Practical Research 2 Module

GRADE: SUBJECT TITLE:

12 PRACTICAL RESEARCH

Common Subject Description:

SEMESTER: NO. OF HOURS/SEM.:

PREREQUISITE:

FIRST SEMESTER 80 hours/semester Statistics and Probability

This course develops critical thinking and problem-solving skills through quantitative research.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

COMPILATION IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 (UPPER TUMAPOC NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL)

BY: JAY-AR MARIO V. MARIANO

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

JAY-AR MARIO V. MARIANO X

CURRICUM GUIDE

CONTENT

Nature of Inquiry and Research

CONTENT STANDARD

PERFORMANCE STANDARD

LEARNING COMPETENCIES

The learner demonstrates understanding of:

The learner is able to:

The learner:

1.

decide on suitable quantitative research in different areas of interest

1.

2. 3.

the characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and kinds of quantitative research the importance of quantitative research across fields the nature of variables

2.

3.

Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the Problem



1.

formulate clearly the statement of research problem

2. 3.

the range of research topics in the area of inquiry the value of research in the area of interest the specificity and feasibility of the problem pose

differentiate kinds of variables and their uses

The learner: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

designs a research useful in daily life writes a research title describes background of research states research questions indicates scope and delimitation of study cites benefits and beneficiaries of study presents written statement of the problem



The learner:

1.

1.

1. 2.

2. 3. 4. Learning from Others and Reviewing the Literature

describes characteristics, strengths, weaknesses, and kinds of quantitative research illustrates the importance of quantitative research across fields

5.

the criteria in selecting, citing, and synthesizing related literature the ethical standards in writing related literature the formulation of conceptual framework the research hypotheses (if appropriate) the definition of terms as used in the study

2.

3.

UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH

select, cite, and synthesize judiciously related literature and use sources according to ethical standards formulate clearly conceptual framework, research hypotheses (if appropriate), and define terms used in study present objectively written review of related literature and conceptual framework

3.

selects relevant literature cites related literature using standard style (APA, MLA or Chicago Manual of Style) synthesizes information from relevant literature

4.

writes coherent review of literature

5.

follows ethical standards in writing related literature

6.

illustrates and explain conceptual framework

7.

defines terms used in study

8.

lists research hypotheses (if appropriate)

9.

presents written review of related literature and conceptual framework

JAY-AR MARIO V. MARIANO



The learner:

1.

1.

1.

2. 3. 4. Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data

5. 6. 7.

quantitative research designs description of sample instrument development description of intervention (if applicable) data collection and analysis procedures such as survey, interview, and observation guidelines in writing research methodology the application of art/ design fundamentals for execution

2.

describe adequately quantitative research designs, sample, instrument used, intervention (if applicable), data collection, and analysis procedures apply imaginatively art/design principles to create artwork

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

chooses appropriate quantitative research design describes sampling procedure and the sample constructs an instrument and establishes its validity and reliability describes intervention (if applicable) plans data collection procedure plans data analysis using statistics and hypothesis testing (if appropriate) presents written research methodology

8.

Finding Answers through Data Collection



implements design principles to produce creative artwork The learner:

1.

1.

1.



collects data using appropriate instruments 2. presents and interprets data in tabular and graphical forms 3. uses statistical techniques to analyze data— study of differences and relationships limited for bivariate analysis The learner:

1.

1.

1.

2.

2. Reporting and Sharing Findings

3. 4.

data collection procedures and skills using varied instruments data processing, organizing, and analysis

guidelines in making conclusions and recommendations the techniques in listing references the process of report writing the selection criteria and process of best design

2.

3. 4.

gather and analyze data with intellectual honesty, using suitable techniques

form logical conclusions make recommendations based on conclusions write and present clear report execute best design

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.


draws conclusions from research findings formulates recommendations lists references presents written research report finalizes and presents best design presents research workbook


UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH WHAT THIS UNIT ALL ABOUT? Human history abounds with problems. Problems are everywhere in different variety in different perspective which affect mankind. Problems are observed along political, social, environmental and many aspects of life. This may between individuals, groups or in an organization. In that, mankind wants solution to these problems. These solutions should not be only effective but also be acquired and used for improvement. To be able to achieve that, solutions must be based in knowledge, not on mere beliefs, guesses, or theories. To acquire this knowledge it requires a well-planned and systematic procedure and should be continuously evaluated on its accuracy and usefulness. In that, RESEARCH has been devised to meet this need. Research is a natural day-to-day activity of gathering information. It may in the form of qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative researches are those studies in which the data concerned can be described without the use of numerical data while quantitative research suggests that the data concerned can be analyzed in terms of numbers. Quantitative research designs use numbers in stating generalizations about a given problem or inquiry in contrast to qualitative research that hardly uses statistical treatment in stating generalizations. The numbers in quantitative research are the results of objective scales of measurements of the units of analysis called variables. Research findings are subjected to statistical treatment to determine significant relationships or differences between variables, the results of which are the bases for generalization about phenomena. In this unit, you will be encountering also the characteristics of quantitative research, its strength and weaknesses, its kinds and importance across disciplines. In here also, we will be tackling kinds of variables and its uses.

WHAT DO YOU EXPECT TO LEARN? After studying this unit, you are expected to be able to:  describe the characteristics, strengths, weaknesses and kinds of

quantitative

research;  explain the kinds of quantitative research designs;  illustrate the importance of quantitative research across fields; and  differentiate kinds of variables and their uses.



HOW ARE YOU GOING TO LEARN?

This icon signals a pre-test that you need to answer to determine how much you about the topic. At every pre-test, you will find a question to answer. Write your answers in the blank provided for or as instructed in the pre-test. If you cannot answer a question may leave it blank. But see to it that you go back to check after you have studied or read the text.

You will find this icon before some chunks of text in the following pages. It tells you to carefully study the concepts, principles, or processes discussed in the text. It also tells you that there is a question to answer or an idea to think about it.

This icon introduces a list of important ideas to remember. Read it carefully and keep it in mind. From the good habit of reviewing the text and how much time, effort, interest and patience you invest in your learning will determine how sure you are in having good scores in the checkpoint. Your attitude will help you learn more and effectively that makes you a better learner.

You will find this icon at the end of every lesson. It signals a self-test to determine how well you have achieved the objectives set in the unit. Study the lesson well and you will perform quite well in the self-test. This will be submitted to your teacher after you answering the self-test. Write legibly and always follow instructions properly.

This icon tells you of an assignment you have to perform. The quality of your output from this assignment will show the extent to which you can apply what have you learned from the lesson. Submit this also to your teacher at the date specified.

Are you now set to perform the activity, answer the questions, and read the texts? If so, then you may get your ball pen and notebook as I will request you to answer the questions included herein. Good luck, enjoy reading and doing the activity. God bless.



LESSON 1: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH – CHARACTERISTICS, STRENGTH, WEAKNESSES and KINDS PRE-TEST QUESTIONS: Answer the questions below. Follow instructions properly. I.

TRUE or FALSE. Write QUANTITATIVE after the item when the sentence is true while QUALITATIVE if the statement is false. 1. In quantitative research, researchers know in advance what they are looking for. _______________ 2. Quantitative research can be easily misinterpreted because it provides numerical data. _______________ 3. Quantitative research puts emphasis on proof, rather than discovery. _______________ 4. Normative research is conducted by researcher whose aim would be to find out the direction and/or relationship between different variables or group of respondents under study. _________________ 5. Qualitative research requires a large number of respondents. It assumes that the larger the sample is, the more statistically accurate the findings are. ___________________ 6. Evaluation describes the status of a phenomenon at a particular time. It describes without value judgment a situation that prevents. ____________________ 7. Correlational is conducted by researchers whose aim would be to find out the direction and/or relationship between different variables or groups of respondents under study. _____________________ 8. Methodological is the implementation of a variety of methodologies that forms a critical part of achieving the goal of developing a scaled-matched approach, where data from different disciplines can be integrated. ___________________ 9. One characteristics of quantitative research is that its method can be repeated to verify findings in another setting, thus, reinforcing validity findings. _____________________ 10. In quantitative experiments it filters out external factors, if properly designed, and so the results gained can be seen, as real and unbiased.

II.

Put a tick (/) if it describes the characteristics of a Quantitative Research. 1. Data is in the form of words, pictures or objects. 2. The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments. 3. It is not based upon numerical measurements and does not use numbers and statistical methods as key research indicators and tools. 4. It tends to be associated with small-scale studies and a holistic perspective, often studying a single occurrence or small number of occurrences/case studies in great depth. 5. The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability. 6. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-textual forms. 7. Emphasis is on discovery rather than proof. 8. The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population. 9. It tends to be associated with emergent research design, using a wide range of approaches 10. Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers



are sought.

DEFINITION OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Quantitative research is an objective, systematic empirical investigation of observable phenomena through the use of computational techniques. It highlights numerical analysis of data hoping that the numbers yield unbiased results that can be generalized to some larger population and explain a particular observation. Simply, quantitative research is concerned with numbers and its relationship with events. The quantitative research suggests that the data concerned can be analyzed in terms of numbers. An example that we can give for this study is a study comparing the performance of Grade 12 in Upper Tumapoc National High School and Burgos National high School in Physical Science when ICT is integrated in teaching. This can be approached by getting the average performance of both schools before and after integrating ICT. Then the averages can be compared and analyzed to see the differences or effectiveness. In this case, numbers are used as data for analysis. Another is surveying what do viewers in Burgos, La Union prefer to watch: is it GMA dramarama or ABS-CBN Golden Kapamilya noontime show. In here, it may be approached by making a survey questionnaire asking for the preference of viewers in Burgos, La Union. May you now give your own example of a quantitative research? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________. CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 1. OBJECTIVE. Quantitative research seeks accurate measurement and analysis of target concepts. It is not based on mere intuition and guesses. Data are gathered before proposing a conclusion or solution to a problem. 2. CLEARLY DEFINED RESEARCH QUESTIONS. The researchers know in advance what they are looking for. The research questions are well-defined for which objective answers are sought. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are gathered. 3. STRUCTURED RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS. Standardized instruments guide data collection, thus, ensuring the accuracy, reliability and validity of data. Data are normally gathered using structured research tools such as questionnaires to collect measurable characteristics of the population like age, socio-economic status, number of children, among others. 4. NUMERICAL DATA. Figures, tables or graphs showcase summarized data collection in order to show trends, relationships or differences among variables. In sum, the charts and tables allow you to see the evidence collected. 5. LARGE SAMPLE SIZES. To arrive at a more reliable data analysis, a normal population distribution curve is preferred. This requires a large sample size, depending on how the characteristics of the population vary. Random sampling is recommended in determining the sample size to avoid researcher’s bias in interpreting the results. 6. REPLICATION. Quantitative methods can be repeated to verify findings in another setting, thus strengthen and reinforcing validity of findings eliminating the possibility of spurious conclusions.



7. FUTURE OUTCOMES. By using complex mathematical calculations and with the aid of computers, if-then scenarios may be formulated thus predicting future results. Quantitative research puts emphasis on proof, rather than discovery. STRENGHTS and WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH STRENGHTS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH  The advantages of quantitative research includes the following: 1. It is objective. The most reliable and valid way of concluding results, giving way to a new hypothesis or to disproving it. Because of bigger number of the sample of a population, the results or generalizations are more reliable and valid. Since it provides numerical data, it can’t be easily misinterpreted. 2. The use of statistical techniques facilitates sophisticated analyses and allows you to comprehend a huge amount of vital characteristics of data. 3. It is real and unbiased. If the research is properly designed it filters out external factors, and so can be seen as real and unbiased. 4. The numerical data can be analyzed in a quick and easy way. By employing statistically valid random models, findings can be generalized to the population about which information is necessary. 5. Quantitative studies are replicable. Standardized approaches allow the study to be replicated in different areas or over time with formulation of comparable findings. 6. Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of qualitative experiments, leading to a final answer, and narrowing down of possible directions to follow. WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH  The disadvantages of quantitative research are as follows: 1. Quantitative research requires a large number of respondents. It is assumed that the larger the sample is, the more statistically accurate the findings are. 2. It is costly. Since, there are more respondents compared to qualitative research, the expenses will be greater in reaching out to these people and in reproducing questionnaires. 3. The information is contextual factors to help interpret the results or to explain variations are usually ignored. It does not consider the distinct capacity of the respondents to share and elaborate further information unlike the qualitative research. 4. Much information are difficult to gather using structured research instruments, specifically on sensitive issues like pre-marital sex, domestic violence, among others. 5. If not done seriously and correctly, data from questionnaires may be incomplete and inaccurate. Researchers must be on the look-out on respondents who are just guessing in answering the instrument. What are the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative research? KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS Research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose in order to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby ensuring you will effectively address the research problem. Furthermore, a research design constitutes the blueprint for the selection, measurement and analysis of data. The research problem determines the research you should. UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH


Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques. The kind of research is dependent on the researcher’s aim in conducting the study and the extent to which the findings will be used. Quantitative research designs are generally classified into experimental and non-experimental as the following matrix below. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

EXPERIMENTAL

TRUE EXPERIMENTAL

PREEXPERIMENTAL

1. Pre-Test Design 2. Post-Test Design 3. Post-Test only/ Control Group Design

1. One Shot Case Study 2. One Group Pre-Test Post-Test Design

QUASIEXPERIMENTAL

NON-EXPERIMENTAL

DESCRIPTIVE

1. Survey 2. Correlational 3. Ex-Post Facto Studies 4. Comparative 5. Evaluative 6. Methodological

1. Non-equivalent Control Group Design 2. Time Series Design The following are the various kinds of quantitative research design that a researcher may employ: 1. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN. This allows the researcher to control the situation. In doing so, it allows the researcher to answer the question, “What causes something to occur?” This kind of research also allows the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between variables and to distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects. Further, this research design supports the ability to limit alternative explanations and to infer direct causal relationships in the study; the approach provides the highest degree level of evidence for single studies. A. PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. A type of research apply to experimental design that with least internal validity. One type of pre-experiment, the simple group, pretest-post-test design, measures the group two times, before and after the intervention. Instead of comparing the pretest with the posttest within one group, the posttest of the treated groups is compared with that of an untreated group. Measuring the effect as the difference between groups marks this as between-subjects design. Assuming both groups experienced the same time-related influences, the comparison group feature should protect this design from the rival explanations that threaten the within-subject design. UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH


Two classes of experimental design that can provide better internal validity than preexperimental designs are: quasi-experimental and true experimental design (Dooly, 1999). B. QUASI – EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. In this design, the researcher can collect more data, either by scheduling more observations or finding more existing measures. Quasi-experimental design involves selecting groups, upon which a variable is tested, without any random pre-selection processes. For example, to perform an educational experiment, a class might be arbitrarily divided by alphabetical selection or by seating arrangement. The division is often convenient and, especially in an educational situation, causes as little disruption as possible. After this selection, the experiment proceeds in a very similar way to any other experiment, with a variable being compared between different groups, or over a period of time. There are two types of quasi-experimental design, these are: a. Non-Equivalent Control Group. This refers to the chance failure of random assignment to equalize the conditions by converting a true experiment into this kind of design, for purpose of analysis. b. Interrupted Time Series Design. It employs multiple measures before and after the experimental intervention. It differs from the singlegroup pre-experiment that has only one pretest and one posttest. Users of this design assume that the time threats such as history or maturation appear as regular changes in the measures prior to the intervention. C. TRUE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. It controls for both time-related and grouprelated threats. Two features mark true experiments: two or more differently treated groups; and random assignment to these groups. These features require that the researchers have control over the experimental treatment and the power to place subjects in groups. True experimental design employs both treated and control groups to deal with time-related rival explanations. A control group reflects changes other than those due to the treatment that occur during the time of the study. Such changes include effects of outside events, maturation by the subjects, changes in measures and impact of any pre-tests. True experimental design offers the highest internal validity of all the designs. Quasi-experimental design differs from true experimental design by the absence of random assignment of subjects to different conditions. What quasiexperiments have in common with true experiments is that some subjects receive an intervention and provide data likely to reflect its impact. 2. NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. In this kind of design, the researcher observes the phenomena as they occur naturally and no external variables are introduced. In this research design, the variables are not deliberately manipulated nor is the setting controlled. Researchers collect data without making changes or introducing treatments. This may also called as DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN because it is only one under nonexperimental design. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN’s main purpose is to observe, describe and document aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs and sometimes to serve as a starting point for hypothesis generation or theory development. The types of descriptive design are as follows: A. SURVEY. It is used to gather information from groups of people by selecting and studying samples chosen from a population. This is useful when the objective of the study is to see general picture of the population under UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH


investigation in terms of their social and economic characteristics, opinions, and their knowledge about the behavior towards a certain phenomenon. B. CORRELATIONAL. It is conducted by researchers whose aim would be to find out the direction, associations and/or relationship between different variables or groups of respondents under study. Correlational Research has three types, these are: a. Bivariate Correlational Studies – It obtains score from two variables for each subject, and then uses them to calculate a correlation coefficient. The term bivariate implies that the two variables are correlated (variables are selected because they are believed to be related). Example: Children of wealthier (variable one), better educated (variable 2) parents earn higher salaries as adults. b.

Prediction Studies – It uses correlation coefficient to show how one variable (the predictor variable) predicts another (the criterion variable). Example: Which high school applicants should be admitted to college?

c. Multiple Regression Prediction Studies – All variables in the study can contribute to the over-all prediction in an equation that adds together the predictive power of each identified variable. Example: Suppose the High School GPA is not the sole predictor of college GPA, what might be other good predictors? C. EX-POST FACTO or CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE. This kind of research derives conclusion from observations and manifestations that already occurred in the past and now compared to some dependent variables. It discusses why and how a phenomenon occurs. Example 1: A researcher is interested in how weight influences stress-coping level of adults. Here the subjects would be separated into different groups (underweight, normal, overweight) and their stress-coping levels measured. This is an ex post facto design because a pre-existing characteristic (weight) was used to form the groups. Example 2: What is the Effect of Home Schooling on the Social Skills of Adolescents? D. COMPARATIVE. It involves comparing and contrasting two or more samples of study subjects on one or more variables, often at a single point of time. Specifically, this design is used to compare two distinct groups on the basis of selected attributes such as knowledge level, perceptions, and attitudes, physical or psychological symptoms. Example: A comparative Study on the Health Problems among Rural and Urban People in Ilocos Region, Philippines. E. NORMATIVE. It describes the norm level of characteristics for a given behavior. For example: If you are conducting a research on the study habits of the high school students you are to use the range of score to describe the level of their study habits. The same true is when you would want to describe their academic performance. UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH


F. EVALUATIVE. It is a process used to determine what has happened during a given activity or in an institution. The purpose of evaluation is to see if a given program is working, an institution is successful according to the goals set for it, or the original intent was successfully attained. In other words, in evaluation judgments can be in the forms of social utility, desirability, or effectiveness of a process. For example, we can cite here a situation. In evaluation study, it will not just be considering the performance of the students who were taught under modular instruction; instead, it is the rate of progress that happened among the students who were exposed to modular instruction. Example: A test of children in school is used to assess the effectiveness of teaching or the deployment of a curriculum. G. METHODOLOGICAL. In this approach, the implementation of a variety of methodologies forms a critical part of achieving the goal of developing a scalematched approach, where data from different disciplines can be integrated. What are the types of quantitative research designs? Give example each type.

KEEP THIS IN MIND. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH – use numbers in stating generalization about a given problem or inquiry

STRENGHT  Objectivity  Real & Unbiased 

Facilitates Sophisticated Analysis Analyzed in quick & easy way





Replicable



Useful in Testing Qualitative Research

CHARACTERISTICS 1. OBJECTIVE 2. CLEARLY DEFINED RESEARCH QUESTIONS 3. STRUCTURED RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS 4. NUMERICAL DATA 5. LARGE SAMPLE SIZES 6. REPLICATION 7. FUTURE OUTCOMES

EXPERIMENTAL



 

 

WEAKNESSES Requires large number of Respondents

Costly Contextual Factors are ignored

Difficult to gather data Little glitch in the procedure leads to incomplete and inaccurate data

NON-EXPERIMENTAL/ DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY

TRUE-EXPERIMENTAL

QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL

PRE-EXPERIMENTAL

CORRELATIONAL EX POST FACTO COMPARATIVE NORMATIVE EVALUATIVE

METHODOLOGICAL UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH


MIND CHALLENGE. Answer the following questions, follow directions given. I. NON-STOP WRITING. In 10 mins., write your concise learning about the following. 1. What is quantitative research? ________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________. 2. What are the characteristics of quantitative research? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________. 3. Discuss the strengths of quantitative research. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________. 4. Discuss the weaknesses of quantitative research. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________. 5. Describe each type of quantitative research design. Give example each. Example: Survey - used to gather information from groups of people by selecting and studying samples chosen from a population. Example: Preference T.V network of viewers in Upper Tumapoc, Burgos, La Union. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________. UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH


POST_TEST. This serves as your summative test. Answer the questions below following the instruction given in each test. I.

Identification. Identify what is being asked in each number. Write your answer after the statement.

1. It highlights numerical analysis of data hoping that the numbers yield unbiased results that can be generalized to some larger population and explain a particular observation. _________________________ 2. It suggests that the data concerned can be analyzed in terms of numbers. _______________________ 3. This kind of research derives conclusion from observations and manifestations that already occurred in the past and now compared to some dependent variables. _______________________ 4. It describes the norm level of characteristics for a given behavior. _________________ 5. In this design, the researcher can collect more data, either by scheduling more observations or finding more existing measures. ________________________ 6. It is conducted by researchers whose aim would be to find out the direction, associations and/or relationship between different variables or groups of respondents under study. ______________________ 7. It refers to the overall strategy that you choose in order to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby ensuring you will effectively address the research problem. __________________________ 8. It controls for both time-related and group-related threats. Two features mark true experiments: two or more differently treated groups; and random assignment to these groups. ____________________________ 9. All variables in the study can contribute to the over-all prediction in an equation that adds together the predictive power of each identified variable. _______________________ 10. Its main purpose is to observe, describe and document aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs and sometimes to serve as a starting point for hypothesis generation or theory development. __________________________ II.

Multiple Choice. Choose the correct letter that best describe the question or complete the statement. Write your answer before the number.

1. Which of the following BEST defines quantitative research? A. It is an exploration associated with libraries, books and journals. B. It is an activity concerned with finding new truth in education. C. It is a systematic process obtaining numerical information about the world. D. It is an activity of producing or proving a theorem. 2. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of quantitative research? A. Data are gathered before proposing a conclusion or solution to a problem. B. Quantitative methods can be repeated to verify findings in another setting, thus strengthen and reinforcing validity of findings eliminating the possibility of spurious conclusions. C. Figures, tables or graphs showcase summarized data collection in order to show trends, relationships or differences among variables. In sum, the charts and tables allow you to see the evidence collected. D. It seeks to gather a more comprehensive understanding of activities related to human behavior and the attributes that rule such behavior. 3. Which of the following describes the characteristics of research where data are in form of statistics? A. Objective B. Numerical Data C. Replication D. Large Sample Size



4. This characteristic of quantitative research which refers to its necessity to arrive at a more reliable data analysis. A. Large Sample Sizes C. Numerical Data B. Replication D. Objective 5. It is done to check the correctness and verify the findings of the study. A. Large Sample Sizes C. Numerical Data B. Replication D. Objective 6. The researchers know in advance what they are looking for. The research questions are welldefined for which objective answers are sought. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are gathered. A. Future Outcomes C. Clearly defined Research Questions B. Structured Research Instruments D. Numerical Data 7. Which research design seeks to describe “what is”? A. Correlational C. Experimental B. Descriptive D. Evaluation 8. In this type of research, the investigator tries to probe the significance of relationship between two or more factors or characteristics A. Correlational C. Ex-post facto B. Experimental D. Survey 9. Which of the item below does NOT hold true for descriptive research? A. describes the nature of a situation or an event B. presents the profile of persons, events, and things C. describes past situations D. there is no manipulation of variables or search for cause and effect related to the performance 10. Which of the following illustrates a quantitative study? A. attributes to malnutrition in children B. public opinion to the sex scandal of the Pres. in our country C. academic performance of high school students D. all of the above choices III.

DETERMINATION. Determine if the description given below is a strength or weakness of a quantitative research. Write your answer on the blank provided for.

1. The most reliable and valid way of concluding results, giving way to a new hypothesis or to disproving it. ___________________________ 2. Since, there are more respondents compared to qualitative research, the expenses will be greater in reaching out to these people and in reproducing questionnaires. _______________________ 3. If not done seriously and correctly, data from questionnaires may be incomplete and inaccurate. ____________________________ 4. Standardized approaches allow the study to be replicated in different areas or over time with formulation of comparable findings. _______________________________ 5. Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of qualitative experiments, leading to a final answer, and narrowing down of possible directions to follow. _______________________________ 6. It is assumed that the larger the sample is, the more statistically accurate the findings are. ________________________ 7. Researchers must be on the look-out on respondents who are just guessing in answering the instrument. ______________________________ 8. It does not consider the distinct capacity of the respondents to share and elaborate further information unlike the qualitative research. __________________________ 9. It is real and unbiased. _____________________ UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH


10. It is costly. ______________________ IV. MATCHING TYPE. Match item in COLUMN A with those of COLUMN B by placing the letter of the correct answers in the space provided in column A from among the choices I column B. COLUMN A COLUMN B 1. the posttest of the treated groups is compared with that of an untreated group A. Normative 2. a test of children in school is used to B. Survey assess the effectiveness of teaching or the deployment of a curriculum C. Census 3. useful when the objective of the study is to see general picture of the population D. Evaluative under investigation in terms of their social and economic characteristics, opinions, E. Comparative and their knowledge about the behavior towards a certain phenomenon F. Ex-post facto 4. conducting a research on the study habits of the high school students you are to use G. Descriptive the range of score to describe the level of their study habits H. Correlational 5. discusses why and how a phenomenon occurs I. Bivariate Correlational 6. selecting groups, upon which a variable is tested, without any random pre-selection J. Prediction processes 7. uses correlation coefficient to show how K. Multiple Regression one variable (the predictor variable) predicts another (the criterion variable) L. Pre-Experimental 8. employs both treated and control groups to deal with time-related rival explanations M. Quasi Experimental 9. it obtains score from two variables for each subject, and then uses them to N. True Experimental calculate a correlation coefficient 10. term that seems synonymous to survey research ASSIGNMENT: RESEARCH WORK. Research 15 different titles of research in a research reports and classify them to any of the research designs we have discussed. Choose only quantitative research titles. Follow the format below. RESEARCH TITLE

RESEARCH DESIGN

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH


LESSON 2: IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS VARIOUS FIELDS PRE-TEST QUESTIONS: Answer the questions below. Follow instructions properly. I.

MATCHING TYPE. Match item in COLUMN A with those of COLUMN B by placing the letter of the correct answers in the space provided in column A from among the choices I column B. Identify what discipline the given research title is related. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

II.

COLUMN A What Effect do Punitive Behavioral Control Statements have on Classroom? The Relationship between the Mushrooming of Fast Food Chains and Obesity of Children in Kuopo, Eastern England. Effect of Tourism to the Cultural System of Villagers in Southern Cordillera. Factors Affecting Quality of Medical Education in Saint Louis University. Relationship of Verbally Aggressive Behavior to the Physical Aggression of a Person. Factors Affecting Crime Rates in Burgos, La Union. Video Integration in Teaching Science in Grade 12 of Upper Tumapoc National High School. Communicative Behaviors Associated in Different Stages of a Romantic Relationship. Ethnographic Study: Changes of Aeta Behaviors in past 5 years. Relationship of Physical Activity to the Amount of Adipose Tissue and Endurance Fitness of Children Aged 15 – 22 in Burgos, La Union.

COLUMN B

A. QUANTI & ANTHROPOLOGY B. QUANTI & COMMUNICATION C. QUANTI & SPORTS MED. D. QUANTI & MEDICAL ED. E. QUANTI & BEHAVIORAL SCI. F. QUANTI & EDUCATION G. QUANTI & PSYCHOLOGY H. QUANTI & ABM I.

QUANTI & STEM

ESSAY. Discuss briefly, what is ask below. 1. How quantitative research related or important to different field of discipline? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________. 2. Choose two disciplines enumerated above (column B) and explain how quantitative research was used on it. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________



__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________. IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS People do research to find solutions, even tentative ones, to problems, in order to improve or enhance ways of doing things, to disprove or provide a new hypothesis, or simply to find answers to questions or solutions to problems in daily life. Research findings can affect people’s lives, ways of doing things, laws, rules and regulations, as well as policies, among others. Widely, quantitative research is often used because of its emphasis on proof rather than discovery. In recent times, research studies are gaining an unprecedented focus and attention. Then, only the faculty in higher education has so much interest and conduct researchers, but now even the teachers in the basic education are engrossed in researches and devote time and effort in conducting researches to improve educational practices that may lead to more quality learning of the students. Many teachers do action researches because there is a serious need to identify the problems of the deteriorating quality of education. By doing so, they can address systematically and make educational decisions regarding the problems met. Innovative teaching strategies are product of research. In the natural and social sciences, quantitative research is the systematic, empirical investigation of observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Health Sciences (Medical Technology, Dentistry, Nursing, Medicine, etc.) use quantitative research designs like descriptive, pre-experimental, quasi-experimental, true-experiment, case study, among others. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH & ACCOUNTING, BUSINESS and MANAGEMENT (ABM) Researches can help design a new product or service, figuring out what is needed and ensure the development of product is highly targeted towards demand. Businessmen can also utilize research results to guarantee sufficient distribution of their products and decide where they need to increase their product distribution. Conducting researches can also help a business determine whether now is the proper time to open another branch or whether it needs to apply for a new loan. It may also help a small business decide if a procedure or strategy should be change to meet the requirements of the customer base. Research is important for any organization to remain in the market. The primary function of research in ABM is to correctly determine its customers and their preferences, establish the enterprise in the most feasible location, deliver quality goods and services, analyze what the competitors are doing and find ways on how to continuously satisfy the growing and varied needs of the clients. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and ANTHROPOLOGY Anthropology is a research method of combining qualitative and quantitative research data. It is concerned with exploring connections simultaneously, amidst cultural differences, alternatives and identity. In the contemporary academic, socio-cultural and political climate these concepts have immense symbolic overtones. Quantitative research is use in Anthropology in many aspects. Like, true experiments may use in studying people provided that you follow certain steps (Bernard, 2004). This is to look into the Effects of an intervention in ethnic behavior of a group. In here, you need at least two groups, called the treatment group and the control group. On group gets the intervention and the other group don’t. Next, individuals may be randomly assigned, either to the intervention group or to the control group to ensure that the groups are equivalent. Then, the groups are measured on one or more dependent variables; this is called the pre-test. After which, the intervention is introduced. Lastly, the dependent variables are measured again. This is the post test. True in experiments with people in laboratory are also common. Laboratory experiments often produce results that beg to be tested in the natural world by Anthropologists. Aaron and Mills (1959, as cited by Bernard, 2004) demonstrated in a lab experiment that people who go through severe initiation to a group tend to be more positive toward the group than are people who go through a mild initiation. They reasoned that people who go through tough initiation rites put a lot of personal investments into



getting into the group. Later, if people see evidence that the group is not what they thought it would be, they are reluctant to admit the fact because of the investments. In Field, Janet Schofield and her colleagues did a 3 year ethnographic study in middle school. During the first year, they noticed that African-American and while children seemed to react differently to “mildly aggressive acts’ – things like bumping in the hallway, poking one another in the classroom, asking for food, or using another student’s pencil without permission. There appeared to be no event of racial conflict in the school, but during interviews while students were more likely to report being intimidated by their African-American peers than vice versa (Sagar & Schofield, 1980, as cited by Bernard, 2004) QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and COMMUNICATION Researchers are often interested in how an understanding of a particular communication phenomenon might generalize to a larger population. For example, researchers can advance questions like “What Effect do punitive behavioral control statements have on a classroom? What communicative behaviors are associated with different stages in romantic relationships? What communicative behaviors are used to respond to co-workers displaying emotional stress? (Allen, Titsworth, Hunt, 2009) QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and SPORTS MEDICINE Quantitative research is used to analyze how sports may be used as an alternative way of medicating an illness. An example is the research done by University of Eastern Finland which investigated the relationship between mushrooming of fast food chains and obesity, as well as the intervention needed to prevent children’s obesity from reaching serious proportions. The research focused on the children’s physical activity and physical inactivity and the concomitant impact on the children’s amount of adipose tissue (fat mass) and the endurance fitness. The study is used to analyze certain the effect of physical activity in weight control. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and MEDICAL EDUCATION Quantitative research in medical education tends to be predominantly observational research based on surveys or correlational studies. The designs test interventions like curriculum, teaching-learning process, or assessment with an experimental group. Either a comparison or controlled group learners may allow researchers to overcome validity concerns and infer potential cause-effect generalizations. Researchers are using to cope with the emerging trends in recent times. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Relationship Questions in today’s quantitative trend tend to explore how one behavior exhibited by people is related to other types of behavior. Examples are verbally aggressive behaviors related to physical aggression – that is, when a person has a level of verbally aggressive behavior, does he or she tend to be physically aggressive? Are certain supervisor communication skills related to the emotional experiences of employees? Questions of difference explore how patterns of behavior or perceptions might differ from one group or type of a person to another: Do people with disabilities experience emotional labor differently from those without disabilities? Do women perceive talkativeness (or lack of it) differently form men? Do communication styles differ from one culture to the next? (Alle, Titsworth, Hunt, 2009). When quantitative researchers explore questions of differences or questions of relationships, they do so in an attempt to uncover certain patterns of behavior. If the researcher discovers that a certain relationship exists in sample that she or he has drawn form the population, she/he is then in a position to draw generalizations about patterns expected of human behavior. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IN EDUCATION Quasi Experiments are most often used in evaluating social problems. Suppose a researcher has invented a technique for improving reading comprehension among third graders. She/he selects two third grade classes in a school district. One of them gets the intervention and the other doesn’t. Students are measured before and after the intervention to see whether their reading scores improve. This design contains many of the elements of true experiment, but the participants are not assigned randomly to the treatment and control groups.



QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and PSYCHOLOGY Mertens (2005) says that the dominant paradigms that guided early psychological research were positivism and its successor, post positivism. Positivism is based on rationalistic, empiricist philosophy that originated with Aristotle, Francis Bacon, John Locke, August Comte, and Immanuel Kant. the underlying assumptions of positivism include the belief that the social world can be studied in the same way as the natural world, that there is a method for studying the social world that is value-free, and that explanations of a causal nature can be provided. QUANTITATIVE MATHEMATICS

RESEARCH

&

SCIENCE,

TECHNOLOGY,

ENGINEERING,

and

Medical practitioners, for example, conduct researches to obtain significant information about diseases trends and risk factors, results of various health interventions, patterns of care and health care cost and use. The different approaches to research provide complementary insights. Researchers help in determining the effectiveness and even side effect of drugs and therapies in different populations and various institutions. It is also necessary in evaluating experiences in clinical practice in order to develop mechanisms for best practices and to ensure high quality patient care. Researchers in these fields ultimately aim for man’s longevity. As for engineers, architects, and other builders, research helps in providing designs which are creatively beautiful and at the same time give more convenience and efficiency as they utilize modern technology to adapt to the ever changing society. New materials and procedures may be developed so as to further strengthen the structural materials than can withstand various calamities and disasters. POST_TEST. This serves as your summative test. Answer the questions below following the instruction given in each test. I. ESSAY. Briefly explain what is asked below. A. How important quantitative research across fields? Cite at least five fields and explain how quantitative research is interconnected with it. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ UNIT 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY and RESEARCH


II.

________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________. CONCEPT MAP. Complete the concept map presented below. You add figures so long as you will use your creativity using the figures given. Present the importance of quantitative research to different fields. Maximize the space below.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH



LESSON 3: KINDS OF VARIABLES and THEIR USES PRE-TEST QUESTIONS: Answer the questions below. Follow instructions properly. IV.

IDENTIFICATION. Identify what is being asked in each number. Write your answer after the statement. Choose your answer from the box below. 

VARIABLE



DEPENDENT



INDEPENDENT



CONTROL



CONTINUOUS



INTERVENING



CONFOUNDING



INTERVAL



NOMINAL



ORDINAL



RATIO



ABSTRACT

1. It refers to the characteristics that have two or more mutually exclusive values or properties. ________________________ 2. Variables that represent categories that cannot be ordered in any particular way. ________________________ 3. Special kind of independent variables that are measured in a study because they potentially influence the dependent variable. __________________________ 4. Variables that have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of numbers when there is an absolute zero, as opposed to net worth, which can have a negative debt-to-income ratio-level variable. ____________________________ 5. Kind of variable that are not actually measured or observed in a study. They exist but their influence cannot be directly detected in a study. __________________________ 6. It “stands between” the independent and dependent variables, and they show the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable. __________________________ 7. Variables that represent categories that can be ordered from greatest to smallest. _____________________ 8. Kind of variable that probably cause, influence, or effect outcomes. They are variably called treatment, manipulated, antecedent or predictor variables. ________________________ 9. Variables that depend on independent variables; they are the outcomes or results of the influence of the independent variable. _______________________ 10. Variables that have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of numbers. ______________ II.

DETERMINATION. Determine if what type of variable are the following. Write I if the variable is Interval, N if Nominal, R if Ratio and O if Ordinal. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Military Title Temperature in degree Celsius Birthplace Year Level Favorite Type of Music Clothing such as hat, shirt, shoes A score in 5- item quiz in Math Feeling for today Means of Transportation How internet is used at home Freshman, Sophomore Person’s net worth Male or female 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Political Affiliation


___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________


THE VARIABLES IN RESEARCH The term ‘variable’ has been mentioned several times so that it is necessary to define it here. In research, a variable refers to a “characteristics that has two or more mutually exclusive values or properties” (Sevilla and Other, 1988). Sex, for instance, has two properties which are maleness and femaleness. The ages of different persons have different values; so with their size, height, weight and income. The phenomenon of variety is what makes life interesting; it is one of the motivating factors of the research undertaking. The root word of the word variable is “vary” or simply “can change”. These variables are among the fundamental concepts of research, alongside with measurement, validity, reliability, cause and effect; and theory. Bernard (1994) defines a variable as something that can take more than one value, and values can be words or numbers. A variable specifically refers to characteristics, or attribute of an individual or an organization that can be measured or observed and that varies among the people or organization being studied (Creswell, 2002). TYPES OF VARIABLES (ALLEN, TITSWORTH, HUNT, 2009) 1. CONTINUOUS VARIABLES – A variable that can take infinite number on the value that can occur within the population. Its values can be divided into fractions. Examples of this type of variable include age, height, and temperature. Continuous variables can be further categorized as: a. INTERVAL VARIABLES – It have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of numbers. It is a measurement where the difference between two values does have meaning. Examples of interval data include temperature, a person’s net worth (how much money you have when you subtract your debt from your assets), etc. In temperature, this may illustrate as the difference between a temperature of 60 degrees and 50 degrees is the same as difference between 30 degrees and 20 degrees. The interval between values makes sense and can be interpreted. b. RATIO VARIABLES – It have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of numbers when there is absolute zero. It possesses the properties of interval variable and has a clear definition of zero, indication that there is none of that variable. Examples of which are height, weight, and distance. Most scores stemming from response to survey items are ratio-level values because they typically cannot go below zero. Temperature measured in degrees Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit is not a ratio variable because 0 under these temperatures scales does not mean no temperature at all. 2. DISCRETE VARIABLES – This is also known as categorical or classificatory variable. This is any variable that has limited number of distinct values and which cannot be divided into fractions like sex, blood group, and number of children in family. Discrete variable may also categorized into: a. NOMINAL VARIABLE – It represent categories that cannot be ordered in any particular way. It is a variable with no quantitative value. It has two or more categories but does not imply ordering of cases. Common examples of this variable include eye color, business type, religion, biological sex, political affiliation, basketball fan affiliation, etc. A sub-type of nominal scale with only two categories just like sex is known as dichotomous. b. ORDINAL VARIABLE – It represent categories that can be ordered from greatest to smallest. This variable has two or more categories which can be ranked. Examples of ordinal variable include education level, income brackets, etc. An illustration of this is, if you asked people if they liked listening to music while studying and they could answer either “NOT VERY MUCH”, “MUCH”, “VERY MUCH” then you have an ordinal variable. While you can rank them, we cannot place a value to them. In this type, distances between attributes do not have any meaning. For example, you used educational attainment as a variable on survey, you might code elementary school graduates = 1, high graduates = 2, college undergraduate = 3, and college graduate = 4. In this measure, higher number means greater education. Even though we can rank these from lowest to highest, the spacing between the values may not be



the same across the levels of the variables. The distance between 3 and 4 is not the same with the distance between 1 and 2. KINDS OF VARIABLES Several experts have lumped together the following as the major kinds of variables: 1. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES – Those that probably cause, influence, or affect outcomes. They are invariably called treatment, manipulated, antecedent or predictor variables. This is the cause variable or the one responsible for the conditions that act on something else to bring about changes. EXAMPLE: A study is on the relationship of study habits and academic performance of UTNHS senior high school students. STUDY HABITS is the independent variable because it influenced the outcome or the performance of the students. 2. DEPENDENT VARIABLES – those that depend on the independent variables; they are the outcomes or results of the influence of the independent variable. That is why it is also called outcome variable. EXAMPLE: A study is on the relationship of study habits and academic performance of UTNHS senior high school students. ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE is the dependent variable because it is depending on the study habits of the students; if the students change their study habit the academic performance also change. 3. INTERVENING OR MEDLING VARIABLES – Variables that “stand between” the independent and dependent variables, and they show the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable. EXAMPLE: Consider the given below. Even if farm production is good, if the attitude towards payment is negative, loan repayment would be low, whereas, if the attitude towards repayment is positive or favorable, loan repayment would be high. FARM PRODUCTION

ATTITUDE TOWARDS REPAYMENT

DV

IV

LOAN REPAYMENT

DV

4. CONTROL VARIABLES – A special types of independent variables that are measured in the study because they potentially influence the dependent variable. Researchers use statistical procedures (e.g. analysis of covariance) to control these variables. They may be demographic or personal variables that need to be “controlled” so that the true influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable can be determined. 5. CONFOUNDING VARIABLES – Variables that are not actually measured or observed in a study. They exist but their influence cannot be directly detected in a study. Researchers comment on the influence of confounding variables after the study has been completed, because these variables may have operated to explain the relationship between the independent variables and dependent variable, but they were not or could not be easily assessed.



POST_TEST. This serves as your summative test. Answer the questions below following the instruction given in each test. I. Identification. Identify the variables and the constant in each title of study presented below. Determine the independent and dependent variable; then determine whether discrete or continuous variable. FOR EXAMPLE: A study on the relationship of study habits and academic performance of BSU college students. CONSTANT

BSU COLLEGE STUDENTS

VARIABLES INDEPENDENT

DISCRETE/ CONTINOUS

STUDY HABITS

DISCRETE

DEPENDENT

DISCRETE/ CONTINOUS

ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

DISCRETE

DO THIS DOING THE 8 RESEARCH TITLES YOU SUBMITTED TO ME. CONSTANT

VARIABLES INDEPENDENT

DISCRETE/ CONTINOUS

DEPENDENT

DISCRETE/ CONTINOUS

1.

2.

3.



4.

5.

6.

7.

8.



``



Practical Research 2 Module

Recommend Documents