifthey ifthey e thinking in their ow ca te I can oy say or myself that I have nevr lt my o moility te oa ris te ris in th soial soia l scal scal and rta rtaily ily I have have ver ver f that I wanted to go on cimbing rsful of old barrie in my way: way : here here se i! the ther r o go but nto my own own li? the t he sam tme, h h paricua hisory ofgoing ofgoing from froma a wage ring famly to o of the old uivsit taks one on a very apd traves of is same soial sal whih s lagey to suvive suvive with the confus confusions ions i i now has becau becau really, whn i com to it movemnt alog it is normaly quit liitd, and th divsios ae arefuy kpt. t is hn lss te iustie of th Btis class sysm than its spidity hat really sriks on Peopl like e rsd but tis naual desre is now pricpay acivd by a sysm hic ds st tms of dspiig someo ls and the i tr ig ivitaly dspisd I my ow rave I have so much o his aare of he stdards o one grou whil watchig anotr a tuy eness
39
sri tat shoul ave to vcy odd idd to itr: pao Th more wiy his th p doinant fng of ofpao prnced the ber we might evn ge back ournv our nvee utt u cao so a hi hi sag of te aa aaysis ysis have have sll to look a ha h syst is for for i the atua ning of ou d ofsociy of sociy In pat, ot i is for �pt togh i makig thi spe dira itis it is of sfdfa Sti a we mo aoud i ou on couy te opato of da rspcis rspc is evidt ogh to tmpt oe peopl to accpt g on t thscale th scale so log as ty ca prove hir ow poson Ayo o at o exin h ay of drtial as oly to put himslf himslf hysically hys ically a a poin on h sale othr than that he is usd to hangig ome o the signas by whc ordiary ag is opratd a h ill fl h dirc ikl ikly y nug nug L ay ay mdl-cls mdl-cl s ma ho thnks class discio has did out output put asid if only o a ay, his usual usu al othe, hs hs cr, acent, ad go o paces whr s no ko but hr he kows how h ould e nomally ecivd he l arn th ealy quikly nough. et him go in th okig cloth of a maual orkr but ith hi standard acnt to a shop an oc a pub and wath cofusio as t oadioy sigals are sortd ot n daiy xprin omplia dirntial gos o, but w have o r the bord to apreciat it fuly for e normally gt usd to t rae of respC( our dnt market valu commnds s i drna d rnall ay ayg g t wory about, toug i its patn hyporisy No prsoa ay o course, t it oud b a hang to ha\ a comum hch men ad won r valud ihr as ra idiiduas or, ere tha loss is osi by a coo gal rsc r are any sigs tat moy in fo form of con con spicos posssi posssio o o a ang o o oc ostig i pidl drivng ou othr for of ca dtco an ts chagic chag ic is bid agut at las stcto � dimising. This is sipl ofuson of31gs for t the rali rality ty of direnia tatmn, rathe tha the parcu ar o syssem orr hroghwhic which h ito i top prats rats tha mas a cass casssy
� .i J
350
Th u Revlon
Te pont is paculay ipo' n ta the money we e, 10 set the difeential sysem going, is ilf i lf sub subje je to uilt-in dieeals of an spiay oplitd ind e drenial f xa sk and ra rspnsibiy s prt of this sysm b ly par, nd rgumns au pay be o pssly od i hs bss f dral is ssumd be the only ne gay opev Thre s t t bvios fac tht rdl diernial is impsd by te general ancal poston oth ndusry o sei in w a mn i woring ac ad he ngi-driver sar on dint al sals in scs were my s s fro e pr or he carasmbly worr whr mny is esier. Ad f f san sandng dng n h miy is nasigly ssssd i straight money rms hs siua is y serous dsoron from the us Th nxt rdial dier enti is i s mor cloly tid t clss Most of us li\e by seling our labur, but in ome s he pay is calld salay, n ote ases a wage ]n pac his is muh more han a verbal dren: w her owagc dmands from kind f ma ut equss fr rviw rvi w mun munr r rm rm er. er. Pblic indignation 01 w pscs as suh h ncwspapers, qu gulary srved fo th ' wge dmds while muc lgr ad adustmn ustmnts ts n te pay of slaried mn pa pa it lite coment \hen wrcrs in one industry agitate for more py, he is oo le omprson w h whole ng pay d too uh wh her worrs n ber r o reads h pul pu l d dussi ussis s sm mnt ty y nws ppers f th lev f pcn pcnag ag in in s s whi whi wa n e on n givn ya ]n he sme ya' e die nt and much larger perntg incrass ac dscused n elation t salies, but hardy e e within with in he same trm of efence t is diult to nw wht els o cal is but a prctical ss sys May f h owe-salarid wks in pra raed s wagear wagearrs rs ther gra cfus a ha pont the sc Bu a a a vl a whole wrd f difcrenc gins n nly sright ony b i su citil fors as n automti incrmental scale, a contt of
Bria
;1
te 1960s
35t
erie oneng important rigs in suc tngs as pent n sikness and protion agains dismissl, d diernial fc c es es n n many hings fo fo cp rs. Th systm is amost amo st iniy i niy gr i hi sf u he assn blw whh hsc cs r O
o volu
sblised along th in of tis procss ae a grup of popl ing is complications to ma substania prt ut f their eigbours' social nds h ordna salaryarner, hin hin ig of hslf slf as midd m idd class bcaus of the dieren eren eeen himself and th agarn alrady not fais to otic this real class beyond him y whom he factual actually ly and coninually poitd poit d Sing S ing ca-distinc ca-disti ncon nly in h limited tems of ofthe the open dierenia, he aqu aquies iesg g h oss of on frdom and even by the usual upwad idncation wit ich h stggling middle class has always ben trappd undriting hs real xposure as on ofh of h unprprtid as if it ee is sstem and his p de de e mve int this charactristc conempoay ord we can see th supposd n phnomnon of classssness as smply a faiur f conscousn Th pubc dscussion i al a the lev of t t opn dirntia rntia an and d is i s compicatd gam, but if this wer vnually rsolved into a mo apparent eqity thr uld still stil l be n rea classessness classessness;; indeed indee d there can be non unil socia socia cap captal tal s soialy ned I t is i tis cntext cntext tat t disincton etween de de ela and wrking class ms aways be con�ideed e lin beween them always diclt t draw is nw blured at many mor onts by a common involmen which the remaining distnctions not nly dsuise but in pat ar man to disgise s th rking class becoming midl la, as its onditions imrv? could as reasnably e said that ms fth iddl class have hav e become wki lass lass in sense that tey dpnd on sllng their labour and a charac haractter eric ically unproptid in any importat sse Th ue descriptin is on that cogizes that te aditio deitons hav brokn don, and that he rsulting cn ion is a srious dimiution of cnsciusnss New kinds of wr ne frmsof frms ofcapital, w systems fownersip fownersiprequire descrip descri p ns of mn in hir relatins t thm Or tru ne coditi diti n is that i ration t a cmpicated ecnom ad sia organzatin hich w have n learned to conto, most of us ar facally servans alowd he odna gads of upper dd and lor insistent on te mar of h
A
J
35 grads or rsn rsntful tful oftm, bt lik l ikmos mostt sevans taing th gnra stablisment for ganted and eeping ur bicke bick ering ithin its trms This situation is clary reced in cntemporary p pliti liti Cosrvav Party is still basily h party f t proprtid and he conolrs wih an ld ad natural gnuAion to the mellow dsk d sk in which whi ch tese proc proc ar blud But i is flt t be the party fmt fth ho sll axily cal temselves middle las las prupid prupid as always ih th \pward identication and th dward ping-in-plac, the latter nw founatly pressibl i prcise ag prcentages. The Labur arty ith vtigial ideas of diern sysm, ers ttle alternative to tis stuctr of feling and upwad denticaon denticaon it is is ow ow learning can spread a lng way dwn his is no sdden and dramatic cang, thug parca votg result may appa dramaticaly to ea it t is pat of the lgic of a parca system f sciey wic i perate s long as ther is n adeua ad eua ise and etensi e tensin n f consciousne f wat th systm is and ds uc conscusness is n helped by he odinay knd of dcssion cssion which follwed Laburs ird electoal defat in 1 95 959 9 Th mos ppuar ppu ar foml omla a was ta tatt th def defeat eat as inevitable because Labo is identid wh he rol tariat and th proliat is breang up. Tis is trmely dubtful dub tful t is true f curs ta mdern ouses mode fur tlvision ss and washingmachis and in som cass cars, ar increaingly available to mny ag agaers rs ut wat is mant y caling this peess dpr dprlltarian tarianiiza za ion' as h E fowing E M Dubin and others has don If h eectral dcline f Labur in h 9 9° ° is vidnc of this what ar w t ma of the fact at whn wking-cla sandards r lw as in the interar dprssion dprss ion and s whn moe proletaian proletaian condtions ght ght hav ben supposd t xist many !s ppe tan n in fac actt votd vo td abur. te Labur ote 959 i third dea as narly alf as much again as it as in th ort piods ofpove ofpove ty and depressin. n 92 924 4 e Labour vt h 9s
Lg Rou 36 there s no simple rising graph fo te pocess dos not tae place n a vacuum profoundy aected by changing poltical condons and by pases of change n he society as a wole. Ts is the real stoical context from wc any eros conemporay anayss ms bin My own w of e poca Actuao sce e war can be breOy sated e Labo vicoy o 194 was out sandnly an expesson of demnaton no to retu to pe-war conditons w wic e Coeativs were wdely idnied Te very ow Consvative voe n ta ya mlion) is as signcant as e Labor ncrease etween 94 and ' te evdence o opnion polls shows oss by Labour of much o te support fom salay-earners whch had lped it n 9 Ye in 90 and 9 Labou's voe ceased which can only mean ta more and more wae-earning voters ad ed to is tve spport Te hue vote of 5 stl n condtions of post-war austery and panng wa he mos conscos wokngclass detemna_ tion ever ecorded n Brian, to reect he condons of pe wa soey ad go on wth te new system Bt by e Conservative Party ad been snicany eoranized not only tecnically but n terms ofpolcy 1 was dented now ot wi a retu to te 3 b wh basic accepance o the Welfae Stte and th he relaaon of asterty and contrls e Conservatve arty could no bea Labour 9, real votes but by te vagaies othe elctoral system ge abou m�jortie piling p and wasng in he heay dusal areas) t regaed parliamentay powe MUons of saaryeanng voters had come back to t, and its adi tional wageeanng vote ad a least survved. nd en n ovenment t emned reasonably fahfu to it new idety Tee were ncdenta cs n the social sevices and redrbutions of taaton favoun e bee-o b all e contet o a more vsibly prosperous conomy and a general educon n taxato he dread of e retun to te 3 S lifted; the Wefae ate was not dsmanled earng wh fll emplomen, overtme, and an ncreas n numbr of wives worin ose and ere was penty to
8
f
37 uy fte Conservatives dd as l as tey could to reds povety and basc neuay still a gven nmum wat one Conseative MP as called Btler Scialism was te eviden price of powe and ey wee able and wiling to pay it In sc condto, wh eac nw elecon preceded by a boom in spending power, he aor arys pemanen as o ceatng a new nd of socia cosciousness was jus dclt· Drwn back from his deal of mmedite politcs wat can we learn m sch evidence, about the eeal deveop ment of he socety ? We ave aled rejected he ordnay elnaion of depctariaaton : a poleaiat my be factuay creaed by an industial sysm but it is only politcaly creaed by political acon, and n Btn ths as ever been fully achieved of wageeaes and ti wives sl vote Consevative, as previo ltons he snicant quions ae wha nd of people he are and whether there are any new and permanent socia ate sapng hem It s dicult to aswe tesequeio with any cetai, but one fact stands ot The divsion of voes by e cs rigt acros the usal analsis by ass roducg uestios wc cannot negoated whn o odinary polcal categores hs, in e 9 election wen the riish peope spposed o have devel ndorsed conservatm te voes of all men (accordng o poll analy) resed in a narrow majorty fo abor he ge were % Labour aainst 9% Conseatve among men % Conservave against % aour among women his male abour majory hs been nom since the wa tough also sincant tat i narrowed durng the ftes and tat te Consvaive majoty amon women as also ben narowng T reons in each case are stll specave b a least t s mpossible o anlyse he dtribon of he wage-eanng voe witho seious allow ance fo ts dierence by sx. In 9 fo ample the wage-earnin vote sp !% to Labour, 40�% o Conser vatves while all men spl % Labour o Conseva tive all women % Conservave to 42% Labor I s Brtain l m J$
358 ten highly pobab tha in additio o wae-earnin Conservatv fame ther wr man orate we ofLabur hbands Gvn acua trd \ery diclt to see ay adically new pat"r this comex epeciay we ar id f the ' prletarian mh that bfoe amost all wag-earne and thir wi oted Labor as a mattr f corse. Labur gs a hiher prcentage f th ta oe in th peiod f wahing-machin and tlion han in he perid o hih nemployment, and he adjut mes whin this ar bosly too cmplicated fo any ingle explanatin Another poible in f appoach is in m o new kinds of communt fwe lo at a pocal map ofran oer he centry, we see a mporta elaon bewen kn of commny and plitica repaton and hi sm a real cl o uderstanding contmpora chang A map o abour psentaon s rally a map f he cad and th grea own wih he incant cptn ofomc of h ' Celtic aas whe Eglish oa atrn a e marke and whee Labur a wn ve n scattere rral O itunces onservaim trong almot all he ngl coes, some Scoh coe Noh Irelad (whe nglh plitics are cnfusd by qetion o lgo and partion) and he mae Enlih own Thi iverty realy which is maskd by ovra co and th eageratons of the peen lecoa ystm In Conea v rtain in 1960 Waes was stronl Lao, Scotland had a Labor maoriy fr the rst ime, and o take only he ustanding as there wa a Labor London a abor Dirm ghama Laur [anehst and a Labo lagow Thus � h havy indral aras and n h a town he wagening ideticatn wh Labur reman hh, ough see oal or vn nal o Similarly in other alY dnted cmmunits, such a te nglih rural ount: and the aditonal redntia eor poplar spot of he onscrvatics s hg a ha taonally been the kind f commun etwen thee eremes that he dcl socal anaysis beg
L Rvl
s
59 We hink oh nw houg-etate th nw sbrbs ad h new owns as characeritic o the nw Brita ad on he whole i is n hese area tha abo hope are now mst regulay dappointd Th th liing-pac oftl oher popular gure f omporary anal th smeached proletaria B in fac popl of many dierent nds live in hee place which as bewen themee hae impr an dieeces Atntin has been concntrated on the brea of ld community paterns by such phyical removal b his needs dcrimnating descrpion Thr cial aiaon all he way from he estate stil mainly eig a ingle wos o th new own wholly med igins and ente ofwork. Thre alo hoical aiation, from he r-genration tate n which soca rlation are still a the lel o caua neihoy cntac to the econdneraion esat n which peol hae een orn, rown up and maried. The dision of etend amilis noted n om mval i in fa emporay phnomenon al sgeneration etaes wll becom on- ad hrd geneaon thouh o ncsarly wth acly h ame famiy patern We canot be ue what wil hapen bt i wold be ah o assme ha al fomer paerns are pema nnly gn h od wokingclass commniies grew, over a cenry from a tuaio of removal and expoe fly comparabe in ct o he pent phase Vhn the empor ary and aiia nare of th newe commntes ha been alowed r and when w have oercm he mpe deter minim o suppsng tha hng whehr hous or wahing machie hape mcn we hall phap b more at n amng tha hre are whlly new pmanen paes and in parcuar ha w now wha he ha can reanaby b nod at the prsnt sage i tha hee cm munits were nt planned by he pep who ive in them bt by hr with thr own eo of what these people neded and what a society o a comy is Aan the variation, b n many lace cra pae of thinking a nw o th grod as hey wer n the erace-baacs of th r indal own an thee charactertically,
B/l l h
s
The
Brtan in h 1960s
Lng Rvluion
ar a cheap vesion oecent middlass provision for tf Th th hoes or at have moe spc around tem which a gain and hv hardly any ocal bildngs anclla to t�m: whh I thin i a loss A ocal pattrn of a paricular kmd IS thus b�lt nto the poviion o ber hong; yo tke e one wth the other and the houng givn pvio ondns, you ust ta At the same tim new com muication systm built on old socia patns bon a vy ca, ar Immedaely Wd accesb the cheap natonal wspaper he womans magazine, tevion It is not hat x�rna yms ar nw n ind though crtainly in scale I I that ther gowth IOteocs with the unctains oft genral traniton among whch there s les to countrval A new and uncern facto in hose nw comnis whcr work vry ied the dgee ofntraction beween scial conscionss gaind a work a ac cente of t grow of abou concioness and socal conson gand in th t is too early to ay anything dee about SOc both lemnts in h ntacon are thmselvs chaging but I a intersed n soe vidn plit btween tadnion consciouness (the simplet and at wo) and Labor consciouness n t wd ses, which ha to be n term of a med community and a whole society. ince it is in som groups insts to encourag th sp w mt not tae such sgns o t a her ar a an act ofGod th 'Amrcan tr whch ths s ao somet cald would b very uch an ac ofm. At th ame tn, the conditions fo tis kind of change xit ded hav ben crted Caugh n thes many crrnt, the men and. women of th newe communes are vin out l'I1 a pattr? of learnng and rspone whch ao P mvolg the socty as a whe I am not eatly urpsed that contemporary Cosvatim, n pa dicting jt comple make ense a an ncrpetation of it o very many eopl Fo at j.st h pont Labour s to have very ttle to o A e rent vrsion o commnity a pattn of nw conSIsnes It ha not ben able to gve Its compomis poci combne the two rreant lemnts of '
appeal to old and fading habt and mmoris and ocuural adjsmnt to he prntsocial confusion. Old Le and New Right in th abor Paty ae uncocou als n dayng any relvant analy and challng The invocation of old habts wch toom tent popl rc bond to change and ect cobines with the recton ofocialm as a adically drnt human odeo lave thunginteptations and icons sentialy nchallcngd Thu the complx and nvn growt of conciounes, ot makd n the nw comunte but psnt almost vywhee in the socy i t with oo fcw chann through i t which can be politcally pd hi cannot be a pmann sitation. Mn and women do not a or on establishd ystCI New learning new rspon wi work houg, perhap n form w cannot yet envage (h Adaton mache, the local group on dton and services are ealy exaple) Fo h one abolute act aout n and womn of t new commnti a othe new knds ofsoiety vhr in the world i tha they ar created in a huan iag and not in he image of anybody vron o h. Th ' tellglud mas do not x; they are te bad cton of or secondrate socal analy. \Vha th mae old o new ight do anybody gU� Bt he actulmen and woen, undr prann knd of dculty will obee and learn, and I do not thn tha n th ong rn they wll be anybodys windfall.
The rcvd dcrpton o ocia clss hav ben at teir mo confuing injt is nw situation How any· one to now in a nw town or on a new hoing etate i he or she belongs to th worng o th 'middl cla? Th tradtonal maning ha com through r not conomc trm (whrc as w have en th wokng as-ddl cla decripton VC1y dcu to daw) but n trS of styl of li and behaior 'orking ca fo e any peopl is mpy a memoy of povty bad houing, and eposure whe mddle ca i a name for mony to pnd, beter houng and a o fuhed and conrollable li yles oflvig ofte whole society ar in any cae nc
The m Re hangng his contrast ery easily bemes one beeen at and rsnt: 'wring class is th ld syl that l a stadly moing away m; midde cass s he new cntmoray sye is easy 0 ot ou ha by hs im hes erms hav lost ay evnt maing as dsrtisoacualsoal gnizton, her mooa charg s no lss oweul or that. Woing lass ad oud fi ay last n he oldr mut and n some pticay atv indivdua, bu in mst css it is now dply fused on h n hand, wrk o my ing (which ams rye docs) o th h had t srng socl snse of wrkg = 'lowr cass with fors and dvatons wh nobody in hs snses was t rtu I hav th impressio ha whe sciliss sek nw of e woring class thy attrat t themsvs natual resentments against h wl dea fclas and ineii n ts soal sns o ple only tal abu whn thy are anxious, and n want t g rid fg ha thr are thse nds dsncons btw pople nk hs des sold b rspcd for it is an cpoay aluae pe of soal growh and maiy. Bu on as ben eched wee th gowig feeling ta class is ou f da ad doesnt ater s bng usd o ra a �al systm whch n oher m than hse now siy breaing dwn sll eenilly bd on econ lasss To puae he prs onson s garae a mma soia consousss. "V hae stead o cncenae tw genral facts: e ope dierential, and h owe sh ad control of scil cpl I t en drntal, whh sill gies sme relity, hough nfused nd cnusing t th woring classdde a disinon, is discussd on 5 wn, th soy cannot b udtd T a is mely a operatie uncton oa artiular ind osocety and pomoe n vn mo ense competiion wihi setg o nd o wkr agains anoh, s e ee o dg socl osisnss ino forms t simly er at th vall sysm. is crtany my iw hat the dirnal wll ave to b sd but th only ssib
n h 90
362
bas for h s a ral feling of communty th true nowldg ht w e woking fr uslvs and for a othr whh though prsn w as a dea, s conuay onfused ad i som ass cad y h pin a a ms fs do 0 ow o ono h ns nd th produ o wk n n dusl eoy soca dion wi her b owed o orol by h whol sociy or by a pat of which hn plys s h dson btwen these alaties is he criial dison abu la ad ifw a srios abo ndg h lass systm we mus ca away he s·as th irrlevnies ad h ofuso o ohr inds o dsincio nt w s had eoi t w nay ssais t it ha asc nqaity isolaed w coud stop he irrcan disusson o cass o whih mos o us ae tuly sk and ird and t togh he moe intesing dscusson huan dicens beween ral eople and real ommunts ing in thr alualy aous wys
V
h tsion o clue has t onsideed wihi th rea socia con o or eonomic and poial i y studis f h growh f aiular culal insiuions shwed a rl pansion whih o cus is onnung bu showed lso th e wh this was ad dr mind y h [1s i he soey In h Gs h rae o gowh ss g, d w ae b wi p to maia d cea it Y hr, vry cely is a ajo cadn asy ovlod y olowig a smpl risng grah, r whit al rt and argmnt e in mOe idely noyd th dibuion of a bedrng \aty o bd a ar and bad arumnt ncreasing c\n mor rapdly aching po whr h ordc wen ese den ns ad a s o grow is sos ad nescapal y ev hs wo s is sn e pacay nra ab wt an do ms lok s t a pacua ad al adion hich can uicly onuse any such disusion J soon
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TM Long Rvolutio proes ys of xnding good art and argumn an of imnig thir wors coterpars somone else usually answers that we mustn't b snobs : that fooball, after al is as good as chess; atja a ral muical form; that gan ing and homemakin ar ao mporant. Who xacy is somon lik this arguin wh inc it is usuay obious hat s not raly arguin wih man to whom hc rpls? Unfotuatelyh isarguing th ac peop an a fami wayoffeng It tru hat crain cultul foms ha e s as a way of artg soal isncton, and at muc wholal condmnation of new fos ha bn a way of motrating h nfrority of hos wo groups who hav rguarly to b pu n thr (lowcr) place te ma and th yO Ts habit as to b rsise bu ther s qual angr a pop form of emagoy wch by e uc of sele pl succs aoin e problm of ba cure alogethr Cn we aree perhaps, before paing to th mor dicult quesions tha ootball is ide a wonder ful gam, at jazz is a eal mical form ad tha ardni an hommakin ar dd pJtant? Can w also age ough at the horror-lm the apenovel, th Sunay stip·papc a the lates TPan rool are not actly in the am wold an hat the nc mane romac he mly advntur sto straight to poin of h jaw an prt clever tleision advertismnt ae not in it ithr he aumnt agains es ns and the mme pro ganed by ir calculated diminaion, canot aord to confud y th collacral po tha a good n cultu is variou ad chaning tha he n fJ spot and cnrta ment s as ral a th need for art that h public play of taste s aformofsocial distncton ismerelyla n a rapdy chann and hrorc confusd soity in cutural forms wll in any case change b in whic S on by way of dcaon to pn and en the capacy fo nica repon, we ha o lea fom of acton as wel a mho ofccism Two parallcl orts ar ncessaY: on the one hand th mxmu ncougcment of ars who ar srously tryi 364
Briain n 1M 1960s
35
crat w forms or signcat wor n tadional
forms; on the othr han th stay orng an iuson of hs work, icing ral citicism a thefore d nction at lat om calcuatd ad indirt manipa on t woud wrong to say tha the ors ar not bng mad some help, thou still inadquate is beng en o the arts som rspoibl ofring and dcussion are publicy unerwrten hs pocs fal thn the voluionary concpton a seady encuragement of lemns ofaluable gowt But whil suppoting thm an crtainly whng to s thm endd J nd iclt o fl ha hey o to he root oth pobem. or s usua!y no conize at io nd deructi lmns arc ing much moe acvly propaated: that m pent fo eaml, on advrtising a nw soap an imprnting ajngl attache to it thnon supporng an orchesra or a pctur gallery and tha launching two new agazines one rying to do a seous nw job the oe ply comptin to captur a ar of a kown popuar arket th rato of comaative ett i udicro fo ay ayin is id t forme while hug sm of mony ar poud ot on he lattr The conition of cultura growth mus be at aryig elemnts ar at la equally aailal and that nw an unfamiliar ting must b od seaily over a long rio, hy ar to hav i rcaonabl chance of aceptanc Poici of [hs de of rsponsity m mpOib n o prse cul ural ogaiaio Thc courament ofaIal lmens is rstric to what s more tan a dfensi hold opeatio whch of cou is btr than nothin but wich is hadly likely o ma ay gnera change. h st of h l lef o c maret and not n h free play of the markt for th amounts ofcapial involvd in nani our major cltual inutios rrct ey o a comparaivy few powerfl op, o that oth producio an dtriu tion a ctiy ey w a Th sious w maa zinc rfed to, usally th sult of a ajo voluntary ort y a group of ddicacd pople, i ukly to be evn aval able for buying in the sns of ln ready 0 thc avrag
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