TECNOLOGIA DE LA CONFECCION TEXTIL
La obra en CD-ROM ENSAYO Moda, ¿por qué? Vestirse, adornarse, transformarse. Síntesis histórica de la moda. La moda actual. Los diseñadores. El look En esta primera parte se estudia, a grandes rasgos, la teoría y la historia de un vasto fenómeno social que se llama M ODA en toda su extensión. Así pues reúne, de forma abreviada, la materia que en las escuelas superiores superiores conformarían no una sino varias asignaturas (Antropología e Historia de la Cultur a, Histor ia del Traje, Sociologí a de la Moda, etc.). Se da por supuesto que el alumn o tendrá otras áreas de estudio, complementarias de su formación profesional, y que específicamente específicamente ampliará lo que más de cerca concierne a su especialidad. Hay en esta prim era parte un apédice especial, una extraordinaria colección de grabados dedicada dedicada a la vestim enta popular española del siglo XVII , lo que convencionalmente convencionalmente se viene llamando trajes regionales españoles.
EL TEJIDO La materia prima. Los hilos. Las telas. La tintura y acabado Los profesionales de la industria textil necesitan tener un conocimiento panorámico del proceso completo, para ubicar exactamente su labor com o un eslabón en esta cadena. La confección es uno de los factores esenciales en la producción de artículos textiles, pero también son fundamentales otros aspectos como la materia prima del tejido, los acabados o la comercialización del producto producto final; siendo cierto que, conociendo el rest o de los factores y procesos que resultan implicados en el resultado ult erior, facilitaremos facilitaremos el manejo de nuestra propia parcela de trabajo. Por tanto, hemos intentado compilar todas las fases esenciales esenciales de una forma clara y am ena, incluyendo incluyendo los aspectos que, a nuestro juicio, resultan mas reveladores para una asimilación entretenida de todos aquellos datos necesarios en nuestra profesión. En las tres lecciones que forman la primera parte de esta obra se intenta establecer una teoría para explicarnos sucintamente el uso humano del vestido, un compendio de m otivaciones individuales y colectivas, subjetivas y objetivas, así como el desarrollo histórico de tal uso. Abordamos ahora el aspecto técnico de la cuestión que nos ocupa. En este sentido tomam os, de todo el razonamiento psico-sociológico expuesto antes, dos matices fundamentales para adentrarnos en los capítulos siguientes: la sensación de comodidad y confort que nos produce utilizar determinadas prendas, no ya por su corte o diseño, por su color o la estampación, sino por la influencia decisiva que tiene la naturaleza de la fibra empleada en la fabricación de esa prenda. Cada fibra existente en la industria textil tiene características determinadas que la hacen más o Cap. 1. Pag. 1
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menos aptas para un uso concreto. El tema de la hilatura es eminentemente técnico. Para desenvolverse desenvolverse con soltura profesional dentro de la industria t extil se hace necesaria una cierta familiarización con algo que es en ella tan elemental como el hilo, que está presente desde que se inicia la m anufactura hasta los procesos finales de la confección. Poseer conceptos claros acerca de los hilos facilita, en buena m edida, la comprensión de la tejeduría y es indispensable para obrar correctamente en las operaciones de cosido. Por otra parte, la hilatura, por sí sola, abarca un amplio sector dentro de la industria textil en el que se ocupa gran cantidad de m ano de obra especializada.
LA CONFECCIÓN TEXTIL Diseño y patronaje. Corte y confección Concluida la exposición teórica de los temas concernientes concernientes a la materia prim a y a sus primeras transformaciones en manufacturas text iles, nos disponemos disponemos a entrar en el estudio de la producción de moda, es decir el proceso industrial en el que con los tejidos hacemos prendas vestibles. En En los capítulos de diseño y patronaje no se van a dar una serie de ideas generales sino algo que a nuestro juicio es más importante: la base científica de am bas cuestiones; aspecto aspecto éste que interesa no sólo a diseñadores y patronistas sino a todos los profesionales de la moda. Diseñar es una tarea creativa y a la par sujeta a las leyes del mercado de moda, a las leyes de oferta y demanda, de costos de producción y escandallos. Hay que armonizar y aunar todas las vertientes para h acerlas converger y que sobre ellas se asiente la labor del diseñador, que no debe ser únicamente un artista sino un profesional con sensibilidad artística y con capacidad de dar respuesta con un producto de moda capaz de ser vendido. Para llevar a bu en fin la ingente tarea de crear dos o m ás colecciones al año, el diseñador se vale de diversas herramientas de trabajo: su intuición, su perceptibilidad y su apertura racional hacia lo que el público demanda y, por supuesto, los libros de tendencias de moda que indican las líneas maest ras, los colores y los tejidos que, en principio, van a estar en la calle en las siguientes tem poradas, asimilándolas asimilándolas a su propia personalidad y materializándolas en el producto que realiza. El patronaje es el sistema de organización de la construcción de una prenda de vestir, consistente en desglosar por piezas separadas las diferentes áreas del cuerpo humano a vestir, de forma y manera que cada pieza de tela se adapte a ese área y que la unión de todas las piezas en un orden predeterminado produzca como resultado un modelo de prenda que se corresponda con el diseño del modelo propuesto. En segundo lugar se estudiará el grueso de la industria de la confección, dividi do en los tres talleres de producci ón: el taller de corte, el taller de confección y el de planchado. La industrialización de la confección trajo consigo la sistematización y mecanización de los talleres de corte, lo que proporcionó una gran economía con la aceleración aceleración del trabajo y el ahorro del producto tejido. Esa misma sistematización debe perseguirse hoy con los modernos medios informáticos de que se dispone en los talleres.
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adecue convenientemente al sistema, no sólo que el producto sea tratado dentro de form a correcta, sino que, además, su entrada y su salida de taller estén homologadas con el mejor sistema de trabajo adoptado en esa determinada empresa de confección. Por este motivo tendremos especial cuidado en estudiar el proceso de corte y costura siguiendo paso a paso todas las operaciones en cada sección y en cada departamento. En el departamento de corte se realizan sobre los tejidos las tareas necesarias para que todas las piezas componentes de un m odelo estén afinadas y dispuestas en bloques para pasarlas al proceso de preparación de la costura. Ante el tejido, los cortadores deberán adoptar una determinada técnica de corte, acorde acorde con las características industriales de la empresa y de la prenda que confecciona.
ORGANIZACIÓN INDUSTRI AL DE LA CONFECCIÓN CONFECCIÓN Características de la industria de confección. Organización de empresa. Nociones de dirección y planificación El hecho de que la industria de la confección arrancara, en su m ayor parte, de una actividad artesana, y muchas veces sin solución de continuidad, es algo que enmascara las auténticas características características industriales de esta actividad. La herencia artesana en la industria de la confección no puede contemplarse únicamente como algo negativo; la tradición artesanal es enriquecedora enriquecedora en esta actividad, como como en cualquier otra. Lo que resulta negativo y contraproducente, en un gran núm ero de empresas, es la reticencia reticencia a aceptar e incorporar, no ya las nuevas tecnologías, que sí suelen ser aceptadas, sino nuevos métodos de producción y comercialización, nuevas estructuras y políticas de m ercado, organización de empresa y, lo que es más difícil de cambiar, la poca disposición de muchos empresarios a comprender y valorar la entrada de nuevos profesionales en todos los niveles de la indu stria. Al lado de conservar las buenas cualidades artesanas, sobre todo en la alta costura, esta esta industria más que ninguna otra debe permanecer atenta y ágil ante los cambios. La moda es temporada, factor que empuja a su industria a ir contra reloj; el el más mínim o retraso puede suponerle la quiebra a una em presa. Lo más penalizado (después de calidad) es el retraso en la entrega de las prendas. Si algo de esencialmente distinto tiene la industria de la m oda es su carácter cíclico y el hecho de que en plazos fijos y relativamente cortos (cada seis meses) las empresas se ven obligadas a producir cuanto se les exije. Cada temporada significa volver a iniciar todo un proceso productivo; ello trae consigo épocas de sobreabundancia de trabajo y épocas de escasez, con consecuencias desestabi lizador as. Al inicio del libro utilizamos una cita de Margarita R ivière, que establece establece una división de la moda distinguiendo con ella dos tipos de sociedades que pueblan el planeta: la sociedad que vive la moda y la sociedad apartada de la m oda. Geográficamente, Geográficamente, estas sociedades dispares dispares están extendidas por las grandes regiones de países desarrollados, la primera, y en los países subdesarrollados o en vías de desarrollo la segunda. Si ahora nos referimos a ello es porque hablando de la industria de la confección cabe establecer un cierto paralelismo: países países más desarrollados, desarrollados, que producen vestimenta y m oda con los m ás avanzados sistemas y medios; países menos desarrollados, que confeccionan confeccionan para el resto del m undo a base de
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son las propias empresa de la confección quienes están impulsando cambios sustanciales en este sentido. Así se da que en países en vías de desarrollo hay potentes centros fabricantes de confección que trabajan con bajos costes de mano de obra y que son subcontratados por empresas de los países más desarro llados del mu ndo. Es decir, se produce confección de moda con alta tecnología, con mano de obra y materias primas de bajo coste, destinadas destinadas al mercado mundial, rompiendo por prim era vez las premisas divisorias entre países ricos y países pobres.
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TECNOLOGIA DE LA CONFECCION TEXTIL Primera Parte ENSAYO Moda, ¿por qué?
Capítulo 1
Síntesis histórica de la moda ANEXO TRAJES REGIONALES ESPAÑOLES 1. El punto de partida histórico 1.1 PRIMER PERÍODO: PERÍODO: 1850 a 1870. 1.2. El desarrollo desarrollo industrial en el textil. 1.3 Nacimiento de La Alta Costura. Los primeros profesionales profesionales y la iniciación de la moda como industria. industria. 1.4 La crinolina: primera moda francesa. La prensa de moda y las escuelas de moda. 1.5 La moda masculina. 2. SEGUNDO PERÍODO: 1870-1885 2.1 Situación política y social. 2.2 Síntesis de la moda. moda. 2.3 La moda masculina. masculina. MODISTAS DE ESTE PERÍODO. 3. TERCER TERCER PERÍ ODO: 1885-1 900 3.1 Moda femenina. femenina. 3.2 Moda masculina. 4. CUARTO PERÍODO: 1900-1919 5. QUINTO PERÍODO: 1920-193 9. En 1919 comienza la línea Coco Chanel, que se consolida en el 25. 6. SEXTO PERÍODO: PERÍODO : 1939-1947 En el 47 Christian Dior lanza el New Look. Nuevas fórmulas fórmulas para la moda. 6.1 Aspectos político-sociales en la moda de los 40 y Los Grandes Maestros: Balenciaga, Chanel, Dior. 7. SÉPTIMO PERÍODO: PERÍODO: Desde la S.G.M. a la actualidad.
La vendedora de modas (1746)
INTRODUCCIÓN El punto de partida histórico
La historia de la moda tiene sus inicios en los tiempos más remotos de la historia del hombre. No osamos pronunciarnos sobre cambios bruscos en nuestra evolución del vestuario, pues ya hemos visto sobradas razones en torno de la indumentaria, incluso de la más arcaica, y, a ese respecto, no tiene el teórico ningún derecho a especular tanto como para constreñir determinados períodos históricos, que en tiempo real duraron muchos años, que se dieron en muchas generaciones de hombres y mujeres, y reducirlos a lo que hoy llamamos un cambio de estilo como si no fuera más que el resultado de una ecuación instantánea. Debe estudiarse la moda globalmente, sin caer en la tentación de ser tan parciales que el espíritu de la moda, tan cambiante en las tres últimas décadas, nos lleve a pensar que la moda es un fenómeno efímero, vano y
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industria y con el diseño sí nos interesa, para encuadrar en ello nuestra profesión, primero, y para que el complejo fenómeno de la moda actual no quede desligado de lo que la moda ha sido. Es decir, nos interesa la parte industrial de la moda y su estructuración, porque esto es el enfoque del diseño: el diseño de moda. La segunda intención, la de conectar la moda pasada con la moda actual, es proponerle al estudiante que mantenga permanente atención a esta propósito; porque la moda actual, que es tan compleja, que no se atiene solamente al interés por la vestimenta sino por el aspecto integral del individuo, puede ser la culminación del desarrollo ininterrumpido de las modas pasadas y la integración de la moda en la cultura del ser humano, social y urbano. Arrancamos el estudio de esta síntesis histórica en el punto en que comienza a darse la interrelación entre las tres cuestiones a estudiar: la industria textil, la moda y el diseño de moda. Este momento histórico es la segunda mitad del siglo XIX. Estos casi ciento cincuenta años los dividiremos en varios períodos hasta llegar a la actualidad, con la aparición de los estilistas y, finalmente, después de 1983, la nueva concepción de la moda: el look. En cuanto al ámbito geográfico de este resumen histórico, nos referimos casi exclusivamente a la Europa occidental y, en cortas alusiones, a los Estados Unidos y Japón.
Síntesis histórica de la moda De 1850 a 1870
1. PRIMER PERÍODO (de 1850 a 1870) Este período está marcado por el despegue industrial de Europa. A mediados del siglo XIX el viejo continente se bate en varios frentes de guerra: Crimea, Austria y Prusia, Italia y Austria. Dos países europeos, Inglaterra y Francia, que permanecen neutrales y en paz, viven el triunfo de una nueva clase social: la burguesía. Para 1850 ya ha sido superada la pobreza con que finalizara el siglo XVIII y las revoluciones de izquierdas culminan en el sufragio universal de la Segunda República Francesa (Louis Napoleón Bonaparte, 1848-1852); este hecho democrático perdura en el segundo Imperio (Napoleón III, 1852-1870) y es una larga etapa de prosperidad para Francia. La finalización de grandes vías de comunicación y el adelanto en los medios de transporte -el ferrocarril, sobre todo, y el barco de vapor- le permiten a Europa progresar en la importación de productos para vestir, y esto influye doblemente en la indumentaria: por un lado la lana se compra en países donde el ganado lanar es más abundante y más barato1 y, por otro, el cultivo del lino se desplaza hacia el Este. Al aumento en la importación de la lana se suman el de la seda y el algodón, que ya se pueden manufacturar mejor y en mayor abundancia en esas nuevas factorías textiles. De 1861 a 1871 Inglaterra compra aproximadamente un 70% de todo el algodón que se cultiva en América del Norte. Comienzan, a su vez, a exportarse los productos textiles transformados en Europa. El desarrollo industrial europeo es tan sobresaliente que hizo exclamar en la época: los grandes talleres del mundo están en Europa. Y este despegue industrial, unido al predominio de la burguesía como poder económico
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recursos económicos propios: la clase media, aquella población que va a ser el destinatario gran consumidor de la mayor parte del producto industrial y de lo que en el siglo XX vamos a llamar producto de moda.
1.1. El desarrollo industrial en el textil o o
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La mecanización aumenta y mejora notablemente la industria textil. Se incorpora el motor a los telares y se pasa de 400 a 1200 brochas por telar. La velocidad de lanzadera es muy superior a la del telar manual. Aumenta el ancho de telar. Los tejidos se fabrican más finos y las telas con cierta elegancia comienzan a ser abundantes y variadas. En la tintura de telas los colorantes naturales van a ser desplazados por los artificiales, que resultan más más baratos y más resistentes. En 1851, en Schoenenwerd, Bally inicia la fabricación industrial de calzado. La máquina de coser de Singer es conocida y premiada en la Exposición Universal de París de 1855. Ello hace no sólo que la Singer se popularice popularice sino que, esto es lo más importante, aparezca la máquina de coser industrial. La costura mecánica, en vez del cosido manual, es decisiva en el nacimiento y desarrollo definitivo de la moda.
1.2 Nacimiento de La Alta Costura Los primeros profesionales La iniciación de la moda como industria
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Es opinión generalizada en Francia que sus valores espirituales de la creación y del buen gusto son lo que acaba definitivamente con la rivalidad histórica entre Inglaterra y Francia, que se hace notoria entre las dos exposiciones universales de Londres y París (1851 y 1855). La Exposición de París de 1855 subraya la importancia del elemento estético frente al económico-industrial que privaba entre los ingleses. Lo cierto es que ese espíritu francés, creativo y elegante, lleva a Charles-Frédéric Worth, con el socio sueco Boberg, en 1858, a abrir en París la primera casa de modas, creando los fundamentos de la Alta Costura, a la par que se organiza y desarrolla la industria confección. Estas innovaciones se propagan rápidamente por toda Europa, pero queda París consagrada como cuna de la Alta Costura y como centro universal de la moda. La moda francesa va a ser sinónimo de moda en general. Tres características de la empresa de Worth son las van a quedar como fundamentos básicos de una casa de modas: o o o
Dirección personalizada por un creativo. Creación de colecciones de modelos para cada temporada del año. Presentación de las colecciones sobre maniquíes vivientes.
Queda profesionalizado el modisto, que más tarde se va a llamar diseñador. Queda estructurada la moda para las dos temporadas anuales en la vestimenta: primavera-verano y otoño-invierno. Queda institucionalizada la pasarela para la presentación de las colecciones, la show room y, en definitiva, la casa de modas. El ejemplo de Worth es seguido inmediatamente por otros pioneros en toda Europa.
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Pero la importancia de que la moda comience a ser una actividad industrial va a repercutir no sólo en el textil sino en otros sectores que el fenómeno moda cambia sustancialmente; así nace la moderna industria de la joyería, la ya citada del calzado, la peletería, que pronto se integrará en la alta costura, y la perfumería, que con el tiempo ha alcanzado una importancia por entonces ni siquiera sospechada. De esa época datan marcas prestigiosas que aún perviven: Guerlain en perfumes, Cartier en joyería y Revillon en peletería. Esta primera industria de moda está destinada a una clientela de lujo, que el segundo Imperio no sólo encumbra a lo más alto sino que lo asienta como parte esencial de la vida de sociedad en París. El Emperador Napoleón III casa con la española Eugenia de Montijo y se produce una verdadera eclosión de refinamiento en la vida de las familias más poderosas y un culto exquisito a la elegancia femenina. La bella emperatriz, tan pronto se instala en palacio, pone en marcha un período enfebrecido de recepciones y bailes suntuosos que durarán hasta el desastre de la guerra francoprusiana (1870-71). Si a ello se añade una capital en plena expansión, en torno a la Exposición Universal, con avenidas de monumentos, palacetes y hoteles de lujo, concentración de soberanos de todo el mundo con un tren de vida fulgurante, es fácil comprender que París se proclamara capital mundial de la moda y que ello fuera aceptado.
1.3 La crinolina: primera moda francesa Prensa de moda y escuelas de moda La elegancia de las damas está asociada a las hermosas espaldas de la Emperatriz y a las pomposas faldas heredadas del Antiguo Régimen (la monarquía abolida). Quizás el carácter español tiene las más notables aptitudes para la fiesta; el francés para el refinamiento y la ostentación. La Emperatriz, a la vez española y francesa, unió en su persona ambos caracteres y los desarrolló a conciencia. Se hizo rodear de las más bellas mujeres y, recuperando el buen gusto de la corte de Luis XVI, con sus predilecciones marcó la moda de todo París. Una persona importante en el círculo de relaciones de Eugenia de Montijo es la princesa de Metternich. Naturalmente ambas son las primeras y más importantes clientas de Worth. Ello hace que el modisto no sea el que, como sus antecesores, acuda al domicilio de sus clientas sino que sean éstas las que se sometan a la espera en la antesala del atelier. No faltan quienes califican a Worth como el peor modista de todos los tiempos (James Laver es el más importante de sus acusadores); hay indicios de que no supiera dibujar un solo figurín; pero nadie como él imprimió a esta profesión el empaque ( panache) del que han disfrutado los famosos que le han sucedido.
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Los gustos de la Emperatriz, París, en suma, hacen que las sedas italianas y las lanas y los encajes de Inglaterra sean sustituidos por lanas de Normandía, encajes del norte francés y sedas lyonesas. Grandes fábricas tejen para la moda de París.
El nacimiento de la Alta Alta Costura (1850)
La crinolina de los años cincuenta era un círculo perfecto, cuyo centro lo ocupaba el cuerpo de la mujer. A mediados de los sesenta, la crinolina se abrevia por delante y se prolonga en la espalda, lo que le permite a la dama ser tomada del brazo y bailar con comodidad. Entra en la moda el zapato femenino, que se llevaba oculto y del que puede verse la punta al caminar o bailar.
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Con la princesa de Metternich, importante dama en la corte de Eugenia de Montijo, los corsés se hacen menos rígidos y más cortos. El busto femenino mantiene su importancia, con hombros naturales, senos marcados, escotes generosos y cintura estrecha. Esta línea de moda se llamó princesa. La crinolina fue defendida por intelectuales de la época, como el prolífico Theófile Gautier en su ensayo De la Mode (1858); pero no fue ésta la única trascendencia artística y literaria de la moda. El economista Adolphe Blanqui escribió: el genio creativo francés tiene para nosotros la misma significación que la metalurgia y las minas de carbón para Inglaterra . Desde los sesenta existen importantes revistas de moda, sobre todo en París. La Mode se venía publicando ya desde 1841; otras fueron: Les Modes Parisiennes y Journal des Jeunes personnes . Lemonier crea en París la primera escuela de moda. Aquellas aparatosas enaguas de crin conservan su volumen en la nueva vestimenta femenina; pero se va a dar en ella un cambio básico, inspirado, según se cuenta, en la Exposición de Londres de 1851: la inmensa red de nervios de acero que realizó Paxton en el Cristal Palace sirvió para que Tavernier sustituyera la armadura de crin de la crinolina por una jaula (cage) de aros metálicos, que hacía a la falda más ligera y elástica, conservando el volumen que era causa de admiración y símbolo de feminidad refinada. El nombre de crinolina se siguió utilizando para este elemento que definió la moda de todo el segundo Imperio.
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La moda sale del vestuario de fiesta y se amplía a la vestimenta de día, ropa deportiva (los trajes de amazona) e infantil. El estilo parisino incorpora prendas extranjeras (pocas, pero críticos e historiadores franceses le dan gran importancia a este hecho): boleros (chaquetas) españoles, prendas zuavas e italianas (a lo Garibaldi), manteletas (capas, propiamente), y chales de Cachemira. En todo el segundo Imperio el símbolo de la moda es, como queda dicho, la crinolina. Los cambios registrados en la moda a lo largo de todo el período son pocos y, más que nada, cambios externos y complementarios. Pero la moda, como fenómeno social e industrial, queda instituida.
Un último dato a resaltar, por su importancia, deviene del carácter industrial de la moda: el cosido a máquina cambia las dimensiones de producción: no sólo ha nacido la Alta Costura , ha nacido una industria llamada Confección, porque ahora pueden hacerse ya grandes cantidades de prendas. Aparecen los grandes almacenes, como puntos de venta. El invento de Worth termina siendo una empresa de creación, hecho que reúne
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DETALLES
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Cuellos de terciopelo o raso, solapas de raso o seda, corbatas estrechas o anchas con gran nudo. Los altos funcionarios visten más variado y con más lujo, usando colores diferentes para cada cargo y función. Hubo en París algún intento, pero poco importante, de liderar la elegancia masculina al estilo de los dandies ingleses: Si embargo nadie llegó a la altura del elegante George Bryan Brummell, aquel íntimo amigo del Príncipe de Gales, después Jorge IV. La vestimenta para el deporte ecuestre se componía de pantalón estrecho y levita.
Vestimenta popular de las regiones de España Esta es una colección de grabados del siglo XVIII, reproducción facsimilar de la realizada por el ilustrador Juan de la Cruz Cano y Olmedilla, cuya primera edición apareció en Madrid el
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Vestimenta popular de Andalucía
Vestimenta popular del Alto Aragón
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Vestimenta popular de Ávila (Castilla La Vieja)
Vestimenta popular de la islas Baleares
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Dama menorquina
Ciudadano de Mahón
Vestimenta popular de Canarias
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Vestimenta popular de Cataluña
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Vestimenta popular de Navarra
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Vestimenta popular de Valencia
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2. SEGUNDO PERÍODO (1870-1885) 2.1 Situación política y social Cae el Imperio de Napoleón III y se instala la Tercera República francesa. Francia, aunque en el tratado de Franfort pierde las regiones de Alsacia y Lorena, va a iniciar su gran expansión colonial. La moda salida de París va a extenderse, a través del comercio, por aquellos continentes donde los colonos enriquecidos se visten a la moda europea, moda casi totalmente francesa.
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Los trajes de baño para mujer ofrecen ya cierta coquetería.
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o
como hoy se conoce. Hacia 1895 se implanta la raya en el pantalón 2; también el doble en los bajos. Lo mismo ocurrió con el uso del sombrero, el bastón y los guantes.
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desfilaron las primeras maniquíes descalzas y sin corsé.
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Moda de 1910
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discretas; el talle se sitúa bajo el pecho y la falda es recta. Es
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