Standardized Testing: Effects and Ways of Overcoming Them
By: Marissa Sheffield
Introduction
Overview Over the course of the past few years, I have noticed that there has been a pendulum effect going on in the system of education. There has been a constant push for students students to be high achieving and academically excellent. These thoughts have been engraved into the minds of students most likely due to the Race to the Top program and the No Child Left Behind Act. Government and political leaders have much control over the system of education. education. Our society is focused on creating highly intellectual individuals who will be able to compete in our global economy. In this paper, I will show that much of o f our focus has gravitated towards standardized testing and using the results of these tests to determine ho w intelligent an individual is, to compare individuals and school districts, districts, and to determine how effective effective a teacher is. However, standardized testing does not accurately portray what students really know. Curriculum has gotten much harder and more strenuous for students and teachers. It seems as though though we are going back in time, when students were were thought to be passive. Today we see teachers teaching to the test and pouring and pouring irrelevant information into the minds of individuals. You could say it’s as if we were in a traditional classroom setting once ag ain with the teacher acting as an executive force. In a traditional classroom classroom the teacher is the the full source of infor infor mation. mation. Students aren’t 1
creating their own knowledge. Their opinions are not heard, and there is is an emphasis on having the correct, not wrong, answer. Teachers are strict and implement lecture-based, text-book driven lessons that call for rote memorization. I will demonstrate that we are at odds with what research research has shown in how students’ best students’ best acquire knowledge. According to Phillips and Soltis, Soltis, we know that children do not learn by being passive. This idea of a child being active, engaging in activities with others, and exploring th
the world around us to gather knowledge was introduced to us early in the 20 century by John Dewey. Around the same time, Piaget found found that children engage with their environment in order to construct knowledge and make make meaningful connections. He also stated that children children develop in stages and as they the y grow they can revise their schema (organization or framework of knowledge) when new knowledge is gained. Another theorist, Vygotsky, Vygotsky, determined during the th
early 20 century that a child needs guidance in order to learn. He created the term zone of proximal development which means what a child can accomplish on his/her own and what he/she can accomplish with some support. Also, he felt that children children learn by imitating others: others: especially when it comes to language development. (2009) I will show that through all of these theorists’ ideas and the emergence of constructivist theory, we have learned that students need the opportunity to become creative and innovative individuals who are able to solve real-world problems through exploring their environment, engaging in activities, using critical thinking skills, and collaborating with others. Students are not being provided with opportunities to develop these skills. How are teachers supposed to to implement these best practices when the curriculum and teacher decision making has been narrowed? Educators need to be in control of the system system of education. Students are falling through the cracks due to inaccurate portrayal of their knowledge through standardized testing. 2
However, teachers, parents, and students can fight back by joining organizations, such as the Opt Out Movement, and teachers learning to implement best practices within the classroom that include alternative forms of assessment. Resources The majority of resources that I have found to h elp support my case are articles from journal entries along with newspaper articles and three books: all written by credible and reliable sources. Also, I conducted two in person person interviews with professors professors of Alma College, and and four other interviews over email with an elementary school teacher, two paraprofessionals, and a parent. I wanted to get a wide range of perspectives on standardized testing and assessments. Content of Paper This paper will explore historical aspects of education and the forces that are driving what it has become today. It will look at how standardized testing found its way into our society along with its initial initial intentions and actual outcomes. The tremendous amount of negative effects standardized testing testing has on students and teachers will be explored along with other people’s thoughts on it. This paper will discuss what parents, teachers, and students students can do to go about making changes to the system of education in order to improve student learning, student assessment, and teacher evaluation. History of Education and the Pendulum Swing th
Through much research within the first half of the 20 century, educators found what they believed students needed in the classroom classroom in order to excel. According to Frost, it was found that students needed to express their individuality and creativity. creativity. They needed time to
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collaborate with others and do things for the community to have a sense for encountering realworld situations. Formative assessment, individualized assessment, observations, and running diagnostics were at the forefront of determining how much knowledge a student knew. (Frost, 2007) According to the U.S. Superintendent of Documents, there was an emphasis on letting th
children be children throughout the early 20 century, and this thought was given more recognition in 1940 after a White House Conference on Children and Youth. Academics were necessary, but students still needed time to enga ge in exploring the world around them through spontaneous play. Play was seen as developmentally appropriate for young children and allowed them to grow socially and emotionally and helped to improve their gross motor skills. (1940) “A mechanized model of education focuses on one-size-fits-all testing and instruction and was never accepted or recommended by b y national professional organizations, never supported by research, and never embraced by educators and child development professionals.” professionals.” (Frost, pg 226) Layton feels that some individuals’ methods of teaching now contradict these findings. There has been a pendulum swing. We are going from a student-centered student-centered progressive approach to a teacher-directed traditional approach. We now are seeing more aspects and teaching strategies found within a traditional classroom. Teachers are seen as an executive force and students are passive. These characteristics are the the result of the No Child Child Left Behind Act which was enacted in 2002 by George W. Bush as a way to ensure each child was making adequate progress and that by 2014 each child would be proficient in both areas of reading and math. rd
Each year starting in 3 grade and continuing into high school, students would be tested as a means of assessment. (2014)
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Standardized Testing and Society
Research suggests that the intentions behind No Child Left Behind were to have students engage in high-stakes testing in order to improve their academic achievement and to lower the drop-out rates. However, each child is different and expresses different different needs. Their differences are now being ignored. (Frost, 2007) Nichols and Berliner thought that through a punishment and reward system teachers would be able abl e to motivate their students to want to learn more, helping them to reach academic success, and that it would motivate teachers to teach better. (2008) According to Thorndike and his theory of operant conditioning a stimulus can produce a response. In other words, words, you can change one’s behavior in orderto order to get one to do something by providing him/her with a reward. The more it is practiced, the stronger the behavior will become. (Phillips and Soltis, 2009) Frost feels that educators are no longer the o nes in charge of improving the system of education: politicians are. Politicians are changing the curriculum curriculum in the classroom toward toward standardized testing. testing. (2007) According to Nichols and Berliner, standardized standardized testing has become a part of our society through changing demographics, business and accountability, the future economy and well-educated workforce, the power elite, and competition. (2008) Nichols and Berliner argue that businesses now control our democratic ways of life. They influence the media and the government. All aspects of society such as government spending, education policies, and so on are centered around a business model. This is why our schools are now run like a business. Tests are implemented to to monitor students and teachers, to measure their progress, progress, and to determine their levels of work ethic. Students and teachers are held accountable for their results results whether good or bad. Classrooms are teacher directed. directed. (2008)
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“The Teacher seems like the manager of a kind of production production line, whereby students enter the factory as raw material and are somehow assembled as informed knowledgeable persons.” (Fenstermacher and Soltis, pg 59) Research shows that as a society we believe that our future economy relies on our students. This means that they must be well-educated and pushed to reach their fullest potential in order to graduate from high school and further their learning by attending college or beginning their careers. In other words, they must must be career and college ready. Also, citizens that are older, particularly whites, are are living longer than they once did. They are investing their money into politics. These individuals determine our society’s economic system. They They do not want to see their money going to waste or to students who are seen as unfit un fit in improving our society and who may further contribute to its areas of weakn ess. (Nichols and Berliner, 2008) Nichols and Berliner think that the power elite, along with the middle and upper class believe that standardized testing has an advantage. The schools their children attend are ranked well. These children normally perform perform very well on standardized tests; this is why these these individuals feel that these tests should remain. These individuals do have a lot of power, authority, and say over the way schools can be run. Nichols and Berliner feel that as a society, we like competition. They bring up sports and that the aspect of winning and losing is very important to individuals. High-stakes tests tests are designed in a sport like manner. They promote competition amongst students, teachers, and school districts. (2008) Overall, Layton finds that the intentions behind No Child Left Behind and Race to the Top are not being met. Obama and other political leaders agree. Tests are being used too too heavily within the classroom and students, schools, and teachers are being punished too heavily he avily
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for failure. They were never to be used as a form assessment that that focuses on drilling students. students. They wanted standardized tests to be used as data for diagnostic information to find where children need more help, to find achievement gaps, and to see where students stand. (2013) “No Child Left Behind and the testing movement in gener al are turning into poorly funded programs with more political dimensions than educational aspirations.” (Goldberg, pg 15) Goldberg claims that rather than issuing standardized tests, it would be much more efficient to leave the responsibility of assessing assessing students to trustworthy teachers. However, many don’t find teachers capable of performing performing this task. More than one test should be administered a year to how much much students have progressed, however, those in charge want to save money. (2004) In the end students and teachers face a multitude of consequences. Those Affected by Standardized Testing and its Effects
Students “High stakes testing is damaging to children and te achers – emotionally, emotionally, physically, and intellectually.” (Frost, pg. 226) Frost argues that that there are many negative impacts on students. He feels that standardized tests place an overwhelming ov erwhelming amount of stress and anxiety on students. Teachers see their students coming into their classrooms in tears while others may misbehave. Some may even see signs of depression depression in a student. Instances are occurring where where students are in desperate need of relaxing and an d staying calm before taking a test t est that they will take pills. Students don’t get to share their interests with others and and there is no more time for child-initiated play that fosters development. (2007) Solley finds that with standardized testing being the center of focus in the classroom, classroom, students have lost all all motivation to learn. Children no longer have any intrinsic motivation. They don’t want to learn for for the sake of learning. There are fewer 7
opportunities provided to students to make their own decisions, to critically analyze a situation, and to think of resolutions to a problem. Students memorize meaningless facts through rote memorization and are usually provided provided with extrinsic motivators. They are neither active nor innovative and no longer enjoy all the wonderful learning experiences schools could provide its students. Little or no learning learning actually occurs. (2007) Underrepresented Students A study by Nichols, Glass, and Berliner, has shown that minority students suffer from the amount of pressure placed onto them by high-stakes testing. This pressure has greatly increased the performance gap amongst race and economic status, with whites and those with money at the top and those in the minority and who are poor at the bottom. (2005) “High stakes testing separates the deserving poor from from the undeserving poor. It becomes an effect to preserve social status more than to improve our schools.” ( Nichols and Berliner, pg 45) Thompson and Allen have found that African Americans are affected by high-stakes testing. The initiation of these tests tests has resulted in in poorer methods of instruction, an increase in apathy, stricter behavioral management, and fear of failure. (2012) Goldberg argues that, African American students tend to have low expectations thrown upon them and they do not receive a good education, that the No Child Left Behind Act promised they would be provided with. High quality teachers don’t want to teach in inner -city -city schools where these children live. (2004) Therefore, since 2010, there has been limited improvement in test scores, an increase in the achievement gap amongst black and white students, and an increase in dropout rates. (Thompson and Allen, 2012)
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Thompson and Allen think that with the increase in test taking, lessons becoming duller, and teachers teaching to the test, students are not interested or concerned with their edu cational experience. The information that they are learning is meaningless to them. Students are, therefore, not engaged, and show lack of motivation. Research has shown that when asked if they wanted better teachers, African Americans were at the top of the list saying that they did. 66% of African Americans stated that they were bored in their classes. 75% of African American students said they don’t learn enough about ab out their culture. culture. (2012) With teachers becoming stricter to make sure students are focusing on their academics in order to do well on the tests, Thompson and Allen have found that harsher disciplinary actions have been put into place. However, African Americans are punished punished more heavily than students of other races. races. Also, there is an increased fear in failure. The schooling system is creating narcissistic individuals, meaning that students are becoming self-absorbed and are striving to be perfect. African Americans don’t know how to express themselves or use creativity. They aren’t remaining true to who they really are. They begin They begin to think of themselves and not others in order to get ahead. It is all about competition. (2012) (2012) “As the schools focus ever more on bringing low-performing low-performing students up to grade-level standards the most brilliant, most creative students, already performing well beyond their grade level, are left to languish in mediocrity and sameness.” (Frost, pg 226) Thompson and Allen find find that high achieving students become disengaged with their their schoolwork. They find the material to be too easy and boring. They aren’t being challenged. No longer are they they striving to be lifelong learners. The curriculum is narrow and students aren’t learning the skills necessary to extend their growth. (2012)
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Teachers According to Thompson and Allen, with teachers having to teach to the test, they are limited in what they can teach their students and how they go about teaching their students. Teachers now have guidelines that they must follow and they are being told how and what to teach. (2012) Research suggests that they have lost their creativity and hopes of designing meaningful, engaging lessons. Overall, the purpose of education is being lost. All that matters to teachers is improving test scores. (Scot et. al, 20 09) Researchers found that teachers know the best b est teaching strategies to use in order to get their students to learn. learn. They want them to learn how to critically analyze a situation, situation, look beyond the obvious in order to encounter new knowledge with a deeper level of understanding, and to think outside of the box and not be scared when faced with challenging situations. However, they aren’t allowed to implement these best practices. practices. Also, they aren’t able to differentiate instruction based on individual needs of each student. student. (Scot et. al, 2009) Baresic and Gilman claim that teachers are now no w being assessed based on how well their students perform on these standardized tests. tests. We do live in a competitive world, so the fear of losing a job or the excitement ex citement of getting a raise causes some teachers to get involved in cheating scandals and other acts of indecency. When teachers know standardized tests are coming, they’ll ask their lower level level students to not come into school. school. This way scores will go up and teachers will look better. (2014) Layton stated that in March 2013, a superintendent, along with thirtyfour teachers were faced with criminal criminal charges. They had changed some of their students’ incorrect answers on the test. test. Another incident occurred at schools belonging to another district.
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Teachers belonging to this district gave their students the correct answers to the tests and that they read certain sections of the test aloud to their students. (2013) According to Goldberg, some teachers face the difficulty of having to fail students. They are disheartened to have to fail students that have worked hard to move on, but have to stay behind because they did not pass a standardized test. Even though each state has different requirements with some allowing students may move on if faculty believes they have met the goals set for them to achieve, achieve, parents aren’t notified with this information. (2004) information. (2004) Dr. Seals stated, “When we have more and more people at different levels telling us what to do and how to do it pretty soon the problem with with that is becoming a paraprofessional. paraprofessional. I didn’t go to school for four years to do that. that. They can tell me what to teach teach,, but when they tell me how to teach it is time to leave education.” (2014) education.” (2014) If teachers teachers continue to face these unnecessary evaluations and strict regulations, many will fail to see why they loved teaching in the first place, and will be leaving the field of education. Errors, Reliability, and Penalties According to Goldberg, there are always systematic errors when dealing with issuing standardized tests. Glitches occur in the computer systems systems and answer keys are not always correct. Also, there is a limited amount of time allotted allotted to companies in making these these tests. They rush their way through through making these tests allowing for more mistakes to be made. They aren’t always accurate in portraying what an individual knows. Many would rather use a faulty system of assessment, than spend money on finding a better way of assessing students. (2004) Goldberg suggests that if a child is sick or if there is a distraction, the child may not perform to the best of his/her ability. With these tests, schools are forced to provide data 11
disaggregated by race. If schools do not provide provide this information they face penalties. Schools must show that all students students in each group are making improvements. (2004) If adequately yearly progress is not met, schools could be at risk of being closed or being controlled by private businesses. (Nichols and Berliner, 2008) The effects of standardized testing are monumental and having a faulty system that doesn’t accurately assess student’s intelligence does not make sense. sense. Why keep these tests tests in place when data shows that students and teachers are suffering? Can’t money spent on standardized testing be put elsewhere? elsewhere? Is there a way to stop standardized testing testing once and for all? There is a solution, in response to these these thoughts. More people now than ever aren’t keeping quiet and are expressing their thoughts on the manner. Opt-Out Movement
The St. Louis Post states states that the new phenomenon that is sweeping the nation is the Opt-Out Movement.
In response response to the growing number of complaints complaints and negative
consequences of standardized testing, parents, teachers, and students are taking a stand and fighting back for what they believe the schooling process should be like. All of those involved are choosing not to participate in the state administered administered tests. Parents find tests put unnecessary stress on their children and that they focus too much on evaluating teachers and not enough on determining how knowledgeable their kids are. Teachers find that these tests don’t allow their students to reach their fullest potential and don’t foster creativity, higher level thinking, or group discussions. Parents and teachers are forming groups on line through social media sites, such such as Facebook, to get their message across to others who may want to take part in the movement. Many are forming protests, and their thoughts are being heard. In Seattle, a group of high school
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students and teachers led a protest ending endin g in the superintendent allowing the state administered test to be optional. Many other instances like like this have occurred. (2014) According to Layton, those who do want to opt-out can find ways to get past the regulations states have put into into place. Pennsylvania and Florida are two states states that have alternative regulations in regards regards to taking the standardized standardized test. Those in Pennsylvania can state that due to religious reasons they will not take the test, and those in Florida can take part in other forms of assessments like like portfolios. (2013) According to the St. Louis Post, as of right now no severe penalties or consequences have been put into action when individuals decide to opt-out. Some states are declaring that only 95% of students need to participate in the state state test. If a school has less than 95% of its students taking the state administered test, money could be taken away from the school. (2014) However, many have still still never heard of the Opt-Out Movement. When Mrs. Steinbrink, an elementary teacher from Almont, was asked what her thoughts on the Opt-Out Opt -Out Movement were, she replied back that she had never heard of it: same with Donna VanDyken, a mother of two boys who attend Schoolcraft High school, and Kristy Bryan and Debbie Sheffield, paraprofessionals from Almont Elementary School. Best Practices in the Classroom and Alternative Forms of Assessment
“Assessment should be in the form of authentic a ssessment as much as possible. possible. This includes such things as writing samples, projects, oral presentations, and demon stration of skills. It should be assessments that hit a variety of children’s learning modalities,” stated modalities,” stated Thelen. Thelen never tests her students students to determine how knowledgeable they are. She does assign quizzes but only in one class, and they aren’t worth many many points. A lot of her assessments assessments 13
involve oral presentations, writing writing assignments, and classroom discussions. Thelen believes that formative and summative methods of assessment should be used and assessments need to be ongoing, as well. (2014) According to Solley, teaching, learning, and assessment are linked together: one can’t b e done without the other. High quality instruction that is developmentally appropriate is is necessary along with student evaluation in order for ch ildren to continue their journey of learning. Assessment should focus on how much a student has achieved. It should not focus on how poorly a student is doing in a particular area of study. Also, assessment should be a collaborative process. Students, teachers, and parents need to communicate their thoughts with one another. Each and every student should shou ld be assessed on an ongoing ongoin g basis: this is known as formative. Students should learn how to self assess, as well. well. “When children are allowed and encouraged to self-assess, self-assess, they begin to understand why they are doing what they are doing.” (pg doing.” (pg 35) Alternative forms of assessment can be used within the classroom to take the place of standardized testing. (2007) Solley states that a portfolio is a way of collecting and organizing student work. Portfolios contain samples of student work that show the amount of improvement and achievement that has taken place over time. This kind of assessment is meaningful to students. students. They feel like they are in in control of their own learning. They have concrete examples to look at that show them they are capable capable of making improvements to their work over time. Teachers help students to pick out the examples of work they want to showcase showcase in their portfolio. portfolio. They make sure to select pieces that show the student has reached reached the target and/or standards. The process of learning is shown through a portfolio. By making one, students gain motivation, motivation, see themselves as learners, and want to learn more. (2007) 14
According to Solley, performance assessment is letting students demonstrate their knowledge of understanding. Most often this entails students being active and engaging in discussions with other students. It involves them encountering encountering a situation, analyzing it, and drawing their own conclusions. Students are expected to make their own decisions and to demonstrate higher level thinking skills. skills. Examples of performance based assessments assessments are acting out a historical event, conducting an experiment, or writing a paper. Children learn to apply the skills that they have learned through these activities. Students are actively engaged in the experience and they don’t see it as pointless. pointless. (2007) “Teachers are, in many cases, more likely likel y to understand what a student has mastered and where the student needs additional help from this type of performance-focused testing than from a fill-in-the-bubble multiple choice test that is, admittedly, easier to machine score.” (Marx, pg 1 59) According to Ediger, by observing their students, teachers get to know their students’ students’ needs. “Almost immediately when observing, the teacher dia gnoses and begins to remediate student difficulties in the classroom setting.” (pg 137) Then they can go about helping their students in the areas that may need improvement. Teachers become facilitators in the learning process. (2007) Observations, along with the other forms of assessment previously stated, are effective methods in determining if students’ actually students’ actually understand a concept trying to be taught. Conclusion
In conclusion, I agree with educators, parents, p arents, and researchers that there is too much emphasis on standardized testing within the system of education. Standardized tests had good intentions at first, but as years go by more and more unrealistic goals are set for students to reach. The effects of these tests are are detrimental to both students and teachers. The pressure
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keeps on building for students to do well in order to move on to the next grade, to graduate, and go to college. These tests determine students’ future success. Students are anxious when it comes to taking tests. tests. Students are unable to learn necessary necessary skills, like higher-order thinking, cooperative learning, and problem-solving, that they will need to know how to use in the realworld. Other subject areas like the arts which help foster a student’s creativity creativity are being taken away. Teachers are evaluated on how well their students perform. They are at a much higher risk of losing their jobs, and competition has increased dramatically with the drive of being the best. In response many have been caught in cheating scandals. Also, teachers are limited with what they can teach due to the narrow narrow curriculum. There are so many standards and guidelines in place that there is no flexibility in the schedule to implement creative han ds-on activities for students to engage in. Students are failing to meet the expectations exp ectations set for them: these are unrealistic. Students should not go to school anxious and scared of failure. Rather than sit back and watch their children suffer from the amount of pressure standardize testing puts on their children, parents are allowing their students to opt-out of standardized testing. As a society, we rely on standardized testing way too much as a form of assessment when there are other good goo d ones out there, such as performance-based. Individuals can no longer approach education with a business mindset. mindset. No longer should the political elites be in charge of what is happening within the classrooms. Teachers should not be told what to teach teach and how to teach. Classrooms need to be given back to educators. There needs to be more flexibility within the classroom. classroom. It is most beneficial to
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provide students with multiple learning opportunities, to allow students to engage in activities that meet their interests, and provide them with meaningful experiences. However, the difference between standardized testing and high-stakes testing needs to be cleared. The resources that I used for my research did not distinguish the two. Standardized testing is the standardization standardization of testing practices. practices. These tests were meant to see where students were at and to measure their growth. High stakes testing emerged emerged once accountability and money were tied in to testing testing outcomes. Teachers and schools were held accountable for lack of student growth determined by low test scores, and they faced consequences for these unwanted results. Within society, educational trends tend to go back and forth, and as of now there is a new pendulum swing that is occurring. “Newton’s law is at work: To any action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. The outcome of the standards movement likely likely will be an increased demand for personalization of education. In a world crying for for creative, knowledgeable people who’ve had an opportunity to develop their multitude of talents talents and abilities, what could be more positive?” (Marx, pg 142) Joining the Opt-Out Movement is the best way to to get this message across. People need to realize how knowledgeable our students actually are. Students need to be in control of their own lives and determine their own futures. However, we must keep in mind that the transition to performance driven assessments that assess common core subjects is now in effect. SMARTER Balanced and PAARC assessments are are now being distributed across the nation. We don’t know if these tests will have the same negative effects a s other standardized tests or whether they will
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have high-stakes high-stakes attached: we don’t know know how they will will be used. Only with time will we know if they are beneficial, and if the scores will accurately show what a student really kno ws.
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References Baresic, Jean, and David Gilman. “How does the Pendulum Swing on Standardized Testing?” The Education Digest 66.5 66.5 (2001): 12-6. ProQuest 12-6. ProQuest . Web. 9 Mar. 2014. Bryan, Kristy. Personal Interview. 8 Mar. 2014. Ediger, Marlow. “Teacher Observation to Assess Student Achievement.” Journal Achievement.” Journal of Instructional Psychology 34.3 Psychology 34.3 (2007): 137-9. ProQuest 137-9. ProQuest . Web. 4 Mar. 2014. Frost, Joe L. “The Changing Culture Cu lture of Childhood: A Perfect Storm.” Childhood Education 83.4 Education 83.4 (2007): 225-30. ProQuest 225-30. ProQuest . Web. 4 Mar. 2014. Goldberg, Mark F. “The High-Stakes High-Stakes Test Mess.” The Education Digest 69.8 69.8 (2004): 8-15. ProQuest . Web. 6 Mar. 2014. Layton, Lyndsey. “Bush, Obama Focus on Standardized Testing Leads to ‘Opt‘Opt-Out’ Movement (Posted 2013-04-15 2013-04-15 02:26:06).” The Washington Post Apr Apr 15 2013. ProQuest. Web. 4 Mar. 2014. Marx, Gary. Sixteen Trends Their Profound Impact on Our Future: Implications for Students, Education, Communities, and the Whole of Society. Society. 2006. Print. “More Parents are Opting Children Out of Standardized Tests; among the Reasons they Cite are using Tests to Evaluate Teachers, Stress on Studen ts, Focus on Passing Exams.” St. Louis Post – Dispatch Sep. Dispatch Sep. 09 2013. ProQuest 2013. ProQuest . Web. 7 Mar. 2014. Nichols, S. L., Glass, G. V., & Berliner, D.C. (2005). High (2005). High Stakes Testing and Student Achievement: Problems for the No Child Left Behind Act . Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University, Education Policy Studies Laboratory. Nichols, Sharon L., and David C. Berliner. “Why has High-Stakes High-Stakes Testing so Easily Slipped into Contemporary American Life?” The Education Digest 74.4 74.4 (2008): 41-7. 41-7. ProQuest . Web. 6 Mar. 2014. Phillips, D.C., and Jonas F. Soltis. Perspectives on Learning . New York: Teachers College Press, 2009. Print. Scot, Tammy Pandina, Carolyn Carolyn M. Callahan, and Jill Jill Urquhart. “Paint-by-Number “Paint-by-Number Teachers and Cookie-Cutter Students: The Unintened Effects of High-Stakes Testing on the Education of Gifted Students.” Roeper Students.” Roeper Review 31.1 Review 31.1 (2009): 40-52. ProQuest 40-52. ProQuest . Web. 4 Mar. 2014. Seals, Mark. Personal Interview. 10 Mar. 2014. Sheffield, Deborah. Personal Interview. 9 Mar. 2014.
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Solley, Bobbie A. “On Standardized Stand ardized Testing: An ACEI Position Paper.” Childhood Education 84.1 (2007): 31-7. ProQuest 31-7. ProQuest . Web. 6 Mar. 2014. Steinbrink, Katherine. Personal Interview. 8 Mar. 2014. Thelen, Peggy. Personal Interview. 7 Mar. 2014. Thompson, Gail L., and Tawannah G. Allen. “Four Effects of the High-Stakes High-Stakes Testing Movement on African American K-12 K-12 Students.” The Journal of Negro Education 81.3 Education 81.3 (2012): 218, 227, 301-302. ProQuest 301-302. ProQuest . Web. 5 Mar. 2014. U.S. Superintendent of Documents. (1940). White House Conference on Children in a Democracy. Washington, DC: Author. VanDyken, Donna. Personal Interview. 10 Mar. 2014.
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