(Matric, F.A & B.A)
Allama Iqbal Open University By
Muhammad Ramzan M.A History, M.A Political Science & M.A Library Science
Unique Tuition Academy, Pind Singrial, Islamabad
Table of Contents ....................................................................................... ...................................... ........................................................... ............1 Table of Contents ....... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............ ......... ........ ........ ........ ...... ..2 Tags Question ....... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ........... ........ ........ ........ ........ ......3 Degrees of Adjectives....... .............. .............. ............... ............... .............. .............. ........... ........ ........ ........ .... 4 Wh- Question ............................................................ .......... ................. ....... 5 Accepting and Declining ....... .............. .............. ............. .......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ....... ...8 Making, Accepting, Accept ing, and Declining Decli ning an Invitation Invit ation....... ............ ......... ........ ........ ........ ......9 Likes and Dislikes....... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ........... ........ ........ ...... ..12 Agreeing and Disagreeing Disagreei ng....... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ........... ........ ........ ........ .... 13 Extroverts Extrover ts and Introverts........ .............. .............. .............. ............... ............... ........... ........ ........ ....... ... 15 Verb....... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ....... ... 15 Adverb ....... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... ............... .............. ............ ......... ........ ...... ..15 Preposition Prepositio n....... .............. .............. .............. .............. ............. .......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ...... ..16 Conjunction ....... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............. .......... ........ ...... ..16 Interjection Interject ion....... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ......16 Negative and Interrogative Sentences ............................. ................... .................... .......... 16 Active and Passive Voice Vo ice....... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............. .......... ......19 Possibility and Impossibility ................................................ ...... 21 Facts and Opinions ....... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ........... ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ...... ..23 Asking For and Giving Permission Perm ission....... .............. .............. .............. .............. ............. .......... ...... ..23 Asking and giving advice ad vice and suggestions suggestio ns...... .......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ .... 24 Reported Speech Spe ech (Indirect (Indir ect Speech) ....... .............. .............. .............. .............. ............. .......... .... 25 Expressing Expressin g Preference & Intention ....... ........... ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ...... ..28 Introducing yourself and other people ........................... ................. .................... ............ ..28 Greeting...................................... .................................................... ........................ .................... .................... ............29 Making an Appointment....... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............ ......... ........ ........ ...... ..30 Preferences Preference s....... .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... ............... .............. .............. .............. ............ ........ ... 31 Making Invitations........ ............... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............. .......... ........ ........ ......31 Making and Responding To Suggestions Suggest ions....... ........... ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ...... ..32 Talking about Cause and Effect........ ............... ............ ......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ...... ..33 Punctuation ....... .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............... ............... .............. ............. ........35
The Coordinating Coordinati ng Conjunction ........ ............... ............. .......... ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ......36
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Tags Question Definition A tag question is a grammatical structure. It refers to a declarative statement or an imperative that are modified to become a question by adding an interrogative fragment.
Use Tag questions: • • • •
can be considered as an indicator of politeness, emphasis, or irony; they may suggest confidence or lack of confidence; they may be confrontational or tentative; in legal settings, tag questions can be found in leading question.
Form Tag questions vary according to different factors such as the choice of auxiliary, the negation. The structure is generally as follows: Affirmative statement Negative Tag he likes him doesn't he? Negative statement Affirmative Tag she doesn't care about him does she?
Examples Statements Affirmative statement
Negative tag
He is excellent at languages,
isn't he?
You were late,
weren't you?
They are working on a new project,
aren't they?
She writes good peoms,
doesn't she?
We have worked worked hard hard to earn this this money, money, haven't haven't we? He called her,
didn't he?
You should see a doctor,
shouldn't you?
He can drive,
can't he?
You will help us,
won't you?
Negative statement
Affirmative tag
He isn't an athlete,
is he?
They weren't early,
were they?
You aren't writing a new book, are you? She doesn doesn't 't work in in a hospital hospital,, does she? He hasn hasn't 't foun found d the the solu soluti tion on,,
has has he? he?
You You did didn' n'tt vis visit it the the mus museu eum, m,
did did you you??
We shouldn't sleep late,
should we?
You won't tell her,
will you?
Imperatives 3
Imperative
Tag
keep quiet, quiet, won't you ? will you? would you? could you?
Functions and examples 1. We use tag questions to confirm information. This meal is horrible, isn't it? That film was fantastic, wasn't it? 2. We use tag questions when we are already sure of the answer and just want confirmation (falling intonation with the tag question). 3. We use tag questions to check information. You haven't got a piece of paper, have you? You don't know where the boss is, do you? The meeting's tomorrow at 9am, isn't it? 4. If we do not know the answer, these are real questions, and we use a rising intonation with the tag question.
Important points 1. In the present tense, if the subject is 'I' , the auxiliary changes to 'are' or 'are' or 'aren't' . I'm sitting next to you, aren't I? 2. With 'let's', the tag question is 'shall we' . Let's go to the beach, shall we? 3. With an imperative, the tag question is 'will you' . Close the window, will you? 4. We use a positive tag question after a sentence containing a negative word such as never, hardly, nobody. nobody. Nobody lives in this house, do they? You've never liked me, have you? 5. When the subject is nothing, we use 'it' in 'it' in the tag question. Nothing bad happened, did it? 6. When the subject is nobody, somebody, everybody, no one, someone, or everyone, everyone , we use 'they' in 'they' in the tag question. Nobody asked for me, did they? 7. If the main verb in the sentence is 'have' (not 'have' (not an auxiliary verb), it is more common to use 'do' in 'do' in the question tag. You have a Ferrari, don't you? 8. With used to, to, we use 'didn't' in 'didn't' in the tag question. You used to work here, didn't you? 9. We can use positive question tags after positive sentences to express a reaction such as surprise or interest. You're moving to Brazil, are you?
Degrees of Adjectives 4
Adjectives can express degrees of modification: Gladys is a rich woman, but Josie is richer than Gladys, and Sadie is the richest woman in town. •
The degrees of comparison are known as the positive, positive, the comparative, comparative, and the superlative. superlative. (Actually, only the comparative and superlative show degrees.) We use use the the comp compar arat ativ ive e for for comp compar arin ing g two two thin things gs and and the the supe superl rlat ativ ive e for for comp omparin aring g thre three e or more ore thi things ngs. Noti Notic ce tha that the the word ord than frequently accompanies the comparative and the word the precedes the superlative. The inflected suffixes -er and -er and -est suffice -est suffice to form most comparatives and superlatives, although we need -ier and -ier and -iest when -iest when a two-syllable adjective ends in y (happier y (happier and happiest); otherwise we use more and most when an adjective has more than one syllable Positive
Comparative
Superlative
rich
richer
richest
lovely
lovelier
loveliest
beautiful
more beautiful
most beautiful
Certain adjectives have irregular forms in the comparative and superlative degrees: Irregular Comparative and Superlative Forms
good
better
best
bad
worse
worst
little
less
least
more
most
further
furthest
much many some f ar
Be careful careful not to form comparativ comparatives es or superlat superlative ivess of adjectiv adjectives es which which already already express an extreme of comparison — unique, unique , for instance — although it probably is possible to form comparative forms of most adjectives: something something can be more perfect , and someone can have a fuller figure. People who argue that one woman cannot be more pregnant than another have never been nine-months pregnant with twins.
Wh- Question Types of questions There are two types of questions: Yes or no questions Wh questions
• •
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Question words Question words are also called wh questions because they include the letters 'W' and 'H'.
Question words
Meaning
Examples
who
person
Who's that? That's Nancy.
where
place
Where do you live? In Boston
why when
reason
Why do you sleep early? Because I've got to get up early
time
When do you go to work? At 7:00
how
manner
How do you go? By car
what
obje object ct,, idea idea or acti action on
What What do you you do? do? I am am an engi engine neer er
which
choice
Which one do you prefer? The red one.
whose
possession
Whose is this book? It's Alan's.
whom
object of the verb
Whom did you meet? I met the manager.
what kind what time how many how much how long how often
description time quan quanti tity ty (coun counta tab ble) amount, price (uncountable)
What kind of music do you like? I like quiet songs What time did you come home? How How man many y stu stud dents ents are are th there? re? Th There ere are are twenty. How much time have we got? Ten minutes
duration, length
How long did you stay in that hotel? For two weeks.
frequency
How often do you go to the gym? Twice a week.
how far
distance
How far is your school? It's one mile far.
how old
ag e
How old are you? I'm 16.
reason
How come I didn't see at the party?
how come
Asking questions 1.If you ask about the subject of the sentence, simply add the question word at the beginning: Example: James writes good poems. — Who writes good pems? 2.If you ask about the predicate of the sentence (the part of a sentence which contains the verb and gives information about the subject), there are three options: If there is a helping (auxilary) verb that precedes the main verb ( foe example, can, is, are, was, were, will, would...), add the question word and invert the subject and the helping (auxilary) verb. Examples: He can speak Chinese. — What can he speak? They are leaving tonight. — When are they leaving? •
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•
•
If you ask about the predicate and there is no helping (auxilary) verb and the verb is "to be", simply add the question verb and invert the subject and the verb. Example: The play was interesting. — How was the play? If there is no helping (auxilary) verb in the the predicate and the main verb is not "to be", add the auxilary "do" in the appropriate form. Examples: They go to the movies every Saturday. — Where do they go to the movies? He wakes up early. — When does he wake up? They sent a letter . — What did they send?
Look at some examples wh- questions. What information is being sought? How are Look at these five whthe questions formed--and how are they alike or different from each other in their formation? Analyze each for subject and predicate. Example WhWh- Questions 1. Who plans to take SLA this summer? 2. What causes students to select particular majors? 3. Who will John ask for information about summer courses? 4. When can we register for graduation? 5. Where do we go to register for graduation? Examples #1. Whose car is blocking the entrance to the store? #2a. Which textbook was used in SLA last summer? #2b. Which textbook did the teacher use in SLA last summer? #3. How carefully have you considered your future career? #4. To whom did you send your job application? #5. What did you do last summer? 'Where do you learn English?' In English there are are seven ‘Wh…’ questions. questions. Here’s what they are and how they are used: What is used for a thing. ‘What is it?’ Who is used for a person. Whose has the same meaning but it is always followed by a noun. ‘Who were you talking to?’ ‘Whose car is that?’ Why is used for a reason. ‘Why were you late?’ When is used for a time or date ‘When did you start working here?’ Which is used for a choice. ‘Which do you prefer, tea or coffee?’ Where is used for a place. ‘Where do you live?’ How is used for an amount or the way. ‘How much does it cost?’ ‘How do I get to the station?’ Make WH questions of the following sentences using the WH words given in the brackets.
i. I’m Zain Zain Ali. Ali. (Who) ii.I’m twenty four years old. (How) iii.I work in railway department. (Where) iv.I work because I want to pay my University fees. (Why) v.My job is to make bills. (What)
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i. ii. ii. iii. iii. iv. iv. v.
Who are you? How How old old are are you? you? Wher Wheree do you you work work?? Why Why do do you you wor work? k? What What is your your job job resp respons onsibi ibility lity??
Write a paragraph describing your daily routine. I get up early in the morning and offer Fajar Prayer. I go for a morning walk in the park. After walk I come back home and take bath. I take breakfast and prepare my bag leave for school. I come back from school about at 2 o clock. I do my lunch and offer Zuhar Prayer. After prayer I take rest and then do my home work. At evening time I go to play cricket with my friends. I come back from ground about at 7 o clock. After a while a do my dinner and lean my lesson. Sometime I do watch drama and then go to bed.
Accepting and Declining Whenever we are invited by someone we either accept the invitation or Refuse (decline). If we do not accept then we politely need to give the reason. The general expressions used for accepting an invitation offer are: Thank you for the offer. Yes, I would love to Yes, that’s very kind of you I would very much like to I would be delighted to I won’t say no Thanks a lot I’d love to That’s great Sure why not If we cannot accept the invitation invitation we do not say a plain “no” because it is considered rude and the person who has invited us may not like it. We may, therefore, use the following expressions for declining or refusing and invitation by giving a reason: Thank you for the offer but I can’t accept it because I’ve another better offer I am afraid I can’t as I’ve another engagement I am sorry I can’t can’t make it at that time as as I will be at office office Thanks a lot for inviting but I’ll not be able to come as I’ve flu I would love to but I’ve to pick my children from school That’s very kind of you but I can’t come as I won’t be here on that day Accepting and refusing politely may depend on what you are asked. For example
Would you like some cake? Yes, please.
No, thank you
Sure. Thanks
I'd better not.
Okay. Thank you
No, but thanks for offering.
Would you like to go see a movie? Okay. Sounds good.
No, I'd rather not.
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Sure. I'd love to.
I'm sorry, but I can't.
Yeah. Good idea
No, but thanks for inviting me.
How about some more pie? All right. Thanks
No, thanks.
Looks good. Thanks
I'm really full. Thanks anyway.
Don't mind if I do.
Looks delicious, but I'll have to pass.
How about going skiing this weekend? Great. What time?
Sorry. I'm busy this weekend.
Sounds like fun.
I don't think I can.
All right. When and where?
How about some other time?
Example: Your friend invites you for a riding. I would love to, but I am busy these days. a) Your friends invite you for a lunch. Ans: Thank you for for the offer, but but I have to prepare prepare for my test. b) Your brother wants you to join him for a talk show. Ans: Why not I will surely join join the talk show. c) Your Your family family is is goin going g to Laho Lahore re for for a day. day. They They want want you you to to go wit with h them. them. Ans: Thanks a lot, lot, but you know I am busy busy in my exam. exam. d) Your friend invites you on his birthday. Ans: I am sorry; I have have to go with with my family on on a weeding ceremony. ceremony. e) Ther Theree is a very very good good movi moviee being being show shown n in the cine cinema ma,, your your siste sisterr asks asks you to accompany her. Ans: I’d very very much like like to watch watch that movie movie.. i. Can we ha have a dinner to together? Ans: I would love to, but I am busy these days ii. ii. How How abou aboutt vis visit itin ing g the the zoo? zoo? Ans: I am crazy to visit zoo. iii. iii. Let’ Let’ss hav havee so some dri drink nks? s? Ans: I always keen to drink. iv. iv. Woul Would d you you come come to to my my hou house se for for the the din dinne ner? r? Ans: Thank you for the offer, but I have to prepare for my test. v. Shall we we pl play cricket? Ans: No I don’t like play cricket
Making, Accepting, and Declining an Invitation Do you know how to invite someone to your house for dinner or party? Or, do you know what to say in English when someone invites you? Here are some common expressions you can use. Inviting Someone to Come to Your House for Dinner (Informal) Wanna come over for dinner tonight? (Wanna = want to) Wanna pop over for a quick dinner? How about coming over for dinner tonight? Care to come over for dinner tonight? Inviting Someone to Come to Your House for Dinner (More formal) • • • • •
•
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Would you like to come over for dinner tonight? Would you care to join us for dinner at our house tonight? I was just wondering if you would like to come over for dinner tonight. Please come over for dinner tonight. We'd be delighted to have you over for dinner tonight. Accepting an Invitation (Informal) Sure. What time? Why not? When do you want me to be there? Sure. When should I be there? Yes! Want me to bring something? I'd love to. I'll bring dessert. Accepting an Invitation (More formal) Thank you! I'd love to. Would you like me to bring anything? Thank you very much! I'd be delighted to. What time should I be there? Oh, certainly certainly!! Thank you. Do I need to bring anything? Declining an Invitation (Informal) I can't. I have to work. Tonight's no good. I have an appointment. I'm busy tonight. Can I take a raincheck on that? (*raincheck: if someone invites you to dinner on a night that you are busy, you can say, "Can I take a raincheck?" This means that you hope they will invite you again on another another night.) Declining an Invitation (More formal) I'd love to, but I'm afraid I'm busy tonight. I'd love to, but I already have plans tonight. • • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • •
• • • •
• • •
Examples: Dialog 1: (between 2 co-workers) Ann:: Bob and I are having a little get-together Ann get-together at our place place tonight . Wanna pop over after work? Jim:: Sure, why not? What time do you want me to be there? Jim Ann:: Around 6. Ann Jim:: OK. Want me to bring something? Jim Ann:: No. Just bring yourself. Ann •
• • • •
Dialog 2: (between 2 friends) Sam:: Wanna come over for a quick meal tonight? Sam Tom:: Tonight's no good. I have a date. Can I take a raincheck? Tom Sam:: OK. No problem. Enjoy your evening! Sam Tom:: You too. Tom Dialog 3: (a parent is making an invitation invitation to her son's teacher) teacher) Jan:: Mr. Brown, my husband and I were just wondering if you would like to Jan come over for dinner this evening. Brown:: Oh, thank you! I'd be delighted Brown delighted to. Jan:: Great! Could you come over at around 6? Jan Brown:: Sure. Do I need to bring anything? Brown Jan:: No, but thanks for Jan for asking. Brown:: OK. See you this evening then. Brown Dialog 4: (a parent is making an invitation invitation to her son's teacher) teacher) Jan:: Mr. Brown, my husband and I were just wondering if you would like to Jan come over for dinner this evening. Brown:: Well, I'd love to, but I have another appointment tonight. Brown Jan:: Oh, that's too bad. Well, maybe next time then. Jan Brown:: Yeah! Thank you for asking. Brown asking. Enjoy your evening! • • • •
•
• • • • •
•
• • •
1. Whic Which h of the the followin following g answer answer is NOT approp appropriate? riate? A: Wanna come over for dinner tonight? B: ____
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A. B. C.
? ? ?
Sure.. Wh Sure What at tim time? e? Why not? Whe When n shou should ld I be there there? ? Why?
2. Whic Which h of the the followin following g answer answer is NOT approp appropriate? riate? A: Want to come over for a quick meal tonight? B: _____ A. B. C.
? ? ?
No. I'd love to, but I have an appo appointme intment. nt. I'm busy tonig tonight. ht. Can I take a rainc raincheck? heck?
3. Whic Which h of the the followin following g answer answer is NOT approp appropriate? riate? A: My husband and I were wondering if you'd like to come over for dinner this Saturday. B: _____ A. B. C.
? ? ?
Thank you very much Thank much!! I'd be deligh delighted ted to. I'd love to, but I'm afrai afraid d I'm busy this Satu Saturday. rday. I do don't n't go out on Sa Saturd turdays ays..
4. Whic Which h of the the followin following g answer answer is NOT approp appropriate? riate? A: Would you care to join us for dinner tonight? B: _____ A. B. C.
? ? ?
Yes, I wo Yes, woul uld. d. Thank Tha nk you you.. I'd lov love e to. I'm sorry but I alrea already dy have plans tonig tonight. ht.
5. Whic Which h of the the followin following g answer answer is NOT approp appropriate? riate? A: Tonight is no good. Can I take a raincheck? B: _____ A. B. C.
? ? ?
OK. No pr OK. prob oble lem. m. Sure. Let's do it some other time. No,, yo No you u ca can' n't. t.
6. Whic Which h of the the followin following g answer answer is NOT approp appropriate? riate? A: Do you want me to bring something? B: _____ A. B. C.
? ? ?
No, jus justt brin bring g you yourse rself. lf. Why? You don't like my cook cooking? ing? OK, bring som some e dess dessert ert if you want
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Likes and Dislikes Expressing likes and dislikes To talk about your likes and dislikes, you can use these expressions.
Expressing likes: •
I like…
•
I love...
•
I adore…
•
I ‘m crazy about…
•
I’m mad about…
•
I enjoy…
•
I’m keen on…
Expressing dislikes: •
I don’t like…
•
I dislike...
•
I hate…
•
I abhor…
•
I can’t bear...
•
I can’t stand…
•
I detest...
•
I loathe...
Examples of likes and dislikes : I'm mad about basketball, but I can’t bear ice hockey. I adore reading poetry, but I loathe doing the housework.
If you neither like nor dislike something: "I don't mind doing the housework."
Things to remember about likes and dislikes: 1. When these expressions are followed by a verb, the latter is put in the -ing form. Examples: "I like listening to music." "I hate wearing sunglasses." I like
VERB+ING
I detest I don't mind
2. Note that" very much" & " a lot" always come after the things you like. Examples: "I like basketball very much/a lot . NOT" I like very much/a lot basketball."
3. Be careful when you use "I don't mind..." Examples: "Do you mind playing football?" "No, I don't mind."(Although it's in a negative form, it means that it's ok for me. I neither love it nor hate it.)
Dialogue:
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Steve is at home. His girlfriend comes in...Notice how they express their likes and dislikes Steve:
Hello, darli rling. Do you fancy watching a film ton tonight?
Girlfriend:
Oh, no than thanks, ks, I don't don't really really feel feel like like watc watchin hing g a film film tonig tonight. ht. How about going out instead.
Steve:
OK. Do you feel like going to the theatre?
Girlfriend:
Oh, Oh, no. no. I hat hate e it. it. Do Do you you lik like e eati eating ng at the the new new Chin Chines ese e restaurant?
Steve:
I don't mind. The Chinese cuisine is alright.
Girlfriend:
Wel Well I real reallly lov love e it. it. Let' Let'ss go. go.
Example:
I love watching television.
Ans: Likes 1. I ador adore e readi reading ng book books s 2. I enjoy enjoy sin singin ging g a song. song. 3. I like like clean cleaning ing the the hous house. e. 4. I love love play playing ing cricket cricket.. 5. I adore adore attendin attending g tutorial tutorial clas class. s. 6. I adore going to hills for a climb. Dislikes 1. I hate hate watin wating g for for a bus. bus. 2. I don’t don’t like cookin cooking g meal. meal. 3. I don’t like those those who don’t don’t offer offer prayer prayer regularly. regularly. 4. I especially especially dislike dislike to sweep the house. house. 5. I don’t don’t like to to be consciou conscious s about about status. status. 6. I don’t don’t enjoy meanin meaningle gless ss gossip gossip..
Agreeing and Disagreeing Disagreeing Whenever we have a conversation or discussion, we either agree or disagree with the ideas, opinions or arguments of the person or people we are talking to. Some of the ways of agreeing and disagreeing in English.
Agreeing I think you’re right. I agree with you. Strong agreement I couldn’t agree with you more. You’re absolutely right. I agree entirely. I totally agree. Agreeing in part I agree with you up to a point, but…………… That’s quite true, but………………. I agree with you in principle, but…………..
Disagreeing
I’m not sure I agree with you. 13
I’m afraid I don’t agree. I’m afraid I disagree. I don’t share your opinion. Disagreeing strongly I don’t agree at all. I totally disagree.
Agreement, partial agreement and disagreement
The way people agree or disagree in an argument or discussion varies in different languages.
Agreement:
It is worthwhile saying that silence is not understood as agreement. If you agree with an opinion or an idea, you are expected to say so.
Expressions
There is no doubt about it that... I completely / absolutely agree with you. I agree with you entirely. I totally agree with you. I simply must agree with that. I am of the same opinion. I am of the same opinion. That’s exactly what I think.
Disagreement:
Expressing disagreement is always respected as honest, and sometimes as courageous.
Expressions
I don't agree with you. I’m sorry, but I disagree. I'm afraid, I can't agree with you. The problem is that... I (very much) doubt whether... This is in complete contradiction to... With all due respect,… I am of a different opinion because ... I cannot share this / that / the view. I cannot agree with this idea. What I object to is... I have my own thoughts about that.
Partial agreement:
You can also agree but with reservation especially when there is a doubt or feeling of not being able to accept something completely
Expressions
It is only partly true that... That’s true, but… I can agree with that only with reservations. That seems obvious, but... That is not necessarily so.
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It is not as simple as it seems. I agree with you in principle, but… I agree with you in part, but… Well, you could be right.
Extroverts and Introverts. Extroverts are those people who are social by nature, like to make friends, love to socialize and arrange parties and other fun activities. They are”doers” and like to keep themselves busy. Introverts, on the other hand are quieter, less social, keep their feelings, thoughts and ideas to themselves and take very little interest in social gatherings and functions. In fact, most of them are a re “thinkers”.
Extroverts Like to have a lot of friends
Found of partying
Love sharing things personal details Love crowds
and
Interested about people and social news Good conversationalists
Love Love outd outdoo oorr acti activi viti ties es as sports, picnics, trips, etc Prefer jobs that involve public dealing
Introverts Like to be on their own, enjoy ones own company Dislike socializing and partying Hate disc isclosing ing personal details Avoi Av oid d larg large e gathe gatheri ring ngs s and crowds Prefe referr to be res reserve erved d and and observant Love to sit at home and enjoy enjoy doing doing person personal al things things such as listening to classical music and reading. Enjoy a working environment that is quieter and private Don’t like to be noticed
Verb A verb is a word like ask, make, wait, go and work . Most verbs refer to actions or states. •
I want to go.
•
She made a cake.
•
He works in a factory.
•
I asked him a question.
•
She wrote a letter.
Adverb An adverb is a word used to add something to the meaning of a verb. Examples are:
carefully, carefully, well, quickly, now, then, today etc. •
She can speak English well. 15
•
He finished his meal quickly.
•
He worked hard.
•
I want to go now.
Preposition A preposition is a word used with a noun or a pronoun to show how the person or thing denoted by the noun or pronoun stands in relation to some other word in the sentence. Examples are: in, out, of, to, for, under, above, from, between etc. •
He sat under the tree.
•
The lion is in the cage.
•
He sat on the table.
Conjunction A conjunction is a word used to join words or sentences. Examples are: and, but, or,
because, since, as, though etc. •
James and Alice are cousins.
•
He is very hardworking but his brother is lazy.
•
You can have tea or coffee.
Interjection An interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling. Examples are: alas, hurrah etc. •
Alas! We have lost the match.
•
Hurrah! We have won the match.
Negative and Interrogative Sentences Transform the following sentences into the negative and the interrogative.
1
Example: (See unit 22.) I can dance. I can’t dance/I cannot dance. Can I dance?
a b c d e
She can swim. They can help you. We can ride a horse. He can drive a lorry. It can fly.
2
Example: (I am ; he, she, it is; we, you, they are; see unit 6, part 1, section 1.) He’s happy/He is happy. He isn’t happy/He is not happy. Is he happy?
16
a b c d e
It’s snowing. They’re working. It’s spitting with rain. She’s worried. You’re watching television.
3
Example: (he, she, it has; other persons, have; see unit 6, part 4, section 1.) It’s got five doors/It has got five doors. It hasn’t got five doors/It has not got five doors. Has it got five doors?
a b c d e
I’ve got a farm. He’s got a lot of friends. They’ve got my help. It’s got three eyes. We’ve got everything.
4
Example: (all the persons, but he, she, it ; see unit 7, part 1.) I hate running. I don’t hate running/I do not hate running. Do I hate running?
a b c d e
His sisters dust every single day. My friends wish to go abroad. I live in London. They like singing. We need more dancers.
5
Example: (third person singular: he, she, it ; see unit 7, part 1.) He works hard. He doesn’t work (infinitive) hard/He does not work hard. Does he work (infinitive) hard?
a
She pays pays them a short short visit from time time to time. (infinitive: pay) He looks like his father. (infinitive: look) It dries soon. (infinitive: dry) It flies. (infinitive: fly) She washes washes down down the kitchen walls once a month. (infinitive: wash)
b c d e
6 a b c d e f g
Revision exercise. It takes time. He’s got three parrots. My car is being repaired. You can mend my watch. She loves talking to friends. It worries him. There’s a man in the street.
17
h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
They’ve got all she wishes. They look tired. There are two old old ladies ladies at the the door. door. We need a teacher. She can speak five languages. I work in Bristol. You can play tennis. They swim very well. She buys everything. He always pays everything for her. They want to stay at home. Margaret is very fond of classical music. There is a lot of bread. They keep on talking all the time. I can speak and write German. They’ve got a bad reputation. She plays chess every week. We hate drinking whisky. She feels very lonely.
7
Example: (irregular verbs; see the list provided in unit 8, and unit 7, part 3.) I had to do it. (infinitive: have; simple past: had ) I didn’t have (infinitive) to do it/I did not have to do it. Did I have (infinitive) to do it?
a b c d e
Mary went to the ball. They made coffee. I saw you yesterday. My computer broke down. They overslept yesterday morning.
8
Example: (regular verbs; see unit unit 7, part 3.) It killed (simple past) the fly. It didn’t kill (infinitive) the fly/It did not kill the fly. Did it kill (infinitive) the fly?
a b c d e
John and Margaret enjoyed Tom’s speeches. It rained cats and dogs yesterday. They opened the window. She passed her examinations. He used to knock his children about.
9
Example: (I, he, she, it was; you, we, they were; see unit 6, part 1, section 2.) I was exhausted. I wasn’t exhausted/I was not exhausted. Was I exhausted?
a b
There were two rivers. There was a cup of tea tea on the table.
18
c d e
He was my best friend. They were dancing when I saw them. You were very cruel to animals.
10 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q
Revision exercise. Tim broke the window. Jane listens to music every evening. It’s bucketing down. We can park here. She’s got a black eye. He denies it. They got married last year. They came here yesterday. She fried two eggs. He helped her with her homework. They wanted to beat him up. They robbed me yesterday. They take care of Jennifer. There was an armchair. They look down on him. I was fast asleep. His grandmother was wide awake when he came came home last night. I ran into Peter last Monday. She always looks ahead. They steal cassette-playe cassette-players rs from cars. They are looking into the matter carefully. I came across these documents yesterday. We ran out of petrol. She slept very well. It fell to pieces. There were plenty of mines mines in the the area. area.
r s t u v w x y z
11 Example: (he, she it has; other persons, have; see unit 6, part 4, section 9, and unit 7, parts 5 and 6.) ’ve been ill/They have been ill since ’ve They the day before yesterday. They haven’t been ill/They have not been ill since the day before yesterday. Have they been ill since the day before yesterday? a b c d e
She has has been living here since since she was born. born. You’ve made a mistake. He has arrived. It’s gone sour. We’ve been been longing to get divorced for the last few months.
Active and Passive Voice There are two special forms for verbs called voice: 1. Active voice 2. Passive voice
19
The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most of the time. You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice, the object receives the action of the verb: active subject verb object > Cats e at fish. The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb: passive subject verb object < Fish are eaten by cats. The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb: subject verb object active water. Every erybody drin rinks is by everybody. passive Water drunk
Conjugation for the Passive Voice: We can form the passive in any tense. In fact, conjugation of verbs in the passive tense is rather easy, as the main verb is always in past participle form and the auxiliary verb is always be. To form the required tense, we conjugate the auxiliary verb. So, for example: present simple: It is made present continuous: It is being made present perfect: It has been made Here are some examples with most of the possible tenses:
infinitive simple
continuous
perfect simple
perfect continuous
present past future conditio nal present past future conditio nal present past future conditio nal present past future conditio nal
to be washed It is washed. It was washed. It will be washed. It would be washed. It is being washed. It was being washed. It will be being washed. It would be being washed. It has been washed. It had been washed. It will have been washed. It would have been washed. It has been being washed. It had been being washed. It will have been being washed. It would have been being washed.
Exercise 1. The tiger killed the deer. 20
2. The boy is learning his lessons. 3. This house was built by my grandfather. 4. Alice has been waiting for a long time. 5. Mother was making a cake. 6. The postman was bitten by the dog. 7. The thief was caught. 8. The accused were sent to jail. 9. The loud noise frightened the baby. 10. The dog chased the cat. 11. The letter was posted yesterday. 12. The oldman takes snuff. 13. The cat drank all the milk. 14. That boy of yours has broken my window again. 15. These shoes of mine pinch me terribly. 16. I can answer the question.
Possibility and Impossibilit I mpossibility y probability or improbability improbability:: See the difference between probability and possibility. possibility . There are many ways to say that something will probably or improbably happen.
Probability / improbabilty ...
may
...
might can could ...
probably
will It's
probable
that
improbable
...
likely unlikely I
doubt
... will ...
suppose guess 'd be
if ....
surprised Perha ps
... will ...
May be
Examples of probability: •
It is probable that my grandfather repairs my bike.
•
May be / perhaps the problem won’t be serious.
•
It will probably rain this t his evening.
•
I’m likely to do the work myself.
Examples of improbability: •
No, probably not.
21
•
I don't suppose my grandfather will repair the bike.
•
I doubt my father will buy me a new computer, either.
•
She is unlikely to return home early this evening.
•
I'd be surprised if he got the best score.
•
It's unlikely he will find his lost keys.
Expressing probability in the past: .
ma
..
y
h ave
Past Participle
might can could
Examples of probability in the past: •
He may have robbed your computer while you were out.
•
The criminal might have threatened her. That's why, she was afraid of him.
•
The author might have carried a deep research on the subject. That's why his book is so interestring.
Examples of improbability in the past: •
He may have not lived in this town. Nobody seems to know him.
She can't have helped him in his crime as they have never met before. Something is possible and certain if it is meaningful. Something that makes no sense and is meaningless is i s impossibility or uncertainty. •
To say that something is possible, probable and impossible, use the following expressions: POSSIBILITY NEUTRAL • • • • • • • • • • •
INFORMAL
It’s possible/probable … It’s likely … I expect … It may be … It could/might/may could/might/may be … It is/looks/seems possible. Is it possible to ... ? Is there any possibility of ... ? What are the chances of ...? What possibility is there that ... ? What's the possibility of ... ?
v
• • • • •
• •
FORMAL
Could be … If you ask me, … It looks as if … You can be sure … There’s a good chance I reckon … I bet …
•
• •
• •
I think there’s possibility … I believe … There’s always possibility of … It’s more than likely … ü It’s reasonable to believe …
IMPOSSIBILITY
NEUTRAL • • • • • • • • • •
I don’t think … It’s not likely … I don’t expect … It’s not probable … It’s unlikely… It’s impossible … That's not possible. It's unlikely. Not a chance! It was impossible to ...
INFORMAL • • • • • • •
FORMAL
Probably not. Impossible. Perhaps not. May be not. No way. Surely not. Not a chance.
22
• •
•
•
It’s very doubtful… It’s extremely unlikely/improbable … I think there’s absolutely no possibility possibility of … I think there’s very little chance of ..
There's no chance of ... It's not likely that ... Look at the example: Jimmy : Is there a chance that we’ll win the football match? Alex : Of course there is a chance . We are one of the ten best teams in the district. Jimmy : Is it possible coz our rival is the first place? Alex : Well, there’s possibility of being the winner. Don’t be discouraged. THE EXERCISES EXERCISE 1 Answer the following questions by choosing the correct option. 1) Mike : ‘are you sure to come to Dina’s party tonight?’ Bella : Probably, I’m not sure. The underlined sentence means … (A) disagreement (B) displeasure (C) certainty (D) uncertainty (E) disappointed 2) Marry :‘Tom, do you think that we can finish this project by today?’ Tom : ‘I have no doubt that we can finish it in time.’ The underlined sentence means … (A) agreement (B) disagreement (C) certainty (D) uncertainty (E) impossibility 3) Betty :I’d like to go to the cinema tonight, will you join me? Charlie : …. Its great. (A) I don’t don’t think I’ll go with you you (B) Sure, I’m really looking forward to seeing it (C) I think I have the qualification to see it (D) Oh really, but but I don’t like it (E) I’d love to, but I have something to do. EXERCISE 2 State whether the followings are possible or impossible. 1) …. A man can survive in a jungle without any help. 2) …. A fat guy cannot run fast. 3) …. Flowers can grow inside the house. 4) …. People can live without sun. 5) …. Students do not need to wear uniform to school. 6) …. Expensive dress must be durable. 7) …. A house can be built in a week. 8) …. Riding car shows being a rich person. 9) …. Being diligent must be successful. 10) …. Most smokers suffer from lung cancer. • •
Facts and Opinions A fact is a statement that is true or real and is based on evidence. An opinion is a statement that gives a personal opinion or view and may or may not be true. So we can say that a fact is statement of actuality and is based on evidence, actual experience, or observation. Whereas, an opinion is a statement of belief or feeling. It shows one’s feelings about a subject.
Asking For and Giving Permission 23
When you ask for permission to use something that belongs to someone else you have to do your best to be polite. It is desirable to use the word "please."
Asking for Permission: •
Can I go out, please?
•
May I open the window, please?
•
Please, can I have a look at your photo album?
•
Please, may I taste that hot spicy couscous dish?
•
Do you mind if I smoke?
•
Would you mind if I asked you something?
•
Is it okay if I sit here?
•
Would it be all right if I borrowed your mobile Phone?
Giving Permission: •
Yes, please do.
•
Sure, go ahead.
•
Sure.
•
No problem.
•
Please feel free.
Refusing to give permission: •
No, please don’t.
•
I’m sorry, but that’s not possible.
•
I'm afraid, but you can't.
Dialogue: Liza, eight years old, is asking her mother for permission to use the computer...
Liza:
Please mum, can I use the computer?
Her
No, dear you can't. It's time to go to to
mother:
bed.
Liza:
May I read a story before I sleep? s leep?
Her
Sure! But try to sleep early.
mother: Liza:
Thanks a lot mummy.
Asking and giving advice and suggestions Asking
Giving
What do you recomend we do about ... ? Waht would you advice us to do? Do you have any suggestions? What would you do about ...?
I would recommend that you ... My advice would be to ... May I suggest that we ... If I were you, I would ...
Accepting advice
Rejecting advice
Yes, I agree with that.
I'm sorry, i can't agree with that.
That sounds like a good idea! OK, why don't we do that.
I don't think that's a good idea. I don't think we should do that. 24
That's very interesting.
That's very interesting, but ...
Reported Speech (Indirect Speech) What is reported speech? Reported speech is when you tell somebody else what you or a person said before. Distinction must be made between direct speech and reported speech.
Direct speech vs Reported speech: Direct speech
Reported speech
She says:" she likes tuna fish."
She says that she likes tuna fish.
She said: "I'm visiting Paris next
She said that she was visiting Paris the following
weekend"
weekend.
Different types of sentences When you use reported speech, you either report: •
Statements
•
questions
•
requests / commands
•
other types
I. Reporting Statements When transforming statements, check whether you have to change: •
pronouns
•
tense
•
place and time expression
1-Pronouns In reported speech, you often have to change the pronoun depending on who says what. Example: She says, “My dad likes roast chicken.” – She says that her dad likes roast chicken.
2-Tenses •
If the sentence starts in the present, there is no backshift of
tenses in Reported speech. •
If the sentence starts in the past, there is often backshift of
tenses in Reported speech. Direct speech
Reported speech
(no backshift) “I write poems.” He says that he writes poems. (backshift)
“I write poems.” He said that he wrote poems.
No backshift Do not change the tense if the introductory clause is in a present tense (e. g. He says). says). Note, however, that you might have to change the form of the present tense verb (3rd person singular). Example: He says, “I write poems.” – He says that he writes English.
Backshift You must change the tense if the introductory clause is in a past tense (e. g. He said ). ).
25
Example: He said, “I am happy.” – He said that he was happy.
Examples of the main changes in tense: Direct Speech
Reported Speech
Simple Present
Simple Past
He said: "I am happy"
He said that he was happy
Present Progressive
Past Progressive
He said: "I 'm looking for my keys"
He said that he was looking for his keys
Simple Past
Past Perfect Simple
He said: "I visited New York last year"
He said that he had visited New York the previous year.
Present Perfect
Present Perfect
He said: " I 've lived here for long time "
He said that he had lived there for a long time
Past Perfect
Present Perfect
He said: "They had finished the work when He said that they had finished the work when he I arrived"
had arrived"
Past Progressive
Past Perfect Progressive
He said: "I was playing football when the
He said that he had been playing football when
accident occured"
the accident had occured
Present Perfect Progressive
Past Perfect Progressive
He said:"I have been playing football for
He said that he had been playing football for
two hours."
two hours
Past Perfect Progressive
Past Perfect Progressive
He said: "I had been reading a newspaper
He said that he had been reading a newspaper
when the light went off "
when the light had gone off
Future Simple (will+verb)
Conditional (would+verb)
He said: "I will open the door."
He said that he would open the door.
Conditional (would+verb)
Conditional (would+verb)
He said: "I would buy Mercedes if I were
He said that he would buy Mercedes if he had
rich"
been rich"
The verbs could, should, would, might, must, needn’t, ought to, used to do not normally change. Example: He said, “She might be right.” – He said that she might be right.
3-Place and time expressions Place and time expressions change if the context of the reported statement (ie the t he location and/or the period of time) is different from that of the direct speech. In the following table, you will find ways of transforming place and time expressions into reported speech.
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
today
that day
now
then
26
yesterday
the day before
… days ago
… days before
last week
the week before
next year
the following year
tomorrow
the next day / the following day
here
there
this
that
these
those
B. Reporting Questions When transforming questions, check whether you have to change: •
pronouns
•
place and time expressions
•
tenses (backshift)
Also note that you have to: •
transform the question into an indirect question
•
use the question word (where, ( where, when, what, how ) or if / if /
whether
Types of questions
Direct speech
With question word (what, why, where, how...)
"Why" don’t you speak He asked me why I didn’t English?”
speak English.
Without question word (yes or “Do you speak no questions)
Reported speech
English?”
He asked me whether / if I spoke English.
C. Reporting requests / commands When transforming requests and commands, check whether you have to change: •
pronouns
•
place and time expressions
Direct speech “Nancy,do the exercise.“
Reported speech He told nancy to do the exercise.
"Nancy, give me your pen, please." He asked Nancy to give him her pen.
Tenses are not relevant for requests – simply use to / not to + verb (infinitive without "to")
Example: She said, “Sit down." - She asked me to sit down. She said, "don't be lazy" - She asked me not to be lazy For affirmative use to + infinitive (without to) For negative requests, use not to + infinitive (without to).
D. Other transformations •
Expressions of advice with must, should and ought are usually
reported using advise / urge. urge . Example:
27
“You must read this book.“ He advised / urged me to read that book. •
The expression let’s is usually reported using suggest. suggest. In this case,
there are two possibilities for reported speech: gerund or statement with should .
Example: “Let’s go to the cinema.“= 1. He suggested going to the cinema. 2. He suggested that we should go to the cinema.
Main clauses connected with and/but If two complete main clauses are connected with ‚and‘ or ‚but‘, ‚but‘, put ‚that‘ after the conjunction.
Example: He said,“I saw her but she didn’t see me.“ – He said that he had seen her but that she hadn’t seen him.“ If the subject is dropped in the second main clause (the conjunction is followed by a verb), do not use ‚that‘. ‚that‘.
Example: She said,“I am a nurse and work in a hospital.“ – He said that she was a nurse and worked in a hospital.“
Expressing Preference & Intention We all have our preferences or choices in food, clothes, colours, music, books, films, and people. What do we mean when we say “I prefer” well it means to make a choice, to favor something rather than the other. We express our preferences in a number of ways. A few sentences that express preference: I prefer a glass of fresh juice in the morning. I rather have fruit for lunch than a full meal. I like cotton clothes better than silk ones. I would like to choose Maths as a subject. I would opt to travel by train as it is cheaper.
Introducing yourself and other people Introducing yourself and others There is a range of ways to introduce yourself and people.
Introducing yourself: Here are expressions to introduce yourself: •
My name is ...
•
I'm ....
•
Nice to meet you; I'm ...
•
Pleased to meet you;
I'm ... •
L&et me introduce myself;
I'm ... •
I'd like to introduce
myself; I'm ...
Introducing others: Here are expressions to introduce others: •
Jack, please meet Nicolas.
28
•
Jack, have you met Nicolas?
•
I'd like you to meet Liza.
•
I'd like to introduce you to Betty.
•
Leila, this is Barbara. Barbara this is Leila.
Useful responses when introducing yourself or other people: •
Nice to meet you.
•
Pleased to meet you.
•
Happy to meet you.
•
How do you do?
Dialogue: Alex is talking to the new manager and his assitant. Notice how they introduce themselves:
Alex:
Hi! Hi! My My nam name e is is Al Alex Litt Litte erman rman,, the the new man manage ager.
William: Hi! I'm I'm Willi William am O'Bria O'Brian. n. Nice Nice to meet meet you, you, Mr Mr Alex Alex Litterman.
John:
Will Willia iam, m, plea please se meet meet Mr Stev Steve e Lyn Lynch ch,, my my ass assis ista tant nt
Jack:
How do you do?
Nicolas:
How do you do?
Things to remember: •
When introducing yourself or other people in a formal situation use
full names. ("I'm Alex Litterman.") •
"How do you do?" isn't really a question, it just means "Hello"
Greeting There are different ways to greet people: Greeting means welcoming someone with particular words or a particular action. When meeting people formally for the first time, we greet by shaking hands and saying "How do you do?" or "Pleased to meet you." "How do you do?" isn't really a question, it just means "Hello". When young people meet informally they sometimes greet and say "Give me five!" and slap their hands together (high five). Generally we do not greet by shaking hands with people we know well. We greet by just saying 'hi' or 'hello' Here are some expressions you can use to greet people.
Greeting •
Hi, hello.
•
Good morning, good
afternoon, good evening. •
How are you?
•
How are you doing?
•
How do you do?
Responding to greeting •
Hi, hello.
•
Good morning/Good afternoon/Good evening.
•
I'm fine thank you (thanks)/Okey! Thank you (thanks)/Can't
complain/Not bad.
29
•
How about you?/And you?
•
How do you do?
Things to remember about greeting: When you greet someone and say: "How do you do?" this isn't really a question, it just means "Hello".
Making an Appointment Making an appointment Being able to make and cancel an appointment is an important skill in English. You need to be able to: •
make an apppointment,
•
respond to an appointment and
•
cancel an appointment.
Here are some expressions you can use to do this concisely and clearly.
Asking to meet: Are you
available on... / next...? free on... / next...?
Can we
meet on... / next ...?
would
next ... be ok?
What about
next ... ?
Is
next ... ok?
Examples: •
"Are you available on the 17th?"
•
"Can we meet on the 16th?"
•
"How does the 3rd sound to you?"
•
"Are you free next week?"
•
"Would Friday suit you?"
•
"Is next Tuesday convenient for you?"
•
"What about sometime next week?"
Responding to an appointment: Yes,
... is fine .... would be fine.
....
suits me would be perfect.
I'm afraid
I can't on ....
I'm sorry
I won't be able to... on ...
I really don't think I can
on ...
Examples: •
"Yes, Monday is fine."
•
"Monday suits me."
•
"Thursday would be perfect."
•
"I'm afraid I can't on the 3rd. What about the 6th?"
30
•
"I'm sorry, I won't be able to make it on Monday. Could we meet on
Tuesday instead?" •
"Ah, Wednesday is going to be a little difficult. I'd much prefer
Friday, if that's alright with you." •
"I really don't think I can on the 17th. Can we meet up on the 19th?
Cancelling an appointment You can cancel an appointment as follows •
Unfortunately, due to some unforeseen business, I will be unable to
keep our appointment for tomorrow afternoon. •
Would it be possible to arrange another time later in the week? w eek?
•
I’m afraid that I have to cancel our meeting on Wednesday, as
something unexpected has come up. •
You know we were going to meet next Friday? Well, I'm very sorry,
but something urgent has come up. •
I'm afraid that I'm not going to be able to meet you after all. Can we
fix another time?
Preferences Talking about your preferences: Questions about prefences •
Which do you prefer tea or coffee?
•
Which do you prefer drinking science or physics?
•
Which do you prefer to drink juice or mineral
water? (Notice: prefer to + present present simple) •
Which do you like better basketball or football?
•
Do you prefer pizza or spaghetti?
•
Would you prefer to eat a cake or a fruit?
•
Would you rather eat a cake or a fruit? fr uit?
•
I prefer baseball.
•
I'd prefer to drink juice
•
I'd rather drink mineral water
•
If I had a choice, I would eat a sandwich.
•
A cup of coffee would be suitable.
Replies
Things to remember about preferences 1. "I'd "I'd pre prefe fer" r" + to to + verb verb 2. "I'd "I'd rath rather er"" + verb verb
Making Invitations Making invitations Do you know how to invite someone to your house for dinner or to go to the movies? What do you say in English when someone invites you? Here are some common expressions you can use when making or responding to invitations
Inviting: •
Do you want to go to the movies tonight?
•
Would you like to go to the theatre tomorrow?
•
Would you be interested in going to the the stadium next Sunday?
31
•
How do you fancy going to the the restaurant for dinner?
•
How about going to the movies?
•
Care to come over for lunch?
•
I was just wondering if you would like to come over for a drink.
•
We'd be delighted to have you over for my birthday party.
Accepting invitations: •
Sure. What time?
•
I'd love to, thanks.
•
That's very kind of you, thanks.
•
That sounds lovely, thank you.
•
What a great idea, thank you.
•
Sure. When should I be there?
Declining invitations: •
I can't. I have to
work. •
This evening is no
good. I have an appointment. •
I'm busy tomorrow.
Can I take a rain check* on that? •
That's very kind of
you, but actually I'm doing something else this afternoon. •
Well, I'd love to, but I'm already going out to the restaurant.
•
I'm really sorry, but I've got something else on.
•
I really don't think I can - I'm supposed to be doing something else.
(*rain check: used to tell someone that you cannot accept invitations now, but would like to do so at a later time:)
Dialogue: Mike and Ann are in a wedding party:
Mike:
Do you want to dance?
Ann:
No thanks. I'm a bit tired right now
Mike:
How about having a drink?
Ann:
Sure, I'd love to!
Making and Responding To Suggestions Suggestions The following English phrases and expressions are all used to make suggestions and give advice to people.
Making suggestions: •
Let’s revise our lessons.
•
What about going to the cinema tonight?
•
How about playing cards?
•
Why don't we do our homework?
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•
Couldn't we invite your grandmother to our party?
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Shall we have a walk along the river?
•
What would you say to a cup of coffee?
•
Don't you think it is a good idea to watch TV?
•
Does it matter if we use your car?
Accepting suggestions: •
Ok. Yes, let's.
•
Yes, I'd like to.
•
Yes, I'd love to.
•
What a good idea!
•
Why not?
•
Yes, with pleasure.
•
Yes, I feel like taking a walk.
•
That sounds like a good idea.
Refusing suggestions: •
No, let's not.
•
No, I'd rather not.
•
I don't feel like it.
•
I dislike going for a walk.
•
What an awful / bad idea!
Things to remember about suggestions: 1.The verb "suggest" can be followed f ollowed by either: •
should + verb = I sggest (that) we should go to the theatre.
•
a verb (in the subjunctive form) = I suggest (that) we go to the
theatre. 2."That" is optional: •
"I suggest that we should go to the theatre."
•
"I suggest we should go to t o the theatre."
Dialogue: Two friends talking about where to go this evening:
Alice: You know know Alan, Alan, why don't we go to the cinema to
watch Titanic? Alan: No, let's not. We've seen the film many times before.
What about going to the library? We have to finish our school project!
Alice: That sounds like like a good idea. idea. But when we finish finish let's
go to the cafè. Alan: Yes, I'd love to.
Talking about Cause and Effect Cause and effect When we talk about an effect resulting from a certain cause, we use expressions such as: because, since, as, owing to, due to...
Examples
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The police arrested him because he broke into a bank. The police arrested him since he broke into a bank. She can't read the letter as she is illiterate. He can't run fast for he is too fat. Owing to his intelligence, he managed to solve the problem. Due to the bad weather, they didn’t go for a picnic.
• • • • • •
Other ways to express cause and effect: You can also express cause and effect as follows: The cause of …is… …is caused by / is due to … Thanks to ... • • •
Examples: The cause of
global warming
is polluton.
Glob Global al warm warmin ing g is caus caused ed by poll pollut utio ion. n. is due to Thanks Thanks to his hard work , he passed passed the exam
Is there a difference between due to and owing to? Owing to and due to are used interchangeably by native speakers although some state that there is a difference. a. Due to: If you can use caused by then you can also use due to: Example: "The cancellation of the flight was due to (caused by) high winds." b. Owing to: If you can use because of then you should use owing to rather than due to: Example: "The flight was cancelled owing to (because of ) high winds."
Use of thanks to People tend to use thanks to in positive situations. Example: "Thanks to his intelligence he managed to find the solution to that math problem." Sometimes thanks to is used ironically in a nagative way Example: "Did she lose the election?" "Yeah, thanks to you and to all the others who didn't bother to vote." "The baby is awake thanks to your shouting."
Things to remember about cause and effect: a. Due to, because of , owing to and thanks to are followed by a noun. b. Because, since, as, for are followed by a verb.
Due to
+
Noun because Subject + Verb
Because of
since
Owing to
as
Thanks to
for
Examples: 34
Due to his laziness, he didn't pass the exam. Thanks to her beauty, she attracted the attention of all the guests. Because / since /as / they are in love, they forgive each other's mistakes. • • •
Writing a Cause and Effect Paragraph How to write a cause and effect paragraph What makes something happen is called a cause. An effect is what happens as a result of the cause. Here are a few basics on writing a coherent cause and effect paragraph.
Pre-writing Decide whether to write about a cause or an effect or both. You can choose to discuss only the causes or only the effects of an event. Alternatively, you can discuss the causes AND effects of a certain event. Make a list of causes or effects. Then narrow down that list to include only the most important causes or effects.
Writing Write a draft explaining each cause or effect in the paragraph in as much detail as possible. and don't forget to use transitional words in your paragraph, such as: also, as a result, because, first and finally. It is very important to include in your paragraph a clear topic sentence. This sentence should state the main idea of your paragraph.
Punctuation Punctuation rules Punctuation marks are symbols which 1. organize organize the structure structure of of written written language, language, 2. and idicate idicate intonati intonation on and pauses pauses to be observed observed when when reading reading aloud. Punctuation marks are also used to avoid ambiguity. For example, "woman, without her man, is nothing" has a different meaning from "woman: without her, man is nothing" This is a summary of punctuation rules. Read the punctuation rules and study the examples given.
End punctuation marks: 1. Full stop , or period (.) Used a full stop at the end of a sentence: She stood up and went away. She was furious. Used for abreviations: Co. (Company) M.P. (Member of Parliament) •
•
2. Question marks (?) Question marks are used at the end of direct questions: Where do you live? Are you crazy? Did you do the homework? Use a question mark at the end of tag questions: You will help me, won't you? He likes soccer, doesn't he? 3. Exclamation marks (!) Used to indicate strong emotions: She's so beautiful! What a nice girl! How interesting! •
•
•
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Used after interjections: Oh! It's awful. Hi! What's up? •
Commas (,) Commas are used between items in a series or list. The last two items of the series usually do not need a comma between them. They are separated by "and". I like spaghetti, fish, pizza and couscous. Commas are also used between adjectives or adverbs: I'd like to have a big, black, German car. She speaks slowly, quietly and eloquently. After the street address and city in an address: 34 Hassan II Street, Rabat, Morocco. Before or after direct speech: He said,"I hate being treated like that." "I'm sorry", she replied. Before a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) He woke up late, so he had to drive to work. •
•
•
•
•
Semicolons (;) Semicolons are used instead of a full stop or period to separate independent independent sentences: They woke earlya book; then they went jogging. Use a semicolon to separate items in a series when those items contain punctuation such as a comma: They visited the Eiffel Tower, Paris; Big Ben, London; and the statue of liberty, New York •
•
Colons (:) Use a colon to introduce a list: He visited three cities last summer holiday: Madrid, Roma and Athens. To introduce an idea or an explanation: He had one idea in mind: to see her as soon as possible. To introduce direct speech or a quotation: The secretary whispered in his ear: "Your wife is on the phone. " •
•
•
Dashes (--) To introduce paranthetical information: I put on a blue jacket --the one my mother bought me-- and blue jeans. To show an afterthought: I explained to him my point of view-- at least I tried! •
•
Apostrophes (') Use an apostrophe to indicate a missing letter or letters in a contraction. I'm fed up with his strories Use an apostrophe plus the letter "s" to show possession. My brother's girlfriend is such a sweet girl. •
•
Quotation marks ("") Quotation marks are used to quote speech, sentences or words. She said, "I love you." •
The Coordinating Conjunction — these are the seven And , bu t , fo r , no r , o r , s so o , and ye t —these coordinating conjunctions.
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•
The bowl of squid eyeball stew is hot and delicious.
•
The squid eyeball stew is so thick that you can eat it with a fork or spoon.
•
Rocky, my orange tomcat, loves having his head scratched but hates getting his claws trimmed.
•
Rocky terrorizes the poodles next door yet adores the German shepherd across the street.
•
Rocky refuses to eat dry cat food, nor will he touch a saucer of squid eyeball stew.
•
I hate to waste a single drop of squid eyeball stew, for it is expensive and timeconsuming to make.
•
Even though I added cream to the squid eyeball stew, Rocky ignored his serving, so I got a spoon and ate it myself.
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