***THIS IS ONLY A PREVIEW*** . . . Section II – Hellenism and Roman Stoicism Hellenism In 338 B.C. Athenian pride was humbled by defeat at Chaeronea at the hands of Philip. Greece paid the penalty from its failure to unite, and became part of the Macedonian Empire. The glory of the city-state vanished when the polis the polis became little more than a municipality in a far-flung empire. A century later, Greece became part of expanding Rome. Theories of politics appropriate to the city-state were no longer applicable in this Hellenistic period. Yet Greek influence remained strong and the empire tried to Hellenize itself through Greek books and teachers. The Greek language was used in business. Its artistic products, its buildings, baths, theaters, were paid the compliment of imitation. There was also an increased interest in the mystery religions, the Orphic, with its basis in the sin of man, and the Eleusinian, with its ritual of death and resurrection paralleling the agricultural cycle, and offering a refuge in a future life. This is a period, too, in which the concept of divine right, semi-divine kings, emerges from the influence of Eastern despotic tradition. The polis The polis was no longer the end of political organization. With a large empire, including within it a variety of nations and different laws, the possibility of a universal law emerged. Moreover, the we lfare of the individual was no longer inextricably bound up with that of his city. There was no obligation to participate politically, nor belief t hat individual self-fulfilment required such participation. The two leading philosophies developed in this period were Epicureanism and Stoicism. Epicureanism The concepts of Epicureanism are largely known to us through Lucretius rather than Epicurus. The latter, born an Athenian citizen in Samos in 341, founded his school in his garden, a symbol of retirement from the world, in 306 and died in 270 B.C. For the Epicurean, the universe was c haotic and anarchic, composed of atoms and the void. All knowledge was acquired by sense perception; observation was therefore essential to understanding. There were an infinite number of worlds, formed by the chance combination of atoms in infinite space. The gods, unconcerned about human affairs, lived in the void between the different worlds. They were not to be regarded superstitiously or fe ared, only to be envied.
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Man himself was made up of body and soul. Death was not to be feared. There was no such thing as immortality; after death, atoms of the soul were scattered. The aim of life therefore was pleasure, the pursuit of which brought happiness, the final end. The injunction to follow nature meant, seek pleasure. Everything was desirable insofar as it led t o pleasure, but above all, the aim was absence of pain and the achievement of peace of mind. This would be obtained personally by self-control, the mastery and limitation of desires as far as possible to those that were strictly necessary. Also, it implied limitation of social relationships –“live unknown”– refusal to be involved in family or political affairs, scepticism toward religion, which the Epicureans considered largely superstition. Yet at the same time, the Epicurean thesis was not simply one of pleasure and pain – an idea that became singularly influential – but also one of the voluntary creation of society and of law. Society was not a natural phenomenon but rather a deliberate creation aimed at bringing order o ut of chaos. Indeed, pleasure was augmented by the presence of law, provision for punishment and preservation of order. It was this stress on the opportunity for man to make his own environment t hat led Marx to choose Epicurus as one of two writers o n whom to do his doctoral dissertation. Stoicism “Stoicism” is derived from “stoa” or porch, where Zeno, originally a Phoenician, began teaching about 300 B.C. The theory started from the premise of a natural order of the universe, which included the process of change, and which was at the same time divine. Man, a part of this divine order, was capable of understanding it and its laws through the reason possessed by all men. Virtue depended on knowledge, and knowledge was obtained through reason. The golden rule was “following nature,” live consistently with nature, obey the universal law of nature. Happiness was the result of internal harmony. Nothing ought to disturb one’s peace of mind. Man, living through reason, ought to suppress emotions like fear, lust or anxiety, to reach the desired state of aphatia, or inner tranquillity. But if Hellenistic Stoicism stressed self-control of the individual, it also had far-reaching social implications. The state was no longer the end through which man reached his fulfilment. Since all men possessed reason, since the law of nature applied to all, a universal society with cosmopolitan citizenship existed. The natural law theory, touched on by S ophocles, entered political theory permanently, with the Stoic belief that there was a natural law capable of being understood by man and providing a basis for political or ganization. No matter what the laws of t heir individual states might be, men were all members of a universal brotherhood, for they all possessed equally a share of t he stock of reason. Stoicism therefore implied equality, certainly between the sexes, and in the spiritual sphere. And it provided a beginning for interstate relations as a means of settling disputes. The belief in a universal brotherhood is only the political aspect of the view that t he universe is a unity, pervaded by reason. This view in t urn, is the rationalization of the perplexity of man, seeking security and cer tainty in the face of a mighty empire. . THIS IS ONLY A PREVIEW
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Section V – Medieval Life and Thought Historians generally date the beginning of the idle Ages from the downfall of Rome in 476 A.D. With the fall of the universal empire, a series of unstable independent kingdoms appeared. Each was characterized by territorial residence, tribal grouping, common blood relationships, a common law, largely custom, and a leader (Dux) who was essentially a warrior. Government control, as direct central government, was weak; local government was the norm, the local lord the important administrative figure. Towns declined with the decrease o f trade. Self-supporting villages became the foundation of an agricultural economy based on the manorial system. Feudal System In this barbarian tribal system with its weak centr al institutions and absence of paid armies, the social system was feudalism. Feudalism was essentially a series of defined relationships between landlords and tenants. In a situation with no universal public laws, each social group had legal relationships to others, pledging services to its superiors and obtaining protection from them. The chief features of this system, w hich was common to all Western Europe, were v assalage and the fief. Vassalage, whether entered into by formal act or not, meant that the vassal owed the lord fidelity, gave him certain financial aid, and rendered military service. The lord, in return, undertook to protect and defend the vassal. The fief was the land allowed the individual on condition that certain services were performed. Possession of land was conditional, subject to use. The king, too, possessed land in this way; his possession depended on his care of his people. He gave protection as he received service. Vassals owed a duty to the king, to give service in both men and materials, to attend the King’s Court (Curia Regis), to provide taxes and make contributions. But the services and duties were customary – they were not to be determined by the king. There was no legal partnership between the king and the people, but he depended on them for advice and consultation. Though these were private rather than public relationships, the series of obligations that all were bound to perform was an anticipation of the later idea of a political contract which bound the partie s to it. In the feudal system, law was not “made” by anyone, so much as recovered. The king therefore “promulgated” it, rather than made it. He was subject to the laws as was everyone else. Yet, there was substantial difference between this theoretical concept and actual conditions. It was difficult to ensure that the king was actually under the law, the rights possessed by vassals were not always c lear, and the right to ownership developed in spite of the t heory. Change took place in this uniform, isolated, self-sufficient system for a v ariety of reasons. Friction between the king and the nobles led on one side to a claim for more centralized control, and on the other to disobedience and refusal. Diseases and plagues, especially the Black Death, reduced the amount of manpower, and brought a demand for higher wages in the towns. The towns and cities developed as training centers and received c harters from the king; the townsmen...
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Regnum and Sacerdotium In this unified but localized social structure, the Church pressed the idea of a universal Christian Commonwealth. In a period of barbarian kingdoms, the argument was put forward of a single society with two governments, each with separate powers...two swords. God wanted to separate the spiritual and temporal power. The Pope was superior to the secular rule in the ecclesiastical realm; the ruler was superior to the Pope in temporal affairs. But ecclesiastic authority was more important than lay. While the former relied on the coercive power of the ruler in temporal matters, the Christian emperor needed the church to attain eternal life. Church and State would become sacerdotium and regnum, two governments in a single Christian society. With the victories of Cher lemagne... power transferred... was to protect ... But the claim to papal supremacy... period of dual authority. It was stated most strongly by... emphasized both ... The pope was supreme head of the church... sun and moon... the Pope’s light shone on the inferior satellite, the Emperor . The ecclesiastical ... could control not only in spiritual, but also in ethical matters. Some, ... argued that the king might be disposed if he ruled unjustly. In his analogy of the king to the shepherd... he expressed an early theory of popular sovereignty, and a ... This ecclesiastical argument ... basing its action on its ... was attempting to act in all spheres, political... It was in a favourable position, compared to the feudal communities, to influence or control human affairs by canon law and its penal code. The.. political participation depended on religious allegiance and orthodoxy. Those who upheld secular power used the same argument to reach a different conclusion. ...Since authority was of divine origin, secular rulers were responsible to God alone, unhindered by ecclesiastical interference. Even if the right of excommunication by the Pope were gr anted, he still had no authority to remove the ruler or absolve subjects of their o aths. The only limitation on secular power was the observance of custom and natural law. The original premise of dual authority... in which all... – a realization of the Stoic universal society – foundered because... The recurring problems were the appointment... taxation of Church... secular powers... The intellectual duel between two powers was largely fought on legal grounds. In general, the canonists upheld the Papal authority, and the lawyers of the ... supporting the Emperor on Roman law, the power of... The Diet of Worms, in 1122, established a compromise in w hich the papal th
power over investiture was differentiated in different c ountries... 12 century, Innocent III again expressed the theory of papal supremacy. In England... John of Salisbury
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This was the setting in which John of Salisbury (1110-1180), friend of kings and scholars, and secretary to Becket, wrote his Policraticus, the first important medieval political work. John, an eloquent ecclesiastical spokesman, was concerned with the limitation of the ruler by higher or divine law. Under such law, an individual fulfilled his duties, but also could resist the prince if he did not conform to law. It is a theory of a stable society, understood through an organic analogy. The Commonwealth was “a body endowed with life by the benefit of divine favor.” The prince was its head, the priesthood its soul, the Senate its heart, judges and governors its eyes, e ars and tongue, officials and soldiers its hands, financial officers its stomach, and husbandmen its feet. All co-operated for the good of the whole interrelated, co-ordinated society. No one conclusion can be drawn from the book. The prince was “minister of the common interest” and served his fellow servants. Yet also the prince obtained his power from God and performed “those sacred duties which seem unworthy of the hands of the priesthood”. Tyranny, the abuse of power by the prince, was part of God’s ordering of the universe, yet at times it might be right and just, even a public duty, to kill a tyrant. The higher law, to which all we re subject, seemed to put no controls on the prince, for the normal restraints were internal: “The prince puts a bridle on himself.” The th
Policraticus show s the nature and complexity of 12 century issues. The Origin and Significance of Feudalism (from Mediaeval Institutions by Carl...) What precisely do... a wholly modern... neither ... nor its equivalent in any other language was apparently invented... Although men in... with vassals... with ... they apparently did not think.. broad... a set of feudal principles... To have any validity, therefore, whatever generalization we make... And thos institutions must be of the region where the custom properly called ... mediaeval Gaul. A sociology... but only comparison... determine the feudal... Turning then to the... we av no trouble in finding the ... It was the feudom or fief. Yet this is not the primary element... Feudalism ... vassalage; for a fief could not e xist... ...The status of vassal, we know from countless documents of the eleventh and twelfth... be acquired... merely ... And solely in this way could one become... Although fiefs might be declared hereditary, vassalage was never inherited. When a vassal died, his fief legally reverted to the lord, in whose hands it remained until such time as the heir performed homage and so qualified himself to receive the investiture. Only a vassal could properly be a fief holder, and t here can be no doubt... vassalage was restricted to mature men. The reason... Clergymen, it is true, often held fiefs while debarred from bloodshed by canon law. But the qualifications that came to be put on their homage and fealty were plainly the result... Feudal tenure... was essentially military... was a military... ... The basis of the new system...need. The king gave fiefs to his vassals... sub-infeudation on the part of the latter for the .... securing a better army; and there was... demand... The rapid introduction .... was of
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... The profession of arms came to be governed by an aristocratic code of c hivalry – a set of rules that had meaning only to highborn. Thus in the ... knight and noble were virtually synonymous... Land held ... whatever the nature ... was no fief; the tenant, however free in law, was no vassal. The vassal’s obligation, being military was ipso facto political; so, according to Carolingian standards, it was proper for him to receive political privilege in return. The ... of lord to ... no power of jurisdiction. Feudal justice could not... form the territorial immunity which every fief was construed... And insofar as the feudal lord had the.. courts, to levy tolls and ... to requisition labor... to raise... the population... he was obviously a public official. It is indeed, no mere form of words to assert that ... for the rule of primogeniture... in feudal law... Another phase .. mat be seen in the fact that by the... more important agents of... been brought within the... The transition was an informal one, of which the capitularies tell us little. But that the result was quite in accord ... policy... If every feudal tenant was to some degree a count within his own territory... . . . .
Section VI – The Two Realms: The Last Phase . . The most significant . . . Defensor Pacis . . . individuality . . of man . . . external acts were subject to control. ...need for law to obtain community approval, by the people or “it’s weightier part” . . . It was this community approval that made law valid... ...ecclesiastical authority ... “the whole body o f the faithful including both clerics and laymen” ... The rule of the Pope... . . .
Section VII – The Renaissance .
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MACHIAVELLI The Prince and the Discourses The Art of Politics Those who by the exercise of abilities become princes, obtain their dominions with difficulty but retain them easily and the difficulties which they have in ac quiring their dominions arise in part from the new rules and regulations that they have to introduce in order to establish their position securely. It must be considered that there is nothing more difficult to carry out, nor more doubtful of success, nor more dangerous to handle than to initiate a new order of things. . . He who becomes prince by help of the nobility has greater difficulty in maintaining his power than he who is raised by the populace, for he is surrounded by those who think themselves his equals, and is thus unable to direct or command as he pleases. But one who is raised to leadership by popular favour finds himself alone . . . ...for how we live is so far removed from how we ought to live, that he who abandons what is done for what ought to be done, will rather learn to bring about his own ruin than his preservation. A man who wishes to make a profession of goodness in eve rything must necessarily come to grief among so many who are not good. Therefore it is necessary for a prince, who wishes to maintain himself, to learn how not to be good, and to use this knowledge and not use it, according to the necessity of the case.
Section VIII – The Reformation th
...Indeed, the 16 century Reformation was not produced by doctrinal disputes only. Political problems and opposition between the new states and the Church – on taxation, ... – also played their part. The Reformation was a complex phenomenon ... the Re formation was marked ... by war... Whether a country would remain in the old Church, as did France, or turn to the newm as did England ... was largely determined by political and military... The idea of universal Christendom .. disappeared with the rise of national churches, as well as nation-states. For political theory... THIS IS ONLY A PREVIEW
. Both the two great religious reformers ... asserted the right of individual conscience and the possibility of direct relationship between the individual and God, against Papal supremacy. But politically, for Luther this meant a c laim for secular independence, and for obedience to those princes ... who had adopted to the new religion. For Calvin, it led to ecclesiastical association with the sec ular power and even theocracy, if that power was Protestant, and for his supporters, to resistance if persecuted.
. . Luther ... The function of civil authority was to promote those conditions . . . the state assisted the kingdom of God . . With the civil disturbances . . Luther’s insistence on the need for secular c oercion became stronger. . . ...He denounced trading companies and monopolies . . and dishonest activity. Calvin Calvin (1509-1564), French-born, was educated in theology and... Converted to Protestantism, he wrote his... and left for ... where he spent the ...apart from a ...Strasbourg. For Calvin, civil power was “as necessary as bread and water, light and air, and more excellent”. It was ... to control... and wickedness of man,.. order, to prepare men for the right kind of life, and to preserve the true .... the church. It could use its powers of coer cion to enforce discipline and preserve social peace and harmony. The state was divinely instituted – “God maintains principalities”. Christ reigned in the state as he did in the church. The whole of life, therefore, should be..The task of control as one in which church and state were united, each retaining its distinct character. Both church and state acknowledged God as the ultimate sovereign, bestowing His grace by an act of will on the elect; Divine Will itself was responsible for existing inequality. Religion became the glorification of God,... Because the church was necessary as an intermediary to salvation, p.... were subordinate to it. Both temporal and ecclesiastic discipline were necessary. The church could not use the sword, because it had no power to coerce, but it could censure, admonish and excommunicate. Calvinism in Geneva was
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based on discipline and obedience, with a ministry and a Co nsistory to control social, political... behaviour. Though not .... in the ... the Geneva regime closely resembled.... enforced... made by... Its control was ... and thorough. Its ... differences ...Where Calvinists constituted a majority, an autocratic system... But what if Calvinists, as a minority ... Calvin’s advice to move or devote... But Calvinism had its politically progressive side also. It demanded an educated, literate people who could read and understand their Bible and ministers. A system o f education open to all was started. . .
LUTHER Secular Authority... The Divine Nature of Secular Authority We must firmly establish secular law and the sword, that no one may doubt that it is in t he world by God’s will... . ... Those belonging to the kingdom of God are all true believers in Christ and are sub ject to Christ. . . “My kingdom is not of the world, but whoever is of the truth hears My voice”; and continually in the Gospel He refers to the kingdom of God... Why is this? Because the righteous does of himself all and m ore than all that all the laws demand. But the unrighteous do nothing that the law dem ands, therefore they need the law to instruct, constrain, and compel them to do what is good. A good tree does not need any teaching or law... when it is able by its own to do this better than any man ... ...that they may humble unto grace and unto faith in Christ. . For this reason these two kingdoms must be sharply distinguished, and both be permitted to retain; the one to produce piety, and the other to bring about external peace and prevent evil deeds; neither is sufficient in the world without the other. For no one can become pious before God by means of the secular government, without Christ’s spiritual rule. Hence Christ’s rule does not extend over all but Christians are always in the minority and are in the midst of non-Christians. Where there is only secular rule or law, there, of necessity, is sheer hypocrisy, though the commandments be God’s very own. Where [...] the spiritual government rules alone overland and people, there evil is given free rein
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and the door is opened for every kind of knavery; for the natural world c annot receive or comprehend spiritual things. But perhaps you will say, since Christians do not need the secular sword and the law, why does Paul say to all Christians, in Romans xiii, “Let all souls be subject to power and authority?” And St. Peter says, “Be subject to every human ordinance,” etc., as quoted above. I answer, as I have said, that Christians, among themselves and by and for themselves, need no law or sword, since it is neither necessary nor profitable for them. Since, however, a true Christian lives and labours on earth not for himself, but for his neighbor, therefore t he whole spirit of his life impels him to do even t hat which he need not do, but which is profitable and nec essary for his neighbor. Because the sword is a very great benefit and necessary to the whole world, to preserve peace, to punish sin and to prevent evil, he submits most willingly to the rule of the sword, pays tax, honors those in authority, serves, helps, and does all he can to further the government, that it may be sustained and held in honor and fear. Although he needs none of these things for himself and it is not necessary for him to do them, yet he considers what is for the good and profit of others, as Paul teaches in Ephesians v. He serves the State as he performs all other works of love, which he himself does not need. He visits the sick, not that he may be made well; feeds no one because he himself needs food: so he also serves the State not because he needs it, but because others need it, - that they may be protected and that the wicked may not become worse. He loses nothing by this, and such service in no way harms him, and yet it is of great profit to the world. If he did not do it, he would be acting not as a Christian but contrary even to love, and would also be setting a bad example to others, w ho like him would not submit to authority, though they were no Chr istians. In this way the Gospel would be brought into disrepute, as though it taught rebellion and made se lf-willed people, unwilling to benefit or serve any one, when in reality it makes a Christian the servant of every one. Thus in Matthew xvii, Christ gave the tribute money that He might not offend them, although He did not do it. Thus you observe in the words of Christ quoted above... that He indeed teaches that Christians among themselves... nor law. He does not... forbid one to serve... those who have... and the law; much rather, since... and are not to have... you to serve those who have progressed so far as you and still need them. Although you do not need to have your enemy... your weak neighbor does... help him, that he may ... enemy... which is not possible unless power and ... honored and feared. Christ does not say, “Thou shalt not serve..” but “Thou shalt not resist evil.” As though He said, “Take heed that you bear ... and serve you and be of profit to you, but you ... help, serve.. and use to it. I would have... too exalted and noble to have any need of it, ... need of you.” You ask whether a Christian, also, may bear the secular sword... since Christ’s words, “Thou shalt not resist the evil,” are so clear ... that sophists have had to... I answer, You have now heard ... The question... must be directed... to the non-Christians, whether as a Christian you may there bear it. Here the other... that you are under obligation to serve and further the sword by whatever means you can... soul, honor... For it is nothing that you need, but something quite useful... for the ... your neighbor. Therefore, should you .... lords, or .... that you are qualified, you should offer your ser vices and seek the
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place, that necessary... may by no means be despised and become inefficient or perish. For the world cannot dare not dispense with it. ...in this case you would enter entirely... and work of others, which bene fited neither yourself nor... character, but only your neighbor and others; and you wo uld not do it to avenge yourself or to recompense evil for evil... for the .... and for the maintenance of... As concerns yourself, you would abide by the Gospel and govern yourself... to Christ’s word, gladly turning the other cheek and letting the mantle go with the coat, when the matter concerned you and your cause. In this way, then things are well balanced, and you satisfy at the same time God’s kingdom inwardly and the kingdom of the world outwardly... (Extracts from Secular Authority, Part I, sections 1 – 6.) The Extent of Secular Authority Every kingdom must have its own laws and regulations, and without law no kingdom or government can exist, as daily experience sufficiently proves... . . . The words of Scripture that speak of mercy apply to the kingdom of God and to Christians, not to the kingdom of the world, for it is a Christian’s duty not only to be merciful, but to endure every kind of suffering – robbery, arson, murder, devil and hell. It goe s without saying that he is to smite, slay and recompense no one. But the kingdom of the world is nothing else than the servant of God’s wrath upon the wicked, and is a real precursor of hell and everlasting death. It should not be m erciful, but strict, severe and wrathful in the fulfilment of its work and duty. Its tool is not a wreath of roses or a flower of love, but a naked sword; and a sword is a symbol of wrath, severity and punishment. . . . The Duty of Princes Christ Himself ... “The wordly princes exercise lordship and they that are chief exercise authority”. . . For cursed and condemned is every kind ... not done in love . But they are done in love . . . toward the profit . . of others.
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...If a prince himself is not wiser than his jurists, and does not know what is more than is in t he law-books A prince’s duty is fourfold: First, that toward God consists in true confiden ce and in sincere prayer; second, that toward his subjects consists in love and Christian service; third, that toward his counsellors and rulers consists in an open mind and unfettered j udgement; fourth, that toward evil doers consists in proper zeal and firmness. Then his state is right, outwardly and inwardly, pleasing to God and to the people. But he must expect much envy and sorrow, - the cross will soon rest on the shoulders of such a ruler. Finally, in addition, I must make answer to those who dispute about restitution, that is, about the returning of goods unlawfully acquired. . . . No more definite law can be found on this subject than the law of love. In the first place, when such a case is brought before you, the matter is soon settled if they are both Christians; for neither will withhold what belongs to the other, nor will either of them demand that it be returned. If only one is a Christian, namely, the one to whom restitution is to be made, it is again easy to settle, for he does not care whether it never be returned. The same is true if the one who is to make restitution is a Christian; he will do so. But whether one is a Christian or not a Christian, you must decide the restitution as follows. If the debtor is poor and unable to make restitution, and the other party is not poor, the you should let the law of love prevail and acquit the debtor. For, according to the law of love, the other party, too, owes it to him to relinquish the debt, and if necessary to give him something besides. But if the debtor is not poor, the n let him restore as much as he can, all, half, a third, or a fourth of it, provided that y ou can leave him enough to assure a house, food, and clothing for himself, his wife and children; for this you would... much less ought... since you do not need it and... . . .
CALVIN Institutes of the Christian Religion The Ruler... This consideration constitutes true royalty: to acknowledge yourself in the government of your kingdom to be the minister of God. For where the glory of God is not made the end of the government, it is not a legitimate sovereignty, but a usurpation. And he is deceived who expects lasting prosperity in that kingdom which is not ruled by ... God, that is, his holy word;... “where there is no vision, the people perish”. Nor should you be seduced from this pursuit by a contempt of our meanness. We are fully conscious to ourselves how very mean and abject we are...; being (if you please) the refuse of the world...; so that nothing remains for us to glory in before God but his mercy alone, by which, without THIS IS ONLY A PREVIEW
any merit of ours, we have been admitted to the hope of eternal salvation, and before men nothing but our weakness, the slightest confession of which is esteemed by them as the greatest disgrace. But our doctrine must stand, exalted above all the glory... because it is not ours... but ... of the living God, and of His Christ, whom the Father hath constituted King, that he may have dominion from sea to sea... and that he may rule in such a manner that the whole earth, with its strength of iron and with its splendour of gold... may be broken to pieces... for thus do t he prophets foretell the magnificence of his kingdom. The Idea of Christian Liberty Christian liberty... consists of three parts. The first... the consciences of believers, when seeking of assurance of their justification before God, should raise themselves above the law and forget all the righteousness of the law. For since the law leaves no man righteous, either we must be excluded from all hope of justification or it is necessary for us to be delivered from it, and that so completely as not to have any dependence on works. For he who imagines that in order to o btain righteousness he must produce any works.. can fix no limit ... but renders himself a debtor to the whole law. Avoiding... all mention of the law and dismissing all thought of our own works, in reference to justification, we m ust embrace the Divine mercy alone, and turning our eyes from ourselves, fix them solely on Christ. For the question is not how we can be righteous, but... we can be considered as r ighteous. And the conscience that desires to attain any certainty respecting this must give no admission to the law. Nor will this authorize anyone to conclude that the law is of no use to believers, whom it still continues to ... exhort and stimulate to duty, although it has no place in their consciences before the tribunal of God. For these two things, being very different, require to be properly and carefully distinguished by us. The ... life of Christians ... an exercise of piety, since they are called to sanctification. It is the office of the law to remind them of their duty and ... excite them to the pursuit of holiness and integrity. But when t heir consciences are solicitous and on what ... confidence, if called to his tribunal,.. no consideration of the requisitions of the law, but Christ... must be proposed... who exceeds all the perfection of the law. The second part... dependent on the first... their consciences do not observe the law as being under any legal obligation; but that, being liberated ... they yield a voluntary obedience to the will of God. For being possessed with perpetual terrors, as long as... under the dominion of the law, they will never engage with alacrity and prom ptitude in the service of God unless they have previously received this liberty. . . . If they advert to the law, they see that every work... is accursed. Nor is there the least reason for any person to ... concluding that an action is not necessarily altogether evil because it is imperfect, and that therefore the good part of it is accepted by God. For... requiring perfect love, condemns all imperfection unless is rigor be mitigated. Let him consider his work, therefore, which he wished to be thought partly good, and he will find... to be a transgression of the law... it is imperfect. . . .
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Section IX – The Right of Resistance Protestant The struggle between the different religious groups led to the conviction that resistance to authority was not inevitably wicked....
. . . Section X – Sovereignty and Divine Right ... ...In this respect there is no difference between ... If it were otherwise, and the absolute authority delegated by the prince to a lieutenant was regarded as so... who would there by forfeit his eminence
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