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Vicerrectoría Académica Cuaderno de Apuntes – 2015
Estimado Estudiante de AIEP, en este Cuaderno de Apuntes, junto a cada Aprendizaje Esperado que se te presenta y que corresponde al Módulo que cursas, encontrarás “Conceptos, Ideas Centrales y Aplicaciones” que reforzarán el aprendizaje que debes lograr.
Esperamos que estas Ideas Claves entregadas a modo de síntesis te orienten en el desarrollo del saber, del hacer y del ser.
Mucho Éxito.-
Dirección de Desarrollo Curricular y Evaluación VICERRECTORÍA ACADÉMICA AIEP.
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MODULO: TALLER DE CONSTRUCCIÓN DE TERMINACIONES. I UNIDAD DE APRENDIZAJE: “MATERIALES Y EQUIPOS”. Aprendizaje Esperado 1: Conocer los fundamentos de calidad de las construcciones, para que su hábitat sea confortable y seguro. 1.1.- INTRODUCCIÓN. Se conoce como “terminaciones” de una construcción, a todas aquellas obras o faenas definitivas, que a diferencia de la etapa de obra gruesa, no poseen un caracter estructural, pero sí son necesarias para el buen funcionamiento de ella; así como también, para darle a la misma un aspecto agradable desde el punto de vista estético y arquitectónico de la construcción. Las terminaciones contribuyen a aislar las distintas zonas dentro de una edificación, a través de tabiques divisorios, puertas, ventanas, revestimientos, etc.; y también, a proteger a la obra gruesa de las inclemencias del medio ambiente, utilizando para esto revestimientos y otros elementos. Debido a los avances en la construcción, existen en el mercado nacional diferentes y de los más variados productos para la etapa de terminaciones. 1.2.- HABITABILIDAD. Desde los tiempos primitivos, una de las primeras necesidades del hombre ha sido buscar resguardo del ambiente exterior, para lo cual vivió en cavernas y, posteriormente, construyó estructuras que cumplían con ese objetivo. Estas primeras edificaciones tenían el propósito de aislarlo del efecto del clima (frío, calor, precipitaciones, etc.). En tal sentido, un ejemplo clásico lo constituye la construcción de iglúes en el polo ártico (fig.1), que permiten mantener temperaturas sobre el punto de congelación en su interior, versus temperaturas inferiores a -20 °C en el exterior.
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En la actualidad, la humanidad todavía requiere edificaciones que permitan protegerla del ambiente exterior pero, además, busca un ambiente interior confortable y funcional, adquiriendo cada vez mayor relevancia aspectos como la iluminación, el control del ruido, la calidad del aire interior y el uso eficiente de la energía.
1.3.- Se define “habitabilidad” como un concepto básico que debe cumplir todo local destinado a ser alojado y que se refiere a la calidad de los atributos que le permite a sus moradores (o usuarios), desarrollar su vida en condiciones de protección ambiental, salubridad, independencia y seguridad; razón suficiente para considerar la protección térmica y barreras que protejan de los agentes externos a la envolvente, como argumento clave para lograr un correcto comportamiento higrotérmico. 1.4.- Para lograr que un hábitat sea confortable y seguro, el diseño de las edificaciones debe considerar diferentes requerimientos de habitabilidad, que mejoren la calidad de vida de los usuarios (fig. 2) y que, a su vez, permitan obtener diversos beneficios económicos (por ejemplo, ahorro de energía y mejoramiento de la productividad).
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1.5.- Existen diversos factores que afectan la habitabilidad de las edificaciones, tales como las características del ambiente exteriores, condiciones de uso, arquitectura y otras, como lo muestra la figura 3:
Figura 3: Factores que afectan la habitabilidad de una construcción.
1.6.- PROTECCIÓN AMBIENTAL. La protección ambiental está referida a los elementos constructivos y naturales que aíslan a la vivienda de los agentes agresivos del medio ambiente externo, tales como aleros, celosías fijas y móviles, árboles y jardineras, persianas y toldos, entre otros; elementos capaces de modificar las condiciones de ambiente interior de la vivienda, logrando así condiciones ambientales confortables para los usuarios y que, por ende, la hará más habitable. 1.6.1.- Ambiente exterior: Está referido a los factores climatológicos del lugar en el que se inserta la vivienda, los que también se denominan solicitaciones ambientales (figura 4) de una zona geográfica determinada. 1.6.2.- Ambiente interior: Estas solicitaciones afectarán directamente las condiciones de confort del ambiente interior, el que está definido como la
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Figura 4: Solicitaciones del ambiente exterior.
1.7.- ENVOLVENTE. Conceptualmente, la envolvente de una vivienda es una barrera o una separación entre un ambiente controlado (el interior de la vivienda) y otro que no lo está (el ambiente exterior). En la práctica, esto se traduce a los muros, techumbre, pisos, ventanas y todos aquellos paramentos exteriores de la construcción que protegen a los usuarios, pertenencias y actividades interiores de la intemperie. Si éstos están bien confeccionados y aislados, traen beneficios tales como mejoramiento del confort térmico, la reducción del consumo de energía de la vivienda, minimizar el efecto de condensación interior; mejorando de esta manera la calidad del ambiente interior y previniendo enfermedades asociadas a los periodos críticos del invierno. Al igual como sucede con los seres humanos, la piel de los edificios cumple funciones protectoras y de confort interior. Si bien muchas veces lo primero que se aprecia es el aspecto arquitectónico y de diseño de las envolventes, lo cierto es que estos elementos tienen características que van más allá de presentar una bonita fachada y un cerramiento del espacio.
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Vicerrectoría Académica Cuaderno de Apuntes – 2015
1.8.- HUMEDAD EN LA VIVIENDA. La humedad en la construcción causa diversas patologías en las viviendas, provocando una disminución del confort higrotérmico, a la vez que puede comprometer el estado material de la vivienda, e incluso afectar la salud de las personas que la habitan (figura 5). Esta humedad se convierte en un problema al momento que aparece de forma indeseada y en proporciones superiores a las aceptables. Básicamente, son tres los tipos de humedades que pueden afectar a una vivienda: -
Humedad por lluvia. Humedad del suelo. Humedad interior por condensación.
El usuario o habitante es un importante productor de vapor de agua, tanto por el metabolismo propio, es decir, los procesos de transpiración y respiración humana, como por la humedad generada indirectamente en actividades realizadas en la vivienda. Por ello, incide fuertemente en la humedad ambiente de locales cerrados, ya que al aumentar la temperatura del recinto, lo hace también el proceso humano de transpiración y respiración. En las viviendas, en general, la temperatura de las superficies interiores de la envolvente de la vivienda se encuentra entre los rangos de la temperatura del aire exterior y del ambiente interior. Asimismo, la temperatura del interior es mayor que la exterior en invierno, por lo tanto, el riesgo de condensación aumenta, más aún, si se considera la cantidad de vapor producido por actividades propias de la forma de habitar del ser humano.
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1.9.- CONFORT TÉRMICO. Es la condición que busca alcanzar cierta sensación de comodidad o satisfacción, por parte de los usuarios de una vivienda. Este depende de la temperatura del aire, de la temperatura de radiación de los elementos interiores, de la humedad del aire y la velocidad del mismo. Pero a la vez, en el confort térmico influyen las condiciones ambientales existentes y del metabolismo de las personas. Para graficar este concepto, se tiene el siguiente Diagrama de Confort (B. Givoni, 1998), para representar de mejor manera esta comodidad térmica al interior de la vivienda:
Diagrama de Confort Higrotermico (B. Givoni, 1998).
Se puede observar que las condiciones consideradas confortables en verano
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1.11.- AISLACIÓN TERMICA. La vivienda, al igual que el cuerpo humano, está sometida a altas y bajas temperaturas, siendo la manera natural de mantener el calor en el cuerpo usar un abrigo o arroparse. En construcción, esta protección está dada por la incorporación de la aislación térmica e inclusión de la barrera de vapor. Esta aislación tiene como fin evitar los cambios bruscos de temperatura, disminuyendo la fuga o el ingreso de calor desde el interior al exterior o viceversa, lo que dependerá de la estación del año y de la zona climática en donde se sitúe la construcción. Por otra parte, y como resultado del uso de la vivienda, existirá una fuerte generación de vapor de agua o humedad, producto de actividades cotidianas tales como respirar, cocinar, calefaccionar, ducharse, etc. La aislación térmica consiste en utilizar materiales y sistemas constructivos, para reducir las pérdidas y ganancias de calor, a través de elementos en la envolvente de la edificación y, de esta forma, reducir el uso de energía de calefacción y/o refrigeración. 1.12.- PROPIEDADES TÉRMICAS DE LOS MATERIALES. Las propiedades que reflejan el comportamiento térmico de los materiales y su capacidad de transmitir calor por conducción son la conductividad térmica, la conductancia y la resistencia térmica. En cuanto a la conductividad térmica, ésta se refiere a una propiedad física, que corresponde a la cantidad de calor transferida a través de un material homogéneo de espesor y superficie unitarios, sometido a un régimen constante de flujo térmico. Se mide en watts/(kelvin·metro). En la tabla 1 se muestran algunos valores de conductividad térmica de los principales materiales empleados en construcción:
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Son aquellos que oponen una alta resistencia al flujo de calor a través de él. Se caracterizan por presentar una conductividad térmica menor a 0,06 W/K ! m, m, la cual depende, principalmente, de la densidad del material. Para lograr una adecuada y eficiente aislación térmica es necesario conocer la disponibilidad de diferentes materiales aislantes en el mercado. De esta forma, la especificación entregada por el diseñador, será la adecuada para lograr la máxima eficiencia del material y será correctamente interpretada e instalada por el constructor. Los aislantes térmicos más usados son:
1.13.1.- Poliestireno expandido: Es una espuma rígida, suministrada en forma de planchas de color blanco, de dimensiones volumétricas estables y constituidas por un termoplástico celular compacto (figura 6). Se elabora sobre la base de derivados del petróleo en diferentes densidades, según aplicación, y es compatible con el medio ambiente. Dentro de su estructura, el poliestireno expandido posee un sinnúmero de celdas cerradas en forma de esferas envolventes, que mantienen ocluido aire quieto en su espacio interior. Figura 6: Planchas de poliestireno expandido.
1.13.2.- Lana de vidrio: Es un material constituido por fibras entrecruzadas en forma desordenada, que impiden las corrientes de convección de aire. La conductividad térmica de la lana de vidrio no es una conductividad sólida real, sino aparente y es balance de los efectos conjugados de varios procesos al cambio de calor. Es posible obtener múltiples formatos de este
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1.13.3.- Lana mineral: Se utiliza como aislante térmico y absorbente acústico. Está constituido por fibras minerales blancas extrafinas, que se aglomeran para formar colchonetas, frazadas, bloques y caños premoldeados, que fijan su en su interior aire quieto (figura 8). Se emplea, fundamentalmente, como aislante térmico para el aprovechamiento de la energía de procesos industriales, edificación comercial, servicios y como absorbente del sonido en Figura 8: Colchoneta de lana mineral. acondicionamiento acústico ambiental.
1.13.4.- Poliuretano: Es la mezcla de dos componentes denominados poliol e isocianato, que se mezclan en presencia de un agente activado. Según el tipo de cada uno de ellos, se puede obtener espuma para aislación rígida o flexible, espuma semirrígida o, simplemente, elastómero (figura 9). Los componentes de la espuma rígida de poliuretano para aislamiento térmico están diseñados para conseguir una estructura ligera, rígida y de celdas cerradas. Estas encierran en su interior al agente expansor, que al estar inmóvil, otorga características de aislamiento térmico muy superiores a las de otros materiales. Otra de las ventajas de este producto es que se puede aplicar “in situ”, proyectado a presión o en formato de planchas/espuma expansiva. Figura 9: Aplicación de poliuretano en techumbre.
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Vicerrectoría Académica Cuaderno de Apuntes – 2015
Como barrera de vapor o de humedad se pueden emplear mangas de polietileno, rollos de papel fieltro y láminas sintéticas, entre otros.
1.15.- AISLACIÓN ACÚSTICA. Una suficiente protección acústica de los recintos de las viviendas se hace cada vez más indispensable, si se desea mantener una buena calidad de vida, debido al constante aumento de contaminación acústica en las ciudades. La propagación del sonido se produce en forma de movimiento ondulatorio, moviéndose las moléculas del material estimulado en torno a su posición inicial. Éstas chocan contra las partículas contiguas, que a su vez comienzan a oscilar, por lo tanto, el sonido no es un desplazamiento de partículas, sino la transmisión de un movimiento vibratorio. El control del ruido se puede realizar dentro de un ambiente determinado, lo que se designa como corrección acústica. Cuando se controla su transmisión a otro recinto se llama aislación acústica. 1.16.- Se debe tener presente que las superficies duras y lisas son, por lo general, muy reflexivas a las ondas sonoras, como lo son, por ejemplo, los pavimentos o muros revestidos con cerámica, estucos y baldosas. Por el contrario, una superficie puede ser muy absorbente si su revestimiento es
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Vicerrectoría Académica Cuaderno de Apuntes – 2015
Se comercializan en distintos formatos como planchas, espumas, membranas, paneles, revestimientos.
1.18.- PROTECCIÓN CONTRA LA HUMEDAD. La humedad es una de las causas más importantes del deterioro en las viviendas y construcciones general, ya que aparte de afectar las estructuras si es que no se toman las precauciones debidas, la humedad debilita los aislantes térmicos, ya que estos materiales de construcción pierden su poder aislante estando saturados con agua. Existen distintos tipos de humedad que afectan la durabilidad y comportamiento de la edificación, así como también el bienestar de las personas. -
Humedad exterior: Corresponde, principalmente, a agua líquida, proveniente de las lluvias y del subsuelo. Humedad interior: Generada debido a la condensación, vapor de agua al interior de la vivienda, proveniente de las personas, cocina, baño, etc.
Los problemas derivados del ingreso de agua líquida al interior de la edificación son graves, sin embargo, para un buen comportamiento de la edificación frente al agua líquida, también es importante un adecuado diseño y construcción de
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Vicerrectoría Académica Cuaderno de Apuntes – 2015
Por lo general, es un fenómeno que se da en invierno; se ve en cristales y paredes con alto coeficiente de transmisión térmica. Esto provoca un deterioro en las condiciones de habitabilidad, proliferando las colonias de hongos que se extienden en las superficies. superficies. La acción perjudicial de la humedad puede generar alteraciones importantes en las características de los materiales, que van desde la disminución de la aislación térmica (pasando por alteraciones del aspecto de las terminaciones), hasta el deterioro progresivo de una construcción.
1.21.- IMPERMEABILIZACIÓN. Corresponde al conjunto de elementos que generan un sistema responsable de mantener la edificación seca y libre de humedad. Cuando haya contacto directo de un elemento de construcción con agua libre o con un alto porcentaje de humedad relativa, deben emplearse materiales resistentes al agua, llamados impermeabilizantes. Para efectuar un correcto diagnóstico, selección y diseño de sistemas de impermeabilización (figura 11), junto a materiales y detalles constructivos, el proyectista debe considerar variados aspectos, entre los cuales cabe destacar: Grado de exposición a la humedad.
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En los recintos y elementos constructivos de una obra sometidos a presión de agua, debe complementarse la impermeabilización de la masa y el sellado de juntas, aplicando una impermeabilización impermeabiliz ación superficial, capaz de soportar la máxima presión a la que estén expuestos dichos elementos.
1.22.- MATERIALES USADOS PARA IMPERMEABILIZAR. Dependiendo de la faena o del sistema constructivo a proteger contra el agua, los materiales tradicionalmente aplicados son: 1.22.1.- Fundaciones y subterráneos expuestos a napas. Se debe usar un sistema sumamente eficiente, preferentemente, membranas impermeables del tipo PVC, las membranas bentoníticas con HDPE y/o imprimantes asfálticos. 1.22.2.- Superficies horizontales y verticales, que reciben acumulación de aguas. Se recomiendan membranas asfálticas, selladores acrílicos, de PVC o membranas líquidas de poliuretano, que poseen gran resistencia al agua aposada (figura 12). 1.22.3.- Muros de fachada, de una edificación. Se utilizan hidrorepelentes a base de silicona, especiales para superficies porosas a la intemperie. Se deben considerar en el caso de estucos u hormigones aditivos impermeabilizantes o hidrófugos.
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Vicerrectoría Académica Cuaderno de Apuntes – 2015
1.23.- PROTECCIÓN CONTRA EL FUEGO. Un incendio, pese a ser un evento improbable durante la vida útil en una edificación, cuando ocurre produce daños a las personas, incluyendo la muerte de éstas, y puede generar severos daños a las edificaciones. Esto es consecuencia de que en un incendio se produce calor, llamas y humo. El humo es, generalmente, el factor que produce un mayor número de muertes, debido a los gases tóxicos que contienen. Por otro lado, el calor y llamas producen pérdida de integridad y resistencia estructural de elementos importantes de la edificación, pudiéndose producir el colapso total o parcial de ésta. El objetivo principal de la protección contra incendios es proveer seguridad a las personas, de manera tal que, en caso de incendio, éstas puedan evacuar la edificación mucho antes de que las condiciones al interior sean insostenibles para la vida humana y mucho antes que la estructura colapse o que el fuego sea controlado y extinguido en una zona reducida, de manera que no exista riesgo para las personas y se minimice el daño a la edificación.
1.24.- CONCEPTOS GENERALES DEL FUEGO. Un incendio se produce, porque existe la combustión de un material, el cual
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Vicerrectoría Académica Cuaderno de Apuntes – 2015
1.25.- RESISTENCIA AL FUEGO. La resistencia al fuego de un elemento divisorio o estructural, corresponde a la capacidad del elemento (muro, tabique, puerta, etc.) de mantener su capacidad estructural, su integridad y sus propiedades aislantes cuando es afectado por el calor generado en un incendio. Las designaciones de resistencia al fuego son las F-15, F-30, F-60, F-90, F-120, etc; por ejemplo, si un tabique es F-60, significa que su resistencia al fuego es, al menos, de 60 minutos. La resistencia al fuego de los distintos elementos de una edificación se encuentra estipulada en la Ordenanza General de Urbanismo y Construcciones (OGUC) y depende de: -
Tipo de elemento (muro cortafuego, muros exteriores, losas, tabiques, etc.).
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Vicerrectoría Académica Cuaderno de Apuntes – 2015
Los principales materiales utilizados para este propósito son paneles de yeso, tratamientos intumescentes y productos cementicios.
1.26.4.- Madera: Aunque la madera es un material inflamable y combustible, presenta un buen comportamiento frente al fuego, debido a su baja conductividad térmica. Para aumentar la resistencia al fuego de elementos de madera es aconsejable usar tratamientos ignífugos, pinturas retardantes y sobredimensionar las secciones.
1.27.- PROTECCIÓN PASIVA. Consiste en reducir el riesgo de incendio a través de la utilización de componentes, materiales y elementos de construcción, que por sus
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Vicerrectoría Académica Cuaderno de Apuntes – 2015
Las pinturas intumescentes se fabrican en base acuosa, orientadas a recintos cerrados (interiores), y en base solvente, para ser usadas en recintos abiertos (exteriores).
1.27.4.- Muro cortafuego: Elemento constructivo vertical, que logra una discontinuidad física entre viviendas pareadas o aisladas con adosamiento a otra, cuya función principal es bloquear el paso de las llamas de una vivienda a otra. En resumen, un muro cortafuego delimita viviendas, recintos y espacios en compartimientos estancos, evitando la propagación de gases inflamables y llamas en forma directa entre ellos. Para tal efecto, debe considerarse en el diseño las soluciones establecidas en el “Listado de elementos constructivos resistentes al fuego”, del Ministerio de Vivienda y Urbanismo (MINVU).
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Vicerrectoría Académica Cuaderno de Apuntes – 2015
A estos sistemas también se pueden agregar otros, como redes húmedas y secas, extintores, extintores, espumas contra el fuego, etc.
Aprendizaje Esperado 2: Conocer equipos, herramientas y mano de obra que intervienen en la etapa de terminaciones. 2.1.- EQUIPOS. En toda construcción se ocupan diferentes recursos (mano de obra, materiales, etc.), entre los cuales también están los equipos. Los equipos utilizados en las terminaciones de la construcción, en comparación con las herramientas, tienen la ventaja de ser mayores en tamaño y rendimiento, por ende, el volumen y costos de estos equipos son muchas veces más altos que aquella herramienta que cumple la misma función. Generalmente, los equipos
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Versatilidad y adaptabilidad del equipo. Efectividad y experiencia del operador con el equipo.
2.3.- EQUIPOS UTILIZADOS EN TERMINACIONES. Dependiendo del tipo de obra y faenas involucradas, algunos de los equipos usados (agrupados, según su prestación), normalmente, en las etapas de terminaciones de un proyecto, son: 2.3.1.- Iluminación y electricidad: Cuando la faena se encuentra en subterráneos o en áreas de poca o nula claridad natural, o cuando el equipo deba contar con energía eléctrica y ésta no tenga el alcance necesario, se emplean torres de iluminación, reflectores, tableros
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2.4.- HERRAMIENTAS. Se definen como un conjunto de piezas combinadas adecuadamente, adecuadamente, que sirven con un determinado objetivo, para el ejercicio de las artes y oficios de la construcción.
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Atornilladores. Llanas. Planas. Escofinas.
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En obras de mediana y gran envergadura en construcción es posible ver en terreno a un encargado de mantención de herramientas, generalmente, mecánico, cuya función primordial es, justamente, mantener operativo y disponible este equipamiento para la empresa constructora.
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Vicerrectoría Académica Cuaderno de Apuntes – 2015
2.15.- INSTRUMENTOS MECÁNICOS. Son aquellos que se manejan manualmente y no requieren de alimentación eléctrica o similar. Algunos ejemplares de este tipo son:
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Vicerrectoría Académica Cuaderno de Apuntes – 2015
2.18.- Para todo esto es fundamental comenzar los trabajos de terminaciones trazando los paramentos horizontales y/o verticales previamente, de tal manera que demarcando o traspasando, de acuerdo a los planos correspondientes, se tendrán los tabiques, cielos, muros, etc., en el lugar exacto donde deben quedar
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Para aplicaciones específicas, se recomienda realizar este análisis con las estadísticas y la experiencia de cada empresa, más las características del proyecto a desarrollar. Mayores antecedentes pueden encontrarse también en algunos manuales de construcción. Los siguientes son los costos que componen la mano de obra:
4.15.1.- Costo fijo: Está constituido por la remuneración del trabajador, lo que debe considerar el pago de vacaciones, derecho a semana corrida y el costo de las imposiciones. También puede considerarse en este costo la gratificación, cuando se adopta el pago de ella mensualmente. 4.15.2.- Costo variable: En este valor se puede distinguir: - Costos variables mensuales: Sobretiempo (hora normal + 50%). - Costo variable anual: Gratificaciones (de acuerdo a las utilidades). 4.15.3.- Costo adicional por causa de leyes sociales: - Seguro de accidentes: entre 0,95% y 5% - Seguro de desempleo: Ley 19.728 - Asignaciones: alimentación, movilización, desgaste de herramientas. - Indemnizaciones: desahucio, años de servicio, pago proporcional de vacaciones. - Causas climáticas: por lluvia se pueden detener los trabajos en 10 días/año - Días festivos: 1 año promedio tiene 14 días festivos. - Aguinaldos: Fiestas Patrias y Navidad. 4.15.4.- Otros costos asociados a gastos generales, entre los que están: - Alojamientos y alimentación del personal, cuando se tiene que realizar campamentos. - Recreación, instrucción, capacitación, etc. 4.16.- JUSTIFICACIÓN DE PRECIOS UNITARIOS. Una vez conocidos los costos de los componentes principales de cada partida, se debe justificar su precio unitario, determinándolo por cada partida incluida en el presupuesto. La mejor forma para calcular estos precios consiste en determinar el precio total de la partida y luego dividirlo por la cantidad de unidades respectivas, ya que así se consideran los distintos factores que influyen en las economías debido al volumen de la obra.
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Vicerrectoría Académica Cuaderno de Apuntes – 2015
una situación intermedia, en que algunas partes de la obra se realizan de una forma y otras con el segundo método. La Tabla 6 muestra un cuadro que muestra la información requerida para estimar cada componente:
Tabla 6: Información requerida para justificar los precios unitarios de las partidas.
4.17.- FUNCIONES DEL TRABAJADOR. Las funciones de cada trabajador de la construcción deben estar, claramente, establecidas mediante un contrato de trabajo, el cual específica, entre otros, salario a pagar, horario de trabajo, horario de colación, etc. Resulta fundamental para la programación de la obra, que las funciones sean las que correspondan a cada trabajador, ya que de esta manera cada operario realizará las funciones para las cuales fue contratado y no otras. Para esto, debe ser supervisado, constantemente, por su superior (jefe de obra, capataz, inspector, etc.) y así se dedicará a lo que fue asignado.
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trabajo definida y con derecho al pago de la remuneración acordada en el contrato para la labor realizada. Las principales obligaciones del trabajador de la construcción son: -
-
Efectuar el trabajo, personalmente, y por el tiempo que dure el contrato o la obra. Obedecer las órdenes del empleador o quien lo represente. Utilizar y mantener, adecuadamente, los elementos de protección personal. Conocer las medidas de prevención de riesgos necesarias para desarrollar su trabajo con seguridad, especialmente, en los trabajos en altura y/o subterráneos. Solicitar al empleador que le informe y lo capacite adecuadamente antes de iniciar cualquier trabajo.
4.19.- DERECHOS DEL TRABAJADOR DE LA CONSTRUCCIÓN. Organismos gubernamentales como la Dirección del Trabajo tienen como función velar por los derechos de los obreros. Entre éstos se pueden destacar: -
-
-
Exigir la escrituración de su contrato y recibir una copia del mismo, debidamente firmada por el empleador, el cual debe escriturarse y ser firmado por ambas partes en un plazo de 15 días, contados desde que comenzó a trabajar. Este plazo es de 5 días, si el contrato es por obra o faena determinada o si durará menos de 30 días. Recibir remuneración por los servicios prestados, pagada en la fecha pactada. Descanso de, al menos, media hora para colación. Tener una jornada ordinaria diaria, que no supere las 10 horas de trabajo efectivo por día. Acordar por escrito hasta 2 horas extraordinarias diarias cuando sea necesario en la faena, en forma temporal. Estas se pagan con un recargo del 50% sobre el valor de la hora ordinaria de trabajo. Exigir la entrega gratuita de todos los elementos de protección personal que correspondan a los riesgos existentes a la labor asignada. Constituir o afiliarse a la organización sindical que represente sus intereses, en conformidad a la ley.
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La jornada diaria se divide en dos partes, dejándose entre ellas, a lo menos, el tiempo de media hora para la colación del trabajador. Este período no se considera trabajado para calcular la duración de la jornada diaria. Si las labores se efectúan en lugares apartados de centros urbanos y se acuerda una jornada de hasta dos semanas ininterrumpidas, se deben otorgar los días compensatorios por los días domingo o festivos trabajados aumentado en uno, al término de ésta.
4.21.- TIEMPOS DE LA MANO DE OBRA. Se refiere a la duración con que el trabajador tarda en realizar una función específica. Este ítem va en directa relación del rendimiento del trabajador, el cual puede variar y depende de ciertos factores como: -
Rendimiento o producción del trabajador (por día, semana, trato, etc.). Grado de experiencia en la labor encomendada. Tipo de faena. Programación de la obra.
También estos tiempos se pueden ver afectados por ciertos imprevistos de la obra, como mal tiempo (lluvia), ausencia o tardanza en la llegada de materiales, catástrofe nacional (sismo) u otros motivos de fuerza mayor. A modo de referencia, ya que la producción del trabajador, como ya se indicó anteriormente, depende de varios factores, se presentan los siguientes rendimientos estimativos de mano de obra relacionada en las terminaciones de obra:
OBRERO Carpintero de Terminaciones
RENDIMIENTO APROXIMADO 0,15 día / unidad de cerradura tubular 0,03 día / mt de guardapolvo madera
Pintor
0,04 día / m2 de esmalte al agua 2 manos
Albañil
0,15 día / m2 de muro ladrillo fiscal
Estucador
0,15 día / m2 mortero de estuco
Ceramista
0,12 día / m2 de cerámica piso
Yesero
0,06 día / m2 de enlucido de yeso
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4.22.- TARIFADO. El tarifado o pago de la mano de obra en la construcción se puede dar de distintas maneras, pero siempre va a depender de lo que el empleador (empresa constructora, subcontratista, etc.) le ofrezca a cambio de sus servicios, lo cual debe quedar registrado en el contrato de trabajo. Este costo de la mano de obra involucrada en la partida, se separa y se asigna según especialidad, planificación de la obra y productividad requerida. Al igual que los tiempos o rendimientos de cada trabajador, el pago de la mano de obra es un dato a veces difícil de estimar, ya que es variable debido a ciertos Factores, tales como contratista, tipo de obra o faena, experiencia de obrero, zona geográfica, etc. A modo de información, se muestran los siguientes tarifados de mano de obra relacionada con terminaciones: OBRERO
TARIFADO APROXIMADO
Carpintero de Terminaciones Terminaciones
$30.000/día
Pintor
$23.000/día
Albañil
$25.000/día
Estucador
$25.000/día
Ceramista
$28.000/día
Yesero
$30.000/día
Tabla 8: Tarifado aproximado de mano de obra involucrada en terminaciones.
4.23.- PROGRAMACIÓN DE MANO DE OBRA. La planificación y programación de obras en construcción, consiste en ordenar la realización de todas las actividades que son parte del proceso de la construcción. La planificación puede dictar pautas o poner restricciones a la organización del proyecto. Dentro de los objetivos principales está el racionalizar las actividades del proceso constructivo, evitando conflictos en el proceso y disminuyendo riesgos. Permite racionalizar el empleo de los recursos y permite establecer un control de los recursos, si la planificación y programación tiene asociada a su estructura una metodología de control de procesos. Los mecanismos de planificación y programación pueden ser más o menos
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Vicerrectoría Académica Cuaderno de Apuntes – 2015
4.24.- METODOLOGÍAS DE PLANIFICACIÓN Y PROGRAMACIÓN. La metodología básica de una planificación táctica, consiste en realizar un desglose de actividades, para luego establecer una secuencia, desfases y simultaneidad. El paso siguiente es asignar plazos, para finalmente establecer el camino crítico. Lo anterior se puede apreciar, esquemáticamente, en la siguiente tabla:
Tabla 9: Metodología básica de la planificación y programación.
Para llevarla a cabo existen numerosas técnicas, pero una de las más empleadas
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Posee dos ejes, uno horizontal, que contiene la duración total de un proyecto en una unidad de tiempo determinada (días, semanas, meses, años, etc.); y otro vertical, que contiene las fases (faena, partida, etc.) del proyecto. Entre las ventajas de esta técnica están: la simplicidad y facilidad de entenderla, obliga a realizar un ejercicio de planificación provechoso y su sencillez en actualizar la gráfica para mostrar el estado actual, para propósitos de control de obra (avance programado v/s avance real). Cuando el proyecto es muy extenso o tiene una complejidad mayor, la Carta Gantt se debe separar por etapas. Para confeccionarla, existen algunos softwares computacionales, como por ejemplo, MS Project o MS Excel.
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4.27. - SISTEMA PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technics). Son las siglas de “Evaluación de programa y Técnicas de revisión”. Es representado por una red de nodos y flechas y es, luego, evaluado para determinar las actividades críticas, mejorar la calendarización, si es necesario, y revisar el avance una vez que el proyecto se realiza. Este método establece secuencia de actividades para programar la obra y entrega la trayectoria crítica por medio de probabilidades.
4.28.- RUTA CRÍTICA Es aquella secuencia de actividades que no posee holguras de tiempo entre el inicio de la primera actividad y el término de la última actividad, definiendo así la ruta más larga, a través de una red. La ruta crítica muestra las actividades que deben de realizarse a tiempo, para que el proyecto entero termine a tiempo. En otras palabras, si al menos alguna de las actividades en la ruta crítica se retrasa, todo el proyecto se retrasa. Holgura: es el tiempo libre en la red, es decir, la cantidad de tiempo que puede demorar una actividad, sin afectar la fecha de terminación del proyecto total. En otras palabras, es la cantidad de tiempo que es posible retrasarse en una actividad, sin alterar el cumplimiento de la fecha de término del proyecto.
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ACTIVIDAD III UNIDAD DE APRENDIZAJE A continuación, se presenta la planificación de una faena, la cual puede ser resuelta con el material presentado en esta unidad y teniendo la siguiente tabla: ACTIVIDAD
DESPUES DE
DURACION
A
-
4 semanas
B
A
6 semanas
C
A
2 semanas
D
B
2 semanas
E
C
8 semanas
F
D-E
4 semanas
a) Realizar Carta Gantt y Malla Pert de la faena. b) Determine su Ruta Crítica y duración total.
RESPUESTAS A LA ACTIVIDAD PROPUESTA EN UNIDAD I a) Instalar barreras de vapor en tabiques y techumbre, ventilar periódicamente los distintos recintos de la vivienda, hacer un uso adecuado de la calefacción interior, etc. b) La envolvente es una barrera o separación entre un ambiente controlado (el interior de la vivienda) y otro que no lo está (el ambiente exterior). c) Evitar los cambios bruscos de temperatura, disminuyendo la fuga o el ingreso
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RESPUESTAS A LA ACTIVIDAD PROPUESTA EN UNIDAD II a) Las planchas de yeso cartón RH otorgan una buena resistencia a la humedad, por lo que se recomiendan en las zonas húmedas de la vivienda. b) Cerraduras tubulares, bisagras 3”x3”, perillón. c) Las molduras se pueden clasificar, según su ubicación: muro-muro (junquillos), muro-cielo (cornisa) y muro-piso (guardapolvo). d) La normativa vigente relacionada a cubicación de partidas es la NCh 353of2000, “Cubicación de Obras de Edificación – Requisitos”.
RESPUESTAS A LA ACTIVIDAD PROPUESTA EN UNIDAD III a) Carta Gantt:
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BIBLIOGRAFIA
Estructuras”, Metalcon. Empresa CINTAC. a) “Catalogo Técnico de Perfiles y Estructuras”, b) “Curso Elemental de Edificación”, Euclides Guzmán. Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo, Universidad de Chile. c) “Manual de Construcción de Viviendas en madera”, Centro de Transferencia Tecnológica. Corporación Chilena de la Madera. d) “NCh 353of2000, Cubicación de Obras de Edificación – Requisitos”, Instituto Nacional de Normalización. e) “Ordenanza General de Urbanismo y Construcciones”, Ministerio de Vivienda y Urbanismo. f) “Procesos y Técnicas de Construcción”, Hernán de Solminihac y Guillermo Thenoux. Ediciones Universidad Católica de Chile. g) “Sika al día, edición N°13”, Soluciones a la Humedad en las Construcciones Habitacionales. Empresa SIKA.