Pantheistic Religion, Revolution and the New Science - Margaret C. Jacob

EARLY MODERN EUROPE TODAY t e ie s Edit Editor J. H. H.Sh She e n na n

-

Î ÎL LY MO MODE DERN RN EUROPE EURO PE TODA TODAY Y ìs

E d itor J. J. H. H. Shenn Shennan an

Radical Radical Enlightenment En lightenment Dr Dr Mararet Ja!o" see#s to re$ise o%r tandin o& the ear'( de!ades )o& the E%ro*ean Eh'ihten+ent ,%es &or to !%'t%res o&ten at odds ith ea!h other/ a 0te Netonian En'ihten+ent +i'd'( deisti! s%**orti$e o& %tiona' %tio na' +onar!h( +on ar!h( and 'i+ited re'iio%s to'eration/ to'eration/ and o& instr%+enta' in s*readin the ne s!ien!e and its r*art a radi!a' $ersion o& En'ihten+ent - re*%"'i!an i'&sti! and *antheisti! hosti'e to a'' esta"'ished !h%r!hes1 ted toard the *%"'ishin trade as a +eans o& *ro*aatinitts Mther thro%h 2o%rna's or !'andestine+an%s!ri*ts and their tion. Most i+*ortant this Radi!a' En'ihten+ent as tionai a n ( + o re hih'( orani3e orani3ed d than than 4ha 4has e$er e$er "e "een *‘"y?r ed. a%thor *resents ne e$iden!e &ro+ Masoni! ar!hi$es on the ent to sho the ear'(5s%"$ersi*h O& 6ree+asonr( "( En'ish !ans and 6ren!h H%%enots enaed in the !'andestine "oo# h e a%thor identi&ies ide nti&ies hat is *ro"a"'( *ro"a" '( theear'iest theea r'iest Masoni! 'ode 'ode 7ontinent and its ro'e in !ir!%'atin and in$entin the +ost %s !'andestine +an%s!ri*t o& the eihteenth !ent%r(. the e on the Three Th ree Impostors. Ne e$iden!e a'so 'in#s at 'east 'east one !ontri"%tors to Diderot8s Encyclopédie to these Masoni! 9n this a!!o%nt a! !o%nt o& the En 'ihten+ 'ihte n+ 0nt*h:8 0nt* h:8:oso :oso*hes *hes 'i#e 'i#e ;o'taire ;o'taire <%t 'oo#in strane'( =!onser$anti hi'e the +ateria'is+ o& ih En'ihten+ent is 'o!ated de!adesear'ier in those !oteries 'ish re*%"'i!ans and 6ren!h H%%enots ith a!!ess to theÌ *ress *ress and ith Masoni! 'in#s in the *osta' s(ste+ 'in#in the ands and 6ran!e. 9n this a!!o%nt The Ha%e and its re&%ee e+ere as !entra' to the ear'( (ears o& the E%ro*ean en+ent. The "oo# *resents the &irst..s!ho'ar'( a!!o%nt in 9 o& the0oriins o& E%ro*ean 6ree+asonr( and in!identa''( 5 o%r attention on s%!h re'ated to*i!s as the ro'e o& o+en in en+ent !%'t%re and-the s%r$i$a' o& radi!a'is+ "eteen the >Re$o'%tion Re$o' %tion and the 6ren!h.R 6ren !h.Re$o' e$o'%tion %tion.. O neot ne ot her nati nati on esta estate te tern E%ro*e e?*erien!ed a re$o'%tion in the !o%rse o& the )nth !ent%r( and the a%thor do!%+ents0Jhe re&e0M&!ese !ir!'es in the D%t!h Re$o'%tion Re$o '%tion o& @B @B.. C et Ja!o" !arried o %t her *ot-rad% *o t-rad%ate ate or#  or# at "oth 7orn 'i /it( and the Uni$ersit( o& Leeds She has 'e!t%red at the /it( /it( o& East East An'ia An 'ia and no no  tea!hes in the do!tora' do!to ra' *rora+ *ro ra++e +e Dit( Uni$ersit( o& Ne Yor#. rly Modern Erope Today sénés *ro$ides the reader ith %*inter*retations o& histor(. So+e "oo#s i'' !on!entrate on s'( ne'e!ted or %neonsidered +ateria' to rea!h !on!'%sions F!ha''ene !on$ ! on$en ention tiona' a' orth o rthod odo? o?ies ies in +ore esta"'ished are areas/ as/ '( hi'e others re-e?a+ine so+e o& these !on$entiona'G. ?ies to dis!o$er dis! o$er heth h ether er in the 'iht 'i ht o& +odern +ode rn .s!ho'ar'(   the( retain their $a'idit( or reI%ire +ore or 'ess drasti! renent. in!ti$e in!ti$e &eat%re &eat%r e o& ea!h "o o# in the the series is its "i"'iora "i"'io ra*hi! *hi!a' a' hi!h is desined to "e o& $a'%e to to readers readers !%rio%s to e?*'ore e?* 'ore i!%'ar to*i! to* i! &%rth er and to those see#in see#in in&or+ation oh a ide Tthe+es asso!iated ith it. ustration reproduced from an engraving by Bernard Picart, 1!", esy of the author.

m

; .p

i . crq/f crq/f ! pj : 2 1 C  !

7A 940.25 J115

-

Î ÎL LY MO MODE DERN RN EUROPE EURO PE TODA TODAY Y ìs

E d itor J. J. H. H. Shenn Shennan an

Radical Radical Enlightenment En lightenment Dr Dr Mararet Ja!o" see#s to re$ise o%r tandin o& the ear'( de!ades )o& the E%ro*ean Eh'ihten+ent ,%es &or to !%'t%res o&ten at odds ith ea!h other/ a 0te Netonian En'ihten+ent +i'd'( deisti! s%**orti$e o& %tiona' %tio na' +onar!h( +on ar!h( and 'i+ited re'iio%s to'eration/ to'eration/ and o& instr%+enta' in s*readin the ne s!ien!e and its r*art a radi!a' $ersion o& En'ihten+ent - re*%"'i!an i'&sti! and *antheisti! hosti'e to a'' esta"'ished !h%r!hes1 ted toard the *%"'ishin trade as a +eans o& *ro*aatinitts Mther thro%h 2o%rna's or !'andestine+an%s!ri*ts and their tion. Most i+*ortant this Radi!a' En'ihten+ent as tionai a n ( + o re hih'( orani3e orani3ed d than than 4ha 4has e$er e$er "e "een *‘"y?r ed. a%thor *resents ne e$iden!e &ro+ Masoni! ar!hi$es on the ent to sho the ear'(5s%"$ersi*h O& 6ree+asonr( "( En'ish !ans and 6ren!h H%%enots enaed in the !'andestine "oo# h e a%thor identi&ies ide nti&ies hat is *ro"a"'( *ro"a" '( theear'iest theea r'iest Masoni! 'ode 'ode 7ontinent and its ro'e in !ir!%'atin and in$entin the +ost %s !'andestine +an%s!ri*t o& the eihteenth !ent%r(. the e on the Three Th ree Impostors. Ne e$iden!e a'so 'in#s at 'east 'east one !ontri"%tors to Diderot8s Encyclopédie to these Masoni! 9n this a!!o%nt a! !o%nt o& the En 'ihten+ 'ihte n+ 0nt*h:8 0nt* h:8:oso :oso*hes *hes 'i#e 'i#e ;o'taire ;o'taire <%t 'oo#in strane'( =!onser$anti hi'e the +ateria'is+ o& ih En'ihten+ent is 'o!ated de!adesear'ier in those !oteries 'ish re*%"'i!ans and 6ren!h H%%enots ith a!!ess to theÌ *ress *ress and ith Masoni! 'in#s in the *osta' s(ste+ 'in#in the ands and 6ran!e. 9n this a!!o%nt The Ha%e and its re&%ee e+ere as !entra' to the ear'( (ears o& the E%ro*ean en+ent. The "oo# *resents the &irst..s!ho'ar'( a!!o%nt in 9 o& the0oriins o& E%ro*ean 6ree+asonr( and in!identa''( 5 o%r attention on s%!h re'ated to*i!s as the ro'e o& o+en in en+ent !%'t%re and-the s%r$i$a' o& radi!a'is+ "eteen the >Re$o'%tion Re$o' %tion and the 6ren!h.R 6ren !h.Re$o' e$o'%tion %tion.. O neot ne ot her nati nati on esta estate te tern E%ro*e e?*erien!ed a re$o'%tion in the !o%rse o& the )nth !ent%r( and the a%thor do!%+ents0Jhe re&e0M&!ese !ir!'es in the D%t!h Re$o'%tion Re$o '%tion o& @B @B.. C et Ja!o" !arried o %t her *ot-rad% *o t-rad%ate ate or#  or# at "oth 7orn 'i /it( and the Uni$ersit( o& Leeds She has 'e!t%red at the /it( /it( o& East East An'ia An 'ia and no no  tea!hes in the do!tora' do!to ra' *rora+ *ro ra++e +e Dit( Uni$ersit( o& Ne Yor#. rly Modern Erope Today sénés *ro$ides the reader ith %*inter*retations o& histor(. So+e "oo#s i'' !on!entrate on s'( ne'e!ted or %neonsidered +ateria' to rea!h !on!'%sions F!ha''ene !on$ ! on$en ention tiona' a' orth o rthod odo? o?ies ies in +ore esta"'ished are areas/ as/ '( hi'e others re-e?a+ine so+e o& these !on$entiona'G. ?ies to dis!o$er dis! o$er heth h ether er in the 'iht 'i ht o& +odern +ode rn .s!ho'ar'(   the( retain their $a'idit( or reI%ire +ore or 'ess drasti! renent. in!ti$e in!ti$e &eat%re &eat%r e o& ea!h "o o# in the the series is its "i"'iora "i"'io ra*hi! *hi!a' a' hi!h is desined to "e o& $a'%e to to readers readers !%rio%s to e?*'ore e?* 'ore i!%'ar to*i! to* i! &%rth er and to those see#in see#in in&or+ation oh a ide Tthe+es asso!iated ith it. ustration reproduced from an engraving by Bernard Picart, 1!", esy of the author.

m

; .p

i . crq/f crq/f ! pj : 2 1 C  !

7A 940.25 J115

Minerva Duce by Bernard Picart, 1722 Teylers Museum , Haarlem.

T h e R a d ic a l E n lig h t e n m e n t

Pantheists, Panthe ists, Free Fr eema maso sons ns a n d Re R e p ubli ub lica can ns

M A R G A R E T

C . J A C O B

The Graduate Center and Baruch College City City Univer Universi sity ty o f New York

F -·

L o n d o n G E O R G E Boston

A L L E N

&

U N W

Sydney

I N

First published in 1981 T h i s b o o k is c o p y r ig h t u n d e r t h e B e r n e C o n v e n t i o n . AH r ig h t s a r e r e s e r v e d . A p a r t f r o m a n y f a i r d e a l in g f o r th e p u r p o s e o f p r i v a t e s t u d y , r e s e a r c h , c r i ti c is m o r re v i e w , a s p e r m i t t e d u n d e r t h e C o p y r i g h t A c t , 1 9 5 6 , n o p a r t o f t h i s p u b l i c a t i on m a y b e r e p r o d u c e d , s t o r e d i n a r e t r ie v a l s y s te m , o r t r a n s m i t te d , i n a n y f o r m o r b y a n y m e a n s , e l e c t r o n i c , e le c t r i c a l , c h e m i c a l , m e c h a n i ca l , o p t i c a l , p h o t o c o p y i n g , r e c o r d i n g o r o t h e r w i s e , w i t h o u t t h e p r i o r p e r m i s s io n o f th e c o p y r i g h t o w n e r . E n q u i r i e s sh o u l d b e s e n t to t h e p u b l is h e r s a t th e u n d e r m e n t i o n e d a d d r e s s : G E O R G E A L L E N & U N W IN L T D 40 Museum Street, London WC1A 1LU

© M a r g a r e t C . J a c o b , 1 98 1

B r itis h L ib r a r y

C a t a lo g u i n g

i n P u b l i c a t io n

D a ta

Jacob, Margaret C T h e r ad ic a l E n l i g h te n m e n t . - ( E a r ly m o d e r n Europe; 3). 1. F r e e m a s o n s - H i s to r y 2. Europ e C i v i l iz a t i o n - 1 7 t h ^ c e h t u r y 3 . E u r o p e - C i v i li z a ti o n - 1 8 th c e n t u ry I. Title 940.2’5

II. Series HS414

80-41893

ISBN 0-04-901029-8

Set in 10 on 11 point Times by Inforum Ltd, Portsmouth and printed in Great Britain by Billing and Sons Ltd., G u i ld f o r d , L o n d o n a n d - W o r c e s t e r

l_'·'

l_'·'

q < |0 , Z y

!"s

C o n t en t s

page

E d i t o r ’s P r e f a c e A c k n o w le d g e m e n ts

ix xi

A b b r e v i a t io n s

xv

B ib l io g r a p h i c a l E s s a y

1

I n t r o d u c t io n 1

S c ie n c e

and

2 0 th e

P h i lo s o p h i c a l O r i g i n s o f t h e

R a d ic a l

E n lig h t en m e n t

29

2

T he

L e g a cy o f th e

E n g l is h

R e v o l u t io n

65

3

T h e N e w to n ia n

4

T he

5

R a d ic a l W h ig s, M a s o n s a n d

6

T h e S o c i a l W o r ld o f t h e R a d i c a l E n l i g h t e n m e n t ,

E n l i g h t e n m e n t a n d I t s C r it i c s

87

O r ig i n s o f E u r o p e a n F r e e m a s o n r y

109

K n ig h t s o f J u b ila tio n

1 7 1 0 -6 0 7

I

1 8 2

P a n t h e i s t i c R e l i g i o n , R e v o l u t io n ' a n d

E p ilo g u e :

N ew

14 2

P a t h s to th e

H ig h

th e

N ew

E n lig h t en m e n t

S c ie n c e

21 5 25 6

A p p e n d ix

267

Index

303

CHAPTER 7

P a n th e is tic R e lig io n , R e v o lu t io n

an d

th e N e w

S c ie n c e

D o y o u r e a l iz e t h a t if t h e t h e s e s [o f th e A b b é d e P r a d e s ] h a d b e e n p a s s e d a t t h e s a m e t im e a s th e 1 0 en o r m o u s v o l u m e s o f th e E n c y c l o p é d i e , i t w o u l d h a v e l e d r a p i d l y t o P a n t h e i s m ; t h e w i t s, t h e b l u e s t o c k i n g s , th e l ig h t la d i e s , t h e d a n d i e s , a ll th o s e I t a l i a n , E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h d e is ts a n d a t h e is t s w o u l d h a v e b e e n r i d o f t h e y o k e o f re l ig i o n - n e c e s s a ry i n s o c ie t y if w e a r e n o t t o b e s l a u g h tered [by one another], and useful for nothing else but that is e n o u g h ; b u t I m u s t st o p , I s o u n d l ik e ‘l e p e t i t E n c y c l o p é d i s t e ’. 1 (Rousset to Marchand, 1752) A s o ci al w o r l d a s ri c h a n d c o m p l e x , n o t t o m e n t i o n a s se c r e t i v e , a s th a t o f R o u s s e t , M a r c h a n d a n d t h e i r fr ie n d s m u st o n ly h a v e b e e n s u s t a in e d b y s tr o n g c o m m o n i n t e r e s ts a s w e ll as b y s tr o n g l y h e l d c o m m o n b e l ie f s . W e c a n n o t k n o w e x a c t ly h o w m a n y ‘f r è r e s ’ s u b s c r i b e d t o t h e p a n t h e is m o f T o l a n d , R o u s s e t a n d t h e i r fr ie n d s b u t th e r e i s r i c h e v i d e n c e t h a t a s y o u n g p u b l i s h e r s a n d p r o p a g a n d i s t s t h e K n i g h ts i n v e n t e d o n e o f t h e m o s t d a n g e ro u s l y p a n t h e i s ti c m a n u s cr ip t s o f th e E n l i g h t e n m e n t , t h e f a m o u s Traité des trois imposteurs. A t e v e r y t u r n a c c e s s t o t h e p r i n t in g p r e s s , a n d t h e c l a n d e s t i n e c h a n n e l s o f c i r c u la t io n g a v e i m p o r t a n c e t o s u c h p r o j e c t s f a r i n ex c e s s o f th e r e l a t iv e l y s m a l l s o ci a l n e x u s t h a t s u s t a i n e d t h e m . B u t p a n t h e i s m l ay n o t s im p l y i n th e p r o p a g a t i n g , b u t e q u a l l y in t h e l i v in g o f th i s c u r io u s l y m e t a p h y s i c a l , y e t i m m e n s e l y secular, if not political, creed. T h e a t te m p t t o d i ss e m i n a te p a n t h e i s m , c o u p l e d w ith a c o m m i tm e n t t o t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f n e w s c i en t if ic id e a s , a n d i n t h e c a s e o f R o u s s e t , a n a b i l i t y t o e n g a g e i n s c i e n t i f i c e x p e r i m e n t s , e n tw i n e d w i t h a r e l i g i ously held, and we can also say, practised creed. The rituals and c e r e m o n i e s o f t h e M a s o n ic l o d g e , w i th it s e m p h a s i s o n a c o m m o n ‘p r i e s t h o o d ’ a n d f r a t e r n i t y , c o u l d d o u b t l e s s e x p r e s s a v a r i e t y o f c r e e d s , Christian but just as likely, heretical. Likewise, the Masonic lodges must have provided immensely useful outlets, as well as subscribers,

216

THE RADICAL ENLIGHTENMENT

for the various intellectual and literary projects, especially the jour nals, with which the Knights were involved, and also possibly for the sale of D ide ro t’s E n c y c l o p é d i e - a p r o j e c t t o w h i ch R o u s s e t , if n o t hi s o t h e r ‘f r è r e s ’, g a v e a w h o l e h e a r t e d e n d o r s e m e n t . M u c h o f o u r e v i d e n c e f o r t h e m e a n i n g o f t h is c r e e d , a s w e ll a s f o r t h e v a r i e t y o f p o li ti c a l a n d i n t e ll e c t u a l in t e r e s t s t a k e n u p b y th e s e r a d i c al s , c o m e s f ro m R o u s s e t ’s p r i v a t e l e t te r s t o M a r c h a n d ( as w el l a s f r o m o t h e r c o r r e s p o n d e n c e in M a r c h a n d ’s p a p e r s ) . L i k e t h e e x c e r p t u se d t o o p e n t h is c h a p t e r , w h ic h re ve a ls · R o u s s e t ’s c o n c e r n t h a t t h e F r e n c h a u t h o r i t i e s , g o a d e d by the Jesuits, will succeed in suppressing the E n c y c l o p é d i e , these letters are explicit and frank because, as has been indicated, in this p e r i o d o f e x il e a f te r 1 7 4 9 R o u s s e t w a s ab l e to s e n d t h e m t o M a r c h a n d through théir Masonic friends in the Belgian post office. T o d e s c r i b e t h e s e p a n t h e i s t s s im p l y a s a t h e i s ts , a s i n d e e d t h e y w e r e in t h e e y e s o f t h e g o d l y , m i g h t b e t o m i s s t h e c o n s t a n t i n s i s te n c e f o u n d in this literature for order, harmony, and meaning in the natural„and h u m a n o r d e r . I n 1 7 3 4 , C o u n t R a d i c a ti , t h a t i ti n e r a n t I t a li a n p a n t h e i s t , put it succinctly: B u t t o s a y t h a t D e i s t s a r e A t h e i s t s is f a ls e ; f o r t h e y a r e s o c a l le d b y t h e V u l g a r , a n d b y t h o s e w h o s e i n t e r e s t it is t o d e c r y t h e m ; [ th e y ] a d m i t a fi rs t c au s e u n d e r t h e n a m e s o f G o d , N a t u r e , E t e r n a l B e i n g , M a t t e r , u n i v e r s a l M o t io n o r So u l . S u c h w e r e D e m o c r i t u s , E p i c u r u s , D i a g o r a s , L u c i a n , S o c r a t e s, A n a x a g o r a s , S e n e c a , H o b b e s , B l o u n t , Spinoza, Vanini, St. Evremond* Bayle, Collins.2 I n e n l is t in g s o m a n y a n d d i s p a r a t e a n c i e n t a n d m o d e r n p h i l o s o p h e rs , _ Radicati was trying to establish the intellectual lineage of this new n a t u r a li s m . B a y l e w o u l d d o u b t l e s s h a v e b e e n h o r r i fi e d , t o s e e h i m s e l f l is t e d a lo n g w i th S p i n o z a , a n d v a r i o u s o t h e r w o r t h ie s o n t h e l is t w o u l d have spurned the association. Yet the radicals were trying to give a pantheistic interpretation to the freethinking tradition, and on a p o l e m i c a l l e ve l t h e y s u c c e e d e d b y 1 7 5 0 i n s h if ti n g t h e d e b a t e i n t o t h e i r q u a r t e r a n d i n c r e a ti n g t h e m o s t v i r u l e n t fo r m o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l h e r e s y in a century plagued by the disease. Two texts served to propound the pantheism of the radicals : Toland’s L ett ers to S e ren a , pu blished in English, bu t quickly translated into French (a manuscript translation went to Vienna in Eugène of Savoy’s library); and more important, because of its much/wider circulation, the Traité des trois imposteurs ( 1 4 3 ) . T o l a n d ’s t r e a t i s e although openly published, was also the more overtly philosophical a n d t u r g i d o f t h e t w o ; i t s p r a c t ic a l a p p l ic a t io n s , e x c e p t f o r a d v o c a t i n g an end to ‘pr ejud ices ’, rem ain largely implicit. Y et the m aterialistic definitions it con tained w ere clear an d as such useful, ‘all the m atter in

R E L I G I O N , R E V O L U T I O N A N D T H E N EW S C IE N C E

217

N a t u r e , e v e r y P a r t a n d P a r c e l o f i t, h a s b in e v e r in m o t i o n , a n d c a n n e v e r b e o t h e r w i s e ’ ( T o l a n d , p . 1 6 9 ) . L o c k e w a s e n l is t e d f o r v e r i fi c a tion of a metaphysic to which he did not subscribe, and so too was N e w t o n , ‘a ll th e p a r t ic u l a r o r l o c al M o t io n s o f M a t t e r a r e b u t t h e s e v e r a l D e t e r m i n a t io n s o f i ts g e n e r a l A c t i o n ’ ( p p. 1 7 6 - 7 ) . B u t T o l a n d ’s d e f i n i ti o n o f m a t t e r , in d i r e c t o p p o s i t io n t o N e w t o n ’s , s t r e s s e d n o t o n l y i ts i n h e r e n t m o t i o n b u t a ls o i ts in f in i ty a n d i ts e t e r n i t y , ‘t h e , W o r l d , w i th a ll th e P a r t s a n d K i n d s t h e r e o f , c o n t in u i n g a t a l l t im e s i n t h e sa m e c o n d i t i o n ’ ( p p . 1 9 0 - 1 ) . U s in g hi s k n o w l e d g e o f t h e n e w science from biology through physics, and combining both with a revival of the mid-century sectarian heresy of mortalism, Toland articulated the metaphysics of eighteenth-century pantheism. T o l a n d ’s a tt a c k o n t h e n o t i o n o f t h e s o u l ’s i m m o r t a li ty - ‘i t f l a t t e r e d Men with the Hopes of what they wish above all things whatsoever, n a m e l y , t o c o n t in u e t h e i r e x is t en c e b e y o n d th e G r a v e ; t h e r e b e i n g b u t f ew t h a t c a n b e a r t h e v e r y T h o u g h t s o f e v e r ce a s in g t o l iv e s o m e w h e r e , a n d m o s t P e o p l e c o m m o n l y ch o o sin g to b e m i s e ra b l e , r a t h e r t h a n n o t to b e a t a l l’ ( p. 1 5 3 ) - c o n t a in e d a s o ci al m e s s a g e t h a t t h e Traité a n d o t h e r p a n t h e i s t i c a n d m a t e r i a l i s t i c t r a c t s w o u l d s p e l l o u t . T h e w o r s h ip o f n a t u r e e n t a i ls in e f fe c t t h e w o r s h ip o f t h e h e r e a n d n o w , of civil society; there is no after-life, no spiritual society beyond our o w n . I n a n a n o n y m o u s 1 7 4 3 p u b l ic a ti o n o f e a r li e r c l a n d e s ti n e m a n u s c ri p ts , a c o l le c t io n d e d i c a t e d t o t h e m e m o r y o f A n t h o n y C o l li n s , t h e p o i n t i s m a d e e x p l i c i t e l y : t h e p h ilo s o p h e , a n d i t is f r o m t h i s e a r l y eighteenth-century tract that we get the word used as a particular d e s c r i p ti o n o f th e m a n o f e n l i g h t e n m e n t , k n o w s th a r * th e ~ £ x i s te n c e o f God is the most widespread and deeply engrained of all the pre ju d ic e s ’. In its p lac e th e p h ilo so p h e puts civil society, ‘it is the only d i v i n it y t h a t h e w i ll r e c o g n i z e o n e a r t h ’.3 T h i s n e w d i v i n i ty , p r o c l a i m e d in a collection of tracts whose metaphysical ambiance is explicitly pantheistic and materialistic, must be extolled and honoured by hard w o r k a n d p r o b i t y A l th o u g h t h e r e is n o d ir e ct m e n t io n o f T o l a n d i n th i s c o l le c t io n h e w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y h a v e a g r e e d w i t h t h e s e c u l a r p o s t u r e o f le philosophe . Y e t b y f a r t h e m o s t f a m o u s - o r in f a m o u s - a n d w i d ely r e a d c l a n d e s t i n e t r a c t o f t h e R a d i c a l E n l i g h t e n m e n t w a s t h e s o - c a l l e d Traité des trois imposteurs. S h r o u d e d i n m y s te ry f o r c e n tu r ie s , t h e s u b j e c t o f e n d l e s s m o n o g r a p h s a n d e s s a y s , t h e m a n u s c r i p t ’s o r ig i n s in t h e e a r l y e i g h t e e n th c e n t u r y w e r e p u r p o s e l y o b l it e ra t e d ( 6 ). W e n o w k n o w w h o masterminded this obfuscation and the tract itself. Late in their lives, Gaspar Fritsch, the former grand master, and M a r c h a n d , th e o r i g in a l s e c r e t a r y o f t h e K n i g ht s o f J u b i l a ti o n , r e s u m e d t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . T h e s e a r e f a ir ly c a u ti o u s l e t te r s ; m u c h t i m e h a s passed. Fritsch still clearly holds Marchand, although not all their

2 18

T HE R A D I C A L E N L I G H T E N M E N T

‘b r o t h e r s ’, in h ig h r e g a r d , I n F e b r u a r y 1 7 3 7 , h e t h a n k s M a r c h a n d f o r h a v i n g e n l i g h t e n e d h i m a b o u t L a V ie et L ’Esp rit de S p in o z a , as the Traité w as often called;4 In fact on this subjec t, theirs was a m utually e n l i g h t e n in g c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , b u t u n f o r t u n a t e ly o n l y F r i ts c h ’s p o r t i o n has survived. In October of that same year Fritsch revealed, in the l e t t e r p r i n t e d i n t h e a p p e n d i x , t h a t L e v i e r g o t t h e Traité f ro m R o u s s e t d e M i s s y a n d t h a t L e v i e r c o m b i n e d i t w i t h L a Vie de S p in o z a , a m a n u s c r i p t h e c o p ie d i n t h e l i b r a ry o f B e n j a m i n F u r ly . T h e n i n 1 7 4 0 w h e n M a r c h a n d w a s c o m p i li n g n o t e s f o r h is o w n D ic tionn air e o n t h e Traitéy F r i t s c h w r i t e s : I w i ll s e n d y o u t h e r o u g h d r a f t f o r y o u r e ss a y o n T h e T h r ee I m p o s tors [ p r o b a b l y th e o n e e v e n tu a ll y p u b lis h e d in M a r c h a n d é D ic ti o n naire ( 1 7 5 8 ) ] . I t is q u i t e t r u e t h a t o n e c o u l d d o n o t h i n g w i t h o u t y o u. B u t t h i s e s sa y is p e r h a p s s u c h t h a t y o u s h o u l d d i s a v o w a n y h a n d i n it w h e n y o u m a k e i t p u b l i c ; w h il e n o t f o r g e t ti n g t h e s a d s p ec t ac l e o f t h e b a n n i n g o f L a V ie et L ’E sp rit de S p in o za [ b y t h e W a l l o o n churches]. F r i ts c h t h e n r e m i n d s M a r c h a n d o f h is y o u t h f u l tr a n s g r e s s io n : F r it s c h h a d a r r a n g e d f o r h i s ; b r p t h e r t o c a r r y L a V ie , th e m a n u s c r i p t f r o m F ur ly’s libra ry, to L ev ier *s hou se w here he co pied it ‘very q uickly. I kep t the copy myself . . . Su bsequ ently he has rep en ted the fact tha t h e s h o w e d t h a t m a n u s c r i p t t o a v a r ie t y o f p e o p l e , a n d w a s d o i n g so a s l a te a s 1 7 3 6 : T a ll o w e d t h e m t o c o py a s m u c h a s th e y w a n t e d , e n ti r e ly f r e e o f c h a r g e T l t w a s t o t a l r u b b i s h . S i n ce t h e n , I h a v e c o m e t o t h i n k m o r e s e r io u s l y t h a n I d i d . ’ A s t h e l e t t e r l a t e r i n d i c a te s F r i t sc h , n o w older and stricken with gout, has clearly come around to believinglif God. F r o m t h e s e l e t t e r s c e r t a i n c o n c lu s io n s a b o u t t h e o r ig i n s o f th e Traité p r e s e n t t h e m s e l v e s : L a V ie was c l e a r l y a s e p a r a t e m a n u s c r i p t f r o m L ’E sp rit . I n d e e d t h e r e i s n o e v i d e nc e th a t L ’Esp rit e v e r e x i s t e d a s a t e x t p r i o r t o t h e Traité y a n d i n t h e c o p y o f L a V ie et L ’Esp rit f r o m H o h e n d o r f s l i b r a ry a n d h e n c e q u i te p o s sib ly f ro m t h e K n i gh ts , L ’E sp rit a p p e a r s t o b e i d e n t ic a l w i th t h e Traité. A n d L e v i e r go t it f ro m R o u s s e t d e M i s sy . 6 F r i t s c h s to n g l y im p l ie s t h a t R o u s s e t w a s its a u t h o r , a lt h o u g h t h is i s n o t t o d e n y t h a t th e t r e a t is e m a y h a v e b e e n b o r r o w e d a n d c o n c o c t e d f r o m a w h o l e h o s t o f c l a n d e s ti n e m a n u s c r ip t s ( p o ss ib ly f r o m o n e c a l l e d ‘L ’E s p r i t d e S p i n o z a ’) , b u t a ls o a n d n o t l e a s t o f all f r o m ‘L e T h e o p h r a s t u s r e d i v i v u s ’ ( 1 6 5 9 ) w h i ch w a s F r e n c h i n o ri g in a n d w h ic h H o h e n d o r f h a d i n hi s l ib r a ry w h e r e M a r c h an d s a w it . S o m e y e a r s a g o , w i t h o u t t h is n e w e v i d e n c e , D o n C a m e r o n A l le n s u g g e st e d R o u s s e t d e M i ss y a s a l ik e l y c a n d i d a t e f o r t h is e x e r c i s e in i m p i e t y , a n d t h a t w a s a v e r y g o o d s u r m i s e ( 1 4 5 ). W h a t is n o w a l so c le a r is t h a t t h e

R E L I G I O N , R E V O L U T I O N A N D T H E N E W S C IE N C E

2 19

K n i g h t s w e r e d e e p l y i n v o l v e d i n c r e a t i n g t h e Traité y i n c o p y i n g a n d disseminating it. Levier, apparently with the assistance of Toland’s p u b l i sh e r , T h o m a s J o h n s o n , d i d a n e x tr e m e l y r a r e 1 7 1 9 e d i t i o n o f it; B ö h m d i d a s h o r t e n e d , p e r h a p s s o m e w h a t d i f fe r e n t 1 7 2 1 e d i ti o n both appear not to have survived. It is now possible to recreate the story of how this manuscript came to exist. A c c o m p a n y i n g m a n y co p i es o f t h e Traité i s a b r i e f e x p o s i t i o n o f i ts c o n t e n t s , c o m m o n l y c a l l e d t h e R é p o n se , w h i c h w e n o w k n o w t o b e written by Rousset and which was published separately and anony m o u s ly in 1 7 1 6 b y H e n r i S c h e u r l e e r. F o r d e c a d e s p r i o r to 1 7 1 1 ( th e y e a r R o u s s e t g a v e th e Traité t o L e v i e r ) th e r u m o u r h a d c i r c u la t e d t h a t s o m e o n e h a d w r i tt e n a w o r k in w h ic h it w as cl a im e d t h a t M o s e s , J e s u s and Mohammed were impostors. Various candidates for this final i m p i e ty w e r e al w ay s b e in g p r o p o s e d : A r e t in o , G i o r d a n o B r u n o , W il l ia m P o s t el , S e r v e tu s , B o n a v e n t u r e D e s P é r ie r s , C a m p a n e l l a , H o b b e s a n d S p i n o z a . T h e l is t w a s f ai rl y d i s ti n g u i s he d a n d e n d l e s s . A s m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d , p h i lo s o p h e r s i n d e b t e d t o t h e H e r m e t ic t ra d i t i o n o f t e n f o u n d a place on.it, as did thinkers whose ideas could be interpreted as t e n d i n g t o n a t u r a l i s m . A m i d a ll th e s e a c c u s a t io n s a n d g o s s i p a j o u r n a l ist named de la Monnoye published in 1694 an essay in which he c o n c l u d e d c o n f i d e n tl y t h a t n o s uc h t re a t is e o n t h e t h r e e im p o s t o r s h a d ever been written. That essay was widely circulated and commented upon in the first d e c a d e o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n tu r y , a n d p e r h a p s t h e c h a ll e n g e w a s m o r e than Rousset and his friends, with access to the superb library of heretical works in Benjamin Furly’s home, could resist. It is just possible that the idea that the founder of Christianity had been an impostor had been hatched out with Toland; there is a manuscript among his private papers, only its table of contents survives, which c l a im s t o s h o w t h a t J e s u s w a s a m a g i c ia n . 7 W h a t b e t t e r , in l i g h t o f al l t h e p u b l ic i ty , t h a n t o w r i t e , o r t o d o c t o r s i g n i fi ca n tl y a p a n t h e i s t ic t r a c t and to focus its attack against Christianity around the charge of i m p o s t u r e ? W h a t b e t t e r p o le m i c a l de v ic e b y w h i ch t o h e r a l d t h e b i r t h of this new creed and to sound the death knell for its older, more established, rivals? In 1716 Rousset proclaimed to the world in his a n o n y m o u s R ép o n se t o d e l a M o n n o y e , w h i c h F r i t s c h k n o w s R o u s s e t t o h a v e w r i tt e n , t h a t h e h a d s e e n w i t h h is ow n e y e s a n d p o s s e s s e d i n h is cabinet this famous little treatise. O f c o u r s e , w e n o w k n o w t h a t R o u s s e t wa s i n d e e d t e l li n g t h e t r u t h . He proceeded to give an exact description of the manuscript, by c h a p t e r a n d p a r a g r a p h , o n e t h a t c o n fo r m s p r e c is e ly w i th m o s t e x t a n t copies. He further invented the fiction that he got the original Latin m a n u s c r ip t in F r a n k f u r t- a m - M a i n a n d t h a t a G e r m a n o f fi ce r , T r a w sendorf, and a student in theology, Frecht, had been involved in the

220

T H E R A D I C A L E N L IG H T E N M E N T

t ra n s a c t io n . A s F r it s c h n o t e s t o M a r c h a n d t h a t w a s a c o m p l e t e f a b r i c a tion. B u t R o u s s e t d i d n o t s t o p t h e r e . I n e f f e c t h i s R é p o n s e is a brief e x p l i c a ti o n o f t h e Traité t h a t l in k s i t d i r e c tl y t o B r u n o ’s Spaccio - th e same book of ‘which Toland had published a translation in English a f e w y e a rs a g o ’.8 O f c o u r s e , T o l a n d h a d c a r r i e d t h e Spaccio all over Europe during his various forays, and the English translation had a p p e a r e d i n 1 7 1 3 . F u r t h e r m o r e , R o u s s e t li nk s t h e Traité v e r y p r e c i s e ly w i t h hi s o w n b e l i e f s: i t g i v es a n i d e a o f G o d t h a t ‘r a t h e r c o n f o r m s t o t h e s y s te m o f t h e Pantheists , s a y in g t h a t t h e w o r d G o d r e p r e s e n t s t o u s a n infinite being of whom one of the attributes is to be an extended s u b s t a n c e , a n d b y c o n s e q u e n c e e t e r n a l a n d i n f i n i te ’ ( R o u s s e t ’s i t a l i cs ) .9 R o u s s e t , i n t u r n , t h e n s u m m a r i s e s t h e v a r i o u s c h a p t e r s o f th e Traité , i n d i c a t e s i n g e n e r a l t h e c o n t e n t s a n d o f f e r s n o i n d i c a t i o n o f d i s a p p r o v a l . H i s R é p o n se w a s , i n t u r n , a n s w e r e d b y d e l a M o n n o y e i n M ém oir es de Lit té ra tu re ( 1 7 1 6 ) e d i t e d b y d e S a ll e n g re a n d p u b l is h e d by Henry du Sauzet. All of this added publicity in the pages of the M ém oir es u n d o u b t e d l y i n c r e a s e d c u r i o s i ty a n d i n d e e d t h e ‘f r è r e s ’ a n d t h e i r f ri e n d s w e r e , a f t e r a ll , b u s i n e s s m e n . Y e a r s l a t e r , M a r c h a n d é p o s t h u m o u s l y p u b l i s h e d D ic tio nna ir e his to riq ue ( 1 7 5 8 ) c o n t a i n e d a l o n g e ss a y o n t h e TraUé w h ic h r e p e a t e d m a n y o f th e f a b r i c a t io n s , y e t w h i ch is t o t h i s d a y orife o f th e m a j o r s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h a t tr a c t.10 N o o n e e v e r th o u g h t to a s k h o w o r w h y M a r ch a n d h a d g o t to k n o w s o m u c h a b o u t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r m a n u s c r i p t. T h e c i r c u la t io n o f c la n d e s t in e m a n u s c r i p ts ^ w a s a d a n g e r o u s b u s i n e s s a n d i d e n t i t ie s i i a d t o b e ' o b s c u r e d . A l l t h e c o p i e s I h a v e s e e n , f r o m v a r i o u s l ib r a r i e s i n c l u d in g V i e n n a r a n d t h e H o h e n d o r f c o ll e ct io n , a r e n e a t ly w r i tt e n b y v a r i o u s “ h a n d s . N e v e r h a s a f a m i li a r p i e c e o f h a n d w r it in g a p p e a r e d ; in a l m o s t e v e r y c a se , w i th t h e e x c e p t i o n o f th a t i n i ti a l t r a n s m i s s io n d e s c r i b e d b y Fritsch, the text must have been copied by hired scribes. Imagine holding such a manuscript in your hands. In France you w o u ld h a v e b e e n i m p r i s o n e d i f c a u g h t d o in g s o , a n d i n n o c o u n t ry w e r e its c o n t e n t s le g a l . O n i t s v e r y f ir s t p a g e t h e r e a d e r i s i n f o r m e d t h a t m o s t men believe in the vain and the ridiculous, that is, Divinity, the Soul, S p i ri ts , in s h o r t ‘a ll t h e o t h e r o b j e c t s w h i c h m a k e u p R e l i g i o n ’. T h e y have been cajoled into this lamentable ignorance by religious impos tors, Jesus, Moses and Mohammed. This confidence trick was perpetrated first by Moses, even though many of the prophets/knew perfectly well th at ‘G od is a purely co rpo rea l be ing ’,11 an d th en M oses u s e d h is a r m y t o m a k e t h e l ie s ti c k . W h y a r e p e o p l e s o g u l li b l e ? W e ll , a s H o b b e s s a i d , i t is f e a r - ‘t h o s e w h o a r e i g n o r a n t o f p h y s i c a l c au s e s h a v e a n a t u r a l f e a r . . . a n d t h i s c h i m e r i c f e a r o f i n v is ib l e p o w e r s is t h e s o u rc e o f a ll th e s e R e l ig i o n s ’. I n d e e d , s o m e m e n a r e s o p a r a l y s e d b y

R E L I G I O N , R E V O L U T I O N A N D TH E N E W S C I E N C E

22 1

f e a r th a t t h e y h a v e c o m e t o b e l ie v e t h a t ‘t h e ju d g e m e n t s o f G o d a r e incomprehensible’. That error has happily been destroyed by ‘m a t h e m a t i c s , p h y s ic s a n d s o m e o f th e o t h e r s c i e n c e s ’. 12 The new science provides the escape route from ignorance; it t e a c h e s t h a t ‘a ll f i n a l c a u s e s a r e o n l y h u m a n f i c ti o n s ’ a n d t h a t n a t u r a l c a u s e s c a n b e f o u n d f o r a ll n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a . M e n s e e k to e s ta b l i s h o r d e r in n a t u r e , b u t t h a t o r d e r is n o t h i n g e l s e t h a n ‘a p u r e e f f e c t o f t h e h u m a n i m a g i n a t i o n ’. I t is a b s u r d t o t h i n k t h a t G o d p u t s i t t h e r e . W i th e x t r a o r d i n a r y s o p h i s t ic a t io n a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g an d u s e s o f sc ie n t if ic k n o w l e d g e , t h e m a n u s c r i p t te l ls u s t h a t t h e o r d e r in n a t u r e d i s c e r n e d b y th e n e w s c ie n c e is a n e c e s s a r y a n d v a l u a b le i m p o s i ti o n o f t h e h u m a n m i n d ; s c ie n c e d o e s n o t s u p p o r t t h e d e s ig n a r g u m e n t s a n d t h e p r o v i d e n t ia l is m e x t r a c t e d f ro m i t b y th e N e w t o n ia n s ( a n d in d e e d b y N e w t o n h i m s e lf ). W h a t t h e n i s t h is G o d o f th e t h e o lo g i a n s a n d t h e i m p o s t o r s ? Adopting a personal style the author says, T respond that this word r e p r e s e n t s t o u s a u n i v e r sa l b e i n g i n w h i c h, to s p e a k a s S a i n t P a u l , w e hav e life, m ov em en t and b ein g .’ Th is G od is na ture , ‘all is in G o d ’.13 S u c h a n o t i o n f u lf il s t h e C a r t e s i a n c r i te r i o n o f t r u t h - i t is c l e a r a n d simple. B u t t h e r e a r e p l e n ty o f m e n a r o u n d w h o h a v e a v e s t e d i n t e r e s t in r e t a i n i n g t h e g o d o f t h e i m p o s t o r s . ‘T h e v u l g a r ’ (le pe up le grossier ) w a n t a g o d w h o r e s e m b l e s t h e k i n g s o f th e e a r th , c o m p l e te w i th p o m p a n d ‘c e l e s ti a l c o u rt e sa n s * . T h e l a w s o f t h is v u lg a r g o d a r e ‘h u m a n f i c t io n s ’ i n v e n t e d n o t b y d e m o n s o r e v i l g e n i e s b u t ‘b y t h e p o l i t ic s o f P r i nc e s a n d P r i e s t s ’. T h e s u r v iv a l o f m o n a r c h i e s a n d c h u r c h e s d e p e n d s vitally on the survival of religion,Tor through its laws princes have w a n t e d ‘t o g iv e g r e a t e r w e i g h t t o t h e i r a u t h o r i t y ’ w h i l e p r i e s t s ‘h a v e wanted to enrich themselves by the sale of añfinfinity of chimeras wh ich they sell de arly to th e ig n o ra n t’.14 T h e a u t h o r o f th is m a n u s c r ip t w o u l d h a v e us j o in i n t h e w o r k o f d e s t ro y i n g t h e o l d r e li g io n , f o u n d e d o n f e a r , r e p u g n a n t ‘t o g o o d s e n s e and to reason’, yet so appealing ‘to the ignorant, that is to say the g r e a t e r p a r t o f m a n k i n d ’. C l e a r ly t h i s is a d a n g e r o u s e n t e r p r i s e ; p o l i t i c al p o w e r is a t s t a k e h e r e . D o e s R o u s s e t a d v o c a t e a r e v o l u t i o n ? I n f a c t, h e r e m a r k s , ‘t h e s e e d o f r e li g io n ( I w a n t t o sa y h o p e a n d f e a r ) fe d b y t h e d i ve rs e p a s si o n s a n d o p i n io n s o f m e n , h as p r o d u c e d a g r e a t n u m b e r of bizarre beliefs which are the causes of the ills ( m a u x ) and all the r e v o l u t io n s t h a t o c c u r in S t a t e s ’. S o p r i e s ts a r e t h e t ru e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s , a n d t h e m i n is t e rs o f g o d s , ‘t h e s e c u n n i n g m e n ’, h a v e a g r e a t s t a k e i n p r e s e r v i n g ‘t h e l i e ’ ; t h e y h a t e t h e t r u t h . 15 T h e c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n h e r e , a l th o u g h o n e t h e t r a c t s to p s s h o r t o f ad v o c a t in g , is t h a t a n e w k i n d o f r e v o l u t io n ( p e r h a p s f i r s t i n m e n ’s m i n d s ) w ill b e n e c e s s a ry b e f o r e t h e power accruing to priests, and by implication princes, will be eradi cated.

222


This will be no easy task. Legislators since pagan times have been u si ng t h e l a w s, c u l ts a n d c e r e m o n i e s o f t h e g o d s t o n u r t u r e w h a t e v e r f an a t ic i sm t h e y w a n t e d t o e s t a b l is h , a n d M o s es , J e su s a n d M o h a m m e d m e r e ly fo l l o w e d i n t h i s t r a d i t i o n . T h e a u t h o r d w e l ls a t p a r t i c u l a r l e n g t h o n th e d u p l i c i ty o f M o s e s . H e w a s t h e s o n o f a m a g i c i a n w h o w a s a d m i tt e d i n to t h e p r i e s t h o o d o f t h e E g y p t ia n s , m e n o f g r e a t l e a r n in g comparable in their social roles to the Druids in Gaul. As a result M o s e s b e c a m e i n h i s t im e ‘a v e ry g r e a t p o l i t ic i a n , a v e r y l e a r n e d N a t u r a l i s t a n d a v e r y f a m o u s M a g i c i a n ’. H e u s e d ‘h i s p r e t e n d e d M a g i c ’ t o r a ll y t h e d i s c o n t e n t e d p e o p l e s o f t h e k i n g d o m , i n cl u d in g t h e H e b rews who were by far the ‘most credulous’, but who had also been t r e a t e d m o s t u n j u s t l y b y t h e E g y p t i a n k i n g s. T h r o u g h h is k n o w l e d g e o f n a t u r a l f o rc e s M o s es c o n t r iv e d m i ra c le s a n d h o o d w i n k e d h is fo l lo w e r s i n t o r e v e r i n g h i m ‘l ik e a g o d ’ - h e h a d l e a r n e d w e ll th e l e s s o n s t a u g h t b y th e P h a r o a h a n d h i s p r i e s t s . 16 J e s u s fo l lo w e d i n t h e f o o t s t e p s o f M o s es - ‘h e w a s n o t i g n o r a n t o f th e p r e c e p t s n o r s c i e n c e o f t h e E g y p t i a n s ’. ‘A s t h e n u m b e r o f f o o l s is i n fi n it e , Je s u s C h r i s t f o u n d h is s u b je c t s a m o n g t h e m . ’ I n p e r h a p s t h e m o s t im p i o u s p o r t i o n o f t h e t r e a t i s e , th e a u t h o r l a b e l s J e s u s a s th è m o s t c u n n i n g im p o s t o r o f th e m a ll . H e p r o m i s e d n o t t o d i s r u p t , to r e n d e r t o C a e s a r t h e t h i n g s t h a t w e r e C a e s a r ’s ; i n o t h e r w o r d s, h e a c t e d l ik e t h o s e p r i n c e s w h o p r ó n i i s e t h e i r s u b j e c t s al l s o r t s o f p r iv i le g e s u n t i l t h e i r p o w e r is w e l l e s t a b l is h e d a n d t h e n t h e y r e n e g e o n t h e i r p r o m ises.17 In sh ort, Jesu s is por tray ed as a kind of M achiavellian who saw ‘t h e e x t r e m e c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e J ew i s h R e p u b l i c ’ a n d w h o c o n t r iv e d , with the assistance of his ambitious followers, to ‘causethose revolts t h a t c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e e n t i r e d e s tr u c t i o n o f t h e a n c i e n t R e p u b l i è o f t h e ~ H e b r e w s ’. T o s e a l h is la b o u r s , J e s u s a n d h i s f o l l o w e r s , w h o s e b e l i e fs a r e j u s t a s a b s u r d a s th o s e ‘o f w o m e n a n d i d i o t s ’ t a u g h t t h a t th i s n e w s e t o f l a w s p o s s e s s e d e t e r n a l v a l i d i t y . 18 I f R o u s s e t i s t h e a u t h o r o f this particular passage, rather than its copier, then as the opening quotation for this chapter would suggest, age and experience taught h i m t o m o d i f y c o n s i d e r a b l y h i s m i so g y n y . S i g n if i ca n t ly , f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f R o u s s e t ’s l a t e r p o l i t ic a l in v o l v e m e n t s , h e a s sa i ls J e s u s h e r e as a corruptor of republics. Yet the author must admit that there is s o m e m e r i t i n t h e m o r a l i ty o f J e su s . O f c o u r se , h is p r e c e p t s c a n a ll b e f o u n d i n t h e w r it in g s o f th e a n c i e n t p a g a n s ; o n e d o e s n o t fi n d a n y t h in g ‘m o r e u s e f u l o r m o r e s u b l im e i n t h e p o l it ic s a n d m o r a ls o f C h r is t th a n i n t h e w r i ti n g s o f t h e a n c i e n t P h i l o s o p h e r s ’. 18 M a h a m e t a n is m c o n t i n u e s t hi s p a t t e r n o f s u b v e rs i o n a n d u p h e a v a l , a l t h o u g h t h e a u t h o r is s li g ht ly le s s h a r s h o n M o h a m m e d than he is on Moses and Jesus. Mohammed is pushed into a role of leadership, but nevertheless the pattern of deceit and imposture holds true for he was one of ‘the three celebrated legislators whose

RELIGION, REVOL UTION AND THE NEW SCIENCE

223

r e l ig i o n s h a v e s u b j u g a t e d a g r e a t p a r t o f t h e u n i v e r s e ’.20 I f a ll t h e m a j o r r e l ig i o n s a r e b u i l t u p o n a t is s u e o f l ie s , w h a t a r e t h e alternatives? Clearly men must have a new god, and that must be ‘n a t u r e , o r , i f o n e w a n t s , th e g a t h e r i n g o f a ll b ei n g s, o f a l l t h e p r o p e r t ie s a n d a ll t h e e n e r g i e s . . . a c a u se i m m i n e n t a n d n o t d i s t in c t f ro m i ts e f f e c t s ’. T h e r e c a n b e ‘n o G o d s , n o h e l l , n o s p ir i ts , n o d e v i l s ’ - a l l t h a t e x is ts is th e w o r ld a r o u n d u s - ‘h e a v e n is n o t h i n g e ls e b u t t h e c o n t i n u a tion of the air in which we live, a fluid in which the pla ne ts m ov e’.21 I n t h e Traité R o u s s e t , p o s s i b l y i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h s o m e p r e v i o u s author, leaves his readers with the foundation of a new religion of n a t u r e . L i k e s o m e m o d e r n c o m m e n t a t o r s a n d B i b lic a l s c h o l a r s , th e s e e a r ly e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p a n t h e i s t s h a v e c o n c l u d e d t h a t J e s u s w a s a n ‘i m p o s t o r ’, ‘a r n a g i c i a n ’, b u t u n l i k e t h e m t h e y h a v e g o n e f u r t h e r a n d o f f e r e d i n p l a c e o f t h e t r a d i ti o n a l W e s t e r n r el ig io n s a n e w c r e e d , b a s e d upon science, but also upon a naturalism first proclaimed by the a n c i e n t p a g a n s . 22 T h e a u t h o r a t ta c k s D e s c a r t e s f o r n o t a d m i t ti n g t h a t the soul is material, although he uses his arguments about motion in a n i m a l s t o. c o n c l u d e t h a t w h a t D e s c a r t e s o b s e r v e d w a s t h e i r a c t u a l pa rticipa tion in ‘the un iversa l soul of the w orld ’.23 S u d d e n l y i t i s a s if w e h a v e c o m e f u ll c ir c le . H a v i n g a b a n d o n e d ‘t h e s p i r i ts ’ o f t r a d i ti o n a l C h r i s ti a n it y w e o n c e a g a in e n c o u n t e r a f o r m o f s p i r it - ‘i t is c e r t a i n t h a t t h e r e is in t h e U n i v e r s e a v e r y s u b t l e f lu i d o r a very thin matter [une matière très-déliée], always in motion, whose s o u r c e i s in t h e s u n ’ . L i f e a n d m o v e m e n t c o m e f r o m t h i s s e m i - m a t e r i a l soul of the world; ‘what the poets and Theologians told us about an o the r w orld is c him er a’.24 A few strong m inds aTid since re m en h ave p e r c e i v e d t h is n e w t r u t h a n d ‘i n sp i t e o f p e r s e c u t i o n t h e y a r e c r y i n g o u t a g a i n s t t h e a b s u r d i t i e s o f t h e i r t i m e ’ - a nc Ts o t h e y h a v e g i v e n u s t h i s small tre atis e.25 The reference to the ether as well as to the sun conjures up the literature of magic, of astrology and alchemy. It is also one possible i d i c a t i o n o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e F r e n c h s p i n o z i s t a n d p a rle m entaire m e n t i o n e d i n C h a p t e r 5 , t h e C o m t e d e B o u la i n v il li e r. H e i s a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y n o t i n v o l v e d i n t h e Traité directly ; his spinozism wa s far less extreme than that put forward by this radical cadre, and of course B o u l a i n v i ll i e r w a s n o t a r e p u b l i c a n . 26 Y e t h i s s p in o z i s t c o m m e n t a r i e s , replete with his references to astrology, were certainly all over the clandestine circuit. And there is something else to be learned from these references: pantheism, although so profoundly secular in its o r i e n t a t i o n , c o u l d s li p , l o n g b e f o r e t h e R o m a n t ic s g o t h o l d o f it , in t o t h e la n g u a g e a n d m e t a p h o r o f m y s ti ci sm . T h e d i s c o v e r y o f ne w g o d s, o r e v en o f a n e w G o d , t h e G r a n d A r c h i te c t , a n d o f n e w o b j e c t s o f so c ia l w o r s h i p e n t a i l e d , f o r b o t h N e w t o n ia n s a n d p a n t h e i s t s alike, not only rituals but also a profoundly emotional reverence

224


which lent itself, perhaps inevitably, to mystical expression. I n t h e t w e n t i e th c e n tu r y , t h e a n t i- M a s o n a n d h i s t o r ia n B e r n a r d F a y s aw i n B o u l a i n v i ll ie r a n d h is c ir cl e o n e o f th e m a i n s p r in g s o f E u r o p e a n F r e e m a s o n r y . F a y ’s p a r a n o i d r e a d i n g o f th a t h i st o r y , b a s e d u p o n l it tl e c o n c r e t e e v i d e n c e , c o n t a in s a f ew h a l f -t r u th s w o r t h n o t in g i n r e l a t io n t o t h e e v i d e n c e w e n o w p o s s es s . F a y s a w s p i n o z is m , o f o n e v a r i e ty o r a n o t h e r , a s c l o se t o t h e h e a r t o f M a s o n r y , ig n o r e d e n t i re l y t h e C h r i s t ian apologetics of the Newtonians, and thought that he could find an i n d ig e n o u s a ri s to c r a t i c F r e n c h M a s o n r y . If F a y h a d s t o p p e d h i s p o l emics long enough to do some hard research in the Netherlands he m i g h t h a v e s e e n t h a t w i t h in a t le a s t o n e M a s o n ic c i rc le t h e s u b v e r s iv e id e a s h e d i s c e rn e d in s o m e la t e e ig h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y F r e n c h M a s o n s h a d a n t e c e d e n t s in t h e s e H u g u e n o t a n d E n g l i s h r e p u b l i c a n c i r c le s . 27 T h e Traité s u m m a r i s e d a l iv in g c r e e d ; i t w a s n o t s im p l y a n e x t r a p o l a t io n f r o m B r u n o o r S p i n o z a . I t p ro c l a im e d a u n i q u e a t t e m p t t o a r r iv e a t a n e w r e li g io n o f n a t u r e b a s e d u p o n t h e o l d n a t u r a l i s m a n d a l s o u p o n t h e n e w n a t u r a l p h i lo s o p h i e s i n h e r i t e d f ro m t h e S c i e n ti fi c R e v o l u t io n . I t h a d m y s t ic a l e l e m e n t s ; b u t i t w a s n o t a n t i -s c ie n t i fi c - a l th o u g h s h o r t ly w e m u s t f o c u s o u r a t t e n t i o n o n t h e R a d i c a l E n l i g h t e n m e n t ’s exact debt to the Scientific Revolution. Pantheism was, moreover, directly linked, as I have indicated, to republicanism. This spirit-in matter philosophy must be seen, within those circles at least, as the philosophical foundation for republican and even democratic p h i lo s o p h i e s o f g o v e r n m e n t . I f th e w o r ld o f o r d i n a r y p e o p l e a n d d a ily e v e n t s is r e n d e r e d , in e ff e c t , s a c r e d t h e n s y s te m s o f g o v e r n m e n t j u s t if ie d b y l e c o u r s e t o s u p e r n a t u r a l a u t h o r i ty , e v e n if r e i n f o r c e d 'b y hu m an co ntracts, lose all validity. In this ‘secu larism ’ - un de rstoo d as a n o t h e r f o r m o f r e li g io s i ty - t o w h i ch p a n t h e i s m i n e v it a b ly l e a d s w e h a v e a ls o ta k e n a s te p c l o s e r t o e v o l u t io n a r y t h e o r i e s o f d e v e l o p m e n t , n o t o n l y o f p l a n t s a n d a n i m a ls b u t a ls o o f m e n a n d i n s ti tu t i o n s . B y i m p l i ca t io n , p e o p l e c a n i m p o s e o r d i s p o s e o f e s t a b l i s h e d a u t h o r i ti e s ; by the logic of circumstances they can much more easily (than by recourse to providential design) justify revolutionary action. By linking the Traité d i r e c t l y w i t h t h i s c o t e r i e o f F r e n c h r e f u g e e s new channels into the early Enlightenment are opened. Religion, n a t u r a l p h i lo s o p h y , o r in a m o r e g e n e r i c s e n s e s c i e n c e , a n d p o l it ic s a r e f u s e d i n t h e p r o g r a m m e i n i t ia t e d b y a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o ci al w o r ld t h a t w a s s m a ll b u t c o h e s i v e , w i th a c c e ss t o t h e p r i n t i n g p r e s s a n d h e n c e t o t h e w h o le o f F r e n c h - r e a d i n g E u r o p e . I t s m e m b e r s p l ie d t h e i r tr a d e o n a variety of literary projects, but wherever possible, these pantheists and republicans sought access to political power. They circulated around the court of Eugène of Savoy in The Hague, and years later Rousset told the Austrian minister, the Comte de Cobenzl, in whose service he was then employed, that he had on many occasions during

i

i

RELIGION, REVOLU TION AND THE NEW SCIENCE

2 25

t h e W a r o f S p a n i s h S u c c e s s i o n g i v e n a d v i c e t o t h a t p r i n c e . 28 A f t e r h i s d e p a r t u r e , s o m e o f t h e s e r e fu g e e s a p p e a r t o h a v e se r v e d a s a g e n t s f o r t h e B r i ti s h g o v e r n m e n t ; b y t h e 1 7 4 0 s, a s w e sh a ll s e e , R o u s s e t a n d some of his Masonic friends have become avid Orangists as well as advocates of democratic reform. A n d f i n al ly t h e r e i s t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e K n i g ht s, t h e i r l it e r a r y society and Freemasonry. Aristocratic, Newtonian, sycophantic of courts and kings in the main, yet Freemasonry was a potentially d a n g e r o u s i n s ti tu t io n c a p a b l e o f h o u sin g r e p u b l ic a n s a n d p a n t h e i s t s a n d o f n u r t u r i n g t h e i r f a n t a s i e s fo r s o c ia l e q u a l i ty a n d p o l it ic a l r e f o r m . P e r h a p s n o w w e c a n s e e w h y , in t h e l a te e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d w e l l b e y o n d , a t a ti m e o f re v o l u t i o n a r y u p h e a v a l , p r o p o n e n t s o f th e ancien régime f a s t e n e d t h e i r p a r a n o i d t h e o r ie s o f c o n sp ir a cy a r o u n d t h a t v e r y institution. There was no Masonic conspiracy to subvert the estab l is h e d o r d e r ; b u t th e r e c e r t a in l y w e r e F r e e m a s o n s w h o f ro m t h e e a r l y eighteenth century onwards brought their discontent with the post r e v o lu t io n a r y o r d e r in E n g l a n d o n t o t h e C o n t in e n t a n d e x p o r t e d i n t o n o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n i n s t it u t io n t h a t c o u ld p r o v id e a s o c ia l n e x u s f o r d i sp l a c e d i d e a l is t s, p o l i ti c a l a g e n t s a n d s u b v e rs iv e t h i n k e r s . D u r i n g t h e D u t c h R e v o l u ti o n o f 1 7 4 7 , R o u s s e t d e M i ssy , a l th o u g h a lo y a l O r a n g i st , ul ti m a t e ly s i d e d w i th i ts r a d i c a l a n d r e f o r m i n g a r t i s a n c o n t i n g e n t (see pp. 233 et seq. ). A f t e r h i s ex ile fr o m P a r i s, th e A b b é Y v o n , w h o w r o t e m a n y o f t h e a r t i c le s t h a t c o v e rt ly e x p l ic a t e d m a t e r i a l is m f o r D i d e r o t ’s Encyclopédie , t u r n e d u p i n A m s t e r d a m a n d b e c a m e a n o f f ic e r in o n e o f it s M a s o n ic l o d g e s. I n d e e d , f o r m i d - c e n t u r y r a d i c a l s , w h e t h e r i n t e l le c t u a l o r p o l i t i c a l , p a n t h e i s t i c T n a te r ia l is ri f, o f t h e s o r t f o u n d i n t h e Traité , r e m a i n e d a d o m i n a n t c r e e d a n d M a s o n i c l o d g e s offered an obvious place for its expression. W e s ha ll n e v e r k n o w w h a t a ll th e K n i g ht s o f J u b i l a ti o n t h o u g h t a b o u t t h e lit e r a ry m a s t e r p ie c e p e r p e t r a t e d b y R o u s s e t a n d L e v i e r . Y e t t h e r e is o n e c lu e t h a t m a y h e l p t o r e l a t e i t t o t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m stances as French refugees with decided political interests and tradi t io n s . M a r c h a n d k e p t a c o p y o f R o u s s e t ’s R é p o n se , w h i c h u s u a l l y a c c o m p a n i e d t h e Traité , i n h i s v e r y p r i v a t e l ib r a r y . H i s l a r g e r l i b r a r y , d o n a t e d t o th e U n i v e r s i ty o f L e i d e n w a s ( a n d s ti ll i s) g r a n d i n d e e d ; h is m u c h s m a l le r p r iv a t e o n e n o t a b l y c o n t a in e d a h e a v y d o s e o f p a n t h e i s ti c a n d n a t u r a li s ti c w o r k s , b y A r p e a n d a b o u t S p i n oz a , b y T o l a n d a n d C o l l in s , a s w e ll as t r a n s l a t i o n s o f A l g e r n o n S i d n e y, a n d N e w t o n i a n w o r k s b y s ’G r a v e s a n d e . 29 M a r c h a n d w a s a b r il li a n t b i b l i o g r a p h e r whose unique system of classification, co-founded with his Parisian a s s o c i a t e , G a b r i e l M a r t i n , c o n t r i b u t e d d e c is iv e ly to t h e e n c y c l o p a e d i c method of cataloguing knowledge later refined by Diderot and d ’A l e m b e r t ( 1 3 1 , 1 5 - 1 6 ) . H i s o w n l ib r a r y w a s m e t ic u lo u sl y c a t a l o g u e d a c c o r d in g t o s u b j e c t m a t t e r a n d v o l u m e s iz e. A s h is p r e s e r v e d

226


catalogues indicate, when he classified a book he did so intentionally a n d w i t h k n o w l e d g e o f it s c o n t e n t s . W h a t t h e n w a s hi s l o g ic in s in g l in g o u t R o u s s e t ’ s R é p o n se for special classification in his private library w h e r e i t w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y o n ly o n e o t h e r b o o k , a n d b o t h u n d e r th é h e a d i n g ‘b o o k s o f p o l i t ic s ’? T h e c o m p a n i o n v o l u m e , t h e Vindiciae contra Tyrannos (Basle, 1579), was one of the most radical political treatises of the sixteenth c e n t u r y , a n d i t o p e n l y a d v o c a t e d r e b e l l io n a g a i n s t t y r a n n i c al a u t h o r i ty ( 1 2 3 , 3 0 5 ) . T h i s s ta r t li n g li n k , b e t w e e n t h e Traité a n d t h e Vindiciae , as p e r c e i v e d b y M a r c h a n d , p r o v i d e s v a lu a b l e h is t o ri c a l b a c k g r o u n d f o r t h e p o l it ic a l t h o u g h t o f th e R a d i c a l E n l i g h t e n m e n t , a n d a ls o e x p li c at e s t h e p o l it ic a l m e a n i n g o f t h e Traité. T h e s e F r e n c h P r o t e s t a n t r ef u g e e s in The Hague, exiled and bitterly hostile towards Louis XIV and his absolutist regime, probably did not arrive there as politically naïve as t h e t r a d i t io n a l a c c o u n t s o f t h e ir p l ig h t m i g ht im p l y . I n o n e s en s e t h e y d i d n o t n e e d th e E n g l is h C o m m o n w e a lt h m e n t o t e a c h th e m t o th e o r is e a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t y r a n n y a n d i ts p o l it ic a l c o r r e c t iv e , r e b e l li o n . T h e Vindiciae h a d b e e n w r it te n b y a. F r e n c h P r o t e s t a n t l e a d e r d u r in g t h e religious wars of the late sixteenth century. It spoke to a growing realisation within Huguenot circles at the time (1574-5) that in the w a k e o f t h e S t B a r t h o l o m e w ’s D a y M a ss a c re ( 1 5 7 2 ) t h e p r e s e r v a t io n o f P r o t e s t a n ti s m i n F i a n c e w o u ld r e q u i r e o p e n r e b e ll io n a n d t h a t p o l i t ical com prom ise with m ôna rchy itself ap pe ared increasingly impossible. Q u i t e p r o b a b l y w r i tt e n b y P h i ll ip p e d u P l e s si s- M o r n a y ( 1 5 4 9 - 1 6 2 3 ) but aimed at a circle that included his young and devoted friend , ' H u b e r F L a n g u e t , a s w el l as o t h e r r e v o lu t io n a r i e s s u ch a s F r a n ç o i s H o t m a n ( 1 2 5 , 2 2 7 , 2 7 4 ) , t h e Vindicae a n n o u n c e s t h a t t h e r e i s n o ju s tific a tio n ‘f o r t h a t p r e p o s te r o u s se rv il ity th a t th e sy co p h an ts" o f p r i n c e s u r g e u p o n t h e s i m p l e - m i n d e d ’ ( 1 2 4 , 1 4 5 ) . K i n g s r e c e iv e t h e i r p o w e r to r u l e f r o m ‘t h e p e o p l e ’ w i t h w h o m t h e y h a v e a c o v e n a n t t o r u l q j u s t l y a n d t o p r o t e c t t r u e r e li g io n , t h a t is t h e l a w s o f G o d . I f a ki n g becomes a tyrant and persecutor, the people, through their magis t r a t e s , h a v e a r i g h t t o r i s e u p a g a i n s t hi m . C e n t r a l t o t h e a r g u m e n t o f t h e Vindiciae i s th e r o l e o f t h e m a g i s t ra t e , t h o s e p u b l ic m e n t o w h o m t h e p e o p l e h a v e t r a n s f e r r e d t h e ir p o w e r a n d w h o c o u ld b e f o u n d i n a variety of institutions, as leaders of the towns and cities, as judges in t h e p a rle m en ts , a s m e m b e r s o f t h e E s t a te s . T h o s e m a g i s tr a t e s a l o n e h a v e t h e r i g h t a n d a u t h o r i t y t o le a d a r e b e l li o n , a l th o u g h t h e Vindiciae does grant that at certain times God may inspire private persons to ‘initiate resistance if they are specially summoned for that purpose’. Utmost care must be enlisted, however, to guard against falsely i n s p i r e d l e a d e r s ; ‘w e s h o u l d a t le a s t l o o k f o r t h e s e i n t e r n a l s ig n s . . . a b s e n c e o f a ll a m b i t i o n , g e n u i n e a n d e a r n e s t z e a l, c o n s c ie n t io u s n e s s an d finally lea rn ing . . .’ (12 4, 156 ).

R E L I G IO N , R E V O L U T I O N A N D T H E N EW S C I E N C E

2 27

I n d e e d t h e Vindiciae n o t o n l y a s s e r t s t h e r ig h t o f re b e l l i o n , i t m a y a l s o b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s a ‘r e p u b l i c a n ’ t r a c t i n t h a t i t a s s e r t s t h a t ‘t h e k i n g is like a president among [the people he] possesses only primacy of place. For as the entire people is above the king, so these officers, a l t h o u g h b e l o w t h e k i n g a s i n d i v id u a l s , a r e a b o v e h i m w h e n t a k e n a s a b o d y ’ ( p. 1 6 2 ) . S e e n f ro m t h e p e r s p e c ti v e o f t h e E n g l is h C o m m o n w e a l t h t r a d i t i o n ( t h e Vindiciae w a s f i r s t t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h i n 1648), early eighteenth-century readers could have interpreted the t r a c t a s a s s e r ti n g t h e p r i m a c y o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n s t i tu t i o n s a n d l e s s e r m a g i s t ra t e s o v e r th e a u t h o r i ty o f m o n a r c h s o r e v e n r u li n g o l ig a r c h i e s f o r ‘t y r a n n y r e s e m b l e s o l i g a r c h y ’ ( p. 1 8 6 ). A s a d o c u m e n t t h a t p r o c la im s c o n t r a c t th e o r y a s t h e b a s i s o f g o v e r n m e n t a n d w h i c h a s s e r ts t h e p d m a c y o f c it iz e n l ea d e r s , t h e Vindiciae o f f e r e d a p o w e r f u l c r i t i q u e o f a b s o l u t i s m a n d o n e t h a t w a s c o m p a t i b l e w i th t h e b e li e fs h e l d b y W h i g r a d i c a ls . It is h a r d t o b e l ie v e t h a t t h e s e F r e n c h r e f u g e e s w e r e u n f a m i l i a r w i th i t s d o c t r i n e s o r h o s t il e t o u t s a d v o c a c y o f re b e l l i o n b e f o r e t h e i r arrival in The Hague. W h y , h o w e v e r , d i d M a r c h a n d p l a c e th e Traité , a s e x p l i c a t e d b y R o u s s e t ’s R é p o n se , n e x t t o t h e Vindiciae ? T h e a u t h o r o r a u t h o r s o f th e Vindiciae w e r e d e e p ly C h r is ti a n m e n c o m m i tt e d to t h e C a lv i n is t d o c trine of predestination and to a literal faith in the sacred meaning of Scripture. Had not Calvin, in turn, burned freethinkers like Servetus w h o s e a n t i -T r i n it a ri a n is m a n d n a t u r a li s m m a d e h im a h e r o t o T o l a n d , C o l l in s , R o u s s e t d e M i ss y a n d t h e i r f ri e n d s ? T h e l a t e s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Calvinists worshipped the God of traditional Christianity; the early e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p a n t h e is ts ~ w o r s h i p pe d n a t u r e . Y e t b o t h b e li e v e d t h a t t h e r u l e s o f p o l i ti ca l o b l i g a ti o n c o u l d b e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e l a w s o f n a t u r e ; t h e i r p h i l o s o p h i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f T f r a t c o nc e p t s i m p l y d i f f e r e d p r o f o u n d l y . A n d b o t h a r e l in k e d i n h i st o r y b y t h e i r v i o l e n t o p p o s i t i o n t o a b s o l u t is m a n d b y t h e i r e n f o r c e d e x i le in th e N e t h e r l a n d s w h e r e o n b o t h o c c a s i o n s , a s w e s h a l l s e e i n o u r ^ d i s c u ss i o n o f t h e D u t c h Revolution of 1747, these Protestant refugees embraced the cause of the House of Orange. In the late sixteenth century, Huguenot r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s b e lo n g e d t o a n i n t e rn a t io n a l l y li n k e d P r o t e s t a n t n e t work that practised secrecy for survival and that waged bitter war a g a i n s t th e S p a n i s h c ro w n i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , a n d a f t e r t h e M a s sa c re o f S t B a r t h o l o m e w ’s D a y , a g a i n s t t h e F r e n c h c h u r c h a n d i ts k i n g .30 T h e Freemasonry to which Rousset and his friends were drawn fulfilled m a n y o f t h e s a m e s o c ia l n e e d s a s d i d t h e C a l v in i st c h u r c h e s , a n d l ik e those churches in their time of persecution, but for very different reasons, it too was secret and international in scope. M a r c h a n d ’s a s s o c i a ti o n o f t h e s e a n o n y m o u s t ra c t s m a k e s a g o o d deal of historical sense. Both emanated from circles of French Huguenots bitterly alienated from monarchy and prepared to wage

228


w a r a g a i n s t i t. D i d n o t M a r c h a n d , R o u s s e t a n d t h e i r f ri e n d s g iv e t h e i r allegiance to Eugène of Savoy as that magistrate who would lead Protestant Europe against Louis XIV? Or did both groups, in their p r a c t ic e o f s ec r e c y , e m b r a c e t h e n o t i o n t h a t i n s o m e s e n s e t h e y w e r e the needed magistrates, or at least their educated mandarins? F u r t h e r m o r e , b o t h t r a c t s b i t t e r l y a s s a i l t y r a n n y , o n l y t h e Traité c o n flates political and religious tyranny and lays blame squarely on the m a j o r r el ig i o n s a n d t h e i r f o u n d e r s. B o t h i m p l y t h a t a f e w e n l i g h te n e d men must be found who can initiate the rebellion, the overthrow of t y r a n n y . A n d b o t h t r a c t s , w h il e a s s e r ti n g t h e f u n d a m e n t a l r o l e o f ‘t h e p e o p l e ’, d i s p la y a d e e p f e a r o f t h e i r s u p p o s e d i g n o r a n c e . B o t h h a v e d e m o c r a t i c t e n d e n c i e s , t h e f i rs t b e c a u s e i t a s s e r t s t h e p e o p l e ’s c o n t r a c t with God and the king, the second because it would have all men be p a r t o f n a t u r e a n d h e n c e i n e v it ab l y e q u a l. T h e Traité a n d i t s a u t h o r s p a r t e d c o m p a n y f ro m t h e i n t e ll e ct u a l a n d s o ci al t ra d i t i o n o f H u g u e n o t r a d ic a li s m f r o m w h i ch t h e y e m e r g e d o n the crucial question of religion. Theirs would be of and from nature, devoid of priests but not of enlightened mandarins. They believed in the total authority of temporal rulers and human laws over the re ligious comriiunity, yet they also, like du Plessis-Mornay and his f r ie n d s , b e l i e v e d i n re l ig i o u s t o l e r a t i o n . P o l it ic a l a u t h o r i t y c a m e f r o m c o n t r a ct s a n d n o t fr o m d i v in e s a n c ti o n . T h e r a d ic a l s o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t w o u ld c h a m p i o n H o b b e s a n d L o c k e ( fo r d i s p a r a te r e a s o n s t o b e s u r e ) i n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e b e c a u s e t h e y o f f e r e d de facto t h e o r i e s o f g o v e r n m e n t a n d e x c l u d e d a n y n o t io n o f d i v in e r i g h t o r p r o v i d e n t ia l l y s a n c t i o n e d - a u t h o r i t y . T h e R a d i c a l E n l i g h t e n m e n t w a s “a p r o f o u n d l y political movement, and the pantheism it brought to the Enlighten ment served as one foundation for republicanism that would survive until well into the later part of the century. K n o w i n g n o w s o m e t h i n g a b o u t M a r c h a n d ’s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e g e n r e o f l i t e r a t u r e t o w h i c h th e Traité b e l o n g e d , c a n w e , b e f o r e t u r n i n g o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e c o n c r e t e p o l it ic a l in v o l v e m e n t s a s w e ll a s t h e o t h e r intellectual activities of the Knights and their associates, attempt to gauge the impact of the manuscript among its eighteenth-century readers? For instance, what relevance might it have had for the M a s o n ic ci rc le s in t r o d u c e d i n th e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , f o r t h o s e m e n a n d w o m e n w h o h a d c h o s e n t o w o r s h ip i n t h e n e w t e m p l e o f re a s o n ? T h a t is the most difficult (probably impossible) question to answer, but t h e r e i s o n e p i e c e o f e v id e n c e f r o m T h e H a g u e t h a t i s s o f as c i n a ti n g a s t o b eg fo r o u r a t t e n t io n . T h e R o y a l L i b r a r y p o ss e s s es a u n i q u e m a n u script version of the Traité , o n e o f t h e m a n y t o b e f o u n d a l l o v e r E u r o p e , b u t i n t h is c a s e it is b o u n d w i th a c o p y o f A r p e ’s e s s ay o n Vanini and his scurrilous D e tr ib us im p o sto rib u s .31 It is un da ted , b u t a l m o s t c e r ta i n ly c o m e s f ro m n o l a t e r t h a n 1 7 5 0 , a n d i n d e e d g i v e n i ts


229

; l o c a t i o n a n d t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c o m b i n a t i o n o f m a n u s c r i p ts it c o u l d h a v e c o m e f ro m s o m e o n e i n th e M a r c h a n d - R o u s s e t ci rc le . T h e m a n u s c r i p t i s a l s o u n i q u e , h o w e v e r , i n p r o v i d i n g a f i n a l s e c t io n w h e r e t h e anonymous reader of these clandestine manuscripts offers a short m e d i t a t io n o n t h e i r m e a n i n g . ‘A M o r a l T r e a t is e , fo l lo w i n g th e P r i n c i p l e s o f N a t u r e ’. T h i s is a m a t e u r p h i l o s o p h i s in g , a n d a s a r e s u l t a l l t h e more fascinating. T h e i d e a o f ‘n a t u r e ’ p r e s e n t s th i s s e e k e r o f e n l i g h t e n m e n t w i t h s o m e problems, ‘it is a composite of the works of the Creator, a general d e f i n i ti o n , t h a t c o n f o r m s t o t h e i d e a o f a n A H ’, b u t m o s t i m p o r t a n t f o r t h is w r i te r , w i t h i n ‘n a t u r e ’ t h e r e a r e i n d i v id u a l s w i th a n e s s e n c e o f t h e i r o w n . 32 T h e C r e a t o r c a n b e n a t u r e , o r i f y o u l i k e vi ce v e r s a . W h a t is important is the meaning derived from this philosophy of nature for t h e i n d iv i d u a l. T h i s a r m c h a i r p h i l o s o p h e r h a d o b v i o u sl y b e e n r a i s e d t o believe in the traditional God and when he, or possibly she, moves a w a y fr o m t h a t c o n c e p t a n d e m b r a c e s th e i d e a o f n a tu r e , w o r d s d o n o t a lw a y s m e a n w h a t th e y s h o u l d . B u t t h e a u t h o r m a k e s it c l e a r t h a t w h a t is r e a l l y in t e r e s t i n g a b o u t t h e s e t r e a t i s e s a r e th e p r a c t ic a l , m o r a l i m p l i c a t io n s o f th is i d e a o f n a t u r e f o r i nd iv id u a ls . W h y d id n a t u r e m a k e u s ? ‘I have boldly de cided th at it was to m ake us ha pp y’.33 M an is the king o f n a t u r e , s o v e r e ig n o f h is r e a s o n , a n d h e h a s a v a il a bl e t o h i m s e l f t h e m e a n s o f m a k i n g h i m s e l f m o r e h a p p y ; o u r r ic h e s a r e i n e f f e c t w i t h in u s . T h i s m e d i t a t i o n o n t h e p r a c t ic a l m o r a l it y i m p l ic i t i n t h e la w s o f n a t u r e , a c c o r d in g t o t h i s a u t h o r , w ill n o t b e t o t h e t a s t e o f th e t h e o l o g i a n s b u t their orthodoxies have a practical effect contrary to the laws of n a tu r e .34 ^ . R e a l h a p p i n e s s co n s is ts in a n i n t im a t e u n i o n o f t h e b o d y a n d t h e s o u l ; t h e s o u l a ll ow s u s t o p e r c e i v e c l e a rl y b u t i t is al s o t h e s e a t o f t h e passions. Nature put passions in individuals for a purpose: ‘Nature d o e s n o t h i n g i n v a in , s h e w a n t s t h e b o d y t o b e a n i m a t e d b y t h e s o u l . ’35 I n s h o r t , p a n t h e i s m j u s t i fi e s se x u a l f r e e d o m , T h e m a j o r p o r t i o n o f th i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l m e d i t a t i o n c o n c e r n s ‘ h a p p i n e s s f o r t he t w o s e x e s ’ . T h e a u t h o r s t a t e s ‘t h a t m e n a n d w o m e n a r e e q u a ll y se n s ib l e o f t h e i r h a p p i ness, their nature is just about the same and the difference that one finds in their conduct is the effect of education’. This practical philosopher has moved logically from the heady m e t a ph y s i c s o f p a n t h e i s t ic m a t e ri a li s m t o tr y in g t o f ig u r e o u t h o w b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n c an b e t te r e n j o y t he m s elv e s a n d o n e a n o t h e r . E d u c a t io n b e n e f i ts m e n i n t h a t t h e y d e v e l o p a n in d e p e n d e n c e o f t h o u g h t ; they are not as bound by rules, ‘they are able more easily to choose t h e i r p l e a s u r e s ’. B u t w o m e n i n m a t te r s o f p l e a s u r e ‘a r e r e s t r a i n e d b y t h e r u l e s t h a t m e n h a v e f o o l is h ly d e m a n d e d o f th e m ’.36 H e d o n i s m r u n s a g r o u n d o n t h e o b s t a c le o f a w o m a n ’s p u b li c i m a g e , ‘r e p u t a t i o n , i n m y o p i n i o n , is t h e p o i s o n o f v o l u p t u o u s n e s s , i t c o r r u p t s n a t u r e a n d d e b a s e s o u r c l e a r e s t p l e a s u r e s ’.37

2 30


T h i s s h o r t t r e a ti s e e n d s w i th a s t ir ri n g d e n u n c i a ti o n o f t h e t e n d e n c y to choose reputation over nature, ‘of all the passions there is none m o r e t o l e r a b l e t h a n l o v e , i t p u r i fi e s th e s p i r i t . . . l ov e is t h e G o d o f t h e f in e a r t s , p o e t r y a n d m u s i c a r e i ts fa i t h f u l c o m p a n i o n s ’.38 O u r h e d o n i s t ( ‘I s p e a k f r o m e x p e r i e n c e ’) h a s f o u n d i n th e Traité a n d i n th e n a t u r a l istic tradition out of which it came, a philosophic justification for h u m a n s e x u al fr e e d o m . A v a r ie t y o f E n l ig h t e n m e n t p h ilo so p h e s w e r e t o e x t r a c t a si m i la r m e s s a g e f r o m t h a t s a m e m a t e r i a l i s t t r a d i t i o n . 39 P a n t h e i s m n o t o n ly t e n d e d t o le v e l p ri n c e s , i t c o u l d a ls o p r o v i d e ju s tific a tio n fo r th e e q u a lity o f th e se x es as w e ll as f o r a v a rie ty o f p l e a s u r a b l e h u m a n f r e e d o m s . T h e a d v o c a cy o f se x u a l f re e d o m in i ts e l f, e s p e c i a ll y w i t h o u t th e m e a n s o f e f f ec t iv e b i r t h c o n t r o l , c o u l d n o t p r o v i d e , a n ÿ i ^ o r e t h a n c o u l d p r iv a t e M a s o n ic l o d g e s f o r w o m e n , th e f o u n d a t i o n o f s o c ia l a n d s e x u a l e g a li ta r ia n i s m . Y e t b o t h m i g h t s e rv e t o suggest the failings of the prevailing social and sexual order. It was t e r r ib l y i m p o r t a n t f o r i n d i v i d u a ls s e e k i n g t o j u s t if y n e w v a r i e ti e s o f h u m a n f r e e d o m t o h a v e a v a il a b le a c o h e r e n t p h il o s o p h ic a l tr a d i ti o n a n d a c a ll to a c t io n , s u c h a s w a s fo u n d i n m a n u s c r ip t s l ik e t h e Traité , from which they might find solace as well as inspiration. I f M a r ch a n d p e r c e iv e d t h e Traité a s a p o l it ic a l t r e a t i s e , w h i c h a m o n g o t h e r t h in g s i t w a s , t h e n w e m i g h t r ig h t fu l ly b e l e d t o e x p e c t a s ig n i fi c a n t v o l u m e o f p o l i ti c a l t r a c t s a t tr i b u t a b l e t o t h e K n i g h t s a n d t h e i r f ri e n d s . T h e r e p u b l ic a n s t a te m e n t s o f S a in t -H y a c in t h e a n d J e a n F r é d é r ic B e r n a r d h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n n o t e d a s ha s b e e n R a p i n d e T h o y r a s ’s a s s o c i a ti o n w i th t h i s c o t e r i e . J a c q u e s B o y d , o n e o f th e m e m b e r s o f t h e - l i t e r a r y s o c ie t y , w a s a ls o a t r a n s l a t o r o r p o s si b ly a n e d i t o r o f A l g e r n o n " S i d n e y . 40 S h a f te s b u r y , t h e g r e a t f r i e n d o f B e n j a m i n F u r ly , t h o u g h t o f fiis associates in the Netherlands as the ‘Holland Whig Party*-and e n d e a v o u r e d t o d i s t r ib u t e c o p i e s o f T o l a n d ’s e d i t io n o f H a r r i n g t o n ’s W o r k s a m o n g t h e m ( 2 8 , 4 4 ) . T h e e f fe c t o f t h is c o n t a c t w ith t h e h e a d y idealism of the radical Whigs was to render the Knights into Anglo philes of a sort. Years after those encounters, Rousset de Missy saw e v e n V o l t a i r e a s a n i m i t a t o r o f th e s e f a m o u s ‘f r e e t h i n k e r s o f L o n d o n ’. I n e v it a b ly s o m e o f t h e s e F r e n c h c o n v e r ts b e c a m e W h i g p r o p a g a n d i s ts . Yet dedicated to the abstractions of Whiggery, in the context of the Dutch Republic, produced a unique body of political literature that cannot be explained solely by reference to the English Revolution. R o u s s e t , in p a r t i c u l a r , p u t o u t a n e n o r m o u s v o l u m e o f p o l it ic a l propaganda, most of it in support of Whig foreign policy and the n o r t h e r n a ll ia n c e o f t h e M a r it im e P o w e r s a n d A u s t r i a . If h e w a s n o t p a i d f o r h is s e rv i c e s h e s h o u l d h a v e b e e n . H i s c a r e e r a s a p r o p a g a n d i s t b e g a n w i th t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f C o l l in s ’ D is course o f F reeth in kin g ( 1 7 1 3 ) which had been intended by Collins, as the preface to the French t r a n s l a t i o n e x p l a i n s , a s a p i e c e o f w e l l- ti m e d p o l i ti c a l p r o p a g a n d a a n d

R E L I G IO N , R E V O L U T I O N A N D T H E N E W S C IE N C E

231

w h i c h R o u s s e t , i n tu r n , p u t o u t w i t h h is f r ie n d a n d l if e - lo n g a s s o c i a te , the publisher Henri Scheurleer. Rousset also wrote, or translated, o t h e r w o r k s o f a m o r e o r t h o d o x c h a r a c t e r , in t e n d e d t o ju s t if y t h e W h ig interpretation of 1688-9 as well as to defeat the Jacobite challenge ( 1 5 5 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , h e c o n t r i b u te d t o t h e l i te r a t u r e t h a t a p o t h e o s i s e d Eugène of Savoy, as did Bernard Picart who produced an elaborate e n g r a v i n g o n t h e s a m e t h e m e . 41 L i k e w i se , t h e e a r l ie s t j o u r n a l i s ti c p u b l i c a ti o n s o f t h e K n i g h ts o r t h e i r a s s o c i a te s i n d i c a te a h i g h d e g r e e o f a w a r e n e s s o f E n g l i s h p o li ti c a l a n d c u l t u r a l l if e a n d e v e n a c o n s c io u s d e s i r e t o im i ta t e a n d d i s s e m i n a t e i ts a c h i e v e m e n t s . R o u s s e t p u b l is h e d a j o u r n a l m o d e l le d o n t h e S p e c tator , w h i le t h e j o u r n a l is m a n d t ra n s l a ti n g i n to D u t c h u n d e r t a k e n b y J u s t u s V a n E f f e n i s w e l l k n o w n f o r i t s tr a n sm i s s io n - o f E n g l i s h , a n d i n particular, Whig culture. An early journal done by Henri du Sauzet a n d J e a n F r é d é r ic B e r n a r d ( o ne d e d i c a te d t o M in e rv a a n d M e r cu r y ) g a v e p u b l i c it y t o b o o k s p u b l is h e d b y t h e K n i g h t s, a n d t o t h e Traité , b ut i t a ls o r e p o r t e d i n d e ta i l o n e v e n t s i n E n g l a n d . O n e i ss u e r e c o u n t e d t h e N e w t o n i a n R i c h a r d B e n t l e y ’ s a t t a c k o n C o l l i n s , T o l a n d , et al. a n d p r a i s e d t h e p o s it io n a d o p t e d b y th e f r e e t h i n k e r s . T h e n i n a la t e r i s su e , f o l l o w i n g S t e e l e ’ s a t t a c k o n t h e e x t r e m e W h i g s i n t h e Spectator , the j o u r n a l n e rv o u sly w ith d re w it s a p p r o b a tio n .42 S in ce w e k n o w th a t m e m b e r s o f th e K n i gh ts h a d c o n t a c t w i th W h ig a g e n ts in t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , o n e w o n d e r s if a n e f f o r t w a s n o t m a d e t o e n f o r c e ‘t h e p a r t y l i n e ’. Certainly Whig interests and the northern alliance against France, e v e n w h e n i t w a s o u t o f f a s h i o n w i t h W a l p o le a n d h is m i n is te r s , w e r e u n i f o r m l y p r o m o t e d b y p u b l ic a t i o n s d o n e b y th i s c o t e r i e . Y e t R o u s s e t de Missy also carried on a one-man propaganda campaign against C a r d i n a l A l b e r o n i , t h e S p a n i s h m i n is t e F p ë r c e i v e d as t h e a r c h e n e m y in 1 7 18 b y a t e m p o r a r y a lli a nc e o f F r a n c e , E n g l a n d a n d A u s t r ia . T h i s p o l e m i c a l tr e a t m e n t o f A l b e r o n i , w h o s e e vi l R o u s s e t p e r c e i v e s e v e n in A l b e r o n i ’s p o r t r a i t , m u s t h a v e o w e d m u c h t o h is r e a d i n g o f t h a t v a s t literature, mostly published in the Netherlands and sometimes of Huguenot origin, that lashed out at the practitioners of absolutism ( 1 5 8 ) . R o u s s e t a ls o , p r e d i c t a b l y , d r a w s h i s e x a m p l e s f r o m t h e c la s sic a l tradition. The Italians, he notes, were enslaved ‘under the Pagan Emperors, and those barbarous Nations, who most unworthily trampled under Foot the Senate and the Liberty of Italy’. He also l ay s b l a m e f o r t h e m e n a c e o f a b s o l u ti s m o n t h e E n g l i s h T o r i e s w h o s e s e a r c h f o r p e a c e i n 1 7 1 2 t h e r e b y l e f t ‘E u r o p e i n t h o s e D i f fi c u lt ie s fr o m w h e n c e s h e m i g h t h a v e t h e n b e e n e x t r i c a t e d ’ ( 1 5 6 , 2 5 2 - 6 0 ) . Y e t so m e m o n a r c h s b e c a u s e t h e y n o w g iv e th e i r s u p p o r t t o th e n o r t h e r n a ll ia n c e w e r e w o r t h y o f p r a i s e , a n d R o u s s e t w r o t e a l o n g h i st o r y o f t h e r e i g n o f C a t h e r i n e t h e G r e a t p r e c is e ly b e c a u s e s h e w as p e r c e i v e d a s a n all y o f t h e M a r i ti m e P o w e r s . 43

.

23 2


T h e p o l i ti c al p r o p a g a n d a o f th i s c o t e r i e , o f te n b u r i e d i n th e i r l i t e ra r y jo u rn a ls, did seize th e o p p o r tu n ity to p ra ise si gns o f e n lig h te n e d g o v e r n m e n t w h e r e e v e r t h e y m i gh t o c c u r. Y e t n e v e r b e f o r e 1 7 4 7 d o th e y t a k e u p t h e a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t W a l p o l ea n a n d W h ig o li g a rc h y w i th which they were doubtless familiar. Indeed, Rousset’s knowledge of English affairs was quite su bstantial and his man uscripts include copies of the Craftsman , t h e o p p o s i ti o n , T o r y a n d ‘c o u n t r y ’ p a p e r o f W a l po le’s era .44 H ow m uch he and his friends m ay have a pp rov ed of its c r it iq u e o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t t h e y s a w a s a n ec e s s ar y s u p p o r t f o r D u t c h survival, we shall probably never know. Their republican analyses were confined to Continental affairs, to their reading of Dutch in terests which, as we shall see, led them to sup po rt the O rang ist cause, or to those occasions where they saw the possibility of spreading concepts of enlightened government to other parts of Europe. Allegiance to the cause and person of Eugène of Savoy led to an identification with the Austrian empire and its interests, especially with its hostility to France. In the case of Rousset de Missy that allegiance was life-long ; it is revealed in recen tly discov ered letters to Austrian ministers, now housed in Vienna and Brussels, and it is displayed in one of his earliest printed tracts (1714) on the fate of Sardinia.45 Fre em aso nry m ust have played a vital role in m aking pos sible this loyalty to a Catholic power. As Rousset states in one of his letters to the A ustria n m ihister, he is a ‘m aster m aso n’ an d hen ce he is ‘from you r royal o rd er ’ an d can be trusted*46 A s i n d i c a te d e a r l i e r , t h e K n i g h ts o f J u b i l a t io n h a d f ir m c o n n e c t i o n s in the AustriairNetherlands largely through the services-of Lambert Ignace Do uxfils and his friends. A t first glance this dedication of p a n th e i s ts a n d s p i no z is ts t o t h e i m p e r ia l C a t h o l ic m o n a r c h y m a y se em i n co n g r u o u s . Y e t A u s t r i a n c o n t r o l o v e r th e s o u t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s w as p e r c e iv e d a s c ru c i al t o t h e c o n t a i n m e n t o f F r a n c e a n d t h e s e c u r i ty o f the Netherlands. Likewise, Hapsburg influence in the Mediterranean was regarded as equally vital to the maintenance of a European bal ance of power. If the universalist ideology of Freemasonry with its emphasis on state over church ever served to anchor political allegiances, it was in these disparate Austrian territories. In this respect, it is no accident that vast numbers of imperial civil servants, from Douxfils through Cobenzl to, in all probability, Gerard van S w i e te n , u n d e r J o s e p h I I , w e r e F r e e m a s o n s . 47 T h e i r E r a s t i a n a n d civ il r el ig i o n s e r v e d a s t h e a n t i d o t e t o t h e G a l l i c an i s in g t e n d e n c i e s o f t h e native clergy and the Jesu its.48 R o u s s e t ’s tr a c t o n S a r d i n i a g iv e s in s i gh t i n t o h o w t h e r e p u b l i c a n a d h e r e n t s o f t h e n o r t h e r n a l li a n c e h e l d t h e i r p o l i ti c a l i d e a s i n s o m e s o r t of balance with their, as they would have seen it, necessary political allegiances. In *a piece of anti-Sp anish p rop ag an da tha t did not go

R E L I G I O N , R E V O L U T I O N A N D T H E N E W S C I EN C E

233

u n n o t i c e d b y th e J e s u i ts , R o u s s e t r e j o i c e d in t h e f a c t t h a t S a r d i n i a h a d b e e n w r e s te d f r o m t h e c l u tc h e s o f S p a in d u r in g t h e W a r o f S p a n i s h Succession.49 A s an apolog ist for A ustrian rule, Ro uss et insists tha t the Sardinians rejoice in their new sovereigns and that ‘the people re a p p e a r a g a in w it h t h e l ib e r t y t o c o n t r a c t n e w p r iv i le g e s , o r t o i m p r o v e t h e o l d . . . t h e li b e rt y o f t h e p e o p l e c o n sis ts t h e n in t h e p o w e r t o a c c e p t o r r e fu s e a n e w s o v e r e i g n . . . t h e p eo p l e a re n o t m a d e to b e b o u g h t a n d s o ld a m o n g k in g s a s c a tt le a r e b a r g a i n e d a m o n g s h e p h e r d s . . . ’50 W h i le R o u s s e t a c k n o w l e d g es t h a t t h e r e a r e t im e s w h en t h e p e o p l e c a r r y t h e i r s e a r c h f o r p r iv i le g e s b e y o n d r e a s o n , h e s e e s in t h e r e c e n t c h a n g e s i n S a r d i n i a t h e p o s s ib i li ty o f c r e a t in g o u t o f th a t b a r r e n l a n d o n e o f t h e ‘most pleasant kingdoms in the universe’. . R ou sset ’s gloss over the fact of conque st leaves the im p res sioirih at t h e S a r d i n i a n s h a d j u s t e x p e r i e n c e d a se l f- m a d e r e v o l u t i o n a n d i t e n d s w i th a p l e a fo r e n l i g h t e n e d m o n a r c h y . I n o u r d is c u ss io n o f t h e D u t c h Revolution we shall encounter another, more historically important, e x a m p l e o f r a d ic a l i d e a li sm l e a d i n g t o a c e r t a in p o l i ti c a l m y o p i a . Y e t Rousset’s early tract also reveals his commitment to the doctrine of p o p u l a r s o v e r e i g n it y ; o n e t h a t h e m a y h a v e g o t e i t h e r f r o m h i s r e a d i n g o f L o c k e o r f r o m t ra c t s li k e t h e Vindiciae. I t a ls o sh o w s t h e m i n d o f a radical propagandist at work, and reveals some of the contradictions t h a t w ill b e c o m e v i si bl e in t h e c o u r s e o f th e D u t c h R e v o l u t io n o f 1 7 4 7 , when Rousset de Missy attempts to combine his dedication to the House of Orange, as the reformer of a decadent and oligarchic republic, and his radicalism. Perhaps only in the intellectual lives of t h e s e ra d i c a l s c a n w e fi n d a c o m f o r ta b l e fi t b e t w e e n T h e i r l it e r a r y careers and their private beliefs. There they managed to unite their pantheistic faith with Freemasonry, and to~combine both with an a t t e m p t t o p r o m u l g a t e a n d a p p l y t h e d i s co v e ri es o f t h e n e w s c ie n c e . B u t t h o s e i n te l le c t u a l liv e s w e r e d r a m a t ic a l ly i n t e r r u p t e d l a t e i n t h e i r maturity by the returning spectre of French invasion and by a conc o m m i ta n t r e v o l u t i o n in t h e N e t h e r l a n d s w h ic h w a s, s ig n i f ic a n t l y f o r o u r s to r y , t h e o n l y r e v o l u t i o n t o o c c u r in a n a t io n - s t a t e o f W e s t e r n Europe between the English Revolution of 1688-9 and the French Revolution of 1789.

The Dutch Revolution of 1747 T h e p o l i ti c a l h i s to r y o f th e D u t c h R e p u b l ic a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f W i ll ia m o f O r a n g e ( W i ll ia m I I I , 1 7 0 2 ) , K i n g o f E n g l a n d a n d S t a d h o l d e r o f t h e Netherlands, was characterised by two interwoven and pressing con c e r n s : d u r in g t h e W a r o f S p a n i s h S u c c e ss io n a n d lo n g a f t e r , t h e f e a r o f French encroachments on the hegemony, if not the territory, of the Netherlands, both north and south, and an increasingly obvious but

234


slow commercial decline that was juxtaposed to the growing political p o w e r o f H o l l a n d ’s r ic h u r b a n ‘n o t a b l e ’ o r r e g e n t e li te ( 1 6 0 , 5 0 ) . I n t h e a b s e n c e o f a d i r e c t h e i r t o W i ll ia m ’s o ff ic ia l a n d s e m i -m o n a r c h i c a l authority, Dutch government became increasingly dominated by an o l ig a r c h y o f a b o u t 2 0 0 e x t e n d e d f a m ili es , c e n tr e d i n A m s te r d a m b u t well entrenched elsewhere. They had managed to lay claim to most essential offices in the various towns and cities of certain key pro vinces, most notably in Holland. They controlled taxation and its collection, and they had managed to place their own appointees as officers in the local citizen militias, the Dutch republican version of local police, as well as in the post offices, sensitive and vital links in c o m m u n i c a tio n a n d in t h e s h i p m e n t a n d t a x a ti o n o f c o m m e rc ia l g o o ds . T f c f e St a te s G e n e r a l , m e e t in g a t T h e H a g u e , re f l e c t e d th e s e p a r t ic u l a r commercial interests while being incapable, given its very limited c o n s t i tu t i o n a l p o w e r s , o f b e c o m i n g a s ig n i f ic a n t a g e n t o f c e n t r a l is a t io n o r r e f o r m . B y th e 1 7 3 0 s , i t a p p e a r e d t o m a n y o b s e r v e r s t h a t p u b l ic s q u a lo r w a s c o m p l e m e n t e d o n l y by t h e g r o w t h o f p r iv a t e w e a l th a n d t h e a d v a n c e m e n t o f s e lf -s e rv i n g in t e r e s t s . I n f o r e i g n p o l i c y t h i s o l ig a r c h i c o r ‘t r u e p a t r i o t ’ p a r t y , a s it w a s c a l le d by its supporters, gave its critics greatest cause for alarm. Although c o m m i tt e d in s o m e s e n se t o t h e a l li a n c e w it h E n g l a n d a n d t h e A u s t r i a n e m p i r e - t h e m a i n s ta y o f D u t c h f o r e i g n p o l ic y i n th e f i rs t h a l f o f th e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d B e y o n d - t h e n o t a b l e s b e l ie v e d i t p o s s ib l e to maintain neutral and commercially close relations with France. In c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e y p l a y e d d o w n t h e d a n g e r s o f F r e n c h a g g re s sio n i n ' t he s o u t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s . A s p a r t o f t h e t e r r i to r y c e d e d t o A u s t r ia a s a " r e s u l t o f t h e W a r o f S p a n i s h S u c c e s s i o n , B e l g i u m ( a s i t is n o w c a l l e d ) “ a n d i ts ‘b a r r i e r f o r t r e s s e s ’ w e r e p e r c e i v e d b y t h e a l l ie s , a n d e s p e c i a ll y by the anti-French and increasingly Orangist party, as the first and e s se n t ia l l in e o f d e f e n c e a g a i n s t a p o s s ib l e F r e n c h a t t a c k ( 1 6 2 , 5 0 ) . I n th e c o u r s e o f t h e W a r o f A u s t r i a a S uc c es sio n ( 1 7 4 0 - 8 ) th e F r e n ch a r m y o v e r r a n m u c h o f B e l g iu m a n d t h e ‘p r o - F r e n c h ’ f o re i g n p o lic y o f t h e D u t c h o l ig a r c h s w as r e n d e r e d b a n k r u p t . T h e i m m in e n c e o f a F r e n c h i n v a s i o n i n t o t h e R e p u b l ic i ts e l f t ri g g e r e d o f f a p o p u l a r u p r is in g in Z e e l a n d i n A p r i l 1 7 4 7 a n d i n H o l l a n d i n M a y . T h e c ro w d s c a ll ed fo r t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e s t a d h o l d e r in th e p e r s o n o f o n e W i ll ia m - C h a r l e s F r i s o , P r i n c e o f O r a n g e - N a s s a u ( 1 6 3 ) . O n e k e y element in the political base of this Orangist revival, and one directly r e l e v a n t t o R o u s s e t d e M i ss y ’s r o l e in t h e D u t c h R e v o l u t i o n o f 1 7 4 7 , w as t h e e n o r m o u s p o p u l a r s u p p o r t a c c o r d e d a n y r e p r e s e n t a ti v e o f th e H o u s e o f O r a n g e . T h e a n t a g o n i s m o f th e a r ti sa n a n d p e t it -b o u r g e o i s t o w n d w e l l e r s, a s w e ll a s o f r u r a l t e n a n t s , t o w a r d t h e i n t e r e s t s a n d policies of the great commercial oligarchs had, at moments, all the elements of class hatred.


235

In the 1730s, discon tent with oligarchic rule coupled w ith the e m er gence of W illiam -Charles Friso (17 11 -51 ), a cousin of W illiam II I, as a viable and legitimate claimant to the traditionally Orangist post of s t a d h o l d e r , g a v e n e w l if e t o th e O r a n g i s t P a r t y . A t it s h e a d w e r e W i ll ia m a n d C h a r l e s B e n t i n c k ( 1 6 4 , 2 2 3 - 4 ) t h e s o n s o f W i ll ia m I l l ’s m o st intimate adviser, and as indicated previously (pp. 198-200), e n l ig h t e n e d a r i s to c r a t s in v o l v e d in D u t c h F r e e m a s o n r y . I n c o n s e q u e n c e o f their English schooling both regarded themselves as Whigs, although their con ception o f Whiggery, that is co urt-ce ntred and m inisterial, with a popular but powerless base, differed markedly from that of the radicals. Yet, first and foremost, the Bentincks were dedicated to the i n te r e s t s o f t h e D u t c h R e p u b l i c a n d t o t h e r e v i t a li sa t io n , a l o n g O r a n g i s t lines, of ‘ou r ba d con stitution of go ve rnm en t’ (166, 37, 56, 77 , 145). A l th o u g h t h e E n g l i sh g o v e r n m e n t a t f ir s t h a d t h e g r a v e s t m i s gi vi ng s a b o u t th is n ew O r a n g i s t c o n t e n d e r f o r th e s t a d h o l d e r a t e , b y t h e 1 7 4 0 s it was in active conspiracy with the Bentincks to effect an Orangist r e s t o r a t i o n . 51 W h i le W i ll ia m - C h a r l e s F r i s o ’s fo r e i g n b a c k i n g c a m e f r o m E n g l a n d a n d A u s t r i a , h is su p p o r t w i th i n t h e r e p u b l i c c a m e f r o m c e r t a i n n o r t h e r n p r o v i n c e s a s w e ll a s f r o m a v a r i e ty o f i d e o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d i n t e r e s t g r o u p s . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l a r i s t o c r a t i c a n d s tr i c t Calvinist elements who, in effect, favoured the institution of a m o n a r c h y a n d w h o w e r e p r o b a b l y c l o se s t to W i ll ia m ’s o w n c o n c e p t i o n of his role as well as that shared by his wife, Anna of Hanov er, d a u g h t e r o f G e o r g e I I ( 1 6 5 ), w e r e jo i n e d b y e x a s p e r a t e d r e p u b l i c a n s as well as by radicals like Rousset and his followers who possessed strongly democratic tendencies. The restoratioir-of the stadholder, even of one so relatively untested as William IV, seemed not only p r e f e r a b l e b u t t h e o n ly a l te r n a t i v e t o t h e ^ c o r r u p t a n d s e lf - s e r v in g ’ r u le o f o li g a rc h y ( 1 6 7 ) . E l e m e n t s w i th in t h e O r a n g i s t P a r t y s a w t h e necessity of instituting massive reforms, while its spe cifically r e p u b l i c a n w i n g im a g i n e d t h a t w it h th e s e w o u l d c o m e a r e a f f ir m a t i o n o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l r ig h t s a n d p r i v il e g e s o f t h e c i t iz e n r y . O f c o u r s e , W il li a m I V p r o v e d s in g u l a r l y i n c a p a b l e , a s w e ll a s u n w i l li n g , t o i n i t ia t e such reforms, but none of that was clear until at least two years after the Revolution of 1747. I n 1 7 3 4 W i ll i a m - C h a r l e s F r i so a n d h i s w i f e s e t u p ‘c o u r t ’ i n T h e Hague and, important from our perspective of the growing involve ment of the radicals in the Orangist cause, their chef de cuisine, Vincent La Chapelle, opened the first official Masonic lodge there in t h a t y e a r ( se e p p . 1 1 0 - 1 1 ) . T h e S t a te s o f H o l l a n d p r o m p t l y i n t e r r o g a t e d i ts l e a d e r s a n d f o r b a d e t h e s p r e a d o f th a t m o v e m e n t p re c i se l y b e c a u se o f its O r a n g i s t a s s o c ia t io n s . A l o o k a t t h e e a r ly M a so n ic m e m b e r s h i p l i s t e x p l a i n s t h e g r o u n d s f o r t h o s e s u s p i c i o n s . J e an C o r n e i l l e R a d e r m a c h e r is p r o m i n e n t o n t h e lis t a n d h e w a s r e n t m a s t e r t o W i ll ia m I V ,

236


w h i le D i r k W o l te r s w a s r e c e i v e d a s a n a p p r e n t i c e in J a n u a r y 1 7 3 5 a n d he later acted as an agent for William Bentinck in the crucial months following the restora tion o f the stad ho lder.52 R ou sse t’s de ep imm ersion i n t h e a l l ie d a n d a n t i - F r e n c h c a u s e d a t e s fr o m a t le a s t 1 7 1 0 a n d b y t h e e a rly 1 7 4 0 s t h e d i p lo m a t ic c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f th e A u s t r ia n g o v e r n ment reveals him as one of its agents and spies. Of course this fits precisely with one of William Bentinck’s almost obsessive concerns, that the alliance with Austria be seen as vital to Dutch interests. D u r i n g t h e W a r o f S uc c es sio n t h e D u e d ’A r e n b e r g c o m m a n d e d t h e B e l g i a n f o r ce s o n t h e A u s t r i a n s id e , a n d h e b e c a m e a c e n t r a l fi g u r e in the Belgian government as well as a devoted follower of Maria T h e r e s a . L a m b e r t I g n a c e D o u x f il s, th a t e a r ly m e m b e r o f t h e K n i g h ts in B r u s s el s a n d a d e v o t e d F r e e m a s o n , w a s A r e n b e r g ’s p r i v a t e s e c r e t a r y . 53 Y e a r s l a t e r , W i ll ia m B e n t i n c k a d v i s e d t h e y o u n g s o n o f t h e then deceased William IV, that Bernard Picart had guided him into t h in k i n g a b o u t p h i lo s o p h y , a n d B e n t in c k o f f e re d t h e f u t u r e W il li am V a c op y o f P i c a r t ’s w o r k s a n n o t a t e d b y h is f r i e n d , M a r c h a n d ( 1 7 1 , I V , 471-2). T h e s e B e lg i a n , D u t c h , a n d F r e n c h r e f u g e e M a s o n s s h o u l d b e s e e n a s united in the first instance by their mutual dedication to this interna t io n a l m i li ta r y a n d d i p l o m a t i c a ll ia n c e a g a i n s t F r a n c e , n o t n e c e s s a r i ly by Orangism as sucHfFor example, another Masons, Baron de Boetz e la a r , w a s e n t r u s t e d b y B e n t i n c k t o b r in g t h e m o s t s e c re t in s t r u c ti o n s t o E n g l a n d , a n d h e w a s n o t , a c c o rd i n g to B e n t in c k , a d e d i c a t e d O r a n g is t (1 6 6 , 9 6 - 1 0 2 ) . Y e t tw o o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t O r a n g i s ts o f t h is p e r io d , - 0 n n o ~ Z w i e r v a n H a r é n a n d h i s b r o t h e r , W illia m v a n H a r é n , w e r e F r e e m a s o n s . W il li am w r o t e b r i ll ia n t p r o p a g a n d a , b o t h f ic ti o n a l a n t h n o n - f ic t io n a l , o n b e h a l f o f t h e O r a n g i s t c a u s e ( 1 6 6 , 9 2 - 3 ) . “H e e m b r a c e d t h e c o n c e p t o f e n l i g h t e n e d d e s p o t is m f o u n d i n V o l t a i r e ’s L a H enria de a n d b e c a m e a m i n o r fi gu r e o f th e D u t c h E n l i g h t e n m e n t . 54 O r a n g i s t p r o p a g a n d a , a f t e r t h e re v o l u t i o n , o p e n l y u s e d M a s o n ic sy m b o li sm , b u t l o n g b e f o r e ( a n d a f t e r ) 1 7 4 7 t h e p r i v a t e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f R o u s s e t t o M a r c h a n d c r a c k l e d w i th t h e l a t e s t n e w s o f d i p lo m a t ic i n t ri g u e a n d t h e f a t e o f t h e O r a n g i s t c a u s e . 55 All of this Masonic involvement in the Orangist Party in turn r e n d e r e d its M a so n ic m e m b e r s h ip p r o m i n e n t in t h e e v e n t s o f 1 7 4 7 - 8 a n d a l s o l a t e r , as t h e B e n t i n c k s a t t e m p t e d t o c o n s o l id a t e W i ll ia m I V ’s p o w e r o v e r th a t o f th e e n t r e n c h e d o l ig a rc h y . I n M a y 1 7 4 7 , th e S t a te s proclaimed William IV, stadholder, and he appointed Rousset de M i ss y a s o ffi c ia l h i s t o r i a n o f t h a t r e v o l u t io n ( 1 6 9 ) . A c t in g a s a n a g e n t for Bentinck, Rousset also arranged to have published pertinent theoretical justifications for revolutionary change and, almost pre d i c ta b l y , h e s o u g h t t h e r e p r i n t i n g o f t h e F r e n c h e d i t io n o f L o c k e ’s T w o Treatises .5S This use of Lo cke in a revo lution ary situation , of course ,

RELIGION, REVOL UTION AND THE NEW SCIENCE

2 37

p r e s a g e s h is r o le i n th e A m e r i c a n R e v o l u t io n a n d r e i n f o r c e s a n e a r l ie r point. As the Newtonians and moderate Whigs quickly realised, p o l i t i c a l t h e o r i e s b a s e d u p o n de facto d e f i n i ti o n s o f p o l it ic a l a u t h o r i t y were inherently dangerous and in England after 1688-9 theorists i n t e n t u p o n j u s ti f y in g s ta b i l it y a n d s t r o n g m i n is t e ri a l g o v e r n m e n t c o n sistently shied away from Locke. But the Bentincks were Whigs who had conspired to make a revolution and Locke seemed to offer one o b v i o u s j u s ti f ic a t i o n . T h e y , h o w e v e r , u n l ik e R o u s s e t d e M i ss y , d i d n o t t a k e t o i ts lo g ic a l c o n c l u s io n L o c k e ’s c al l f o r t h e p o p u l a r f o u n d a t i o n o f political authority. R o u s s e t h a d l o n g b e e n a n o p p o n e n t o f o li ga r c h ic r u l e ; h i s M ercure historique b e g u n i n 1 7 2 4 , w as n o t o r i o u s f o r i ts w i de ly r e a d c r i ti q u e o f t h e e x is ti ng o r d e r . I n 1 7 4 7 , t h e r e s t o r a t io n o f t h e s t a d h o l d e r , a n e v e n t s o d e e p ly i n d e b t e d t o t h e p o p u l a r d e m o n s t ra t io n s w i tn e s se d t h r o u g h o u t th e r e p u b l i c , a p p e a r e d t o o f f e r t h e p o s s ib i li ty o f s w e e p i n g r e f o r m s . A s a p r o m i n e n t O r a n g is t a n d r e fo r m e r , R o u s s e t s ud d e n ly e m e r g e d a s o n e o f t h e le a d e r s o f a n A m s te r d a m - b a s e d c o a lit io n t h a t a t t e m p t e d t o p u s h t h e r e v o l u t io n i n a d e m o c r a t ic d i r e c ti o n . F o r a b r i e f t im e h e w a s imprisoned in Amsterdam and then The Hague, but William IV, unwisely as events were to show, ordered his release. By early 1748 R o u s s e t h ad b e c o m e a n O r a n g i s t ag e n t o v e r w h om his s u p e r i o r s h a d l o st c o n t r o l . I n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i th a w i g - m a k e r o f F r e n c h o r i g i n , E l i e C h a t i n , w h o a s s i s t e d h i m i n h i s D u t c h w r i t i n g s , R o us s e t r a l l i e d t h e l a rg e l y a r ti s a n a n d s m a l l m e r c h a n t c la ss es a r o u n d a s e ri e s o f d e m a n d s f o r r e fo r m w h i ch b e c a m e t h e p l a tf o r m o f t h e r a d i ca l w i ng o f a m o v e ment known as the Doelistenbeweging (168, 83^6,101-15, 144-5, 219). _ At first that movement was led by Daniel Raap, an Amsterdam p o r c e l a in m e r c h a n t , w h o u n d e r t h e in f lu e n c e o f R o u s s e t , p r e s e n t e d a p e t it io n d e m a n d i n g th a t t h e s ta d h o l d e r a t e b e m a d e h e r e d i ta r y i n th e male and female lines, that all offices be sold ‘for the profit of the c o u n t r y ’, t h a t c i ti z e n l e a d e r s b e c h o s e n b y t h e c i t iz e n r y , a n d f i n a l ly t h a t the power of the guilds be restored. In brief, these reforms were intended to break the power of the oligarchy, not to destroy com pletely the place of wealthy men as elected officials, but rather to insure their responsibility to the citizenry. They also rested upon the v is io n o f a s u p p o s e d p a r t n e r s h i p b e t w e e n a r t is a n s a n d m e r c h a n t s which, it was claimed, had prevailed in the Dutch cities du ring mediaeval times. This vision of an ancient order of truly balanced g o v e r n m e n t r e in f o r c e d a d e c id e d ly m o d e r n s o u n d in g c a ll f o r d e m o c r a t ic r e f o rm . A m o n g re f o r m e r s m o r e e x tr e m e t h a n R a a p a n d w i th w h o m Rousset eventually collaborated, these demands were set forth in a petition that called for, among other things, the placing of the post o f fi ce s u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e s t a d h o l d e r a n d t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f ta x

238


collectors by the new government, to replace the tax-gathering role p r e v io u s l y e x e r c i s e d b y l a n d l o r d s w h o s e a b u s e s h a d b e e n t o l e r a t e d b y t h e re g e n ts . B y J u n e 1 7 4 8 r io t s h a d e r u p t e d i n A m s t e rd a m , L e id e n , T h e H a g u e a n d H a a r l e m , a n d i n th is r ad i ca l p h a s e o f t h e D o e l is te n b e w e g in g R o u s s e t a l o n g w i th H e n r y v a n G i m m i g, a p a t te r n m a k e r from Haarlem, emerged as leaders. W h a t h a d b e g u n a s a n O r a n g is t r e v o l u ti o n n o w th r e a t e n e d to b e c o m e a lo w e r -c la s s m o v e m e n t f o r d e m o c r a ti c re f o rm . T h e r e sp o n s e of the Prince of Orange and Bentinck was cautiously but resolutely h o s ti le . A g e n t s w e r e s e n t t o A m s t e r d a m t o c o n f e r w i th R o u s s e t a n d h is associates, and they were instructed to spend whatever money was n e c e s s a ry t o t r y t o w i n o v e r o t h e r , m o r e m o d e r a t e f o ll o w e r s , i n e f fe c t t o s te m a t id e t h a t B e n t in c k , in h is d e s ir e t o w h i p u n p o p u l a r f e rv o u r f o r th e p r in c e , h a d b e e n p a r ti a ll y re s p o n s i b le f o r c r e a ti n g . A d a n g e r o u s situation existed in Amsterdam where Doelisten pamphlets and wall p o s t e r s h a d b e e n s e e n i n t h e p o o r e s t sl um s , a n d w h e r e p i c t u r e s o f t h e r a d ic a l l e a d e r s , i n c l u d in g R o u s s e t , w e r e o p e n l y d i s p la y e d i n t h e s h o p w i n d o w s . I t w a s o n ly t h e e v e n t u a l fa i lu r e o f th e m o d e r a t e f a c ti o n , l e d b y R a a p , a n d t h e r a d ic a l s, le d b y v an G im m i g a n d R o u s s e t , to a g r e e o n a c o m m o n p l a t fo r m w h i ch c r e a te d a w e d g e t h r o u g h w h i ch t h e g o v e r n m e n t ’s a u t h o r i t y c o u l d o n c e a g a i n c r e e p . A t i ss u e w a s th e r a d i c a l s ’ c la im , a r t i c u l a t e d b y R o u s s e t t o a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e c o u r t , th a t th e y h a d t h e r ig h t t o o v e r t h r o w t h e city g o v e r n m e n t o f A m s t e rd a m ( an d b y i m p l ic a t io n a ll g o v e r n m e n t s ) a n d t o d e m a n d t h e r ig h t o f all c it iz e n s, t h a t is g u il d m e m b e r s , t o e l e c t t h e i r o f fi c e rs in t h e m i li ti a , a n d t o ' c o n t r o l t h e i r s h o o t i n g r a n g e s , a n d t o v o t e f o r v a r i o u s c it y o f fi ci al s. In June 1749, Rousset was arrested, fined 1,000 guilders and b a n i s h e d b y t h e S t a te s G e n e r a l f ro m t h e c o u n t ry . H i s w r it in g s w e r e a ls o b a n n e d , ( 1 70 , 7 8 ) a n d s o e n d e d t h e p u b lic c a r e e r o f a p a n t h e i s t an d jo u rn a lis t t u r n e d re v o lu tio n a ry . F ro m h is ex il e, R o u s s e t o fte n w ro te to M a r c h a n d b e g g i n g Jh im t o i n t e rc e d e o n h i s b e h a l f w i th C h a r l e s B e n ti n c k , a n d b e m o a n e d h is a b s e n c e f ro m T h e H a g u e , fr o m t h e w o r ld ‘o f t h e l i v i n g ’.57 Y e t h e w a s a l s o b i t te r i n h i s r e p u d i a t i o n o f ‘t h e t u m u l t o f p u b l ic a n d p o l it ic a l a f f a i r s ’ a n d h e v o w e d n e v e r t o r e t u r n t o t h e w o r ld o f c o u r t s a n d g r a n d e e s . 58 H e c la i m e d t h a t h i s on ly d e s i r e w a s t o o b t a i n permission from the princess to be allowed to return to The Hague* solely for the purpose of seeing his ‘dear friends’. R o u s s e t ’s d i s i ll u s i o n m e n t w i th t h e r e v o l u t io n w a s s h a r e d b y o t h e r , far less radical, leaders like the Bentincks. William IV had proved m a n i fe s t ly i n c a p a b l e a n d u n w i lli n g to c h a l l e n g e t h e p o w e r o f th e g r e a t o l i g a r c h s , w h i l e i n t h e f a c e o f th e r e p u b l i c ’s f in a n c i a l a n d m i li ta r y w e a k n e s s t h e E n g l is h h a d d e s p a i r e d o f th e i r a ll y. F in a ll y a n d n o t l ea s t, W i ll ia m ’s ( d . 1 7 5 1 ) w i d o w h a d . t u r n e d h e r b a c k o n t h e c o u n s e l p r o v i d e d b y t h e B e n t i n c k s a n d t h e y g ra d u a l l y d r if te d f ro m p o w e r ( 1 7 1 , II ,


239

253-6, 275). Austria grew bitter and disillusioned with what it per c e iv e d a s E n g l is h d o u b l e - d e a li n g a n d D u t c h w e a k n e s s. U n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h ip o f K a u n i t z , M a r ia T h e r e s a ’s b ril li a n t a d m i n i s tr a t o r a n d a d v o c a t e o f c e n t r a li sa t io n , A u s t r ia b r o k e w i th c e n t u r ie s o f d i p lo m a t ic t r a d i t i o n a n d e f f e c t e d t h e s o - c a l le d ‘d i p l o m a t i c r e v o l u t i o n ’ o f 1 7 5 6 ; i t s ig n e d a t r e a t y o f m u t u a l a s s is ta n c e w i t h it s t r a d i t i o n a l e n e m y , F r a n c e . Amid exile, disillusionment and ill-health, Rousset never stopped being profoundly concerned with European politics. Active in the 1 7 4 0s a s a n a g e n t f o r th e A u s t r ia n g o v e r n m e n t a n d p r o b a b l y a s a sp y, after 1749 Rousset continued to express his devotion to imperial a u t h o r i t y 59 i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r i s t i n t e r e s t s o f t h e e l e c t o r s o f the empire and over the authority of the clergy. It was a common position to be found in enlightened circles, but Rousset combined it w i th i m a g i ni n g t h a t s o m e h o w ‘L a R é p u b l iq u e g e r m a n i q u e ’ c o u l d b e m a i n ta i n e d i n s p it e o f , o r in h i s o p i n i o n b e c a u s e o f , th e s e c e n t r a l is i n g t e n d e n c ie s . A n d in h is c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i th h is A u s t r i a n p a y m a s t e rs (Rousset and later his family were rewarded for his services), he h e a p e d s p e c ia l s c o r n o n t h e J e s u i t s , w h o s e p o w e r w a s s e e n t o i n t e r f e r e w i th t h e s e e f f o r t s t o a c h ie v e p r o g r e s s i v e a n d c e n t r a l is e d g o v e r n m e n t . His intelligence-gathering services to the empire also did not cease a f t e r h i s p u b l ic d i sg r a c e , a n d i n t h e f a c e o f A u s t r i a ’s in c r e a s i n g d i s in t e r e s t w i th t h e o l d a l li a n c e , R o u s s e t f ra n t i c a ll y w a r n e d o f t h e d a n g e r s posed to the empire by French bellicosity. Through his own secret c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i th u n n a m e d i n d iv id u a l s in F r a n c e , R o u s s e t p a s se d a l o n g e v i d e n c e o f F r a n c e ’s h o s t il e i n t e n t io n s . Y e t h e n e v e r f o r g o t th e b u s in e s s a n d n e c e s s i ti e s o f p a tr o n a g e - . H e e s p e c i a ll y p l e a d e d t h e c a s e o f D o u x fil s - ‘u n d e m e s a n c ie n s a m i s ’ - w h o , a l th o u g h a m a n o f ‘h o n e s t y ’ a n d ‘t a l e n t ’, h a d f a l le n o n h a r d t im e s . B e f o r e t u r n i n g t o a c o n c l u d i n g d i sc u s s io n o f t h e v a r i o u s i n t e ll e c t u a l p r o j e c ts t h a t o c c u p ie d a n d u n d o u b t e d l y c o n s o l e d t h e se r a d i c a l a d v o c a t e s o f p o l i ti c a l r e f o r m , w e m u s t tr y t o a s s e ss t h e i r p o l i ti c a l t h o u g h t ir r .. r e l a t io n t o t h e i r p o l it ic a l a c t i o n , a n d t o d o s o i n t h e l ig h t o f w h a t w e k n o w a b o u t t h e E n g l is h r e p u b l i ca n t r a d i ti o n w i th w h i ch t h e y h a d o n c e b e e n i n c o n t a c t. W e h a v e m o v e d m a n y d e c a d e s aw a y f r o m t h e ‘n e o H a r r i n g t o n i a n ’ r e p u b l ic a n i sm o f T o l a n d a n d h is a s s o c ia te s a n d , o f c o u r s e , t h is n e w g e n e r a t i o n o f r a d i c a ls a n d r e p u b l i c a n s w e r e a t w o r k i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s . I n t h e i r v i o le n t o p p o s i ti o n t o F r e n c h a b s o l u ti s m a n d in their desire to secure the independent survival of the Dutch R e p u b l i c , th e y h a d a l s o g i ve n t h e i r a ll e g ia n c e a n d s e r v ic e t o t h a t v a st and complex international administration that held together the A u s t ri a n v e r s io n o f t h e ancien régime. C l e a rly d e d i c a ti o n t o h e r im p e r i al m a j e s ty a n d t o r e p u b l i c a n i sm r e q u i r e d s o m e r e c o n c i li n g . E q u a l l y in n e e d o f e x p l a n a t io n is th e f a c t t h a t R o u s s e t, a l th o u g h a c o m m i tt e d Orangist, became in those critical months after the restoration of the

240


s t a d h o l d e r a c e n t r a l fi g u re in t h e a g i t a t io n f o r d e m o c r a t i c r e f o r m a n d a m a j o r t h e o r e t ic i a n f o r c a d r e s o f a rt is a n s a n d s h o p k e e p e r s . Perhaps we can see in his proposal for universal suffrage for male c i ti z en s r e g i s t e r e d i n t h e g u i l d s ( w h i ch w o u l d n e v e r t h e l e s s p e r m i t o n l y w e a l th y b u r g h e r s t o s t a n d f o r o f fi c e ), w i t h a p p r o v a l o f e le c t io n s a s w e ll a s d i s i n t e r e s te d g u i d a n c e c o m i n g f ro m t h e s t a d h o l d e r , th e i n f lu e n c e o f t h a t o r ig i n a ll y E n g l i s h v e rs i o n o f re p u b l i c a n i sm . T h e s e p r o p o s a l s s e e m t o c o n j u r e u p a v is io n o f a b a la n c e o f p o w e r a m o n g t h e p e o p l e , a disinterested aristocracy and a carefully checked ruler that may owe s o m e t h i n g to R o u s s e t ’s , a n d a l s o to M a r c h a n d é , c o n t a c t w it h T o l a n d and Collins during those early years in The Hague. It may also be indebted to their having read or heard about the ideas of Sidney or > . H a r ri n g to n . T h e s e F r e n c h r e f u g e e s , a lt h o u g h i n v o l v e d a t th e h i g h e s t levels of D utch po litical life, ap pe ar to h ave ha d o nly a slight fam iliarity w i th D u t c h p o l it ic a l t h e o r y . C e r t a in l y t h e i r a d o r a t i o n o f a n i d e a l i s e d version of the British constitution remained with them throughout t h e i r l i v e s . A n d f i n a l l y p a n t h e i s m , a s r e v e a l e d i n t h e Traité , and the d e b t o f i ts p o l it ic a l m e s s ag e t o H u g u e n o t r e s i s ta n c e t h e o r y m u s t n o t b e f o r g o t t e n . T h i s h e a d y m i x tu r e o f a p u r e l y n a t u r a l is t ic u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e w o r ld a n d m a n ’s p l a c e i n it , c o u p l e d w i th E n g l i s h r e p u b l i c a n i s m and w ith a distinctly Calvinist version o f rev olu tiona ry ideology r e n d e r e d R o u s s e t, f n d p r o b a b l y q u i te a fe w o f hi s f ri e n d s , in t o t r u ly d a n g e r o u s m e n . T h e i f de facto u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p o l it ic a l a u t h o r i ty m e a n t t h a t t h e y c o u l d s e r v e a v a r ie t y o f m a s t er s , a n d d o s o i n g o o d conscience. But given half the chance, as Rousset was in 1747, they - w ere-capab le o f acting o u t the ir historical roles as "revo lution aries.Decades before the French Revolution, some of the ideas we can ~ i r o w a s s o c i a te w i th t h e R a d i c a l E n l i g h t e n m e n t , c o u l d p o s s e s s aric Tw ha t is most important did actually possess, an ideological meaning that w a s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f th e ancien régime t r u l y re v o l u t i o n a r y . T h e p o i n t needs stressing in the light of the continuing debate over the exact r e l a ti o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e i d ea ls o f th e E n l ig h t e n m e n t a n d t h e c a u s e s o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u ti o n . P e r h a p s o n e w a y o f a p p r o a c h i n g t h a t q u e s t i o n might be to acknowledge that in the case of the eighteenth-century r e v o l u t i o n in t h e N e t h e r l a n d s - o n e l a r g e ly i g n o r e d u n t il n o w in t h e h i s to r ic a l l it e r a t u r e - i t is p o s s ib l e t o s h o w t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a r a d i c a l u n d e r s i d e d e e p ly i n d e b t e d , n o t t o t h e m o d e r a t e v e rs i o n o f E n l ig h t e n ment as represented by Voltaire, but to philosophical and political h e r e si es n u r t u r e d i n E n g l a n d b u t e n r i c h e d b y v a r ie t ie s o f C o n t i n e n t a l materialism and possibly by Huguenot resistance theory. The history o f t h is M a s o n ic c o t e r i e , i n e ff e c t, p r o v i d e s o n e l in k b e t w e e n t h e E n g lish R e v o l u ti o n o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d , i n a n a t t e n u a t e d s e n s e , the democratic revolutions of the late eighteenth. We can now dis p e n s e w i th c o n s p i r a c y th e o r i e s a n d s til l s h o w t h e s u r v iv a l t h r o u g h o u t

R E L I G I O N , R E V O L U T I O N A N D T H E N EW S C I E N C E

241

t h e f i r st h a l f o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y o f a s o c ia l w o r ld t h a t w a s o f t e n , but not necessarily, Masonic wherein some very dangerous ideas were in fact discussed and disseminated. It seems not unreasonable to suggest that this social circuit was international in scope while at the s a m e t im e a c k n o w l e d g in g t h a t w e sti ll h a v e a v e r y i m p e r f e c t a c c o u n t o f t h e e x t e n t t o w h ic h s o m e M a s o n ic lo d g e s , u n d e r c e r ta i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , would encourage a radical critique of the existing order. L i k e w i s e , w e h a v e a n i n e v i ta b l y u n c l e a r a c c o u n t , g iv e n t h e a b s e n c e of documentary evidence, about the exact theoretical underpinning that made Rousset de Missy into a democrat at what was a most inauspicious moment in European politics to assume such a posture. C e r t a i n l y t h e r e w e r e so m e e x t r e m e l y f o r w a r d - l o o k i n g e l e m e n t s in h i s p o l it ic a l p r o g r a m m e ; h e w o u l d h a v e a h i g h ly c e n t r a li s e d r e p u b l i c t h a t p e r m i t te d a d is t in c t e l e m e n t o f d e m o c r a t i c p r a c t ic e . Y e t in R o u s s e t ’s willingness to serve a variety of princes and rulers, Eugène of Savoy, M a r ia T h e r e s a , W il li am I V , u n d o u b t e d l y w i t h o u t gi vi ng a m o m e n t ’s credibility to the mystique of monarchy, was there not also a certain m y o p i a a s re g a r d s t h e i r c a p a b i l it ie s a n d i n t e n t i o n s ? T w o d e c a d e s l a t e r , after a dose of Orangism in practice, many Dutch republicans and r e f o r m e r s o f th e 1 7 70 s a n d b e y o n d s im p ly g av e u p a n y h o p e o f m a k i n g t h e H o u s e o f O r a n g e i n t o a s e r v a n t o f t h e re p u b l ic . Y e t fo r R o u s s e t a n d h is a s so c i a te s , p r e s s e d a s t h e y w e r e b y t h e s p e c t r e o f F r e n c h invasion, the stadholderate seemed the only viable alternative. One other factor may have played a part in shaping their political under standing and that came out of their intensely personal and private e x p e r i e n c e o f F r e e m a s o n r y . I t w as , a s R o ú s s e t r e m i n d e d t h e C o m t e d e C o b e n z l , t h e ‘r o y a l a r t ’. D i d it si m u l t a n e o u s l y in s t r u c t i ts p r a c t i t i o n e r s i n t h e h a b i ts o f d e m o c r a t i c so c ie t y w h il e e n c o u r a g i n g a c a m a r a d e r i e w i th t h e g r a n d e e s t h a t b l u r r e d t h e r e a lit y o f t h e i r in t e r es t s a n d p o w e r ? It seems necessary to take a final look at that institution and its m e a n i n g i n t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l l i v e s o f t h e s e r a d i c a l s. F r e e m a s o n r y p o s se s s e d g re a t p e r so n a l m e a n i n g f o r b o t h R o u s s e t a n d M a r c h a n d . R o u s s e t ’s p r i v a t e le t t e r s a t t e s t t o it s i m p o r t a n c e a n d t o t h e i n t e n s it y o f t h e i r p r iv a t e c o m m i tm e n t , o n e so d if fi cu l t t o d o c u m e n t f ro m a n y o t h e r c o m p a r a b l e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n tu r y c o l le c tio n o f p u b l i s h e d or unpublished letters or diaries. Through his later career, Rousset gave expression to this Masonic ardour by writing a variety of a n o n y m o u s t r a ct s in d e f e n c e o f th e b r o t h e r h o o d . A s h is le t t e r s r e v e a l h e d i s c us s e d th e c o n t e n t s o f th e s e t r a c t s w i th M a r c h a n d , D o u x f i l s a n d ‘f r è r e C h a r l e s ’, i n s o m e c a s e s b e f o r e t h e i r p u b l i c a t io n . T h e u n i v e r s a l i s t m e a n in g a n d a p p e a l o f F r e e m a s o n r y d e e p ly c o n c e r n e d h im : ‘W e a r e f r ie n d s t o a ll th e w o r l d ’, h e b o a s t e d t o M a r c h a n d , b u t t h e n q u i c k l y added ‘except to the Jesuits, whom not one master of a lodge would r e c e iv e i n o u r o r d e r . ’ R o u s s e t e x p r e s s e d p a r t i c u l a r i n d i g n a t io n a t t h e

242

T H E R A D I C A L E N L I G H T E NM E N T

a t t a c k s l e v e l le d a g a i n s t M a s o n r y b y t h e J e s u i t s . 60 T o t h e s e H u g u e n o t o p p o n e n t s o f t h e J e s u i t s , F r e e m a s o n r y s e e m e d t o o ff e r a f r a te r n a l a n d universalist alternative that could be pitted against an international c l er ic a l o r d e r . R o u s s e t ’s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e c o n s t a n t l y n a m e s a v a r i e t y o f ‘f r è r e s ’, s o m e o f w h o m a p p e a r o n t h e o f fi c ia l m e m b e r s h i p l i st s n o w deposited in The Hague. Other times he simply refers to ‘intimes frères’, in Paris for instance, who supplied him with books and inf orm atio n.61 M asonic frate rn ity filled his daily life; it pro vid ed Rousset with an outlet for his profound anti-clericalism and for his considerable talents as a propagandist and journalist. A t e v er y o p p o r t u n i t y t his p r o m i n e n t A m s te r d a m g r a n d m a st er r e i te r a t e d a n d e l a b o r a t e d u p o n t h e i d ea ls o f F r e e m a s o n r y . F o r e x a m p l e , all M a s o n s ‘o n t h e e a r t h ’ a r e b r o t h e r s , v a n d a m o n g t h e m y o u w ill f in d all the cha rity, frien ds hip an d assistance th at you m ay ever d esir e’.62 It s h o u l d n o t b e f o r g o t t e n t h a t s e c re c y a n d m y s t e ri e s a r e c le a r ly ‘t h e s o u l o f M a s o n r y ’; w i th o u t t h e m a M a s o n w o u ld n o t ‘ipso fa cto b e a M a s o n ’. Y e t M a so n s h a v e n e v e r r e f u se d t o r e v e a l t h o se s e c r e ts t o w h o m e v e r p r e s e n t s h i m s e l f f o r m e m b e r s h i p , t o a t le a s t ‘f if ty t h o u s a n d m e n in E n g l a n d a n d i n F r a n c e w i th o u t c o u n t in g G e r m a n y , It a ly a n d T u r k e y ’ whom Rousset claims are members. They are the embodiment of respectability, ‘there is nothing among us that is against religion, the s t a t e , o r g o o d m o r a l s ^ P o s s i b l y b e c a u s e o f t h a t d e s i r e f o r a c c e p t a b i li t y , M a r c h a n d m a y h a v e u r g e d a s t r a te g i c r e la x a t i o n o f s e c re c y ; b u t R o u s set was adamantly opposed. He simply asserted that the charges of 4libertinage , d e b a u c h e r y , d e is m , a t h e i sm a n d im p i e ty , n o n - c o n f o r m i ty a n c h v a r i o u s o t h e r e v e n g r e a t e r a b o m i n a t i o n s ’ a r e t o t a ll y f al s e; Hftè p o p e h i m s e l f k n o w s t h a t i t is s o ’, ‘T h e E m p e r o r [ F r a n c is o f L o r r a i n e , h u s b a n d o f M a r i a T h e r e s a ] , t h e k i n g o f E n g l a n d , th e k i n g o f P ru s s ia , a ll t h e p r in c e s o f h i s h o u s e , t h e E l e c t o r o f C o l o g n e , a l m o s t a l l t h e E n g l is h l o r d s a n d m a n y o f t h e b i s h o p s in t h e s a m e k i n g d o m ’63 w o u l d n o t b e members if these charges possessed any substance. The membership, list presented by Rousset was impressive and extensive, and it was a l m o s t » c er ta in ly a c c u r a t e e n o u g h , a l t h o u g h t h e f ig u r e o f 5 0 , 0 0 0 h e t h e n a s s e r t e d m a y b e s o m e w h a t in f l a t e d . N o t i c e th a t R o u s s e t is c a r e fu l t o e x c l u d e p a n t h e i s m f r o m t h is li st o f i m p i e ti e s. B y t h e 1 7 4 0 s , E u r o p e a n F r e e m a s o n r y h a d c om e u n d e r a t ta c k a s a n i n s t i tu t i o n s u b v e r s i v e o f s t a te a n d c h u r c h . O n e o f t h e m o s t w i d e ly r e a d a n d r e p e a t e d o f t h e s e a t t a c k s , o r ‘e x p o s u r e s ’ a s t h e y a r e c a l l e d , w a s an a n o n y m o u s w o r k e m a n a t in g fr o m A m s te r d a m a n d e n t i tl ed L e s Francs-Maçons écrasés ( 1 7 4 7 ) . I t a s s e r t e d t h e s p e c if i c al ly E n g l i s h a n d r e p u b l i c a n o r i g i n s o f F r e e m a s o n r y , a c c u s e d it s p r a c t i t io n e r s o f w a n t in g t o d e s t r o y ‘f a l s e r e l i g i o n ’ s o t h a t ‘t h e L i g h t o f N a t u r e i n m a n ’s b r e a s t c a n o n c e a g a i n s h i n e f o r t h ’ ( 1 4 9 , 2 9 1 ) . In s h o r t , i t c l a im e d t h a t t h e Freemasons were seeking ‘to introduce a new form of Religion and


243

R e p u b l i c ’ a n d t h a t b o t h w ill b e g u i d e d b y th e d a n g e r o u s p r in c i p l e s o f l ib e r t y a n d e q u a l i t y ( 1 4 9 , 2 8 2 ) . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r l y p a r a n o i d a c c o u n t . 64 by someone who knew a great deal about the order, its rituals and c e r e m o n i e s , d e e p ly t r o u b l e d R o u s s e t . H e r e m a r k e d t h a t ‘a s a m a s t e r o f t h e l o d g e o f A m s t e rd a m I h av e n e v e r k n o w n t h e a u t h o r ’, a F l o r e n t in e m o n k , o n e B o t a r e l li , w h o R o u s s e t a s s e r ts , k e e p s a h o u s e o f p r o s t i t u t i o n i n t h a t c i ty . 65 T h e a n o n y m o u s a u t h o r ’s a c c u r a c y o n m a t t e r s o f ritual combined with a series of highly emotive half-truths struck R o u s s e t a s p a r t i c u l a rl y t h r e a t e n i n g t o t h e w e l l- b ei n g o f t h e o r d e r , a n d h e a p p e a r s t o h a v e w r it te n a n u m b e r o f a n o n y m o u s w o r k s in c o n t r a diction of it. C l e a r ly t h a t w i d el y r e a d ‘e x p o s u r e ’ h a d s t r u c k c lo s e t o o n e a s p e c t o f E u r o p e a n F r e ê m a s o n y , a t le a s t a s i t c o u ld b e f o u n d in t h e N e t h e r la n d s . That institution did bring radicals into touch with an international s o c ie t y w h i c h b r id g e d t h e m o s t e x t r e m e s o c ia l d i f f e re n c e s , a n d R o u s s e t o f t e n p r o u d l y p o i n t e d t o t h a t fa c t. T h e M a s o n ic l o d g e c o u l d b e a p o t e n t i a l ly d a n g e r o u s p l a c e , a s w as c l ea r ly p e r c e i v e d b y s o m e c o n t e m poraries who attacked its democratic tendencies. Yet it could also e n f o r c e a p r o f o u n d s o c i al c o n s e r v a t is m ; ev e n R o u s s e t m a n i f e s ts p r i d e a t it s p r in c e l y m e m b e r s h i p . A s a c e n t r e fo r re l ig i o u s w o r s h i p - a n d t h a t s e em s t h e o n l y w o r d b y w h i c h to d e s c r ib e i ts c e r e m o n i e s F r e e m a s o n r y w a s al so li n k e d i n R o u s s e t ’s m i n d w i t h th e m o s t e x t r e m e forms of intellectual heresy, with pantheism and materialism. Most c o m m o n l y h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s o c c u r i n t h os e l e t t e r s w i t h a s ig n i fi ca n t M a s o n i c c o n t e n t . F o r e x a m p l e , L a M e t t r i e ’s L ’H o m m e machine ( 1 7 4 8 ) , o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n f m a t e r i a li s ti c w o r k s o f t h e century, receives praise in a letter largely devoted to Masonic anec d o t e s a n d d i s c u s s i o n s . 66 P e r h a p s c u r i o u s l y fr o m o u r p e r s p e c t i v e , y e t u n d e r s t a n d a b l e h is to r ic a l ly , in m i d - e ig h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E u r o p e h e r e s y and the search for social equality, as well as ¡adulation of aristocratic a n d p r i n c e l y m a s t e r s , e x i s te d s i d e b y s i d e ; i t w a s a b a l a n c e t h a t a s th e events of 1747-8 in the Netherlands revealed, could be undone. In old age, as in youth, the Masonic originator of the Traité des trois imposteurs m a i n t a i n e d h i s p a n t h e i s t i c f a i t h i n t a c t . F r o m t h a t p h i l osophy came consolation and in the face of the loss of a close friend, Rousset chided Marchand: If you refuse the consolations of Philosophy, that is to say, of N a t u r e ’s g i f t o f r e a s o n I w o u l d t u r n f o r a i d to t h e [ ? ] ; a n d I p r o m i s e y o u t h a t y o u r e n d l e s s g ri e f, y o u r o v e r w h e l m i n g , m o r t a l s o rr o w , a re j n o n e o t h e r th a n re p ro a c h e s le v e ll e d a t P ro v id e n c e - b e h a v io u r w h i ch y o u c o n d e m n . A t le n g t h , I w o u ld r e t u r n t o t h e o r d e r o f N ature , w h i c h p l a c e s u s w i ll y -n i ll y o n t h i s e a r t h , n o t f o r e v e r b u t fo r a li m i t e d t i m e , w h o s e e x t e n t a n d f in a l e n d a r e a l ik e h i d d e n f r o m u s ;

244


t h is is t h e u n i v e r s a l o r d e r , t o w h i c h e v e r y o n e , b u t e s p e c ia l ly m e n o f r e a s o n , d o w e l l t o s u b m i t t h e m s e l v e s . In a w o r d , I w o u l d u r g e y o u t o l e t y o u r s e n s ib i li ty b o w t o R ea so n a n d in d e e d t o Friendship ; you are n o t s in g u l a r i n y o u r w e a k n e s s . . . I u r g e y o u t o m a k e t h e s e e ff o r ts , o n m y o w n b e h a l f a n d o n b e h a l f o f a ll y o u r o t h e r f r i e n d s .67 R o u s s e t ’s p a n th e i s m r e m a i n e d u n s h a k e a b l e , a n d h e w a s u n m o v e d b y the arguments to the contrary put forward by ‘the philosophers, the M e c h a n is ts a n d t h e M e ta p h y s i c ia n s [ w h o ] b y t h e i r m e a s u ri n g o f t h e a c t i o n , w e i g h t a n d e l a s ti c it y o f b o d i e s ’, t h i n k t h a t t h e y c a n g e t ‘i n s i d e ’ n a t u r e . 68 I n k e e p i n g w i th t h e p o l e m i c s o f T o l a n d a n d h i s a s s o c i a te s , t h e se p a n t h e i s t s r e m a i n e d u n i m p r e s s e d b y t h e o l d m e t ap h y s ic s , e v e n w h e r e s u p p o r t e d b y t h e n e w m e c h a n ic a l p h il o s o p h y . N e v e r th e l e s s , a ll the findings of the new science were to be savoured, only to be interpreted in pantheistic terms: eclipses, as Rousset explained, are, f o r o n e e x a m p l e , s i m p l y ‘i n t h e o r d e r o f N a t u r e ’.69 During the early eighteenth century, the providentialist doctrine h a d b e e n p r o c la im e d m o s t n o ta b ly b y th e m o d e r a t e , N e w to n i an p h a s e o f t h e E n l ig h t e n m e n t , a n d i t w a s i n t e n d e d t o e x p la i n t h e o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e o r d e r e d u n i v e r s e a s e x p li c a te d b y t h e n e w s c ie n c e . I n r e sp o n s e , t h e radicals reserved special scorn for that intellectual construction. Douxfils regarded it as ‘a perpetual contradiction’, but then as he r e m a r k e d h e h a d g r e a t d if fi cu l ty e v e n e n t e r i n g a c h u r c h a l t h o u g h t h e r e w a s o n e o n l y a f e w s t e p s a w a y f r o m w h e r e h e l i v e d . 70 I n a p a r t i c u l a r l y r e v e a li n g l e t te r , R o u s s e t d w e lt u p o n t h e d o c t r in e o f p ro v i d e n c e c a lli n g ' it ‘theTfîvimty of the id ler s’ an d im plied th at th e lazy rely u po n it'.71 F o r businessmen and refugees, such as were the Knights, life must have ""contained more than its usual quota of struggle and the element of s u p e r n a t u r a ll y i m p o s e d o r d e r m u s t h a v e a p p e a r e d s o r e ly la c k in g . F o r R ou sset, a t least, if no t his ‘frè re s’, ‘the divinity of the M etap hy sician ’ w a s , a s h e s a i d , s o m u c h ‘j a r g o n ’. Y e t l if e a s p r e s c r i b e d b y n a t u r e w a s f a r f ro m r a n d o m o r m e a n i ng l e ss for these ‘frères’. In sickness and in death these now aged pantheists c o u n s e l le d f o r fa i t h in n a t u r e : ‘h e a v e n o r m o t h e r N a t u r e w i ll g i ve u s g rac e’ an d d ea th is in effect a falling as leep .72 In the e nd we retu rn to nature and our understanding of this world while we are in it must be b a s e d u p o n ‘r e a s o n ’ a n d ‘t r u e f r i e n d s h i p ’. I n d e e d , t h e t h e m e o f f ri e n d s h ip a n d m u t u a l ai d ru n s t h r o u g h t h e s e l e tt e r s , a n d t h a t c o m m i tm e n t w a s p a r t o f a l a r g e r e th i c : ‘Y o u w o u l d a d m i t t h a t w e a r e n o t i n th i s w o r l d f o r o u r s e lv e s a l o n e , o t h e r w i s e h o w w o u l d w e s e r v e s o c i e t y ? ’ P e r h a p s b e c a u s e o f t h e c o m p e t it iv e w o r l d in w h i c h t h e s e p u b l is h e r s l iv e d , a n d a b o u t w h i ch t h e y c o m p l a i n e d e n d l e s s ly i n t h e i r l e t te r s , t h i s e t h i c o f m u t u a l a s s is t a n c e a n d ‘t r u e f r i e n d s h i p ’ c o u l d o n l y f in d c o m plete expression, or so it seemed, within the confines of the Masonic

RELIGION, REVO LUTION AND THE

N EW S C I E N C E

245

l o d g e . 73 I n t h a t c l o se d w o r ld , t h e s e m e n o f e n l i g h t e n m e n t e m b r a c e d t h e c e n t r a l p a r a d o x o f th i s n e w c r e e d : in s e c re c y a n d w i th e x q u i s it e ly r e s t r a i n e d c e r e m o n i e s a n d r i t u a ls t h e y w o r s h i p p e d c iv il s o c i e t y a t t h e a l t a r o f r e a s o n a n d o r d e r . T h e y p r o c l a im e d u n i v e r sa l is m w h i le c a r e fully excluding all but the select company of ‘frères’; they repudiated t h e o l d r e l ig i o n s w i t h t h e i r c u lt s a n d r i tu a l s w h i le d i s c r e e t ly p a r t i c i p a t i ng in t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a ne w , i f s o m e w h a t c e r e b r a l , v e r si o n o f t h a t v e r y i m p u l s e : 74 T h e i r o b j e c t o f w o r s h ip d i f fe r e d p r o f o u n d l y , h o w e v e r , f r o m the God of ‘the impostors’. The Freemasons and pantheists worship p e d a n e n t it y t h a t h a d b e e n r e i n t e r p r e t e d b y t h e d is c o v e r ie s o f th e n e w s c ie n c e , b y t h e S c i e n t if ic R e v o l u t i o n t h a t c u l m i n a t e d in N e w t o n ’s achievement (Chapter 1).

The New Science As originally constituted under the careful leadership of the New t o n i a n , D e s a g u l i e rs , of fi ci al F r e e m a s o n r y p r o v i d e d o n e a g e n c y f o r t h e i n c u lc a t io n o f t h e n e w s c ie n c e. A l th o u g h t h e e x a c t e d u c a t i o n a l r o l e o f i n d i v i d u a l M a s o n i c l o d g e s a w a i t s h i s t o r i c a l i n v e s t ig a t i o n , i t s e e m s a s a fe a s s e r ti o n t h a t in g e n e r a l F r e e m a s o n s a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n p a r t i c u l a rl y r e c e p t i v e t o t h e n e w s c i e n ti fi c l e a r n i n g a n d t o h a v e b e e n g e n e r a l l y comfortable with it. Certainly this holds true for the intellectual in t e r e s t s o f t h e K n i g h t s o f J u b i l a t io n , t h e i r l i te r a r y s o c i e ty t h a t p u b l i s h e d t h e Jo u rn a l li ttérair e , as well as for the life-long scientific interests of M a r c h a n d a n d R o u s s e t . I n f a c t, M a r c h a n d a n d h i s a s s o c i a te s t u r n o u t t o h a v e p l a y e d i m p o r t a n t r o l e s in t h e t fa n sm i s si bn ~ a n d d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f t h e t w o m a j o r s c ie n ti fi c a c h ie v e m e n t s o f th e f ir s t h a l f o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y : t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e N e w t o n i a n s y n t h e s is o n t h e C o n t i n e n t a n d t h e p u b l i c a t io n o f T r e m b l e y ’s r e s e a r c h o n t h e s e l fg e n e r a t i o n o f p o l y p s . T h e l i te r a r y s o c ie ty i n T h e H a g u e , w i th s ’G r a v e s a n d e p l ay i n g a p a r t ic u l a r ly c ru c ia l r o l e , to o k u p N e w t o n ’s s c i e n c e i n t h e p a g e s o f t h e J o u rn a l , a n d i n a s y s t e m a t i c w a y a n d w i t h N e w t o n ’s p e r s o n a l e n c o u r a g e m e n t , g av e a w i d e r e x p o s i t io n o f hi s discoveries than had been available in any other French-language jo u r n a l p r io r to 1 7 1 3 . T h is is n o t to d e n ig ra te th e e sse n tia l r o le p la y e d b y B o l i n g b r o k e , B r o o k T a y l o r a n d V o l ta i re , a s w e ll as c o u n t l e s s o t h e r N e w t o n ia n s , in t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f C a r t e s ia n i sm . B u t it m u s t b e r e c o g n i se d t h a t li te r a r y jo u r n a l s , s u ch a s th e o n e p r o d u c e d b y s ’G r a v e s a n d e , Marchand and company, reached a far larger literate audience, far· earlier in the century, than did those individual propagandists. E v e n b e f o r e t h e i r a r ri v a l in t h e N e t h e rl a n d s d u r in g t h e W a r o f S p a n i s h S u c c e s si o n , M a r c h a n d a n d P i c a r t , le a d i n g f ig u r e s i n t h e Knights of Jubilation, had been attracted to the new scientific l e a rn i n g . M a r c h a n d ’s B a c o n i a n i sm , his p e n c h a n t f o r t h e s y s t e m a t i c

246


c l a ss i fi c a ti o n o f k n o w l e d g e , h a s a l r e a d y b e e n n o t e d , a s h a s P i c a r t ’s d e d i c a t io n t o a f r e e t h i n k i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e C a r t e s ia n le g a cy a n d his practical intere st in the m icroscope as a mea ns of im proving his technique as an engraver. Once they arrived in the Netherlands, s ’G r a v e s a n d e p r o b a b l y b e c a m e t h e i r s c ie n ti fi c t u t o r . T h e l it e r a r y s o c ie ty f o r m e d b y M a r c h a n d a n d h is f ri e n d s th e r e b y r a n k s a s o n e o f th e f i rs t ci rc l e s o n t h e C o n t i n e n t to b e r e a s o n a b l y v e r s e d i n N e w t o n ’s s c ie n c e . T h e p a g e s o f th e J o u rn a l a t t e s t t o t h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d l e v e l o f scientific understanding enjoyed by at least some of its editors, and e v e n t o t h e i r w i l li n g n e s s t o d o p o l e m i c a l s er v i ce a g a i n s t t h e c r i t ic s o f N e w t o n ’s e x p l a n a t i o n o f p l a n e t a r y m o t io n s . 75 A s n o t e d i n C h a p t e r 1, w h e r e v e r w e f in d t h e f ir s t st ir ri n g s o f t h e n e w e n l ig h t e n e d c u l t u r e w e f i n d a n i n t e n s e i n t e r e s t i » . th e n e w s c ie n c e. But interest should not be equated with wholesale conversion to b o t h t h e m e a n i n g a n d t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e m e c h a n i c a l p h i lo s o p h y a s a r t ic u l a t e d b y B o y l e a n d N e w t o n . N e w t o n i a n i s m ’s f u n d a m e n t a l i n t e r c o n n e c t io n w i th C h r i s t ia n m e t ap h y s i c s r e n d e r e d i t, i f a c c e p t e d c o m p l e t e w i t h i ts u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f in e r t m a t t e r a n d G o d ’s v i ta l r o le i n t h e u n i v e r s e , i n to a n e s s e n t ia l ly m o d e r a t e v e rs i o n o f E n l ig h t e n m e n t . T h i s m o d e r a t i o n m u s t b e s e e n a s r e la t iv e t o t h e m a t e ri a li s ti c e x p l a n a t i o n o f nature which had been extracted, with considerable effort, from D e s c a r t e s , a s w e l l a s r e la t i v e t o t h e p a n t h e i s t ic v is io n o f t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d e x t r a c t e d w i th l i tt l e d i ff ic u l ty f r o m a c a r e f u l re a d i n g o f S p i n o z a o r a c a s u a l r e a d i n g o f B r u n o . A t p r ec i se l y t h e t im e w h e n t h e K n i g h ts e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r l i te r a r y s o c ie t y ( .1 7 1 0 - 1 3 ) a n d b e g a n a j o u r n a l c o m m i f fe d T o d i s s e m i n a t i n g t h e n e w s c i e n c e , a m o n g ~ o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t ir e ~~ new learning, their intense interest in Spinoza as well as in the naturalistic writers of the late Renaissance, Des Périers, Bruno and V a n i n i , h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d . I t is n o l o n g e r p o s s ib l e t o a s s u m e , as d id t h e G e r m a n p h i l o s o p h e r a n d h i s to r i a n E r n s t C a s s ir e r, a sim p l e e q u a tioith&tween the acceptance of Newtonianism and the origins of the E n l ig h t e n m e n t . W i th i n t h e R a d i c a l E n l i g h t e n m e n t w e f in d e v id e n c e i n s t e a d t h a t t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l a n d p h y s ic a l d is c o v e r ie s 1o f th e n e w science were grafted on to a natural philosophy that was essentially p r e - s c i e n t i f ic i n it s o r i g in s . I n t h e s e c i rc le s n a t u r e w a s s im u l t a n e o u s l y deified and subjected to mathematical and experimental explication. W h a t p r e c i s el y d i d t h e n e w s c ie n c e , t h a t r ic h l e g ac y o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , m e a n i n t h e d a il y li ve s o f t h e s e r a d i c al j o u r n a l i s ts a n d propagandists? Essentially it provoked two responses. The first e n t a i l e d a p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t in* a n d a b i li ty t o f o ll o w w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e s o p h i s t ic a t i o n ! n e w s c i e n ti f ic p u b l i c a t i o n s , a n d e v e n t o a t t e m p t o n e ’s own scientific,experimentation. The second impulse was a more gen e r a l d e s i r e t o t r a n s l a t e t h e s c i e n t if i c s p i r i t i n t o u n i v e r s a l p r a c t i c e , i n to a s y s te m a tic s tu d y o f e v e ry a s p e c t o f h u m a n e n d e a v o u r t o b e u n d e r t a k e n

RELIGION, REVO LUTION AN D THE NEW SCIENCE

247

a t e v e r y t u r n f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f r e f o r m i n g o r , i f n e e d b e , o f d e s t r o y in g certain established social institutions. For enlightened men wit h jo u rn a lis tic in te re s ts th a t scie n tif ic im p u ls e to o k an e n c y c lo p a e d ic d i r e c t i o n ; i t e n t a i l e d t h e c a t a l o g u i n g a n d d i g e s t i ng , a s w e l l a s t h e disseminating, of the new learning, the creation of literary projects often infused with subversive and polemical overtones. I n t h is s p i r it , M a r c h a n d a n d h i s a s so c i a te s e d i t e d a n d p u b l i s h e d t h e 1 7 2 0 e d i t io n o f B a y l e ’s D ic ti onnair e , w h i l e P i c a r t a n d J e a n F r é d é r i c B e r n a r d b e g a n a m a s s iv e a n d w e l l- r e s e a r c h e d s u r v e y o f a ll t h e w o r l d ’s religions. Cérémonies et coutumes religieuses de tous les peuples du m o n d e , b e g u n i n 1 7 2 2 a n d in t u r n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l is h a n d D u t c h , w a s e x p l ic i tl y c y n ic a l a b o u t t h e e v i ls o f re l i g io u s p r a c t i c e a n d g r a p h i c al ly il lu s t r a t e d b a r b a r o u s r e li g io u s p r a c t ic e s , w i th m u c h e m p h a s i s o n human sacrifice. Picart’s engravings of these ceremonies forcefully im p r e ss t h e m o d e r n v i e w e r a n d l e av e n o d o u b t a s t o h is o w n o p i n io n s a b o u t t h e a b s u r d i t y o f m o s t re li g io u s p r a c tic e . T h e F r e e m a s o n s w e r e a m o n g t h e f e w r e li g io u s g r o u p s t o g e t a d e c e n t p r e s s , w h il e th e p r e f a c e t o t h e E n g l i s h e d i ti o n o f th i s m u l ti v o l u m e d a n d e x p e n s i v e e n c y c l o p a e d i a e c h o e d s e n t im e n t s a b o u t t h e w o r l d ’s re lig i o n s n o t f a r f ro m t h o s e f o u n d in t h e Traité des trois imposteurs: ‘W h e n w e b e h o l d t h e i r d e p o s i ti o n s so d e s tr u c ti v e to t h e p e a c e o f t h e w o r l d . . . [ w e a s k ] w h o s e m e r c y is o v e r a l l [ t h e D e i t y ’s ] w o r k s ? ’ .76 S o m e d e c a d e s a f t e r M a r c h a n d a n d P i c a r t c o m p l e t e d t h e s e v a ri o u s e n c y c l o p a e d i c p r o j e c t s , R o u s s e t , i n t h e l e t te r t o M a r c h a n d q u o t e d a t t h e b e g in n i n g o f th is c h a p t e r , p r a is e d D i d e r o t ’s Encyclopédie i n l a n g u a g e i n d i c a t in g t h a t h e r i g h t l y s a w i t a s a continuation of that same scientific and“subversive spirit. By the early eighteenth century in Continental Europe scientific academies had been established in various cities and predictably at l e a s t o n e o f th e s e r a d i c a l j o u r n a l is t s , R o u s s e t , e n j o y e d a f a s h i o n a b l e m e m b e r s h ip in t h e R o y a l A c a d e m y o f A r ts a n d S c ie nc e s in B e r li n a s w e ll as i n t h e A c a d e m y o f S c i en c e in S t P e t e r s b u r g . T h e i r r e c o r d s l e a v e n o i n d i c a t io n o f w h a t m i g h t h a v e b e e n R o u s s e t ’s y e a rl y c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e p r o c e e d i n g s , b u t h e w a s in o r d i n a t e ly p r o u d o f his m e m b e r s h i p in b o t h b o d i e s . F r o m S t P e t e r s b u r g h e r e c e i v e d s c ie n t if ic t re a t i s e s , a m o n g t h e m w o r k s b y t h e i m p o r t a n t m a t h e m a t ic i a n , E u l e r . 77 A s h is c o r r e s p o n d e n c e r e v e a l s , i n te r e s t a n d s k ill i n m a t h e m a t ic s w a s co m b i n e d b y Rousset with microscopic investigations which on one occasion pro d u c e d a s c ie n t i f ic tr e a t i s e o n s e a w o r m s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e v a l u a b l e i n i ts d a y . 78 I n t h e 1 7 3 0 s t h e w o o d e n d i k e s a r o u n d t h e D u t c h c o a s t w e r e je o p a r d is e d b y a p la g u e o f se a w o rm s th a t th r e a te n e d to w e a k e n th e ir f o u n d a t io n s . R o u s s e t t u r n e d h i s a t te n t i o n t o t h e s e c r e a t u r e s a n d p u b lished a treatise, based upon his dissections, which outlined their structure and revealed his rather significant ability as a microscopic investigator. Throughout his life the microscope in his cabinet was

248


among his most cherished possessions. More than biology and even medicine, about which he knew little but in which he entertained an interest, mathematics interested him most profoundly; he believed t h a t m a t h e m a t i c s ‘r e c t if i o i e n t l e j u g e m e n t ’ a n d h e s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n reas on ab ly skilled in its pra ctice .79 T h e e d i t o r s o f t h e J o u rn a l littéraire , a n d t h e i r c o l l a b o r a t o r s i n t h e Knights of Jub ilation, laid dow n roo ts for the n ew scientific culture in t h e N e t h e r l a n d s t h a t w e r e t o y i e ld a n u n e x p e c t e d l y r i c h l eg a cy in t h e h i s to r y o f E u r o p e a n m a t e ri a li s m . O n e o f t h e o r i g i n a l ‘f r è r e s ’ a n d a c o l l a b o r a t o r o n t h e Jo u rn a l w a s t h e F r e n c h r e f u g e e , I s a a c S a c r e l a i r e ( b. 1 6 8 0 ) . A s a s t u d e n t o f m e d i ci n e a n d a s a n a c t iv e p a r t i c i p a n t i n t h e intellectual life eng en de red by this secret literary society and its scien tific leader, s’Gravesande, Sacrelaire acquired early in his career a fam iliarity w ith th e m ost adva nced scientific discoveries, as well as with the delicate questions posed by the new natural philosophies. Those questions must have remained in his mind, when Sacrelaire became a collaborator and close friend to Abraham Trembley, the t u t o r t o W i ll ia m B e n t i n c k ’s c h i l d r en . W h i le l iv i ng a t B e n t i n c k ’s h o m e in The Hague, and in daily contact with both William and Charles Bentinck, Trembley conducted extensive experiments on the repro ductive behaviour of fresh-water polyps and came to the conclusion that they were capablé of self-generation (52). That discovery, once w rested from his hand s by ma terialists like La M ettrie, gave new life, some argued victory, to the materialist interpretation of natur al p h e n o m e n a . T r e m b l e y d e s c r ib e d S a c r e l a ir e ‘a s t h e p e r s o n w h o a f t e r m e ’ k n e w m o s t a b o u t t h a t d i s co v e r y a n d w a s b e s t a b l e t o f o ll o w a n cf assist him in his expe rim en ts.80 W as Sacrelaire, like so m any o f his early ‘frères’, a materialist? We shall probably never know (certainly Trembley was not) but it is hardly coincidental that members of this scientific circle, given what we now know about its earliest history, w o u l d h a v e b e e n l a t e r d ra w n t o q u e s ti o n s a n d e x p e r i m e n t s t h a t w e n t t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e N e w t o n i a n - m a t e r i a li s t d i a l o g u e - w e s h o u l d re a l ly s ay p o l e m i c - w h i c h b e g a n w i t h T o l a n d a n d w h i c h w a s c o n t i n u e d f o r d e c a d e s o n t h e C o n t i n e n t . I n t h a t w a r a g a in s t C h r i s ti a n o r th o d o x y , th e Dutch-based publishing firms and journalists played crucial roles as p r o p a g a n d i s t s a n d d i s s e m i n a t o r s o f c l a n d e s t i n e m a n u s c r i p t s a s w e ll a s printed books. If Sacrelaire escaped a personal commitment to m a t e r ia l is m , o r p a n t h e i s m a s T o l a n d a n d R o u s s e t p r e f e r r e d t o c al l i t, M a r c h a n d d id n o t . A n d a t T r e m b l e y ’s r e q u e s t , M a r c h a n d b r o u g h t h i s scientific discoveries about the polyp to publication, and thereby swung the debate in the direction of the materialists. I f i t c o u l d b e p r o v e n t h a t l iv i ng m a t t e r s e e m e d c a p a b l e o f s im p l y g e n e r a t i n g i ts e lf - a n d t h a t w a s h o w t h e a c t i o n s o f th i s m i ni sc u le c r e a t u r e a p p e a r e d t o th e m o s t t r a i n e d o b s e r v e r s - t h e n , t h e m a t e ri a l-

R E L I G I O N , R E V O L U T I O N A N D T H E N EW S C I E N C E

249

ists argued, life, or motion, could indeed be inherent in nature, in m a t te r i ts elf . A f t e r d e c a d e s o f h a r d l a b o u r o n t h e p a r t o f N e w t o n i a n s , C a r te s i an s a n d t h e f o llo w e r s o f L e i b n iz - a n d o n t h is o n e s u b j e c t t h e y w e r e u n i t e d - t o p r o v e th a t o r d e r , d es ig n a n d h a r m o n y i n th e u n i v e r s e r e s t e d o n G o d ’s w ill a n d t h a t a n i m a t e m a t te r w a s in h e r e n t l y i n c a p a b l e of forming and generating itself, suddenly it seemed that the new s c ie n c e r e v e a l e d d i s tu r b i n g e v i d e n c e t h a t c o u l d p l ay d i r e c t ly i n t o t h e hands of philosophical and political radicals. I n t h e p e r i o d a f t e r 1 7 5 0 , t h e m a te r ia lis m o f t h e R a d i c a l E n l i g h t e n ment was increasingly adopted by the French philosophes and its d i ff u s io n , o f t e n t h r o u g h t h e v a r i o u s e d i ti o n s o f D i d e r o t ’s E n c y c lopédie 81 w ith th e coyly m aterialistic articles place d th ere by th e A b b é Yvon, was alarmingly rapid. In the process, the republicanism and F r e e m a s o n r y s o v ita l to t h a t e a r ly p h a s e o f th e E n l i g h t e n m e n t l a r g e ly fell by the wayside. That is not, of course, to imply that the sources of French materialism can be explained largely by the impact of the projec ts, boo ks and m anuscripts now attribu table to the radical coterie w e h av e, d e s c r i b e d h e r e . S u c h a n im p l ic a ti o n w o u l d a m o u n t t o a n egregious simplification of the history of a subversive doctrine as important as materialism became in eighteenth-century Europe and w e ll b e y o n d . Y e t it h a s b e e n a l r e a d y n o t e d i n p a s s in g t h a t t h e R a d i c a l Enlightenment bears more than an ideological resemblance to doc t ri n e s l a te r v it al to t h e H i g h E n l i g h t e n m e n t in F r a n c e . T h e r e w e r e a l s o s o c ia l a n d p e r s o n a l li n k s b e t w e e n t h i s e a r l ie r g e n e r a t i o n o f E u r o p e a n materialists and the generation of philosophes and publishers who c a m e i n to t h e i r o w n in t h e p e r i o d a f t e r 1 7 5 0. T h e u n r a v e l l in g o f t h e s e links will be a treacherous business, in large measure because it in v o lv e s a s e c r e t s oc ie ty a s c o n t r o v e rs ia l“^ F r e e m a s o n r y h a s b e c o m e in French historiography. It would be safer to stop our historical knowledge of the Radical Enlightenment here, to be content to have traced some of its philosophical origins and its revolutionary heritage, to have examined its transmission to the Continent and its social wo rld, an d finally in this cha pte r to have o utlined its institutions a n d p o l it ic a l in v o l v e m e n t s . B u t in e v i ta b l y th e p a s t b e a r s s o m e r e l a t i o n t o w h a t c a m e a f t e r i t. I t r e m a i n s fo r u s to a t t e m p t a b r i e f a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e re l a ti o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e R a d ic a l E n l ig h t e n m e n t a n d t h e m a t u r e years of Enlightenment culture in France. Perhaps it can be said that s o m e n e w p a th s t o th e H i g h E n l ig h t e n m e n t ha v e n o w b e e n r e v e a l e d .

Notes: Chapter 7 1

U L , L e i d e n , R o u s s e t d e M issy to P r o s p e r M a r ch a n d, M a r c h a n d M S S 2, f . 4 7 , 2 8 February (n.a., but from the context almost certainly 1752). The original read s: ‘S a v e z v ou s q u e c e la a u r o i t é t é g r a n d t r a i n v e r s le P a n t h é i s m e s i c e s T h è s e s e u s s e n t

25 0

2 3

4

5

6

7 8

__

9

10

11

12 13 14 15

T HE R A D I C A L E N L I G H T E N M E N T p a s s é e t e n m ê m e t e m p s l e s 1 0 é n o r m e s v o l. d e L ’E n c y c l o p é d i e ; o n d é b a r a s s o i t le s b e a u x E s p r i t s , le s f e m m e s s a v a n t e s & g a l a n t e s , l e s p e t i t s - m a î t r e s , t a n t d e d é i s t e s e t d ’a t h é e s I t a l i e n s & A n g l o i s e t f r a n ç o i s d u j o u g d e l a R e l ig i o n s i n é c e s s a i r e d a n s l a s o c i é t é p o u r n ’y ê t r e p a s é g o r g é , e t p a s p o u r a u t r e c h o s e , e t c ’e n e s t b i e n a s s e z ; m a i s [h]alte, je fais le petit Enciclopédiste.’ A l b e r t , C o u n t d e P a s s e r a n , Twelve Discourses concerning Religion and G ov e r n m e n t , In s c r i b e d to A l l L o v e r s o f T ru th a n d L i b e r t y ( L o n d o n , 1 7 3 4 ) , p . 1 1 . N o u v e ll e s lib ert és d e P en se r ( A m s t e r d a m , 1 7 4 3 ) , ‘L e P h i l o s o p h e ’, o n e o f f iv e t r a c t s , p p . 1 6 5 , 1 8 8 : ‘L a s o c i é t é c i v il e e s t p o u r a i n s i d ir e , la s e u l e d i v i n it é q u ’il r e c o n n o i s s e s u r l a t e r r e ; i l l ’e n c e n s e , il l ’h o n o r e p a r la p r o b i t é , p a r u n e a t t e n t i o n e x a c t e à s e s d e v o i r s . . . ’ C f . J . O ’H i g g in s , S I , A n t h o n y C o lli ns ( T h e H a g u e : N i jh o f f , 1 9 7 0 ) , p p . 216-17. U L , L e i d e n , M a r c h a n d M S S 2 , 2 6 F e b r u a r y 1 7 3 7 , ‘V o u s m ’a v e z f a i t p l a is ir d e m ’i n s t r u i r e s u r l a V i e e t l ’E s p r i t d e S p i n o s a ; je s u i s b i e n a i se d ’ê t r e a u f a i t d e c e t t e a n e c d o t e . J ^ p r è s c e q u e j e v o u s e n a y d i t , il e s t a i s é d e s ’a p e r c e v o i r d ’o ù e l l e v i e n t ’ . M a r c h a n d ¿2*,. 17 J a n u a r y 1 7 4 0 : ‘V o u s v o u s s o u v e n é s p e u t - ê t r e q u e c ’é t o i t m o n F r è r e q u i n o u s e n a p p o r t a l e M s p . à la m a i s o n , a p p a r t e n a n t à M . F u r ly . L e v i e r l e copia fort précipitamment: Je la garde encore cette Copie S e e a p p e n d i x , p p . 2 7 7 - 9 . T h e o r i g in a l r e a d s : ‘Q u a n t à ce q u e v o u s c ro y e z q u e l a T r a d u c t i o n i m a g i n a i re d o n t il s ’a g it d a n s R é p o n s e e n q u e s t io n s , a i t q u e l q u e c h o s e d e C o m m u n a v e c l ’E s p r i t d e S p i n o s a , j ’e n c o n v i e n s a v e c vo u s . L e v i e r la c o p ia e n 1711. Cette sorte de Livres était sa marotte. Si, depuis ce temps , il a eu du c o m m e r c e a v e c R o u s s e t , t o u s l es d o u t e s la d e s s u s s e to u r n e n t e n é v i d e n c e . Il e n e s t d u L i v r e d e s tr o i s I m p o s t e u r s c o m m e d e s C l a v ic u le s d e S a l o m o n - d o n t j ’a y v e u plusiers Msp tous différens les uns des autres.* B L , M S S A D D . 4 2 9 5 ? f f. 6 9 - 7 0 , ‘C h r is t o p a e d i a , A n A c c o u n t o f t h e P u e r i l S t u d i es o f J e s u s C h r i s t ’.

R é p o n s e à la D is serta ti o n d e M . d e la M o n n o y e su r L e Tra ité des tr o is im po st eu rs ( T h e H a g u e , 1 7 1 6 ) . I n t h e 1 7 6 8 e d i ti o n o f t h e Traité , the R é p o n se o c c u r s o n p p . 1 1 6 - 3 5 ; f o r T o l a n d , p . 1 1 9 . T h e R o y a l L i b r a r y , T h e H a g u e , h a s R o u s s e t ’s t r a c t a s a s e p a r a t e p u b l i c a t i o n . ( I ta l i ci s in g o f ‘P a n t h e i s t s ’ m y o w n . ) H a s s a n E l N o u t y , ‘L e p i rn t h é i s m e d a n s l e s l e t t r e s f r a n ç a i s e s a u X V I I I e s i è c le : a p e r ç u s s u r l a f o r t u n e d u m o t e t d e l a n o t i o n ’ , R e v u e des scie nces h u m a in e s , v o l . 2 7 ( 1 9 6 0 ) , p p . 4 3 5 - 5 7 . i b i d . , p p . 1 2 7 - 8 . T h e Traité a n d t h e Spaccio w e r e o f t e n c i r c u l a t e d b y t h e s a m e p e o p l e , e .g . S. E n g e l i n B e r n e ; cf. B L M S S . A D D . 1 2 0 6 2 le t t e r fr o m E n g e l t o R o b i n e t p r ef ix e d t o t h e S p a c c i o ; H e i n r i c h D ü b i , D as B u c h vo n d en d re i B etr ügern u n d d a s B e r n e r M a n u s k r i p t ( B e r n e : A . F r a n c k e , 1 9 3 6 ) , p. 1 4 ; B L , M SS A D D . 1 2 0 6 4 f o r a c o p y o f t h e Traité. D ic ti o n n a ir e h is to ri q u e , ou mémoires

?

critiques et littéraires, concernant . . . p er so n n a g e s dis ti ng ué s p ar ti c u li è re m e n t d an s la ré p u b li q u e des le ttre s ( T h e H a g u e : P i e r r e d e H o n d t , 1 7 5 8 ) , v o l . I , p p . 3 1 2 - 2 9 ; c f. J . S . S p i h k , ‘L a d i f f u s io n d e s i d é e s m a t é r i a li s te s e t a n t i- r e li g i e u s e s a u d é b u t d u X V I I I e s iè c l e: le T h e o p h r a s t u s r e d i vivus’, R e v u e d ’h is to ir e littéra ir e d e la F ra nce? ( 1 9 3 7 ) , p p . 4 4 , 2 4 8 - 5 5 . C f . B ib li o th ec a h o h e n d o rfia n a ( 1 7 2 2 ) , v o l. 3 , p . 2 3 4 ; se e a l s o P a u l V e r n i è r e , S p i n o z a e t la pen sée française av an t la révolution ( 1 7 , I I , 3 6 2 ) . I d o u b t t h a t t h e r e e v e r w a s a G e r m a n d o c t o r n a m e d F e r b e r in v o l v e d in th e 1 72 1 e d i ti o n . I n t h e m y t h o lo g y o f a ll this he ranks with Frecht and Aymon. Traité des trois imp osteurs ( A m s t e r d a m , 1 7 6 8 ) , c h . I , p a r a s . 5 - 6 . R o u s s e t d é M i s s y ’s s y s t e m o f d e s c r i b i n g t h e m a n u s c r i p t b y c h a p t e r a n d ‘p a r a g r a p h ’ w i ll b e u s e d t o a ss i st r e a d e r s p o s s e s si n g d i f f e r e n t e d i t io n s . i b i d ., ibid., ibid., ibid.,

ch. 2, paras 1 ,5 . ch . 2, para s 7, 10, 11. ch. 2 , p a r a . 1 1 . c h . 3 , p a r a s 2 , 3 . H o b b e s i s s p e c i fi c a ll y c i t e d i n th e t e x t ; a n d p a r a . 5 .


251

16 17 18

ibid., ch. 3, pa ras 9, 10. ibid., ch. 3, pa ras 12, 13. ibid., ch. 3, pa ras 14, 15, 16. Th e term ‘m ach iavellian’ is not used.

19 20

ibid., ch. 3, pa ras 17, 19. ibid., ch. 3, pa ras 22, 23. H ere the text cites the C om te de B ou lainvillier’s life of

21 22 23 24 25 26 27

28

Mahomet. ibid ., ch. 4, pa ras 2, 5. F o r o n e s u c h m o d e r n a c c o u n t s e e M o r to n S m i th , Jesu s th e M agic ia n ( N e w Y o r k : H a r p e r & R o w , 1 9 7 7 ). Traité , ch. 5, paras 5, 6. Traité , ch. 5, paras 3, 6. ibid., ch. 5, pa ra. 7; cf. J. S. Spink, ‘L ibertinag e et “S pino zism e” : la thé orie de l’âm e ignée’, French Studies , vol. 1 (194 7), pp. 22 5 -7 . Traité , ch. 6, para. 7. R . S i m o n , H en ry de B o ula in vil lier , historien , p o li tiq u e , p h il o so p h e , astrologue ,

1 6 5 8 - 1 7 2 2 (Paris: Boivin, 1941), pp. 450-5; ch. 3. B e r n a r d F à y , R ev o lu ti o n a n d F re em asonry, 1 6 8 0 -1 8 0 0 ( B o s t o n : L i t t l e , B r o w n , 1 9 3 5 ) ; cf. C l a i r e - E l i a n e E n g e l , M ém oir es d u C hevali er d e G ra m o n t, e d . A n t o i n e Hamilton (Monaco, 1958). A r c h iv e s d u R o y a u m e d e B e l g iq u e , B r u s s e ls , ‘C o r r e s p o n d a n c e d u C o m t e d e C o b e n z l , m i n i s tr e p l é n i p o t e n t a i r e a u x p a y s - b a s ’, 1 58 e . V , n o . 3 0 , f . 2 6 , 1 6 J a n u a r y 1 7 5 5 , ‘P e n d a n t la d e r n i è r e g u e r r e l e P r i n c e E u g è n e s ’e s t f o r t b i en t r o u v é d e s e s a vi s , 8l m o i a u s s i e n p l u s i e u r s o c c a s i o n s , o ù j e l ’ a i t r o u v é b i e n i n f o r m é . . . ’

29 30

31

32

33 34

35 36 37 38 39

M a r c h a n d M S S 2 2 , ‘C a t a l o g u e d e s m a n u s c r i p t s e t d e s i m p r i m é s d e sa b i b l i o t h è q u e personelle’. H . G . K o e n i g s b e r g e r , ‘T h e o rg a n i z a t i o n o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y p a r ti e s i n F r a n c e a n d th e N e t h e r l a n d s d u r i n g t h e s i x t ee n t h c e n t u r y ’ , Jo u rn a l o f M odern H is to ry , vol. 27 (1955), pp. 335-51. T h e R o y a l L i b r a r y , T h e H a g u e , M S. 1 3 2 . D . 3 0 . I n t h i s m a n u s c r i p t t h e Traité is s u b t i t l e d L ’Esp rit de S p in o za. M y n o t io n o f d a ti n g c o m e s f ro m a g e n e r a l k n o w l ed g e o f w r i ti n g s t y le s , to n e o f a r g u m e n t a t i o n , e t c. T h e m e d i t a t io n o n t h e s e t r a c ts , ‘ M o r a l e t r a i t é e , s u i v a n t l e s p r i n c i p e s . d e l a n a t u r e ^ o c c u p i e s ff . 1 0 4 - 7 . i b i d ., f . 1 0 4 : ‘C e q u e l ’o n a p p e l l e c o m u n e m e n t n a t u r e e s t c e c o m p o s é p a r f a i t d e s o u v r a g e s d u C r é a t e u r , d é f in i t io n g é n é r a l e , q u i c o m p o r t e l ’i d e é d ’u n t o u t , e t q u i r e n f e r m e a u s s i s o u s E l le l a n a t u r e p a r t i c u l i è r e d e c h a q u e e s t r e s é p a r é d u t o u t , c ’e s t à dire ce qui fait l’essence propre et distincte de chaque individu; c’est à cette d e r n i è r e i d e é q u e j ë m ’a t t a c h e , c o rn e e s t a n t q u e l q u e c h o s e d e p l u s p a r t ic u l i e r , q u e n o u s a p p e r ce v o n s p lu s d is ti n cte m e n t . . . ’ ibid.: ‘Il est que stion d ’exam ines; <*uel a été le bu t de celui qui nou s form a, et je d e c id e r a ÿ h a r d im e n t , q u e c e f u t p o u r n o u s re n d r e h e u r e u x . . . ’ i b id . , ‘N o u s v o y o n s c l a i r e m e n t q u e n o u s a v o n s to u t c e q u ’il n o u s f a u t p o u r e s t r e h e u r e u x , R i c h e s p a r n o u s m ê m e s , il n e n o u s m a n q u e q u e d e f a ir e d e n o s T h r é s o r s u n u s a g e m e i ll e u r e t c ’e s t s u r c e la q u e j e v a i s p r o p o s e r m e s i d ée s , q u i n e s e r o n t s a n s d o u t e p a s d u g o u t d e s T h é o l o g i e n s , m a is q u i so n t , c e m e s e m b l e , p l u s d a n s c e lu i d u v r a ÿ , q u e l e u r O r t o d o x i e m a l c o n s t r u é e s t d ’u n e p r a t i q u e s i c o n t r a i r e a u x lo ix d e la nature.’ ibid., f. 106. ibid. ibid., f. 105v, ‘La R ép utatio n à mon avis est le poison de la vo lup té, c’est elle qui c o r o m p t la n a t u r e e t a v i li t n o s p lu s b ri ll a n t s p r i v il è g e s . . . ’ ibid ., f. 106. A r a m V a r t a n i a n , ‘L a M e t t r ie , D i d e r o t a n d se x o l o g y in t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t ’, i n J e a n M a c a r y ( e d . ) , E s sa y s o n t h e A g e o f E n l ig h t e n m e n t in H o n o r o f I ra O . W a d e ( G e n e v a : D r o z , 1 9 7 7 ) , p p . 3 4 7 - 6 7 ; S t e p h e n W e r n e r , ‘D i d e r o t ’s S u p p l e m e n t a n d l a te E n l ig h t e n m e n t t h o u g h t ’, Studies on Voltaire an d the Eighteenth Century, vol.

252 40

41

THE RADICAL ENLIGHTENMENT 8 6 ( 1 9 7 1 ) , p p . 2 5 4 - 6 6 ; in D i d e r o t ’s Encyclopédie see article on ‘Jouissance’. M archan d MSS 22 ; in this list of his priva te library, Ma rcha nd lists a rare tra nslation of Sidne y’s D is cours su r le gou v e rn e m e n t ‘p a r J a c q u e s B o y d ’ ( R o t t e r d a m , 1 7 1 1 ) . The more common translation of 1702 was by P. A. Samson. Marchand also had that edition; I have not seen a copy of the 1711 text. R o u s s e t d e M i s sy , H is to ir e m ilitair e d u P ri nc e E ugène d e Sav oye , du P ri nce et D uc

de Marlborough, et du Prince de Nassau-Frise. Par Mr. D um o nt. . . augmentée d'un S u p p l é m e n t , p a r M . R o u s s e t ( T h e H a g u e : c h e z Is a a c v a n d e r K l o o t , 1 7 2 9 ) ; B e r n a r d

42 43

44 45

46

47

P i c a r t, ‘E x p l ic a t io n d u s u j e t s i m b o l i qu e . . . p o u r s e r v ir d ’a c c o m p a g n e m e n t a u x A r m e s d u P r i n c e E u g è n e d e S a v o y e ’, i n T e y l e r s M u s e u m , H a a r l e m , P o r t fo l i o 1 8 8 . N ou vell e s littér ai re s ( T h e H a g u e : c h e z H e n r i d u S a u z e t , 1 7 1 5 ) , pp . 7 , 5 2 - 3 , 7 1 - 2 . S e e J o h n J . M u r r a y , George /, The Baltic and the W hig Split o f 1717. A Study in D ip lo m ac y a n d P ro pag and a ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e & K e g a n P a u l , 1 9 6 9 ) ; M . M . K l e e r k o o p e r a n d W . P . v a n S to c k u m , D e B o e k h a n d e l te A m s te rd a m vo o rn a m elij k in de 17e eeuw ( 1 5 9 , I I , 9 4 0 ) o n B ö h m p u b l i s h i n g d e L a r r e y ’ s H is to ir e de Fra nce s o u s de rè gn e d e L o u is X i Ÿ ‘ ( R o t t e r d a m , 1 7 2 1 ) . T h e R o y a l L i b r a r y , T h e H a g u e , M S . 1 3 1 . B . 1 5. L a Sard aig ne p a ra n y m p h e d e l a pa ix a u x s ouve ra in s d e l 'E u r o p e ( B o u l og n e , 1 7 1 4 ) ; the identification of this tract with Rousset seems in this case to be correct. See P i e r r e C o n l o n , Prélude au siècle des lumières en France. Ré pertoire chron ologique de 1680 à 1715, 6 v o ls ( G e n e v a : D r o z , 1 9 7 0 - 5 ) ; . a n d B L 1 1 3 9 .e . 2 . A r c h i v e s d u R o y a u m e d e B e l g iq u e , B r u s s el s, ‘C o r r e s p o n d a n c e d u C o m t e d e Cobenzl’, f. 18, ‘Votre Excell. connoit mon Ecriture qui ne paraitroit pas sur l ’a d r e s s e e t j e s ig n e ra is e n f r è r e m a î tr e > ^ ^ c e q u e v o t r e E x c e l l en c e c o n n o i t sa n s d o u t e p u i s q u e j e s a i q u ’e l le e s t d e n o t r e o r d r e R o y a l ’, f r o m R o u s s e t d e M i s sy , 6 December 1754. F o r a g e n e r a l a c c o u n t o f t h e p e r i o d se e E r n s t W a n g e r m a n n , A u fk lä r u n g u n d

staatsbürgerliche Erziehung. Gottfried van Swieten als Reformator des österreichischen Unterrichtswesens 1781-1791 ( V i e n n a : V e r l a g f ü r G e s c h i c h te u n d 48

49

50

51

52

53

Politik, 1978). _ A ^ R e n a u d e t , L e s P ays-B a s esp agnols e t les P r ovin ce s- U n ie sjie 15 9 8 à 17.14 (ParishC e n t r e d e D o c u m e n t a t io n U n i v e r s it a i re , 1 9 6 0 ) , p p . 2 6 2 - 9 f o r B r i ti s h s u p p o r t o f ___ anti-Jesuits. P e n f i el d R o b e r t s , T h e Q u e s t f o r S e c u ri ty , 1 7 1 5 - 1 7 4 0 ( N e w Y o r k : H a r p e r & R o w , 1 9 4 7 ) , p p . 1 3 - 1 6 ; o n a t t e n t i o n p a i d b y t h e F r e n c h J e s u i t s , M ém oir es p o u r l'h is to ir e des sciences et des beaux arts. De L'Im prim erie à Trév oux ( S e p t e m b e r 1 7 1 7 ) , p p . 1,426-45. ^ · - · L& Sardaigne, pp. 11 3-1 6. R i c h a r d L o d g e , Studies in Eighteenth Century Diplom acy 1 74 0-48 ( L o n d o n : J o h n M u r ra y , 1 9 3 0 ) , p . 2 5 1 ; P . G e y l , ‘H o l l a n d a n d E n g l a n d d u r in g t h e W a r o f t h e A u s t r i a n S u c c e s s i o n ’, H is to r y , v o l . 1 0 ( 1 9 2 5 ) , p p . 4 7 - 5 1 . N i c o J o h a n n e s J a c q u e s d e V o o g d , D ie D oeli ste n bew egin g te A m s te rd a m in 17 48 (p. 1 0 9 ) ; C . G e r r e t s o n a n d P . G e y l ( e d s ) , B rie fw is seli ng . . . (p . 2 61 ) ; t h e G r a n d L o d g e o f th e N e t h e r la n d s , T h e H a g u e , ‘ K r o n ic k A n n a l e s ’, f o r R a d e r m a c h e r a s on e o f th e f o u n d e r s o f t h e l o d g e , ‘L e V e r i t a b l e Z e l e ’, 2 4 O c t o b e r 1 7 3 5 . G h i s l a in e d e B o o m , ‘L e s M i n i s t re s p l é n i p o t e n t i a i r e s d a n s l e s P a y s - B a s a u t r ic h i e n s principalement Cobenzl’ (see bibliographical essay 89, 36-8, 43, 47, 55); Joseph L a e n e n , L e M in is tè re de B ott a A d o r n o d ans les P a ys-B a s autr ic hie ns p e n d a n t le règne de Marie-Thérèse (1749-53) ( A n t w e r p : L a L i b r a i r i e N é e r l a n d a i s e , 1 9 0 1 ) , p p . 6 1 - 2 . C f . C . G e r r e t s o n a n d P . G e y l ( e d s ) , B rie fw is seli ng . . . ( p. 1 4 4 ), f o r B e n t i n c k ’s d e v o t i o n t o A r e n b e r g ; a n d f o r D o u x fi ls s e e M a r c h a n d M S S 2 , f . 2 9 , 2 4 May (n.a.), Rousset to Marchand on how to address letters to him, i.e. to ‘M. L a m b e r t D o u x f il s, c o n s e i l l e r d e S . A . le D u c d ’A r e n b e r g , r u e d e l a B e r g è r e à B r u x e l l e s ’ ; M S S M a r c h a n d 5 5 b , s o n g i n t h e h a n d o f D o u x f i ls : ‘L e g r a n d M a s s o n , &

R E L I G I O N , R E V O L U T I O N A N D T H E N EW S C I E NC E

54 55

'

253

ses deux Camarades,/En cette Cour tinrent les plus hauts grades.’ H u i b e r t J . M i n d e r h o u d , ‘L a H e n r i a d e d a n s l a l i t t é r a t u r e h o l l a n d a i s e ’, B ib li o th è q u e de la revue de littérature comparée , vol. 33 (1927), pp. 4-6, 87, 102. G e r r i t v a n d e r H a a r , ‘/ L ev e n va n W illem D en IV . P rinc va n O ra nje en N assa u . . . ( A m s t e r d a m , 1 7 5 2 ) , M a s o n i c s y m b o li sm e m p l o ye d i n o p e n i n g p o e m . M y t h a n k s t o B . C r o i s s e t v a n U c h e l e n f o r b ri n g i n g t h is p o e m t o m y a t t e n t i o n ; M a r c h a n d M S S 2 , f . 8 , R o u s s e t t o M a r c h a n d o n ‘R o y T h e o d o r e ’, a n a li a s f o r t h e B a r o n d e N e u h o f f ; f. 1 1, 2 1 J a n u a r y ( p ro b . 1 7 4 7 ) o n t h e F r e n c h a m b a s s a d o r ; f. 3 5 , 1 8 O c t o b e r ( 1 7 5 0 ) o n M . d e B o i s sy a n d C . d ’A t h l o n e ; f. 6 2 , 6 J a n u a r y 1 7 5 3 o n F r e d e r i c k t h e G r e a t a n d M a u p e r t i u s ; f. 8 9 , 2 0 N o v e m b e r 1 7 5 3 , o n s p ie s i n F r a n c e . I n M a r c h a n d M S S 2 , D o u x f i ls t o M a r c h a n d , 1 6 O c t o b e r 1 7 4 9 o n c o n d i t i o n s i n th e s o u t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s ; 15 N o v e m b e r 1 7 4 9 , o n s a m e ; 2 A p r i l 1 7 53 o n G e o r g e I I w h e n P r i n c e

of Wales. 5 6 B L , E g e r t o n , 1 7 4 5 , f. 4 8 6 , A m s t e r d a m , 2 6 J u n e 1 7 4 8 , R o u s s e t t o B e n t i n c k , ‘V o t r e λ E x c e l l e n c e s e s o u v i e n d r a s a n s d o u t e d e l ’i m p r e s s e m e n t a v e c l e q u e l e l l e m e fi* v e n i r ’ à la H a y e p o u r m e d o n n e r s e s o rd r e s p o u r u n e p u b l ic a t io n o u r é i m p r e s s i o n d u Traité du Gouvernement de Lock . . . ’. A n t o n i o P o r t a , Joa n en G err it C orv er. D e

p o li ti e ke m a ch t va n A m ste rd a m ( 1702-1748 ) . Academisch Proejschrifi . . . Universiteit van Am sterd am . . . 1975 ( A s s en : V a n G o r c u m , n . d . ), p . 2 6 0 ; th is w o r k ,

57

58

o n ly n o w ( 1 9 8 0 ) se e n , g e n e r a l ly s u p p o r t s t h is ac c o u n t b u t d o e s n o t m a k e a n y r e f e r e n c e t o R o u s s e t ’s l e t t e r s o r to t h e M a s o n ic A r c h i v e s . M a r c h a n d M S S 2 , R o u s s e t t o M a r c h a n d , f. 4 8 , 14 O c t o b e r ( n . a . ) ; f f. 6 6 - 7 , 2 7 March (n.a.), on attempts to have his sentence commuted so that he can visit his f r ie n d s i n T h e H a g u e . ibid., f. 68, 10 A pril 1753 , ‘Je ne sai où vous et C harles (don t j ’ai reç u le Ré po ns e q u e v o u s m e p r o m e t e z p o u r la s e m a i n e p r o c h a i n e ) a v ez tr o u v é d a n s m e s le t t r e s q u e j ’a y e in te n tio n de renoncer à L'état tranquile et heureux dont je j ouis pour me

replonger dans la tum ulte des affaires pub liques et Politiques et refréqu enter la C our ά les grands? Non mes chers amis , ce n'est point la mon intention . . .'. H e h a s

59

w r i tt e n f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o v is i t H o l l a n d , a r e q u e s t h e h a s m a d e t h r o u g h K a u n i t z a n d N e n y , i .e . t h e A u s t r i a n a u t h o r i t i e s . ‘L a P r i n ce s s e m e l ’a p r o m i s e t j ’a t t e n d s q u ’e l le e x é c u te s a p r o m e s s e ; j ’i ra v o i r m e s am i s . . . ’ H a u s - H o f - u n d S t a a t sa r c h i v , V i e n n a , in ‘A l p h a b e t i sc h e r I n d e x z u r G r o s s e n K o r r e spondenz’, GC.277, 328, 395 (some letters incorrectly listed under ‘Roussel’). A l e t t e r f r o m F r e d e r i c k t h e G r e a t t o P r in c e o f W a l e s i n c l u d e d i n t h i s f i l e ; R o u s s e t listed as ‘agent de S.A. le Duc de Brunswick WôIfenbütteP. On 29 March 1748 , R o u s s e t w r o te t o K a u n i t z , ‘Si j e c o m m e n c o is à e n t r e r d a n s le m o n d e j e n e d é s e s p é r e r o i s p a s d e v o i r to u s l e s E l e c t e u r s F o h V . E . n ’i g n o r e p a s q u e l es m a x i m e s d ’u n p r in c e s o u v e r a i n e t i n d é p e n d a n t n e p e u v e n t g u e r r e ê t r e d ’a c c o r d a v e c c e l le d ’u n v a s sa l d ’u n f o n d a t a i r e , c o m m e c e s R o i s E l e c t e u r s , l ’é t o i e n t d e L ’E m p i r e . . . L e s R o is re g a r d e n t u n E m p e r e u r c om m e p rim u s in te r p a re s, c e q u e n e pouvoient faire les Electeurs

60

M a r c h a n d M S S 2 , R o u s s e t t o M a r c h a n d , n .d . , f. 3 6 , i t e m 8 , ‘V o t r e a n e c d o t e d e l a C a s s e t e d u F r a n c - M a ç o n m ’a f o r t d i v e r ti , si m a p r é & p o s t - fa c e v o u s a p l û ; m a i s r é v é r e n c e p a r l a n t , j ’e n a p e l l e a u p a p e m ê m e d e l ’i n j u s t e i m p u t a t i o n d e Jésuit is m e, e t v o u s n e n o u s c o n n o i s s e z p as . N o u s s o m m e s a m i s d e to u s l e m o n d e , e x c e p t é d e s J é s u i t e s , d o n t a u c u n m a î t r e d e l o g e n e v o u d r o i t r ec e v o i r u n se u l d a n s n o t r e o r d r e ’. C f . f . 7 5 , 2 9 J u l y ( n . a . ), ‘. . . c ’e s t à d i r e u n ex e m p l a i re p o u r v o u s & u n p o u r m o n frère Charles. Je ne sai ce que c’est que l’extrait de la fr ate rnité M a ç o n i q u e e t c ; pourez vous me faire voir cela en françois & en Hollandois.* 6 1 I n 1 7 3 7 C h e v a l i e r R a m s a y e s t i m a t e d th a t t h e r e w e r e 3 , 0 0 0 M a s o n s ; c f. B . F a y , R evo lu ti o n a n d F re em aso nry , p p . 1 9 0 - 1 . 62 M a r c h a n d M S S 2, R o u s s e t t o M a r c h a n d , 1 8 F e b r u a r y ( n . a .) , f . 4 6 : ‘V o i c i j o i n t e n *f r a n ç o i s , t o u t c e q u i c o n c e r n e l a M a ç o n n e r i e e n G u e l d r e s a v e c u n e p r é & p o s t - fa c e

254

T H E R A D I C A L E N L IG H T E N M E N T de votre tr. H. S. qui ont eu le bonheur de plaire à l’archicritique de Bruxelles [Douxfils]. V otre Principe , n'entrepre nez rien etc . est adm is parm i nous en plein; on rép on d à to ute s les questions qui y ont rapo rt, & ensuite vous devenez po stulant si vo us voulez. A prè s vous avoir dém ontré (comm e vous le verrez dans la lettre à D r. H av erca m p) q u ’il n’y a rien chez nous contre la Relig., l’É tat & les bonn es m œ urs, et vou s avoir fait conn âitre qu ’on ne vous cache que le secret, en vertu du que l vous vo us trouvez frère s de tou t ce q u ’il y a de M açon sur la terre, et parm i lesquels vous trouv erez to ute la charité, l’am itié, les secours que vous pou vez sou haiter.’ O ne of th e tracts un d er discussion here is L e tt re d 'u n F ra nc -M aço n d e la l oge d e S . L o u is d e

N im e g u e au ve nerable , p ie u x et sa va n t E ve rh a rd H a v e rka m p , M in istre du St. Ev ang ile dan s la m êm e Ville. Sur une partie de l'Application du Serm on , qu'il a p r o n o u n c é le 2 2 d e M ar s. 1 75 2 , Traduite du Hollandois. Dans le Monde Franc M a ç o n . A u x d é p e n s d e T o rd re & des L ecte urs cu ri eu x , 1752. The original is by

Rousset de Missy and it concerns the controversy in Nimegue over a Dutch reformed church that denied admission to L. A. Merkes and F . C . M e r k e s , b o t h 63

64

65

66 67 68 69 70 71

Freemasons. M a r c h a n d M S S , 15 D e c e m b e r ( n .a . ) , f . 6 4 , ‘J e m ’é t o n n e d e l ’a p r o b a t i o n q u e v o u s d o n n e z à l ’o b j e c t i o n t i r é e d e n o t r e o b s t i n a t i o n à r e v e l e r n o s M i s tè r e s , a p r è s a v o i r l û l a le t t r e d u M a ç o n d e N i m e g u e , e t le s E t r e n n e s a u P a p e d u c h e v . d e L u ss y o u c e t t e o b j e c t i o n e s t p l e i n e m e n t r e f u t é e ; j ’a j o u t e r a i q u e c ’e s t c e s e c r e t q u i e s t l ’â m e d e l a M a ç o n n e r i e & q u e d è s q u ’il s e r o i t r é v é l é , il n ’y a u r o i t p lu s d e M a ç o n s , e t q u o i q u e j ’a ie s o u te n u d a n s le p ré fa c e d e la tr a d u c ti o n d e la le ttr e d e N im è g u e q u e le ca ractè re de fr. Ma çon est indélébile ; je dois recon no itre que dès q ue la secret seroit r é v é l é t o u s l e s fr a n c s-m a ç o n s , c e s s e r o i e n t ipso facto d ’ê t r e M a ç o n s. N e c o m p r e n d r e z v o u s d o n c p a s q u ’o n n e p e u t n o u s a c c u s e r d e c a c h e r d e s s e c r e ts d e s m i s t è r e s q u e n o u s n ’a v p n s ja m a i s re f u s é d e r é v é l e r à q u i s ’e s t p r é s e n t é p o u r le s aprendre? peut-on dire qu’une chose est secrète quand elle est révélée à tous v e n a n s e t e s t sc u d e 5 0 m i lle h o m m e s a u m o i ns e n A n g l e t e r r e e t e n F r a n c e , s a n s c o m p t e r l ’A l le m a g n e , l ’I t a li e & l a T u r q u i e . Q u a n t a u x a c c u s a t io n d e l ib e r t in a g e , débauche, déisme, athéisme, impietéz, non-conformisme & autres encore plus a b o m i n a b l e s ; l e s n o m s d e c e u x q u i s o n t m a ç o n s , l e u rj ra n g , l e u r v e r t u n o u s s a u v e n t l i s s e z a b o m i n a t i o n s . . . L ’E m p e r e u r , le R o i d ’A n g l e t e r re , le R o i d e P r u s se , t o u s l es Princes de sa maison, l’Electeur de Cologne, presque tous les lords anglois, p lu s i e u rs d e s E v ê q u e s d u m ê m e R o y a u m e ; le P a p e m ê m e s a v e n t c ë"q ui e n e s t . . . ’ There are manuscript songs in the Marchand collection mocking Frederick the G r e a t , d e s p i t e h is b e i n g a F r e e m a s o n . O n t h e e a r l ie s t m e n t io n o f co n s p i r ac y in r e la t io n t o F r e e m a s o n r y in 1 7 4 5 (in a b o o k p u b l i s h e d i n T h e H a g u e ) , s e e R o b e r t § h & c k le to n , ‘W h e n D i d th e F r e n c h “ P h i lo s o p h e s ” B e c o m e a P a r t y ? ’, B ull eti n o f t h e J o h n R y l a n d s U n i ve r si ty L i b r a r y o f M a nc he st er y v o L 6 0 ( 1 9 7 7 ) , p . 1 9 2 . M a r c h a n d M S S 2 , R o u s s e t t o M a r c h a n d , f. 6 4 , 1 5 D e c e m b e r ( n . a .) , ‘si c e n ’e s t e n ce q u ’é t a n t M a î tr e d e l a lo g e d ’A m s t e r d a m j e n ’a i p a s v o u lu r e c o n n o i t r e l ’a u t e u r ( B o t a r e l l i, m o i n e d e F l o r e n c e q u i t ’e n t a p r é s e n t b o r d e l à A m s t e r d a m ) p o u r f r a n c - m a ç o n - il d é c l a r e l u i m ê m e d a n s les Fran cs-Maço ns trahis q u ’il n’a jam ais été r eç u en lo ge . . . ’ M a r c h a n d M S S , R o u s s e t t o M a r c h a n d , f. 3 6 . i b i d . , f . 8 6 , 9 S e p t e m b e r ( n . a . ) ; i ta l ic s i n o r i g in a l . i b i d . , f . 4 1 , 13 D e c e m b e r 1 7 5 2 . i b i d ., f. 8 3 , n . d . , ‘L ’E c l i p s e d o n t v o u s m e p a r l e z e t s es e f f e t s s o n t d a n s l ’o r d r e d e l a Nature et du théâtre’. M a r c h a n d M S S 2 , 1 5 N o v e m b e r 1 7 4 9 , D o u x fi ls t o M a r c h a n d ; a n d a ls o 9 J u ly 1 7 4 7 . M a r c h a n d M S S 2, 2 4 M a y ( n . a .) , R o u s s e t t o M a r c h a n d , f . 2 9 : ‘J e v o u d r o i s q u e c e s g r a n d s P r o v i d e n c i e r s d o n n a s s e n t u n e d é f in i ti o n c o u r t e , s im p l e , & b i e n d is t in c t e d e c e q u ’i ls e n t e n d e n t p a r p r o v i d e n c e . J e c r o i s q u e c ’e s t la d i v i n it é d e s P a r e s s e u x ,

Pantheistic Religion, Revolution and the New Science - Margaret C. Jacob

Recommend Documents