PAKISTAN STUDIES The History of Pakistan Abstract A beautiful, useful and accurate compilation of Notes. Perfect for O-Level Pakistan Studies (2059)
Asadullah Babur
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__________________________ SECTION 1 __________________________
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Chapter 1: What were the Cause and Consequence for Decline of Mughal Empire? Internal Reasons: o
Extra
Large
Key Questions:
Empire,
difficult
for
o
administrations o
How far was Aurangzeb Responsible for decline of Mughal Empire?
Rule by Aurangzeb and its successor
o
Weakness of Empire after death of Aurangzeb? Inevitable?
o
EIC Expansion and Role?
o
Successful British Expansion?
o
1757: Battle of Plassey
Empire
o
1759: Shah Alam II takes control
o
1530: Humayun’s region starts
o
1764: Battle of Buxar
o
1556: Akbar ascend the throne
o
1784: India Act
o
1600: Formation of EIC
o
1799: Nawabs of Oudh Defeated
o
1605: Jahangir Successor
o
1803: British enter Dehli
o
1627: Shah Jehan comes to throne
o
1806: Akbar II takes control
o
1658: Region of Aurangzeb Starts
o
1833: Govt. of India act
o
1707:
o
1838: Bahadur Shah II takes control
Empire
o
1843: Annexation of Sindh
o
1719: Muhammad Shah takes control
o
1849: Annexation of Punjab’
o
1748: Ahmed Shah takes control
o
1852: Doctrine of Lapse
o
1754: Alamgir II’s region starts
External Reasons: o
Invasions from Persia/Afghanistan
o
Arrival of British
o
Rule of EIC
o
British
Expansion
(1750-1810);
annexation of Sindh and Punjab
Timeline o
1522:
Babur
Establishes
Aurangzeb
Dies,
Mughal
Unstable
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Rise of Mughal Empire: In early 1600’s, Mughals invaded India and developed a huge Empire Large as whole Europe, which lasted 300 years
The Mughals: A ruling family from Central Asia. Zaheer-ud-din Muhammad (also known as Babur) was the first Mughal Emperor. Babur was ruling from when he was 12 years old. He was from Turkestan. From a family which contained 2 conquering generals ‘Gengis Khan’ and ‘Taimur’. “House of Taimur” was the name of Family, but were popular as ‘Mughals’ in India
The Conquest on Northern India: 21st April 1526, Babur was keen to extend Empire. When he was asked from discounted group of peoples to overthrow Delhi’s emperor Ibrahim Lodhi, he was quick to respond. He went from Kabul Base through Punjab to Panipat. Against Ibrahim Lodhi he was outnumbered, 10 to 1. Great use of Artillery and Fireman gave him a great victory. Below account was found in Babur’s memories:
God made the victory easy for us. Battle ended in half day, 20,000 Ibrahim’s men were killed. Those who tried to run were followed. Captured Nobles of all ranks. Ibrahim was killed and his head was taken to my court.
Babur won more of the Victories, and was un-challenged in Northern India. History indicates that most of the emperors plundered as much as possible and returned home. However, Babur was unlike others. He wanted to organize his new lands.
Measures by Babur: o
Babur was a Muslim. He believed he is fighting Jihad, but once the wars were won, his subjects should be treated as dignity
o
He divided his new lands into feudal estates and appointed men to administrate these lands and collect taxes
o
Made sure local rulers accept him as leader and did not allowed any disobedience
Unfortunately Babur was to rule just four years. It is in legends that:
Babur’s son Humayun went seriously ill. Babur prayed for his son and his life may be taken instead. That exactly happened. Babur was 48 when he died 1|Page
Humayun’s Problems: In 1530 Humayun became emperor. Difficulties with Humayun o
Army loyalty was a strong leaders, Humayun was not strong.
o
Humayun was not able relay on loyalty of his three brothers, particularly his brother Kamran
o
Afghan chief challenged Humayun’s authority. One of them, Sher Shah Suri defeated him in battle and established a large Suri Empire.
o
Humayun spent 15 years fighting to regain his territories. In 1545 Sher Shah Suri was killed.
Humayun was not a strong leader. He often allowed his opponents to surrender instead of crushing them in battle but he seemed to have learnt his lesson. He defeated his brother Kamran by 1549. And in 1555 he gained his land back.
Humayun’s strong points: o
He was persisting leader, overcame his rivals.
o
Skilled administer.
o
Supported research in science and religion
o
Set down rules most efficient ways to manage agriculture.
Humayun’s weak points: o
He showed to much mercy on the battle field
o
He spent large sums on an extravagant lifestyle
Akbar-The Great 1. Extending the Empire: Humayun’s son was 13 years old when he had to take control. Illiterate but intelligent, had great military skills. Akbar extended the empire much towards northern areas o
In 1556 he defeated Hemu, a Hindu leader who had seized Dehli.
o
1557, Rebelled army by Afghans and Uzbeks was put down.
o
1556, Series of Campaigns against rebelled Hindu chiefs.
o
By 1580, Gujarat and Bengal were added to Empire.
o
1589, Kashmir was also added to Mughal Empire
o
1595, Kandahar from north-west and Deccan Peninsula from south was also added to Empire
Akbar Ruled Empire Lager than Babur. He was called ‘Akbar-The-Great’. He was strong, he pushed his brother from top of palace to death, because he murdered a minister. 2. Great Reforms: In the region of Akbar, great Reforms were introduced. 2|Page
A) Administrative 1) New Mansabdars System was introduced, civil managers were appointed and they were directly answerable to Akbar. They were easily dismissed and transferred which prevented them to gain much power in Area. Also, if a Mansabdar dies, his land and property will be taken by Govt. Which prevented them to plunder as they can’t pass it on! 2) Lands were surveyed to more productive can be taxed more. Farmers paid 30% of the Profit. However, taxes were reduced if harvest was poor. B) Religion 1) Akbar was a very religious man, and orthodox Muslim. However, he was greatly influenced by Sufi Beliefs. 2)
Established a Prayer Room, where meetings were held every Friday. Leaders of different faiths were listened. The Muslim Clergy complained that leaders of other faiths make critical comments on Islam and Prophet (peace be upon him)
3) Akbar offended Muslims Clergy by trying to establish that he is the only in the power at religious matters.
Akbar hated petty squabbles of Muslims Clergy, which led to
‘Infallibility Decree’ introduced by Akbar. 4) 1579, Infallibility Decree:
‘If the Muslims Clergy cannot agree, I will be the final Interpreter of Islamic Law’ –Akbar Infallibility Decree was hated by the Clergy. So after dealing with rebellions, Akbar introduced Din-e-Illahi. 5) Din-e-Illahi:
Which Contained Elements of Both Islam and Hinduism. Akbar wanted Religious Toleration to make peace. So, Hindus were allowed to keep their own laws and courts. Money was put in Religious Buildings. Jizya was abolished and suttee was banned. Killing Cows was also forbidden Din-e-Illahi didn’t took roots, and after death of Aurangzeb it died out completely. Even in final years, Akbar started practicing Islam in traditional way.
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Jehangir Jehangir was oldest son of Akbar. Although he had tried to overthrow his father in 1600, however, he failed and was forgiven. Akbar actually chose him to be his successor. Jehangir faced serious challenges by rebellions and much of his time was spent trying to maintain his own control on the empire o
In 1606 Jehangir’s son, Khusrau, rebelled. He was captured and brought to the court in chains. Jehangir spared his life but put him into jail.
o
In 1607 there was another rebellion in which Khusrau was believed to be involved. Jehangir ordered that he be blinded and later placed in the custody of his brother.
o
In 1622 another son, Khurram, rebelled and declared himself as Emperor. Jehangir sent one of his most trusted general, Mahabt Khan to deal with Khurram, who was quickly defeated but soon Mahabt Khan also rebelled
o
Regulation banned wine and drugs to maintenance of public places. Jehangir was famous for his golden chair of Justice, with many other rules. Anyone can pull the chain to get listened.
o
Extending Empire, Bengal and in Deccan peninsula were gained.
o
In 1615 Jehangir signed a commercial treaty with the British. He did not realized that fight with Europe will overthrow Mughals Empire
After the death Jehangir’s wife Nur Jehan had worked hard to maintain the Empire.
Emperor Shah Jehan The Jehangir died in 1627. He was succeeded by his son Khurram. Who was also known as ‘Shah Jehan’, the problems Mughal Empire faced during this region were: o
1631, Khan Jehan Lodhi, tried to Persuade Indian Chiefs to Rebel, however, chiefs remained royal and killed Khan Jehan
o
In Deccan Provinces and Gujarat, serious famine was faced. Even peoples were seen returned to cannibalism. Shah Jehan showed its love and independence by spending large sums for free food.
o
Shah Jehan was extravagant. Example is Taj Mehal, in the memory of her wife, after her death.
Shah Jehan keen to extend the Mughal Empire into Central Asia. And he wanted to prove to (Establishing) Persians that he Mughal Empire is more powerful than any other, so a series of attacks were made. o
In 1649 Shah Jehan’s son Aurangzeb, led a force of over 150.000 men into Central Asia, but three years later they had to withdraw
o
In 1652 Aurangzeb led another expedition, but was again unsuccessful
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o
In 1653 Shah Jehan sent forces led by his eldest son, Dara Shikoh, who promised that he will defeat the Persians in a week. He too was unsuccessful.
o
In 1644 one of his son, Murad, led an expedition to take control of the Uzbek city of Balkh, but he was soon replaced by Aurangzeb as he showed little enthusiasm. Aurangzeb, soon realized this task was too great for the military brought. Once again, huge sums were spent with no reward.
Instead of teaching Persians the lesson he hoped to, Mughal Empire was weaken by Huge Sums spent on army and It was known by Persians that Mughal Empire, is no longer invincible, once it had been.
Who should rule? In 1657 Shah Jehan fell seriously ill. Everyone started to jostle for Empire. Two of them Shah Shuja and Murad, actually had coins struck in the name showing them as the new Emperor. However, the elder Dara Shikoh was told to be emperor’s preferred successor. But Dara Shikoh was unable to establish himself in power against his two brothers. Murad and Aurangzeb defeated him. Shah Jehan recovered himself and ordered his sons not to march on Agra. Aurangzeb replied that his father was out of control, and it was important for Aurangzeb to takeover. 1658, he defeated Imperial Army led by Dara Shikoh. Shah Jehan was prisoned, but allowed to live in Agra till death in 1666, he was buried in Taj Mahal.
Fate of Aurangzeb’s brothers: Murad, was imprisoned and later executed Shah Shuja, was killed whilst trying to raise an army to oppose his brother Dara Shikoh, proved more troublesome. Aurangzeb had to pursue him and take him prisoner before executing him in 1659
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Aurangzeb Shah Jehan left the Empire more peaceful and large than any other Emperor. However, Aurangzeb soon found much of his money spent on fighting. o
War of Rajputs 1679-1681. Rebellions such as Sikhs, Jats in Gokal and Satnamis in Mewar.
o
Keen to extend empire towards north. He fought a campaign against Pathan tribes in NWFP.
o
The Most costly of all was campaign towards Marathas in Deccan. Their leader Shiva was defeated in 1665 and prisoned in Agra. However, he soon escaped and was back as leader for Marathas. Even 25 years of campaign was not able to overthrow Marathas in Deccan. It just almost emptied the Treasury of Mughal Empire.
In 1707, death of Aurangzeb. The Empire was bigger than any other, however, there were some weaken factors of it.
Aurangzeb’s Reforms Historians are divided among Aurangzeb’s attitude towards Non-Muslims. Measure taken by Aurangzeb are: o
Jizya was Imposed (tax on Non-Muslims)
o
Numbered Hindu Temples were destroyed
o
Some old religious practices were banned, such as suttee
o
Islamic Laws were enforced making Sikhs and Hindus to live according to Quran
Some Historians describe this as
Intolerant Attitude towards Non-Muslims Some describe as follow:
It was not intolerant, Aurangzeb was little more Orthodox among other Emperor. Most of criticism about Aurangzeb is because: o
Appointing censors to Public Morals
o
Banning the Consumption of Alcohol
o
Stopping Singing and Dancing at ‘Court’
o
Maximum lengths of breads
However, to some peoples:
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Needy and Wise Measures Aurangzeb was Popular among traders, abolishing many taxes, however, taxation was still very high. Cost on military campaign contributed to ending Treasury, which was further damaged by Extravagant Lifestyle (Pearl Mosque) During this region, start of Decay of Empire can be seen!
Succession Aurangzeb fought his rivals/brothers to get on the throne. So, he was convinced to avoid such fights, which was damaging the Mughals Treasury. So, he divided his empire into his three sons, however, it was not successful… they still fought for the throne. Prince Muazzum (Victor) survived only few years. His four sons fought, Jahandar Shah (victor) was murdered within a year. In 10 years after death of Aurangzeb, there were 12 claims of being the emperor. 1719, Muhammad Shah was on throne for 30 years, he faced much opposition. Still, he was last who could claim to the emperor.
The Empire Disintegrates o
Nadir Shah was successful to beat Muhammad Shah’s forces in 1739 at Karnal. He captured and sacked Delhi, however, he didn’t wanted to rule, he wanted to plunder as much as possible and leave Delhi. He left after two months
o
1747, Afghan general Ahmed Shah Durrani attacked Kabul, Peshawar and Lahore. 1749, he caught Punjab and later Kashmir and Multan in 1756.
End of Mughal Empire o
1748, Empire was shrinking rapidly, resistance of Ahmed Shah Durrani came from Marathas not Mughals
o
Durrani placed Ahmed Shah (Son of Muhammad Shah) on throne. But Empire was shrinking rapidly. He was sent in jail by his own courts
o
Successor Alamgir II was assassinated on the orders of CM. Next Emperor Shah Alam was outside Delhi for 12 years, he lost battle of Buxar. New emperor was placed under British protection.
o
Upcoming 2 rulers ruled in names only
o
Akbar II ruled Dehli.
Reasons for Decline of Mughal Empire Some historians blamed that Aurangzeb was the seed of the Mughal Decline, but still the Empire was maintainable, after all it was very successive empire. Even after Aurangzeb, the Empire continued another 150 years.
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A) The Nature of the Empire o
Administrative: Huge Empire, was very difficult to administrate. Emperor was unable to know exactly what was happening to the other side of the Empire.
o
Succession: Huge sums were also wasted when succession had disputes. Shah Jehan was not dead yet, however, fights for Empire started between sons. Aurangzeb tried to avoid that by dividing empire. Still disputes continued to erode the Empire
o
Military Costs: The costs of putting down rebellions such as Nadir Shah was enormous.
B) The Consequences of Success o
Decline Military Expertise: An ‘Over Confident’ army with no longer the Expertise can be easily beaten. Consider Battles with Marathas in Deccan
o
Pleasure Seeking: Mughals turned pleasure seeking as they were very wealthy. Nobles had the finest clothes and food. Finest Building were becoming symbol of Extravagance.
o
Weak Control: The Huge the empire the hard it is to control. There’s no doubt that Mughal Empire was vast/huge.
C) The Arrival of British Mughal Empire was in serious decline from 18 th century. And from the region of Jehangir EIC wanted to take advantage of wealth gained by trade in India. EIC was Private Trading Company, but behind it was the most powerful country. It was the first to go through Industrial Revolutions. EIC, were able to afford army Mughals cannot defeat. So, decline and the strength of British meant fall of mightiest Mughal Empire.
Enter the British: East India Company: o
The East India Trading Company was a Company set up by British Merchants to trade with India in 1600.
o
1600, its first port was set up at Surat.
o
The East India Company gained power and created a private army.
o
It made a major role in establishing British Reign in the subcontinent.
o o
The East India Company was finished through India Act 1858 after War of Independence. The British was interested in the Indian Wealth of Spices and Mineral Resources.
o
The British wanted to use and take control over the major trade routes to control World Trade and they all passed through the subcontinent.
o
The British wanted to eliminate all other countries from competitions.
o
The British wanted to trade for its economic growth.
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Why the British took over on EIC? o The company became bankrupt. o
It lost its monopoly. Other companies wanted to share the Indian trading monopoly.
o
British government achieved its purpose of capturing the subcontinent by blaming EIC of War of Independence.
o
India Act 1858 abolished the company and the British government took over the company’s assets.
British gains control Battle of Plessey: The French encouraged the Nawab of Bengal to attack the EIC base at Calcutta. Furthermore the Fortification of British post on Calcutta was also against agreement with the Nawab of Bengal and so Siraj-ud-Daulah marched over Calcutta and seized Fort William and locked the British residents in a small room. 23 out of 65 people died and so Battle of Plessey began. Robert Clive succeeded in defeating Siraj-ud-Daullah by bribing one of his key men Mir Jafar. Jafar was made the new Nawab of Bengal as reward and Bengal came under EIC’s rule. Robert Clive was given Kashmir as reward. Battle of Buxar: 1764, Mir Qasim (Son of Mir Jafar) joined forces with the Nawab of Oudh, and the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II in order to drive the British out of Bengal. The British fought under Hector Munro and won a decisive battle, after which their influence gradually increased and the EIC forces eventually took over the revenue collection of Bihar and Orissa. Their influence was further extended into Oudh and this victory helped the British in extending its control moreover in India as it paved a clear way for the British to make further inroads into the Indian possessions.
Annexation of Sindh- a shameful British act? 1839, Assault on Afghanistan: The British were threatened about Russia seeking to expand its territory. In 1939, British invaded Afghanistan and installed its own puppet ruler, however the British army could not face the difficult terrain of Afghanistan as well as the locals and soon within Two years the Afghan’s rebelled and massacred the British force. Out of 4000 soldiers, only one doctor from Kabul survived and reported the incident. 1843, The Annexation of Sindh: The British pride was hurt by the invasion in Afghanistan and decided to attack on Sindh under Sir Charles Napier to restore their Pride and Prestige among Muslims and to capture the important Route through Bolan pass. Also they wanted to make sure it is not the target of Sikhs expansion. Even in Britain many people condemned Napier’s action for they had broken a friendship treaty with the Amirs of Sindh in 1809. Sir Charles Napier provoked Amirs of Sindh to attack British. Now they had a reason to make it the base of annexation.
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Annexation of Punjab and NWFP The British now turned to Punjab threatened by the increasing power of Ranjit Singh and now to capture the trade route over Indus River and Khyber Pass. The Sikhs were worried also and so they attacked on British controlled India in 1845, First Sikh War. Their main army was destroyed. Finally in 1848-9 Second Sikh War, the Sikh army was destroyed and so the British took over Punjab. The NWFP also came under British rule with Capture of Punjab.
Why British were able to conquer India? The weakness of India: There was no uniting force in India. People of different
o
communities were not even involved in attempts to recover the Mughal Empire. Thus it can be concluded: "A disintegrated society weakens the nation and ultimately it will lead to enslave its own citizens to others" The Strengths of British: Industrial Revolution in Britain resulted an advanced
o
technology in country. Superior Weapons. They saw, India in decline. It was an opportunity for Trade and imposing British administration. They believed that they would succeed and they are destined to rule large parts of world. It can be seen weakness of India and Strengths of British resulted as end of rule of mighty Mughals.
British Rule o
1833 Charter Act, said that Indians would have greater say to run their country/appointment in civil service. However, examinations were in London, so all the officials employed were from England.
o
Historian remember this rule as ‘Drain of Wealth’. Income of country was used to buy goods which were sent to England.
o
In start Govt. was less involved religion. However, later in 1829, suttee was banned. 1834, English was replaced with Persian. 1835, English was included in education.
Indian Exploitations: Historians say, 150 years after the ‘Battle of Plassey’. 1000 million euros have been taken from India Subcontinent to England. This explains that poverty existed and why famines in 1877, 78, 89, 92 killed 15 million peoples.
Doctrine of Lapse Lord Dalhousie applied a new policy for the expansion of the British Empire, which was called ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ in 1852. According to the doctrine the rulers of state were not allowed to adopt sons. As a result their states were annexed many states like Oudh, Jhansi, Behar, etc. through this doctrine. These annexations created a sense of insecurity among the general public. They became suspicious of the British policies.
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Chapter 2: How Successful were religious thinkers in the subcontinent during 18th and 19th century? Shah Wali Ullah Biography: Born in Delhi in 1703. Father: Shah Abdul Rahim founded Madrassa Rahimya and also helped to compiled Fatawa-I-Alamgiri a book of Islamic legal text under the direct supervision of Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir. Education from Madrassa Rahimya for 12 years. In 1724 he went to Arabia, he was greatly influenced by the teaching of Abu Tahir bin Ibrahim a well-known scholar of his time. He returned to Delhi in 1732. Beliefs: o One of his major believe was that the terrible conditions of Muslims has occurred because of incomplete knowledge of Quran. So, it was necessary to make them accessible. o Secondly, he realized that reforms cannot come from weak leadership of Dehli, they have to come from Community itself. o Shah Wali Ullah did not liked the division of Shia and Sunni. He wanted to see them united, and focus on Major principles of Islam. o Fourthly, he knew that Muslims should focus on Moral and Spiritual principles of Islam Workings: o In Battle of Panipat, he was the one to Persuade Ahmed Shah Abdali to help in Battle, which was won. However, it was not enough to unite Muslims o He wrote 51 Islamic Books in Persian and Arabic o Translated Quran into Persian, later hi two sons (Shah Rafi, Shah Abdul Qadir) translated it into Urdu to make it further accessible o Deep/High knowledge Scholar, Shah Wali Ullah was role model for Muslims o Tried his best to heal Shia, Sunni difference Importance: o Madrassa Rahimya played a vital role later for the revival of true Islam o First to find out the cause of decline as incomplete knowledge of Islam o Translation of Quran made it accessible for huge population o He believed in Unity as key to success o Many future leaders were greatly influenced by him!
Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barailvi Biography: Born near Lucknow in the town of Rae Bareli. Faithful follower of Shah Abdul Aziz. In 1806 he enrolled in Madrassa of Shah Wali Ullah (Madrassa-I-Rahimiya). He graduated from Madrassa & joined a Pathan military force led by Amir Khan. He learnt about European weaponry including use of Artillery. 0. In 1821 he went for Haji & returned to Delhi in 1823 with a clear vision of Jihad He soon founded the “Jihad Movement” which was aimed at nothing less than the rejuvenation & restoration of Muslim power.
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Beliefs: o
Syed Ahmed was more a man of action, who was right and perfect as a leader
o
He identified the evils must be ended to improve corrupted Muslims Society
o
British ensured that Muslims have very little power, and Sikhs in Punjab were dominant. Syed Ahmed wanted to restore Mughals Power and overthrow Sikhs from Punjab, so he found ‘Jihad Movement’.
Workings: o
He went on Haj in 1821, before that he circulated his words; when he was back on 1823, he was ready to take action
o
He soon found the cause, the Sikhs tynnaries in Punjab. Muslims were not allowed to do their religious practices.
o
Jihad Movement was launched from Peshawar headquarters.
o
To enlist men for this action; he went to Rajasthan, Baluchistan, Sindh and Afghanistan. However, Afghans were not quite ready.
o
1826, he sent a message to Ranjit Singh (Sikh ruler in Punjab, that allow Muslims to worship their ALLAH (GOD) or face the mujahedeen.
o
This lead to the first attack on Okara on 21 st Dec, 1826. Shaheed Ahmed Barailvi led a force of 80,000. However, the major problem was that these peoples were from different communities. So, they were exploited by Sikhs calling them un-Islamic.
o
Soon, Muslims agreed that Shaheed Ahmed Barailvi should become Imam, because his words have influence on Muslims.
o
After the victory of Okara attack, he was preparing for attack on Attock, however, he faced another army of 35,000 Sikhs. What he didn’t knew was that a man of his army Yar Muhammad Khan was bribed. First, his servants tried to poison Shaheed Ahmed Barailvi. And then in battlefield Yar Muhammad deserted in Battlefield creating confusion and Chaos in ranks, which led to defeat of Shaheed Ahmed Barailvi. So they moved to Panjtar near Kashmir
o
Although Yar Muhammad was killed his brother Sultan Muhammad waged the war against Shaheed Ahmed Barailvi.
o
There was no option but to move, so Shaheed Ahmed Barailvi along with forces disappeared and hided into Hazara, protected by mountains. But local peoples told the way in, which led to Battle of Balakot (1831)
o
Battle of Balakot: Mujahedeen fought bravely but they were heavily outnumbered. It was a surprise to them, the huge army of Sikhs. Along with Shaheed Ahmed Barailvi and Brave Commander Shah Ismail 600 Mujahedeen were killed.
Importance: o
Jihad Movement was able to unite Muslims
o
One of first movement to get away from foreign rulers
o
It indicated freedom of worship
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o
Battle of Balakot, decline of Jihad movement, which was later ended by British
o
It defined culture and religion
o
Regarded mostly as fore-runners of Pakistan Movement
Haji Shariatullah Biography: Ever since the loss of independence, the Muslims of India were not only hovering in the domain of uncertainly but also many un-Islamic ideas were taking place in the minds of Muslims. It was at that time that some Muslim thinkers thought that unless the Muslim were brought back to the teachings of the Quran & Hades, would not be possible to save Muslims from their ruin. This shows that growth or Religion & national Movements in the subcontinent was not a spontaneous act. All these movements started not only in one part of Indo-Pakistan but throughout the country. One of the movements started by Haji Shariatullah in Bengal was Faraizi Movement’. Haji Shariatullah was born in the district of Faridpur in the year 1781. After receiving his early education in his village he got an opportunity to perform Haji at the age of 18 He stayed there in Hejaz for 20 years & studied religion & Arabic. He returned to Bengal in 1806. During his stay in Arabia he was greatly impressed by doctrines of Sheikh Mohammad Abdul Wahab who had initiated the Wahabi Movement in Arabia. Beliefs: o
Miserable conditions of Muslims has led the country being Dar-ul-Harb (Area where nonMuslims rule). He believed in such areas Friday and EID prayer should not be offered.
o
He believed that Muslims Community is no longer close enough to Islam. He wanted them to return to original purity of Islam, which in observation was called faraiz
o
It supported the Idea of Jihad against the non-Muslims who were undermining the true principles of Islam
Workings: o
Muslims were near poverty and they were given less opportunities for jobs. He wanted to restore their Pride
o
Haji Shariat Ullah urged from his followers to adopt ‘Tauba’ as a manifestation of repentance for all the past sins & a pledge to lead a righteous & God-fearing life in future. His followers as already mentioned were known as Faraizi. His movement brought the Muslim peasants together against the cruel treatment by the Hindus Zamindars.
o
Haji Sahib was greatly opposed by the Hindus who were disturbed by the unity of the Muslim peasants. They started harassing him by putting up false cases against him. Ultimately he was forced to leave Dhaka. He thus returned to his birthplace in Faridpur district & continued his religious preaching & fighting against the non-Islamic forces.
o
He died in 1840
o
His workings was later carried out by his Son, Mohsin-ud-Din:
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He divided East Bengal into areas called circles, each had their own Khalifa, who was responsible for their wealth
Helped to oppose high taxes, he was opposed, but he went further and declared a Jihad. He was arrested and after his death in 1860, Faraizi Movement declined.
Importance: o
It encouraged de-moralized Muslims
o
Brought a Spiritual revival and Hindu influences of Islamic practices were removed.
o
It was politically and economically important. Muslims rose against their harsh treatments and it is called to be seeding Pakistan Movements
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Chapter 3: Causes and Consequences of War of Independence Events of the war 1857 Jan: New guns were announced. It was rumor that the new guns cartridge is greased by fats of cow and ham. Which was resentment to both Muslims and Hindus
1857 March: Mangal Pandey defied his British officers, he was executed 1857 May: Sepoys in Meerut refused to touch the new rifle/guns. They were ‘courtmartialed’ and prisoned. But, fellow Sepoys broke into prison and rescued them. Meerut was sacked and British officers put to death. Soldiers marched to Delhi and captured it. Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II became unifying symbol of uprising to gain help of both Hindus and Muslims. War spread quickly and Kanpur, Jhansi, Allahabad and Lucknow were captured.
1857 September: Dehli and Lucknow were regained, Bahadur Shah II was made to surrender. But, his sons Mirza Mughal, Mirza Sultan and Mirza Abu Bakar were brutally killed and presented to him as lesson.
1858 June: Rani of Jhansi, Lakshmibai was killed (Dressed as man in Battle). His supporter of great ability Tatya Topee (Indian General) escaped. However, he was later caught and executed.
1858 Aug: War was officially declared over.
Causes: A. Economic 1) Low pay of sepoys. 2) High tax B. Social 1) Laws, clashing/not supporting religion 2) Arrogance by British… considered Indian an inferior race 3) Rumors about forced conversation to Christianity, resentment for Muslims C. Political 1. English replaced Persian as National Language 2. Disrespect of Mughals. Especially Dalhousie decision to move royal family from Ref Fort of Dehli to more obscure Qutub Sahib
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3. Doctrine of Lapse, by Dalhousie in 1852, was also resentment, even some of the Indians stated that British were greedy land grabbers. Adding to this was seizure of Oudh in 1856
D. Military A) New guns were announced. It was rumor that the new guns cartridge is greased by fats of cow and ham. Which was resentment to both Muslims and Hindus B) Indian were not ready to leave ‘mother India’ and go to Afghanistan C) Indians were not able to reach higher post D) This was rumor that Indians will forced to turn into Christianity, another resentment and cause of unrest.
Why the War Failed? Lack of Unity: Indians were not united. Peoples of different places fought for different objectives. There was no central leadership, although in common was resentment against British rule.
Some Indian Princes wanted to restore their power, which required British support. This proves why ruler of Kashmir sent 2,000 troops to help British win
Punjab and Sindh were conquered by troops of Bengal and Central Asia. On the orders of British officers. So not surprisingly when the troops rebelled. Punjab was not interested to support them!
British Strengths: British were too powerful. One of the most powerful nation that time. They had highly skilled diplomats, effective machinery, highly trained, modern methods and disciplined. So the strengths of British was major reason for failure of WAR.
Effects: The Failure of war proved that British were one in Power. 1858, Allahabad: ‘Proclamation of 1858’ bringing war to an end
The British said they would: 1) Not interfere in religious beliefs of peoples 2) Pay due regard to ancient property rights and customs 3) Abide all treaty obligations 4) Agree to no further territorial acquisition 5) Guarantee the right to appointment in Public Services However, British were not paying attention to this later.
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British Rule: EIC was demolished, a member of British Cabinet, Secretary of State of India was given responsibility. However, direct responsibility was of Governor-General (known as ‘Viceroy’). With the help of 1000 ICS officers from Judges to low level officers. Despite Proclamation till 1870 only one Indian was appointed in ICS. Princes who proved themselves loyal were allowed to keep their throne, however, they had little or no power. Bahadur Shah was imprisoned for life, and was sent to Burma. Queen Victoria was now Empress of India so Loyal Family was formally replaced. Muslims: Muslims were no longer trusted. Even, in army more Sikhs, and Hindus were employed. British spared funds from Muslim Schools and Education, leaving them into decline. It might have been their policy to keep them illiterate. Muslims suffered as result. Hindus: Soon started learning English. They were getting educated in ‘English Type’ schools, which soon got them their favor.
The Birth of Nationalist Ideas British wanted to make sure it does not happen again, so the measures were tough now: o
Indians were largely excluded and they had a very little say in running their country
o
British ensured their benefits more than needs of their population
o
Ratio of Army British to Indian was decrease to 1:2 from 1:5 and employment from trustless areas like Oudh was stopped
o
Viceroy, ended all import duties on cotton so British Cotton was sold more easily than local one!
1907, Bikhaji Rustom Cama participated in International Socialist Conference in Germany. Where she made a fiery speech on how India has suffered the ‘terrible tynnaries of British Rule’
Thirty-five million pounds have been annually taken away from India without return. As a consequence people in India have died at a rate of half a million every month The lack of opportunities made wide-spread criticism in newspapers. Which resulted: To ensure that such situation never happens o
Vernacular act 1858: strict control over newspapers
o
Arms Act 1858: No Indian could own a weapon
In this Environment Nationalists ideas began to grow: o o o
1866, Rajinarayan Bose founded a society for promotion of nationalist feelings 1867, Yearly Hindu Mela started in Bengal 1870, Political groups started to rise. Sarvajanik Sabha, in 1870. Most importantly All-India Congress in 1885
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Chapter 4: How important was the work of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in 19th century Early Education: Born in Delhi on 17th October 1817. Was a great reformer. Belonged to a prominent family of the city. After his formal education, he entered service with the British East India Company in 1839. He rose to the position of judge in 1846. Later on he was transferred to Bangalore as the Chief Judge.
Educational Services: Believed that Muslims could not achieve this goal without education. He set up a Persian school at Muradabad in 1859 (was upgraded to the college in 1875 and to university level after his death). The educated Muslims of the early twentieth century were the product of this institution.
Aligarh Movement: 1. To build confidence between the British and the Muslims. 2. To persuade the Muslims to get scientific knowledge and learn English language. 3. To hold back the Muslims from the collective politics. Effects: His main focus was on Aligarh to achieve his goals. Established Mohammad an Anglo Oriental School. It was a symbol of a broad movement affecting every phase of Muslim life. The actions taken by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan for the educational uplift of the Muslims left a far-reaching impact on the political, social, economic and religious aspects of the Muslims. The Aligarh movement showed new ways to press and opened the doors of economic prosperity for the Muslims of the sub-continent. Urdu-Hindi Controversy: In 1867, Hindus demanded that Hindi should be made on official language of India in place of Urdu. The Hindus were against Urdu because it was the language of the Muslims. Sir Syed felt sorry and he was now convinced that the Hindus would never be friend with the Muslims. The Real Founder of Pakistan Sir Syed Ahmed Khan saw the attitude of Hindus towards the Muslims and felt sorry for it. He declared, "I am convinced now that Hindus and Muslims could never become one nation." Hindus and Muslims are two separate nations because their religion, culture, history and way of life are quite distinct from each other. In this way we can say this great hero and reformer, the real founder of Pakistan. Sir Syed passed away on 27 March 1898 but his work was continued by Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk. Due to the Sir Syed's efforts the Muslims emerged as a separate identity.
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How did Sir Syed Ahmed Khan try to improve British-Muslim relations? o
Muslims were in poor condition without any jobs and were given harsh treatment.
o
He wrote the Loyal Mohammadens of India to highlight the work of those who kept loyal to British
o
He wrote the pamphlet, “The Causes of Indian Revolt,” which highlighted the wrong steps of British and the causes of War.
o
He wrote “Tabyan-ul-Kalam” in which he brought down the similarities between the two religions in one place.
o o
He gave message to Muslims that they should adopt good habits of British but discard their bad ones and should cooperate with them to get benefits. He started a small movement in Aligarh.
o
He was thus able to form the MAO College.
o
Through this movement he tried to educate Muslims about Science and English language so that communication with British becomes easy.
o
He tried to educate Muslims in the European Style.
Two Nation Theory Introduction The Two Nation theory in its simplest way means the dissimilarities between the two major communities, Hindus and Muslim of the Sub Continent. These differences of outlook, in fact, were greatly instrumental in giving rise to two distinct political ideologies which were responsible for the partition of India into two independent states. Religious Differences Islam preaches Tawheed (Oneness of Allah) Hinduism: based on the concept of multiple Gods. Hindu Nationalism: The Hindu nationalist leaders totally ignored the great contribution made by the Muslims in the Indian. Their writings and ideas flared up the communal discord between Hindus and Muslims to further pollute the political condition. Cultural Differences Hindus burnt their dead bodies while Muslim burred them. Hindus considered the 'Mother Cow' as a sacred animal and worshiped it while Muslims slaughtered it. They performed 'Sati' while Muslims abhorred this tradition. Economic Differences After 1857, the Muslim economic was crushed: were thrown out of Government services and their estates and properties were confiscated. Hindus were provided with ample opportunities to progress economically. Educational Differences Hindus had advanced in the educational field because they quickly and readily took to the English education. While Muslims did not receive modern education which heavily affected their economic conditions. Hindi Urdu Controversy 1867 (See Chapter 5) Congress Attitude Congress claimed to represent all communities of India but oppressed all Muslim ideas and supported the Hindus. Partition of Bengal 1905 (See Chapter 6)
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Chapter 5: languages Why was Urdu Chosen as National Language? Strong link to religion: Quran was translated into Urdu by son of Shah Wali Ullah. Many religious books were written in Urdu. And it was widely spoken by Muslims. Rich literary background: o
Poetry: Amir Khusrau/ Mir/ Dard/ Ghalib/ Sauda
o
Writers: Majaz/ Jazbi/ Hasrat Mohani
o
Early 18th century: Allama Iqbal/ Nasir Ahmed/ M. Hussain Azad/ Mulana Altaf Husain Hali
o
Aligarh University: a Centre of Urdu study
Writers support created unity among Muslims about Urdu Symbol of unity: Jinnah was keen to support Urdu and Sir Syed set up a society to support Urdu. Widely used: Not only it was widely used in Mughals Period, but also by the end of 13th century it became a common language amongst Muslim Armies. It soon became common in Muslim dominant provinces. Struggle to independence: In 1906, when League formed it aimed to protect Urdu… Especially after the ‘Urdu-Hindi controversy’. Another Problem was that after War of Independence British were no longer supporting Urdu.
What was the Urdu-Hindi Controversy? Hindu wanted Hindi to be the official language while Muslim wanted Urdu as the official language. The Hindu started campaigns against Urdu. Muslims thought that Hindus are trying to destroy their identity by trying to harm Urdu. Muslims wanted a separate homeland because their language was in danger. Muslims were horrified when Hindi was made the official alongside English and Urdu. Muslims could not let harm come to Urdu which was very close to Persian and Arabic. Disadvantages of choosing Urdu: o
Important reason or East Pakistan turning into Bangladesh
o
No-support by non-Muslims
o
New to Pakistan
o
Relationship between Hindus and Muslims suffered ‘Urdu-Hindi controversy’
Despite this oppositions, Urdu survived and it was successful. 20 | P a g e
Promotion of Languages after Independence In Subcontinent, history indicates every ruler who came promote his own language/mother language. Like, Arabic and Turkish. However, Persian had the greatest impact. It was mostly used in books and communications. Scholars and Poets adopted it. And soon it was the official language in Delhi Court. Urdu: Was started in north-west India, as interactions of Punjabi, Turkish and Persian o
Medium of education in many schools
o
Medium of radio and television
o
Widely read: books, magazines, newspapers, novels
o
A dictionary of office terms
Punjabi: o
It is the main language of Punjab Province. It is statistically spoken more than Urdu. (48%)
o
Hafiz Barkhurdar has been the first person around 1080 AD to use the language by this name.
o
Punjabi is written in the same script as Arabic.
o
It has a vast literature containing very famous folk tales like HEER-RANJHA, SASI-PUNU and SOHNI-MAHIWAL
o
It is the man language of Sufi Poets especially famous music literature includes Bulley Shah and Baba Farid Ganjshakar.
o
Punjabi has been used in very famous dramas, short stories and novels in 20th Century.
o
Books in wide variety of Academic Subject have been published in Punjabi.
o
Punjabi has been used in the writing style of contemporary age.
o
Punjabi films have been made and it is popular language in theatres and radio.
Balochi: o
Quetta TV, Radio Programs
o
Poets: Atta Shad and Ishaq Shamin
o
Writers Gul Khan Nazir and Azad Jamal Din
o
This is the language spoken in Baluchistan province.
o
Basically spread by Nomadic tribes from Iran and North West Areas.
o
Balochi literature is small but rich in folk tales passed on word of tongue.
o o
Balochi literature at the earliest has been recorded as famous folk songs especially of Jam Darang. Balochi has seen little development.
o
Radio Pakistan Karachi broadcasts in Balochi.
o
Balochi Literary Association was set up to publish magazines and Balochi literature.
o
Balochi folk tales have been brought down in writing.
o
Quetta Television Studio Broadcasts in Balochi.
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Sindhi: From the 12th century, it’s in the same form it was. It was influenced by Arabs (Arabic) and Turk (Persian) rulers. Before this it was written in ‘Marwari’ and ‘Arz Nagari’. Some peoples can be thought as developers: o
Qazi Qazan
o
Makhdum Nuh
Promotion: o o o o o
Sindhi Literary Board was set up and has printed many books and magazines since then. Several important books on Sindhi Folk Literature have been written. 1954, Bazm-e-Talim-ul-Muala. Sarmast Academy and Sindhiology Department at Sindh University Jamshoru to promote this language. Poets: Sachal Sarmast/ Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai
Pashto: o
Pashto is the main language of Northern regions and most tribes of NWFP though with different dialects.
o
Its first book on Sufism is Khair-ul-Biyan.
o
It has recorded famous poets like Amir Khan and Bayazaid Ansari.
o
Pashto literature achieved its peak in Mughal period and the songs developed the theme of nationalism.
o
The British Rule Period is considered its Golden Age when very high quality writing was produced during this time. Pashto literature played an important role in British Opposition to achieve independence.
o
Peshawar University was established. Academy to promote Pashto literature was set up.
o
A widely accepted Pashto Dictionary was produced by Molvi Abdul Qadir leading the Pashto Academy.
o
Post-graduate class in Pashto literature have been established at University level at NWFP.
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__________________________ SECTION 2 __________________________
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Chapter 6: How far did Pakistan Movement developed in early 20th Century? The Indian National Congress At the end of 19th century: both the British and Indian resized that Indians need a political body. 1833: Indian Association suggested ….British member of the Parliament wrote for the Times newspaper. That Indians really need a Political Body Allan Octavian Hume (former Indian Civil Service member) wrote a letter to all graduates of Calcutta University, calling them to take a lead in setting up a political body. Set up Indian National Union with branches in different cities. 28 December 1883: first Indian Nation Union conference Bombay
-Second Conference was held in Calcutta under the name of Indian National Congress ... marked the beginning … of first Indian Political Body
Second meeting of India National Congress in 1886
436 delegates who were representatives of their province were now in the Congress. Aim: United Party and one for all to promote our welfare and the welfare of our mother country. By educating the public in India and in Britain. Its resolution was printed in newspapers and a British Committee of the Congress formed. By persuading the British to end unfair practices
Congress had little success: persuade British to introduce Indian Councils Act 1892 (increased the number of Indians in the council). In before 19th century… Unrest developed
Bal Gangadhar Tilak made impassionate speeches calling for ‘freedom’ of Indian peoples. 1897, he was imprisoned for writing a provocative newspaper article
During 1870s, many secret societies sprung up aimed at ridding India of British
1897, British officer along with companion were assassinated.
These activities forced British to take some measures/actions. One of them was Partition of Bengal.
Partition of Bengal Partition reasons: 1. Bengal was a very large province geographically and population (54 million total: 42 million Hindus and 12 million Muslims in East Bengal 31 million in West Bengal). 24 | P a g e
2. It was the demand of Muslims for they wanted a separate province. 3. Muslims wanted to cut the power of Indian National Congress which had started speaking against British agitating people. 4. British claimed that Bengal was too large to govern as a single province.
Terms East Bengal & Assam: Dhaka as its capital. The eastern province would include Assam and three districts previously considered to be a part of West Bengal, Dhaka, Chittagong and Mymensingh. It had a population of 31million people out of which 18 million were Muslims. West Bengal: Calcutta its capital. It had a population of 54million out of which 45million were Hindus.
Reactions The Muslims greatly welcomed the partition and felt jubilant over it because in the newly created East province, they were in majority. On 22nd October 1905 a large number of Muslims met at Dhaka & appreciated thanks giving prayers to celebrate the establishment of the new province. Now at last the Muslims had true recognition - a province in which they were in the majority. This would enable millions of Muslims to escape from the oppression of Hindu rule. The Hindus on the other hand reacted violently to the partition because they had been holding a privilege position in the socio-economic life of Bengal till the partition took place. They now believed that they lose their status & declared that the partition was an attempt to weaken & divide Bengal and called it "Divide and rule" policy of British. The Hindus greatly opposed this partition & started a movement generally known as "Swadeshi Movement" in which they boycotted all English goods. Many Hindus observed he partition day as the day of National mourning. Even the Indian national congress supported the Hindus.
British Reaction against Hindu’s Reaction
1) Restrictions were placed on newspapers and public meetings 2) Press Act 1908 (even greater control) 3) Prisons filed with ‘revolutionaries’
But soon they realized that attempts to crush Hindus are not sufficient thus reforms showed up (Morley-Minto Reforms)
Reversal of Partition Since 1908 the Congress leaders had been spreading the story that the government was thinking of ‘Dividing their Mother India. The government stood firm on its decision, which had taken in 1905, but this did not discourage Hindus. They launched a movement for boycott the British goods. The Muslims were also asked to participate in it but they refused to do so. Their refusal caused more agitation among the Hindus & led to Hindu-Muslim riots. Even there was an assassination attempt from Hindus on the future Viceroy Lord-Minto. The Muslims who were only relying on the assurance given to them by the British which was soon disillusioned when in 1910,
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Sir John Jenkins, a member of the Viceroy's Executive Council, made a proposal for the capital of British Indian Empire to be shifted to Delhi from Calcutta and suggested that partition of Bengal should be reversed. Lord Harding the new Viceroy agreed to reverse the partition of Bengal. King George V, who was visiting India, announced the decision at a Durbar in Delhi.
Muslims Reaction to Reversal of Partition
The reversal of the partition was bitterly opposed by the Muslims, but the British were not to be moved. The Muslims now realized just how vital it was that the Muslim league prospered if Muslim were to receive fair treatment in India. They now had lost all their hopes & created feeling of distrust among the Muslims about British. The deep disappointment caused by annulment of the Partition, however indirectly served to quicken the growth of the Muslim politics. They became politically more conscious. They came to the decision that they could not trust the British Government for the protection of their rights. Muslims lost faith in British to allow them any real power. Muslims also realized that Minto-Morley reforms did not provide Indians any genuine voice, which resulted as Poor relations between British and Muslims.
Simla Deputation Deputation of prominent Muslims led by Aga Khan visited Viceroy-Minto at Simla. Requested: Muslims’ position should be estimated by their political importance not on their numerical strength. Due to the fact that Muslims were major land owners, and the percentage of Muslims in army was very high. Without separate electorate there would be a communal violence.
in all local/provincial elections Muslims should have their own representatives, elected by Muslims
in the council Muslims should have higher percentage of seats than their percentage in population
Secretary of state: John Morley thought it is undemocratic Lord-Minto agreed on separate representation for Muslims
Background
Muslims watched Hindus reaction on partition of Bengal and decided something had to be done to protect their identity. Furthermore, National Congress was dominated by Hindus thus Muslims needed a base of their own as their voice for the British (Hindus could not be trusted to favor Muslims). Muslims wanted to stand up and have some rights (They needed to get some reforms and right of separate electorate to protect their interests, religion and language). Moreover, the new British government (Liberal Party) had stated that they would increase local participation in the government through elections Muslims feared that soon they would be under Hindu dominance.
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Thus, they formed they had a meeting with Viceroy Minto in Simla on 8th.
Importance
Showed that attempts of Sir Syed and others to restore relations had been successful
Muslims community had decided to ensure secure place in the constitution. HinduMuslim rivalry now existed in constitution as well
Muslims had come to the idea that they are different and they should be treated different
Perhaps the first step on the road leading to the formation of Pakistan
All-India Muslim League Aims:
‘Counter growing influence of Congress’
Ensure Muslim’s views are presented to British
To protect and advance Muslims’ political rights and interests Promote loyalty for British government To remove any misunderstanding amongst Muslims To prevent the rise of hostility in Muslims towards other communities
Causes: A) Hindu Urdu Controversy: In 1898 INC demanded that India should be treated as cultural whole & Hindi should be declared as the official language of India. Some Muslim leaders launched a movement against these actions of INC but no result. B) Behavior of different Hindu Organization: Hindu extremist group "ARYA SAMAJ" demanded that Muslims should be forcibly converted into Hinduism. C) Hindu Muslim riots: The frequent and never ending riots between Hindus and Muslims further strengthened the formation of separate political party for the Muslims. These riots generated the spirit on Muslims Nationalism among the Indian Muslims. D) Reaction of the Hindus to the Partition of Bengal: The negative reaction of the Hindus when the government declared the partition of Bengal in 1905 further convinced the Muslims to establish their own separate political organizations. E) Simla Deputation (1906): Lord Minto became a Viceroy of India in 1906 & it was felt that some constitution reforms would be introduced in India. Lord Minto was vacationing at Simla where a delegation of Muslims leaders led by Sir Aga Khan met him in 1906. The deputation demanded the seats in the legislatures, quota in government services & seats in courts for the Muslims. They also demanded for separate electorate for the Muslims. Minto accepted most of the demands & it was a great success for the Muslims. After the acceptance of demands from Lord Minto, now Muslims of India realized that it's high time to organize a political party, which can protect the rights of Muslims in India.
Formed: 1906 at 20th session of the Muhammaden Educational Conference at Dhaka. It was chaired by Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk.
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Morley Minto Reforms, 1909: Also known as the Indian Council Acts. Minto and Morley both believed that Indians’ demand is fully justified. Basically it increased representation of Hindus and Muslims in different councils.
Reforms: o
Imperial Council increased to 60 members (non-official)
o
Central Executive Council increased to 60 members (could discuss/advise government
o
Provincial Council increased to 50 members in large province and 30 in small province
o
Muslims would be elected by separate electorates
Importance: o
appeared to give Indians more say, but they had no power, just an advisory role was given
o
British did not wanted to that locals have power to change law
o
Imp: acceptance of separate electorates, it was major demands of Muslims
o
Hindus believed that it was undemocratic
India Before First-World-War 1912-13: The British supported the Balkan states fighting against Turkey (who was a major Islamic state). It showed up as a further example that how British had no interest in supporting Muslims’ rights. League’s resolution: now demanded for ‘a form of self-government During this period War Improved League-Congress relations The war years in India 1914-1918 War broke out in Europe in August 1914…resulting in mix views in India. The supporters: British admitted ‘the war could have been longer and even not have been won, without the Indian support. Many politicians/ people supported; desired to be rewarded by reforms to give larger role in government for loyalty. The opportunist: they saw British ‘necessity’ as India’s ‘opportunity’. ‘Anti-British group’ began to take action. 1913: Lala Hardayal (who was exile in America) set up a Mutiny Party. Sent arms to India and arranged armed opposition. However, the supporters were betrayed and killed in a battle with Indian police 1915 Sep. 1915: planned uprising by Indian ‘nationalists’ in Punjab…easily put down by British A mutiny by Indian troops serving in the British army in Singapore was crushed.
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‘Silk Letter Conspiracy’ in which anti-British Muslims proposed a general uprising by the Muslims to free themselves from British rule… also went unsuccessful. As a result of discontent within India British were forced to pass the Defense of India Act (gave British extraordinary powers to deal with unrest. Hundreds were exiled or imprisoned without proper trail.
The Lucknow Pact, 1916: Background The failure of The British was to grant more rights moved Congress and League together. 1915: On the persuasion of Jinnah. The two organizations held meeting at Bombay. At the same point a joint council was set up to improve common understanding British realized they needed to take steps to face not serious political unrest and at the same time they were fighting against Germany and its allies. So in 1916 Oct: British let it be known that they were considering a group of proposal that will lead to: 1. At least half of the Executive Council members being elected 2. Legislative Council having a majority of elected members Both League and Congress agreed, which brought them further close together Joint Demands 1916: annual session at city Lucknow. Jinnah represented Muslim League and Mahajan represented Congress.
The Lucknow Pact was drown up. It showed that Congress is ready to
make concessions: 1. Muslims had the right for separate electorates (for Imperial/ Provincial Legislative Councils) 2. Muslims would have 1/3 seats in the Councils (they represented ¼) 3. No Act would be passed unless ¾ of that community’s member in the Council supported Joined demands: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Number of elected seats of the Council should be increased All provinces should have autonomy Minorities should be protected Motions which were passed by large minorities in the Councils should be accepted as binding by the British government
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Importance
It marked the first acceptance by the Hindus that a degree of partition would be necessary The first Agreement between Congress and Muslim League Sowed that Muslims; have acknowledged they stood more chance if worked with Congress Marked a high-water marked on Hindu-Muslim unity Possibility of self-government was now seen During 1917: two Home Rule Leagues campaigned across India. One led by Tilak and the other by Annie Besant (English woman).
It established Jinnah as the focal point for this agreement and showed his great political abilities. It was done because the Muslim League felt that they needed the support of Congress in its early years. Because they thought they could pressurize British together in accepting their demands.
The Montague Chelmsford Reforms, 1919: Background and Proposal
November 1917: Viceroy of India, Lord Chelmsford, and Secretary of state, Lord Montague carried out a fact finding tour of India. So in, July 1919: Montague-Chelmsford Report or Montford Report proposed: 1. Legislative Council will be known as Legislative Assembly 2. Legislative Assembly would have 145 members from which 103 would be elected for 3 years 3. Legislative Assembly would hold separate electorate for Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs 4. The Council of State would have 60 members; 33 would be elected 5. A Council of Princes 180 member, no power a ‘talking shop’ 6. Role of central administration was further restricted by the power of Viceroy who could pass any law if he felt it was necessary for India’s safety. Executive Council was made for only nominated members ( though 3 were now to be Indians) 7. Extended voting rights? Only 2% could vote
Diarchy System This system was introduced in Provinces
Reversed Subjects: Justices
Transferred Subjects: Local Government
Police
Education
Revenue
Public Health
Power Resources
Public Works
Press/ Publications
Forests
Control: Executive Council
and provincial government
Control: ministries responsible to Legislative Council
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Transferred Subjects? Ministers chosen by Legislative Councils by Viceroy himself. Viceroy may also dismiss the provincial Legislative Council. British maintained their grip of power by ensuring Viceroy have authority. Indian Reaction: They were bitterly disappointed … because the outcome was not the much the expected unexpected outcome!
Only the moderates of Congress supported, he was
executed. Other minorities were calling for concessions too
Rowlatt Act, 1919- ‘Prison without trial’ Background This act was passed when the protest over the Mont-Ford reforms started and other minorities began to demand separate electorate. In December 1917, a committee was formed under Justice Rowlatt to investigate revolutionary activity in India. 1919: The British had offered concessions in Montague Chelmsford Reforms, which they hoped would win the support of the Indian people. However, they had every intention of taking strong and effective action against any element in India, which opposed British rule.
Proposed Report on April 1918. The Defense of India Act was passed allowing: 1. Arrest without warrant 2. Detention without bail 3. Provincial government ordering people where to live.
Reaction: M.A Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council in protest Gandhi called strikes against the proposals.
Amritsar Massacre Strikes/ demonstrations caused British to forbid public meeting … the unrest continued… 10 April: two banks were attacked in the city of Amritsar. 5 Europeans were killed. General Dyer: the British commander was determined to restore order. Banned all public meetings. Amritsar Massacre: A crowd of about 20,000 in number turned up for a peaceful protest at Jilianwalah Bagh. The park surrounded by 5 foot wall with narrow entrance. 31 | P a g e
But the troops of Dayer, without warning shot 1600 rounds killing about 400 people and making 1200 injured. It made sure that people of Punjab understood they should obey Dyer. Furthermore: A crowded meeting at Gujranwala was bombed from the air. Deaths/ exiles/ imprison to maintain order. Punishment to Dyer? Was hero in British people’s eyes…..showed the troublemakers that British is the one who’s to rule. He was still, removed from active services.
Non –Cooperation Movement March 1920 many Indians joined Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement. British cloths were burned in huge amount. Teachers and students set up their own institutes. Lawyers gave up their practices. 1st elections were rejected. Widespread opposition for the British. Jails were filled with over 30,000 political prisoners. When Non-Cooperation split over into violence Gandhi decided to call of the campaign (February 1922).
Growth of Communalism: Post-war event brought Hindu and Muslim closer together. The ending of Non-Cooperation Movement led to serious communal rioting across India. Hindu fundamentalism gained more influence. Arya Samaj founded in 1877:
founder Dayanand Saraswati
strong holdings in western/northern India
Purify Hinduism from impure practices
Hoped: convert Hindus back to Hinduism who had converted into Christians
Powerful agent to spread education/ social reforms
Together with Hindu Mahasbha: militant activities in 1924
Pundit Mohan Malaviya:
UPCOMING Congressman
1932 brought a number of the Punjab Sabhas (involved in politics)
Into a political party Hindu Mahasabha
1923, elections were won under the name of ‘Swaraj Party’
Hindu Mahasabha:
condemned the partition in 1947…wanted India to be a Hindu Sate
Believed that Gandhi’s tolerance is a treat to Hindu purity
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DELHI PROPOSALS (1927) In 1927 Mohammad Ali Jinnah called a conference of all Muslims leaders in Delhi to discuss the future of constitutional reforms and separate electorates. These demands were known as the Delhi Proposals and were: 1) Sindh should be separated from Bombay with full provincial status and all previous British reforms should be applied to the Frontier Province and Baluchistan. 2) In Punjab and Bengal the allocated fewer seats should be corrected. 3) Muslims should be given one-third of the seats in the central legislature through joint electorates Then the Muslims league would be prepared to give up separate electorates.
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Chapter 7: How successful was Khilafat Movement in advancing the cause for Pakistan Movement? Reasons After World War 2, British decided to break the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman Empire held great importance to Muslims in India and so they wanted to protect it and save the Khalifa. Because the Holy places of Muslims were in the Ottoman Empire so there was a great threat that British might harm Holt places of Muslims.
Background and Establishment At the beginning of 1st world war (1914) seat of Khilafat was held by Turkey (Ottoman Empire). In the First World War, the Turks had fought on the side of the Germany and Austria against Britain, France and Russia. British wanted Indian Muslims to fight in the war against the Turks, but they knew that British would respect the rights of the Khalifa and Turkish Empire would be maintained. As a result of this promise thousands of Muslims joined the British Army. Turkish side was defeated at the end of the war. Muslims all over the world were concerned with how Turkey would be treated. Istanbul had been the home of Caliphate and the Turkish Sultan was recognized as the Khalifa (caliph). The Allies hoped to destroy the Ottoman Empire by encouraging, Turkey to become a nation rather than an empire. The treaty Of Versailles set out to divide Germany into two parts. Muslims were in Encouraged to stop British from treating turkey same as Germany and Austria. There were many peaceful demonstrations and boycott (see Non-Cooperation Policy). KHILAFAT COMMITTEE: A “Khilafat Committee” was set up in 1919 to conduct and to organize the Khilafat Movement with Maulana Shaukat Ali as its General Secretary. Congress also supported this movement under Abdul Kalam Azad. This movement was launched to pressurize the British into keeping their promises. In Nov, 1919 the 1st Khilafat Conference was held in Delhi. Gandhi was also present at the Conference. A resolution was also passed asking the Muslims as religious duty to adopt the policy of non-cooperation with the British. In December 1919 the 2nd Khilafat Conference was held in Amritsar. At the same time both Congress and Muslims League were also meeting the city. It was agreed that all three organizations should work together to oppose plans to dismember the Turkish Empire. Khilafat Delegation: The Khilafat delegation left for England in March 1919 under the leadership of Maulana Mohammed Ali Johar and met the Prime Minister Lloyd George. The Prime minster refused to accept any arguments extended by the Khilafat Delegation and it failed without achieving its purpose. 34 | P a g e
Non-Cooperation Policy In August 1920 a full scale Non-Cooperation Movement was launched in with the collaboration with Gandhi. Gandhi came forward with their full support for the movement. Indians were asked to give up Government. Services, renounce title and boycott courts of law and British goods, walk out of schools and colleges. Gandhi assured the people that if this movement would be in a united, disciplined and non-violent fashion, they would attain “Swaraj or Self-Rule” within a year. The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement took the shape of mass movement. This was the most serious political threat that the British faced after the War of independence 1857. Hindu-Muslim unity was at its height. The congress cleverly decided to use Muslim agitation to press the British for the further concession on self-rule and to show the Muslims that the HinduMuslims unity was beneficial. Quaid-e-Azam was not in favor of Gandhi’s non-cooperation program because he thought that it might be violent, so he resigned from Congress in 1920.
Hijrat Movement It was a by-product of Khilafat Movement. In 1920 Abdul Kalam Azad and Maulana Abdul Bari gave a call for Hijrat Movement and urged the Muslims to migrate to a place where they can freely practice their religion, they called India as ‘Dar-ul-Harb’. Nearly 18000 Muslims mostly from Sindh, NWFP and Punjab after selling their land and properties, migrated to Afghanistan. The Afghan Government welcomed them in the beginning but afterwards refused to accept them. Many people perished in the way and those who returned back to India to find them homeless and doomed forever. As a result of this all Muslims became backward in all fields of life. This migration to Afghanistan is known as the, “Hijrat Movement” in the history of India. It was ECONOMIC MISERY.
Chaura-Chauri Incident The non-cooperation movement was leading to violence and losing its momentum. In Feb. 1922 at Chaura-Chauri in a village near UP a trouble erupted between the police and the demonstrating procession. The hostile mob set fire to the police station where 22 policemen were burnt alive. Gandhi was so upset that he immediately and unilaterally called of noncooperation movement doing great deal of damage to the entire Khilafat Movement
Treatment of Turkey 1920, The Treaty of Sevres: British announced. The treaty indicated that Ottoman Empire was to be split up. Arabia will be independent and Turkey’s other possessions in the Middle East were placed under the League of Nations are allocated to British and France (non-Muslim states). Turkish land was to be given to Greece so that Turkey’s only possession in Europe was a small area around Istanbul. The Turkish rebelled against this treaty of Sevres, so The Treaty of Lausanne replaced it in 1923. Some if the land was gained, but Turkey never regained the control of Muslim territories in Middle East. 35 | P a g e
End of Khilafat Movement o
Gandhi called of his support which weakened Hindu-Muslims Unity
o
1922, Sultan was deprived of powers
o
1924, Kamal Atta Turk became the new Khalifa, he exiled Muhammad IV (last Sultan). He also abolished the Khilafat. It no longer matters what Indian Muslims or British wanted.
Why Failed? o o o
o o o
The non-violence, non-cooperative movement turned into violence. After the ChauraChauri incident in Feb 1922, Gandhi called of his support Gandhi and other Muslims leaders of the movement were arrested in 1922 with the arrest of leaders the movement lost its momentum. Although the Khilafat Movement was the first movement in which Hindus and Muslims worked together, their unity was probably always doomed to failure. The Hindu aim for self-rule was not really an objective of the Muslims and Hindus were prepared to support the Muslims in protecting their religious right only as long as it helped move India towards the self-rule. Hijrat Movement at critical stage was another blow for Muslims. On 3rd March 1924 the final and deadly blow was struck at the Khilafat movement by Mustafa Kamal Ata Turk Pasha who exiled Khalifa, Muhammad Vl and abolished Khilafat and established nationalist government of Turkey
Consequences o
This was the movement for which Hindu-Muslims both worked together, it healed their relations
o
Muslims realized they have political power.
It also brought some disadvantages.
Non-Cooperation Policy: Damaged British
Hijrat Movement: Was Economic Misery to Muslims
It failed in the end!
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Chapter 8: How successful was ‘Pakistan Movement’ in years 1927-39? Simon’s Commission In 1927 British Government announced to send a seven-member commission under the Chairmanship of Sir John Simon to prepare the report for the new reforms. The commission had no Indian member, so Congress and a section of Muslim league announced to boycott the commission. But a section of Muslim League headed by Mian Mohammad Shafi stood for cooperation with the commission. The commission completed its work and these recommendations were published in 1930. o Abolition of Diarchy o Federal form of government with maximum powers for the provinces. o Separate electorates for Muslims. o Weightage for the Muslims in minority provinces. o Muslims demanded for the separation on Sindh from Bombay and introduction of reforms in NWFP which was not rejected but postponed. o Muslims should not be given one third of the seats in Central Legislature. In reaction Congress launched Civil Disobedience Movement against the recommendation of Simon Commission, Gandhi and Nehru both were arrested. Whereas the Muslim league stayed away from the campaign.
Nehru Report The Congress and Muslim League had already rejected the recommendations of the Simon Commission. One of the British Parliament Member said that, ‘Indians mostly don’t get united. The Indian leaders accepted the challenge and convinced an ‘All parties conference’ at Delhi in February1928, to prepare draft for the Constitutional reforms. A nine-member committee headed by Pundit Motilal Nehru (father of Jawaharlal Nehru) was established to draft the future Constitution of India. The representation of the Muslims in the committee was of an insignificant nature. Ali Imam and Shoaib Qureshi were the two Muslims representatives in the committee. The report submitted by the committee is known as "Nehru Report" which contained the following major recommendations: o Full dominion Status for India (that the meant India would become independent, but remain a member of Common Wealth accepting the British monarch as Head of State). o Muslims demands… Separate electorates and weightage/quota for seats were rejected. o The Muslims were to get proportional representative in Central legislature. o Sindh should be separated from Bombay. o Full provincial status to be given to NWFP and Baluchistan. o India should have a unitary form of government with a strong center. o Every adult men and women can give vote. o India to be a federation with a two chamber parliament. Muslims dislike the findings of the Nehru report as most of the Muslims demands were rejected. The recommendations of Nehru report were place for the final approval. In all parties Convection held at Calcutta in December 1928. The Muslims leaders also attended the convection. At that occasion Quaid-e-Azam proposed three amendments in the Nehru report which were as follow: One-third representations for the Muslims in the Central legislature. Muslims representation in the Punjab and Bengal on the basis of population. 37 | P a g e
Federal form of government with maximum powers (autonomy) for the provinces. Hindu majority rejected all these amendments. It was last attempt M.A Jinnah to reconcile Congress with Muslim league. The Nehru report marked the end of any future cooperation between the Congress and the Muslim league. Leading Muslim figures were disillusioned with the Congress and were never trust it again. Jinnah described this as ‘THE PARTING OF WAYS’
Jinnah’s Fourteen Points In 1929 Quaid-e-Azam decided to give its own formula for the constitutional reforms in reply for Nehru Report. He convinced the meeting of the Muslim league in Delhi and gave his famous 14 points formula: 1) The future constitution should be federal with powers resting with provinces. 2) All provinces should have same amount of autonomy. 3) Affective representation of all the minorities in all the legislatures and other elected bodies. 4) One-third Muslim representation in the Central Assembly. 5) All the minorities of India shall have the right to elect their members by separate or joint electorates. 6) Muslims majority shall not be converted to minority in the Punjab, Bengal, and NWFP. 7) Full liberty of belief and worship shall be granted to all communities. 8) No bill shall be passed in any passed in any elected body if 3/4 of any community in that body opposed it. 9) Sindh should be separated from Bombay. 10) Reforms in NWFP and Baluchistan should be introduced like other provinces. 11) Muslims should be given share in the services of state. 12) Safeguard for the protection of Muslim culture and promotion of Muslim education, language, religion and civilization. 13) One-third Muslims ministries in all the cabinets either central or provincial. 14) The federation of India must not change laws without consent of provinces With the rejections of 14 points by the Congress and other Hindu leader, the Nehru report was also doomed and it created great deal of suspicion in the Muslims who were now seriously thinking for a separate homeland.
More non-cooperation As it was warned, the non-cooperation movement was re-launched by Congress. Gandhi was in-charge for this campaign. Which began on 12th March from his famous ‘Salt March’. It widely showed up in newspapers. It was twenty-four day long. British forbade making of salt accept under British license. British clothes were burnt. Schools, colleges and other services were boycotted. In response British concerned newspapers and began widespread arrest. Jinnah disapproved the movement as he saw it as an attempt to get success among evil wishes against Muslims by Congress.
Allahabad Address (1930) The fourteen point of Quaid-e-Azam created great confidence amongst the Muslims who gathered behind their leaders. The Muslims were now fully aware of their distinct national character and identity. They were convinced that the Hindus and the Muslims were two separate nations. 38 | P a g e
The annual session of the Muslim league was held at ALLAHBAD in 1930, which was presided over by Allama Iqbal. In the address Iqbal discussed the political situation of the Subcontinent. His address is regarded as a document on Islam being the system of life. He declared Islam as a complete code of life and gave very sound and strong arguments in support of his views. He was fully convinced that the Muslims of India would ultimately have to establish a separate homeland, as they could not live with the Hindus in the united India. He viewed that Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan and NWFP should be group together to make a separate state, which should be given a dominion status within or outside the British Empire. Iqbal's address further clarified the 'Two Nation Theory' and demanded a separate homeland for the Muslims. It was the first occasion when a demand for a separate homeland was made from the Muslim League platform. IMPORTANCE OF ALLAMA IQBA'S ADDRESS TO THE PAKISTAN MOVEMENT: o Allama Iqbal was the 1st Muslim leader to suggest partition of the subcontinent in keeping with the two-nation theory. He has, therefore been called ‘The father of the ideology of Pakistan’ o His views acted as an inspiration to many Muslims who were uncertain about how to defend their religion and culture. Iqbal gave them a clear cut objective, as he set out a goal for Muslims to work towards a separate homeland. o Allama Iqbal was also the inspiration for other Muslims leaders. In 1934 Chaudhry Rehmat Ali’s Pakistan scheme was built upon his ideas. They were also to be the basis of Jinnah’s Pakistan Resolution in 1940. o Iqbal Poetry was source of inspiration for Muslims of India
ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES (1930-32) Simon Commission report that was finally published in May 1930. Congress announced complete boycott and started civil disobedience movement under Gandhi’s command. Demonstrations and violence spread throughout the country. Gandhi and Jawaharal Nehru were arrested. The political situation had become tensed in the country. British Government realized that without the cooperation of Indians it was not possible to introduced constitutional reforms in London. There were three sessions of Round Table Conference held at London during 1930 to 1932.
First Round Table Conference (12 Nov. 1930-19 Jan 1931) In this conference all the parties were represented except Congress. Congress refused to attend unless there was a guarantee that anything agreed at the Conference would be implemented. British Government gave no such guarantee. Congress declared that Swaraj, self-rule. The Muslim decided to attend the Congress in spite of Congress boycott. Muslim delegation included Sir Aga Khan, M.A Johar, Maulvi Fazaal-ul-Haq and M.A Jinnah. Important issues decided at the conference were: o The princely States agreed to extend their cooperation in forming an All India Federation. o The British agreed that representative government should be introduced at provincial level. o Separation of Sindh from Bombay. o To introduce Federal System of government in India. No agreement was reached as to the question of Muslims weightage in future constitution. Since congress was India’s largest party and absent from 1st Round Table Conference, it was difficult to take final decision.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (17-19Feb. 1931) The civil disobedience movement had failed and the Congress wanted to opt out of this situation while the government too was serious of Congress participation in the Second Round Table Conference because the government had realized that without Congress any solution for
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Constitutional reforms would be difficult. Lord Irwin extended invitation to Gandhi for folks and an agreement between Gandhi and Irwin was signed with the following salient proposals: 1) The Congress will end its civil disobedience movement. 2) The Congress will attend the second Round Table Conference. 3) The government will withdraw all ordinances against Congress. 4) The government would withdraw all notification/ enactments relating to offences not involving violence. 5) The government should release all persons detained during Civil disobedience movement.
Second Round Table Conference (7 Sept- 1st Dec 1931) Gandhi adopted a stubborn and unreasonable attitude on all matters and refused to accept any rights of minorities. After adopting the stiff attitude Gandhi sat back quietly observe the proceedings. He did his best to prove India as one nation and nationality so that he could claim to represent the Indian people alone. But the Quaid-e-Azam replied that Indian Muslims were also a separate nation of India which had its own interests. Non settlement of minorities issue could be reached and the second Conference ended without reaching at any conclusion mainly because of rigid attitude of Gandhi.
Third Round Table Conference (17 Nov – 24 Dec 1932)
Before the 3rd session of the Round Table Conference, British announced their own solution for the communal and constitutional problem of India known as ‘Communal Award’. British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced it on 16th August 1932. The Congress once again abstained from the conference because Gandhi had started his civil disobedience movement. Quaid-e-Azam did not take part in this conference and Sir Aga Khan led the Muslim delegation. The Conference could not solve the problems of Hindu Muslims and proved a formality. Gandhi and Nehru were in jail. The Conference ended after few meetings without achieving anything. Communal Award: The British government gave enough time and chance to Indian leaders to come up with a workable constitutional setup, after vainly waiting. British government published their own scheme known as Communal Award in 1932. It retained separate electorate for the Muslims and all other minorities but the Muslims majority in Punjab and Bengal were reduced to minorities and due to this the Muslims rejected it while the Congress was not happy with this award.
Government of India Act (1935) The roundtable Conference could not solve the constitutional problem of India but they enabled the government to understand the problems and to take some concrete steps to solve them. The recommendations of these conferences were contained in a white paper, which was published in 1933 and discussed in the British Parliament. The parliament passed the bill which was enforced in the country as “Government of India Act, 1935”. It was a last set of legislation provided by the government of India. The act contained two parts, provincial; the provincial part of the Act of 1935 was enforced when general elections in the country was held in 1937 and it remained enforce till the transfer of power in 1947. Federal part of the act never brought into operation and the Central Government was remained under the act of 1919. For the first time the provinces were given more authority and power and made them separate entities.
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The system of “Diarchy” was dropped at the provincial level but introduced at central government level: Reserved (defense, foreign affairs, ecclesiastical affairs and administration of tribal areas) for Governor-General assisted by 3 appointed councilors. The supremacy of the British Parliament reminded intact as no Indian Legislatures was authorized to notify or amend the Constitution. Representatives and responsible government at Provincial level was introduced. The provincial executive was handed over to representatives of the people who were accountable before the provincial legislature. NWFP was given the full provincial status. Two new provinces of Sindh and Orissa were created, which increased the total number of province to eleven. Parliamentary system was introduced and the provinces were given the full autonomy. Every provinces was given a council of ministries whose advice was binding on the governor. The property qualifications was lowered which gave 35 million Indians the right to vote (1/4 of Indian adult population). Two house central parliament: Lower (Assembly) contained 250 members, elected from ‘British India’ and 125 nominated from princely states; Upper (Council of States) contained 156 members, elected from ‘British India’ and 104 nominated from princely states Evaluation: This act of 1935 failed to win appreciation from various sector. The political leaders of India rejected it for it failed to meet the demands of the different political faction. Quaid-eAzam declared that it was a ‘Defective document’. The federal system was defective in many ways. This act provided the basis for negotiations, which is finally resulted in British leaving India. Parliamentary systems had been set up in which the Indian people were to gain increasing representation. The people were not given the rights. All authority was vested in the parliament which was a British institution. o Nehru remembered it as ‘Act of Slavery’ o Gandhi called it ‘a car with strong brakes but no engine’ o Jinnah described it as ‘Thoroughly rotten, fundamentally bad and totally unacceptable’
ELECTIONS (1937) The government announced to hold election to the provincial legislative assemblies in 1936-37. There was 1771 seats of provincial assemblies. Although both Muslim league and Congress had rejected the Act of 1935 but still they decided to contest the elections. The results of the election were shocking for the Muslims of India and for the Muslims league, which could not get mentionable support from the voters. Congress achieved a big victory and managed to get clear majority in five provinces and formed coalition in few other provinces (Bombay, Bengal and N.W.F.P) to form its ministries on the eight provinces.
Reasons for the defeat of Muslim League: o o o o o
o
It was the 1st major election of the Muslim League as a mass party. Congress was the oldest, richest and best organization political party where as Muslim League was middle class organization with insufficient funds. There was no link between the masses and the leaders of Muslims League who belonged to the high class society so it was quite ‘image problem’. As the provincial autonomy was guaranteed according to the act of 1935, so this thing made Muslims League leaders overconfident and no fear or threat of Hindu domination in the Muslims majority provinces.
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Formation of ministries: The Congress adapted a rigid attitude after winning the elections in majority. Congress leaders behaved in a dictatorial manner and imposed their own will. The Congress took offices in eight provinces. The congress was also reluctant in sharing the power with the Muslims League and laid down degrading conditions for the Muslim League to be included in the ministry. The Muslim League rejected these terms and pure Congress ministries were formed.
Rule of Congress 1937-39 (Known as Congress tynnaries) The congress began it rule by imposing its will on the Muslim minorities in the provinces under its rule. The Muslims were forbidden to eat beef. Severe punishments were awarded to those who slaughtered the ‘mother cow’. Every effort was made to humble and humiliate Islam. A policy was made by the Congress to erase the Muslim’s culture. Hindi was imposed as the official language in all the provinces. Azan was banned and organized attacks were made on the Muslims who were busy in worship in the mosques. Noisy processions were passed near the mosques at prayer times. Pigs were pushed into the mosques and Azan was interrupted. The Muslims lodged complaints with the authorities but the decision were always against the Muslims. Although it was not their official policy, but during this rule Muslims suffered ‘Congress Tynnaries’ Bande Matram: It was a song in which degrading remarks were used against the Muslims and Islam written by a Bengali novelist Bankim Chatterjee. The Congress insisted on commencing the day’s beginning by the recitation of this Song and also adapted it as the national anthem. Widdia Mander scheme: This educational policy aimed at converting the non-Hindus to Hinduism. It was introduced in educational institutes. The students were asked to pay respect and homage to Gandhi’s picture with folded arms in posture of Hindu worship and sing Hymns in his praise. Dr. Zakir Hussain a Congress Muslim was the author of this Scheme. Wardha Scheme: A basic education scheme was launched by Gandhi as Wardha, later known as Wardha Scheme and was introduced in all Congress education ministries. Spinning Cotton by hand was made a part of the school curriculum and teachings was to be in Hindi. It aimed at creating at creating a high respect among the young minds about the Hindi heroes and religious leaders. It sought to isolate the young generation of the Muslims from their religion, culture and civilization. It also aimed at injecting the political ideas of the Congress into the minds of Muslim children. If completely ignored religion and favored Hindi at the cost of Urdu. Hindu-Muslims riots: During the congress rule organized attempts were made on the honor, properties and lives of the Muslims. The Hindus were to assault the Muslims and the properties were set on fire. Muslims children and women were abducted. Muslims mass contact campaign: The main objective of this campaign was to crush the popularity of the Muslims league amongst the Muslim. The campaign began by directly contacting the Muslims masses with a view to win them over to the Congress.
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Chapter 9: How far successful were attempts to find a Solution to the Problems in 1940-47? Outbreak of World War 1939 In 1939, World War 2 broke out. Lord Linlithgow announced India at war with Germany. Congress was angry on not being informed before the announcement about Viceroy’s Decision and refused to cooperate. They demanded Self Rule and when Immediate Self Rule was not promised. Muslim League demands were also set up:
End to anti-Muslim policies by Congress
No law affecting Muslims should be passed unless 2/3rd Muslims are supporting it
Congress should agree to form coalitions in Provincial Govt.
1939, 22nd December Congress resigned from government. Muslims celebrated at the end of the age of Congress Tyranny and they named it “The Day of Deliverance” offending the Congress Deeply.
Pakistan Resolution Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was the first Muslim who pointed out that the Hindus and the Muslims were separate nations. In 1930 Allama Iqbal gave the idea for a separate homeland for the Muslims. 1933, Chaudhry Rehmat Ali suggested the same idea and the name. At first M.A. Jinnah was not in favor of idea. He believed that Muslims would be bettor of in a federation in which they had political autonomy and a promise that their rights would be safeguarded. But the two years of Congress rule and a growing realization that the British would soon be force to leave India convinced, M.A. Jinnah that it was to consider establishing a Muslim State. The Historic annual session of Muslim league began on 22rd March in 1940 at Lahore under the chairmanship of Quaid-e-Azam. On 23rd March 1940 ‘Pakistan Resolution’ was passed. It was put forward by Fazul-ul-Haq “Sher-e-Bengal”. The important part of the resolution was as follow: “Geographically contiguous units are demarcated into regions… In which the Muslims are numerically majority as in the north-western and eastern zone of India should be grouped to constitute independent and sovereign.”
This resolution was passed unanimously and soon became known as ‘Lahore Resolution’. However the Hindu press began referring it as ‘Pakistan Resolution’ and that title was soon adopted. Now it was the time to work for the homeland to become a reality – and it was the Muslim league which was undisputed leader of ‘Pakistan Movement’
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Cripps Mission (1942) Sir Stafford Cripps (along with 6 men) were sent to suggest the recommendation for the new reforms and to persuade the Congress leader ship to support the war effort. The mission reached Delhi on 23rd March 1942 to hold the discussion with the Indian leaders. It proposed: o Dominion status for India after the war. Any provinces of states would be able to opt out of proposed Indian Federation o Constituent Assembly to frame new constitution and members for this assembly to be elected after War. Congress, which had observed the weak position of the British Government during the did not want to offer any concession to the British, so it decided to use that occasion to pressurize the government and demanded immediate transfer of power to a Congress dominated body. Gandhi regarded the proposals of government as a “Post-dated Cheque on a falling bank”. All India Muslim league also rejected the proposals because there was no guarantee that the proposals didn’t contained reference to Establishment of Pakistan
Quit India Resolution On 8th August 1942, the India National Congress Committee passed its ‘Quit India Resolution’ calling for immediate withdrawal of the British. Gandhi argued that if the British left India, there would be no longer be threat of Japanese invasion. The British responded firmly by arresting most of the senior leaders of congress (Gandhi, Nehru and Azad etc.) as well as by banning the Congress party. For several weeks there was widespread rioting and the British lost control in some parts of the Country. However, they got it back through the use of air bombing and gas. Thousands of Indian lost their lives. The Muslims League did not approve of the Quit India Movement. Quaid-e-Azam During this movement, termed it as a Black mail, saying that congress was trying to exploit Britain’s problems to win advantage for itself.
Gandhi-Jinnah Talks A number of letters and conversations were held between the 2 leaders in 1944 however the result was disdainful as Gandhi wanted Self Rule first and then consider partition while Jinnah wanted Partition first and no other alternative. Gandhi wanted power in hands of Federal Government while Jinnah wanted provincial Autonomy. This widened the gulf between Hindus and Muslims even further.
SIMLA CONFERENCE (1945) In 1945 Lord Wavell the Viceroy of India announced a plan for the transfer of power of India to its natives. To discuss the details of the plan Lord Wavell invited representatives from the various political parties in a conference at Simla in June 1945. Wavell Proposals: o An Executive council should be set up as Interim Government under the present constitution (Government of India act 1935) until a new constitution could be agreed on. o The Executive Council would contain equal number (5 each) of Muslims and Hindus. o All portfolios would be given to Indians expect defense and Viceroy. 44 | P a g e
To discuss the formation of the Executive Council and the future handover the Viceroy called a Conference of all the political parties in Simla. The Muslim league delegation included Quaid-eAzam, Liaquat Ali Khan and Khawaja Nazimuddin while Gandhi, Abdul Kalam Azad and Khizar Hayat Tiwana represented the Congress. They deliberately included Muslim members in the delegation to demonstrate that not all Muslims were members of the Muslim league. There was a deadlock over the Muslim league’s demand that all the five members of the Executive Council should be the nominees of the Muslim league. The Viceroy accepted four and Chief Minister of Punjab and Unionist party leader Khizar Hayat Tiwana demanded one Muslim seat out of Muslim quota, which was accepted by the Viceroy. Jinnah also pointed out as the Sikhs and Scheduled Castes on the Council were bound to vote with the Hindus, this would mean permanent Muslims minority in the Executive Council. Jinnah also objected Lord Wavell could see no solution to the problem and closed the conference on 14th July 1945. Another British attempt to find a solution had failed.
ELECTIONS (1945-46) The general elections to the provincial and central legislatures were held in 1945-46. Both the parties took an active part in these elections because the constitutional future of India was dependent on the results of these elections. Both Congress and Muslim league contested the election on two exactly opposed slogans. Congress wanted to keep Subcontinent united, whereas Muslim League wanted to divide it. Results of Election: The results showed that the Muslims league won all the 30 Muslims seats in the Central Assembly and 446 out of 495 Muslims seats in the Provincial Assemblies. The Congress won the same victory in the Hindu majority areas. In Bengal, the Muslim League won 113 out of 119 Muslim seats and formed ministry in Sindh. The Victory of Congress in N.W.F.P was a serious blow to the league, Muslim League won 17 out of 36 Muslim seats and Congress took 19 Muslims seats and Dr. Khan Sahib formed ministry with Congress. In Punjab, Muslim league won 79 out of 86 Muslim seats and Khizar Hayat Tiwana formed the ministry with Congress. Congress won total 930 seats gaining an absolute majority in 8 provinces. Result of the elections not only divided the assemblies between Muslim League and Congress but also approved the Muslim league claim that, it was a sole representative’s party of the Muslims of Subcontinent and the demand for the establishment for a separate Muslim homeland was true.
THE CABINET MISSION PLAN (1946) The British Prime minster, lord Clement Attlee announced that a special mission consisting of three cabinet Ministers would be sent to India to discuss the constitutional issues with the viceroy and Indian political leaders. The Cabinet mission was consisted of Lord Oathic Lawrence Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V Alexander. Quaid-e-Azam made it clear to the mission that the Muslim majority areas should be grouped together to make a sovereign and independent Pakistan comprising of six provinces. Congress was opposed to any partition and would not accept Jinnah’s idea. The mission conducted meeting with top leaders of India in Simla Sir Stafford Cripps openly supported Congress. Abdul Kalam Azad, Jawaharlal Nehru, Abdul Ghaffar Khan and Vallabhai Patel represented Congress while Quaid-e-Azam, Liaquat Ali Khan, Nawab Ismail and Abdul Rab Nishtar represented the Muslim league, which demanded two separate constitution making bodies be set up for framing the respective constitution. Both the parties could not accept the proposals of each other. The Cabinet Mission and Viceroy formulated a three-tier constitutional plan, which was as follow: Long term Plan: 1) It rejected the idea of establishing Pakistan 45 | P a g e
2) There would be three different parts to post-British India. (Hindu Majority Territories, Muslims Majority Provinces, Bengal and Assam) 3) Each part would have local autonomy and would be able to draw up its own constitution 4) Foreign affairs, defense and communication would be managed by a central Indian Union. Short term Plan: The mission also proposed of setting up of an interim Central Government in which the Indian national should hold all portfolios. Gandhi criticized and rejected the plan and called it ‘An appeal and an advice’ while the Muslim league accepted long term and short term plans. The viceroy broke his promise by refusing to form the government only with Muslim league. On other hand Nehru, however said that Congress would not feel bound by the plan once the British had gone. The Muslim league felt that his made further discussions pointless. Any agreement might just overturned after the British had gone. So the Cabinet Plan was dropped.
Direct Action Day Muslims were afraid that British might pull out without finding a solution, so they will suffer from Congress rule anyway. So in 1946, a peaceful demonstration to show that Muslims wanted Independence and British should hurry up with it. However in Calcutta it turned to serious rioting and 4000 people died in ‘Great Calcutta Killing’
Partition 3RD JUNE PLAN (PARTITION PLAN 1947) Lord Mountbatten was appointed as the last viceroy of India and he was told by the prime minister, lord Clement Attlee to hand over the power to the Indian by 1st June 1948. Attlee had deliberately set a short time span for arrangement to be made. He feared that if more time were given, there would only be more disagreement. When Mountbatten reached India, he faced problems like Muslim League wanting partition and congress opposing it and he had very short time. In March 1947 there were riots and killing between Muslims and Hindus in Punjab. Soon the trouble spread to other provinces. After negotiations, he had worked out a partition plan. The Congress met on 1st may 1947 and gave its acceptance of the partition plan and Muslim League also gave its approval. Mountbatten got approval from the British Government and the plan was issued on 3rd June 1947. The main characteristics of the plan were: · India would be divided into 2 different states on the midnight of 14 and 15 August 1947 · Government of India act 1935 would be modified to adopt as the temporary Constitution for both India and Pakistan. · Boundary Commission would be set up to demarcate the boundary between India and Pakistan. · Military and Financial assets would be divided between India and Pakistan · Legislature of Sindh would be given chance to vote Pakistan. · Referendum would be adopted to decide NWFP future. · Muslims members in the legislative assembly of Bengal and Punjab were given chance to vote for Pakistan. Which means they can join Pakistan. · Appropriate measures would be adapted to decide the future of Baluchistan. · Rulers of Princely states would be given option to join Pakistan or India or remain independent. RADCLIFFE AWARD (1947) 46 | P a g e
The issue which was not solved on 14th August was the boundary between Muslims and nonMuslims areas. Lord Mountbatten had appointed Sir Cyril Radcliffe to head a boundary Commission to establish new borders, particularly in Bengal and Punjab. Radcliffe had four assistance, two nominated by the Muslim league and two by Congress. The decision of the boundary Commission (known as Boundary reward on Radcliffe award) was announced on 16th August 1947. The Muslim League was disappointed to hear that Calcutta was given to India, even though the Muslim areas surrounded it. In Punjab both Ferozpur and Gurdaspur were given to India. Again the Muslims were disappointed by this decision. Ferozpur had a Muslim majority and Pakistani had evidence to suggest the Radcliffe had originally awarded it to Pakistan but had been forced b Mountbatten to change his mind. Gurdaspur also had a Muslim majority. By awarding it to India the Indian now had a border with Kashmir and future disputes between India and Pakistan became inevitable. Jinnah told people of Pakistan that the awards were Wrong and unjust and perverse. However, the partition had been take place two days earlier. INDEPENDENCE ACT OF 1947: The British Government passed the Indian independence acts on 15 July 1947. The act ordered that from 15 August two independent dominions be established by the names of India and Pakistan. These dominions have complete freedom to pass any act or bill and the Government of India act 1935 was to be the provincial constitution until replaced. The princely states were given the option to join one or either of the country.
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Chapter 10: How important were contribution of Jinnah, Iqbal and Ch. Rehmat Ali for the success of Pakistan Movement? Allama Muhammad Iqbal Biography: Born on 1877 in Sialkot. He got his ‘Doctorate in Philosophy’ in Munich University. Masters from Govt. College, Lahore. He practiced law in England and philosophy in Cambridge. He was a poet taking Inspirations from Quran. 1938, he was buried in Badshahi Mosque. Beliefs: o
He was totally against British, so he was opposed. He thought that British and Hindus were equally against Muslims.
o
He believed in Sovereign homeland.
o
He was the first to dream of a separate place for Muslims where they can live with pure Islamic values
Workings: o
No doubt he was a great poet. His poetry was not only hopeful but encouraging. He earned British awards for his poetry. It was called as ‘something awaken Muslims’. He was also called ‘The Philosopher poet.
o
Allama Iqbal sometimes is called ‘Architect of Pakistan’
o
1926, he was elected member for Punjab Assembly.
o
1927, he was elected as General Secretary
o
1930, Allahabad Address
Choudhry Rehmat Ali Biography: He was born in Hoshiyarpur, Punjab in 1879. Took his basic Education from Jalandhar and B.A from Govt. College. He joined Islamia College Lahore in 1918. He was living and practicing law in Lahore. After win of the case ‘Nawabs of Mazari’ he went to Cambridge University. In 1930 he went to England where earned the degrees of M.A. Jinnah and Bar at Law from Cambridge University and Dublin University. Now or Never: He suggested for the separate homeland long before anyone thought of partition. He suggested the name Pakistan for the new nation. His views were different from Jinnah and Iqbal at that time. 1933, Chaudhry Rehmat Ali founded the ‘Pakistan Movement’. He Issued Pamphlet ‘Now or Never’ in that pamphlet he stated Muslims should have their own homeland called ‘Pakistan’. Muslim states comprising the Punjab. N.W.F.P, Kashmir, Sindh, Baluchistan. ‘Pakistan’ stands for, P for Punjab, A for Afghania, K for Kashmir, S for Sindh and Tan for Baluchistan. 48 | P a g e
Contribution in Pakistan Movement: o
In 1930 Round Table Conference were held in London to discuss possible political agreement between Hindus, Muslims and British. Chaudhry Rehmat Ali met the Muslim’s leaders including M.A. Jinnah and tried to convince them to give the idea of Indian federation and focus their energies to form a separate homeland for the Muslims. But at this stage M.A. Jinnah and other leaders were unconvinced so the proposals of Chaudhry Rehmat Ali was rejected
o
He was rightly awarded when in 1940 ALL INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE adopted his central demand for a separate homeland and name ‘Pakistan’. He was one of those leaders who lived to see the establishment of Pakistan. But he did not agree with the final map of Pakistan. His contribution also never appreciated officially. He visited Pakistan in 1948 and live in Lahore for some time and left for England. He died in Cambridge on 3rd Feb, 1951.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah o o
o o
o o
o
o
o
o
In 1906 Jinnah became the member of Imperial legislative Council and Congress. In 1913 he joined All India Muslim league. 1916, Jinnah was one of the leading figure in Indian politics. He was respected & admired by both Hindus and Muslims & called as the ‘Ambassador of Hindu Muslim unity’. In 1916 Lucknow pact was signed between Muslims League & Congress mainly because of the efforts of M.A. Jinnah. Jinnah resigned from the imperial legislative Council in 1919 in protest at the passing of ‘Rowlett Act’. Because of the rising influence of Gandhi, Congress decided to back out of the separate electorate accepted in 1916 & calling of the Non-cooperation movement in 1920. In 1920 Jinnah resigned from Congress protesting against the policies of Gandhi. In 1927 Simon Commission arrives in India since the commission had no Indian member so the Muslims League (ML) under the leadership of M.A. Jinnah decided to boycott it. In 1928 when Nehru report was passed Jinnah tried to reach a compromise on the issue of separate electorate but INC refused to accept the proposals of Jinnah. After that Jinnah abounded the efforts of Hindu Muslim reconciliation. 1929, his famous four points showed up! In 1931 & 32 Jinnah attended the 1st & 2nd session of the RTC in London, where he firmly talked about the protection of minority’s right in India. He stayed in England but after numerous requests of Allama Iqbal & Liaquat Ali Khan he returned as Muslims league president (elected). In the provincial election of 1936-37 Muslims League did not perform well as it had hoped. So immediately after the elections of 1936-37 the Muslims League launched the program of mass contact under the leadership of M.A. Jinnah. The labor born fruit and Muslim league membership rose from ten thousand to hundred thousand. With the outbreak of 2nd World war, Congress directed its minister to resign from their posts. Following the resignation of Congress’s minister Quaid asked all Muslims to celebrate ‘The Day of Deliverance’ in Dec 1939. On 23rd March 1940, a historic session of AIML was held under the leadership of Quaid-eAzam. During the session a resolution was passed demanding the establishment to separate sovereign & independent state for the Muslims of India.
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In election 1945-46, the success of ML was by efforts of Jinnah. Now ML demands were making some ground… and finally under the leadership of Quaid and Pakistan came in to existence in 14th August 1947. It was M.A Jinnah who led the Pakistan Movement harmlessly
Role of Quaid-e-Azam as Governor General On 14th August 1947, Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah became the 1st Governor General. o Formation of Federal Cabinet As soon as the Quaid-e-Azam took an immediate action and nominated members of the Federal Cabinet to run the Government affairs smoothly. Liaquat Ali Khan was elected as the Prime Minister. Which took oath on 15 August 1947. o Members of the Cabinet 1. Sardar Abdul Rab Nisther (Transports) 2. Raja Ghazanfer Ali Khan (Agriculture) 3. Fazal-ur-Rehman (Education 4. I.I Chundrigar (Industry) 5. Ghulam Mohammad (Finance) 6. Jogander Nath Mandal (Law) 7. Sir Zafar Ullah Khan Qadyani (Affair) o Constitutional Problems Govt. Act of 1935 was amended and enforced in the country as there was no constitution available of the newly born state. o Establishment of Capital Karachi was made Capital of Pakistan. o Provincial Government Quaid-e-Azam elected Chief Minister and Governor. o Establishment of Administrative Head Quarters For the administrative reformation, a committee was set up and Chaudhry Mohammad Ayub was made the Secretary General. Civil Services were re-organized and Civil Services Academy was constituted. The Secretariat was established. Moreover, Headquarters for Army, Navy and Air Force were set up. An ammunition factory was also set up. o Attention to Foreign Affairs Realizing the sensitivity of foreign affairs, Quaid-e-Azam paid his utmost attention to the Foreign Policy. He developed healthy relations with the neighboring and developed countries that were the main objective of the Foreign Policy. o Membership of UNO After independence, Quaid-e-Azam paid immediate attention for acquiring membership of the United Nations Organization (UNO). On 30th September 1947, Pakistan became the member of the UNO. o Implementation of Education Policy Education sector also needed attention at the time of independence. For this purpose, he held the first Educational Conference in 1947. He wished that every citizen of Pakistan should serve his nation with honesty and national spirit. He made nation with honesty and national spirit. He made acquisition of scientific and technological education compulsory for the students. Quaid-e-Azam did a lot to improve education policy of the country. o In the Service of Pakistan Quaid-e-Azam served his country till his death. Despite his bad health, he kept on going through the important files. He succumbed to deadly disease of consumption. o First Cabinet of Pakistan First cabinet of Pakistan was also elected. He took of it.
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References: Notes by Sir Hamza Muhammad, 2010-11 Notes by Sir Junaid Akhtar XtremePapers Community (Ref. Pakistan Studies threads), visit www.xtremepapers.com/community for more information Notes by Sir Asadullah Babur ‘PAKISTAN STUDIES: IDEOLOGICAL BASIS OF PAKISTAN’ Pakistan Studies 2059, A Quick revision document to be used in conjunction with Nigel Kelly’s book by SOT Zaidi The History and Culture of Pakistan By Nigel Kelly The History and Culture of Pakistan Skill’s Book By Nigel Kelly Oxford Pakistan Studies Wikipedia Resources Lectures by Muhammad Shahid Anwer, (With reference to ‘Story of Pakistan’. Word Treasury (MS 2013-14) Notes by Ayesha Babur
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