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THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE FROM
BABAR TO AURANGZEB BY S.
M. JAFFAR,
AUTHOR OF:
B.A., M.R.A.S. "Education in Muslim India",
(LONDON) "
Mediaeval India
and
"Some Cultural Aspects
of
Muslim
r.ule in India'
1
WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
Ihe Hon'ble
Sir
ABDUL QADIR,
Kt.
PUBLISHER S.
MUHAMMAD
SADIQ KHAN
KISSA KHANI. PESHAWAR 1936 First Edit*',n
Price Rs, 5-net
Cvtivrixht Reserved I, the
Author
Published by S.
MUHAMMAD /Cissa
SADIQ KHAN,
Khani,
Peshawar City (N.-W.
Printed by Mirza at the
F. P.)
Mullmfaad Sadiq
Ripon Printing Press, Bull Road, L "hore
DEDICATED TO
MY FELLOW WORKERS I
N
THE SAME FIELD
PREFACE ONE
should not raise one's pen to write history is equipped with a thorough knowledge of the original sources and a clear conscience. In order to obtain correct information, it is absolutely essenunless one
tial
history with an unprejudiced mind The evidence without preconceived notions.
to approach
and
thus collected from the huge mass of historical literature that has come down to posterity from the pen of the contemporary chroniclers must be carefully sifted and pieced together in such a way as to present an accurate account of the past. History must not be
instrument of propaganda even in the best if used in a wrong cause, it may result in with human blood. Volumes written streets filling on the Muslim Period of Indian history have voluminously added to the volumes of communal hatred and bigotry. Whatever the aims of their authors, the text -books on Indian history, particularly on the used as an
of causes
;
Muslim Period, teem with exaggerations, distortions and timid suppression of facts, so much so that they tend to set one community at the throat of the other. False history has done more than a mere wrong to the cause of national unity and inter-communal amity in India.
A
retrospective glance at the present state of not fail io ~eveal to the reader the fact the teaching of wrong history, more than any-
affairs will
that
thing
else, is responsible for
the recurring riots
among
PREPACK
viii
the
communities
different
of
India.
The
sooner,
therefore, such books are dispensed with, the better Born and for the peace and prosperity of India. in
brought up
communal atmosphere, we,
see everything with communal glasses and The obvious result get a gloomy view.
Indians, therefore
is
that the
best of Muslim monarchs, statesmen and scholars have been painted in the darkest of colours and condemned as bigots
and
intolerants, nay, as blood-thirsty tyrants.
As things stand out
correct
is
The whole
realized.
much from of
of
communal harmony dream which Indian
with-
cannot be
history,
therefore,
in the right spirit,
'
not so
the point of view of occurrences at the various states as in order to delineate the
of
capitals
a
be re-written
to
requires
spread
at present,
history
culture a,nd to demonstrate the value of
its
present composite form, so that our people may not be led away by the false notion that whatever para-
phernalia of civilization we posset does not go back to more than a century and a half '. Some time ago
the
Punjab Government appointed a Special Comto see into the subject. The Committee
mittee
investigated the matter
and made some useful recom-
mendations. The same point regarding the re-writing whole of Indian history, particularly the Muslim
of the
Period, rical
was stressed
Conference
in
at
Poona
at the All-India Histo-
1934 by Dr. (now
Sir) Shafaat
Ahmad Khan who
presided over its deliberations and the suggested appointment of a Mss. Commission for the purpose. How far the objects aimed at have been
achieved,
I
do not know.
Some
six years'ago, while
PREFAJE
IX
was a student, I too felt the same necessity after making an independent study of the Muslim Period and set myself to the task in right earnest. Remotely removed as I was from big educational centres, I was I
consequently deprived of
all facilities for
research.
It
was my love for my subject (history) that drove me from place to place in search of books drawn upon for material and the result is The Mughal Empire which I
now submit to the judgment of the The Mughals are no more.
public.
Posterity
may
pause and pronounce judgment o~i their actions and administrations but to be fair and free from fallacy, ;
necessary to bear five things in mind viz., (1) the background, (2) the spirit of the age (3) the condiit is
:
country (4) the tendencies of the times, the time that has elapsed since the fall of the
tions of the
and
(5)
Mughal Empire. The background in the case of Mughal Emperors was Islam on the one hand and on the other. In the case of Shah and Jahan Aurangzeb, Islam had a great influence on their actions, whereas Persian traditions played a prominent part in determining the acts and adminisPersian traditions
Great Mughals. The spirit of the age, the conditions of the country and the tendencies of the times too had a great share in trations of the rest of the
shaping their policies. While taking these four factors into consideration, allowance must also be made for the
fifth
the time that
between the
fall
of
has scanned the
the Mughal
Empire and the
establishment of British Dominions in India
has
made marvellous improvements
interval
in
time that
and additions
PREFACE
X
to the existing knowledge
of
man and changed
conception of things. Since the book has been students
in
schools
his
intended chiefly for
and colleges
as
well as for the
have constantly kept their needs in general reader, view and therefore avoided burdening it with numerous footnotes, though I have fully tapped the sources of my information, both original and secondary, catalogued at the end of the book, and referred to my authorities on controversial topics, such as the alleged apostasy of I
Akbar and the so-called bigotry of Aurangzeb, topics on which I have differed from modern historians and suggested a new line of thought. Last, but not the least, my unreserved thanks are due to all
those
writers, mediaeval
and modern,
whose monumental works Lhave consulted for constructing this narrative to the Hon'ble Sir Abdul Qadir for writing the Introduction to my brother S. M. Raza, ;
;
B. A., for preparing the Index and^to my learned officer, the Judicial Commissioner, N.-W. F. P., for permitting
me
to publish this book.
Peshawar City 1st
:
October, 1936.
S.
M. JAFFAR.
ORTHOGRAPHY IN spelling Oriental names and words, I have followed the system of transliteration
adopted and recommended by the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, except that I have adhered to the popular and wellestablished spelling of certain well-known places like Lucknow and Cawnpore, and have not tried distinguish between the letters of almost, if and ^ not exactly, the same sounds, such as
to
&
&, ^r and
^;
j, j,
useful
though Arabic and bewildering not
reader,
^, and ^; ^ and
;
f
which,
for purposes of translation into
allied
to
languages, is, the student and
acquainted
with
nevertheless, the general
Arabic.
Each
aoove categories has its own sound, different from that of any other of its own category but the difference cannot be perceived by the reader, unless he be an Arabic scholar. To him, if he is not acquainted with Arabic
letter in the
;
;
the
letters
of
each
separate
category are
sound and he pronounces them all Again, I have not attempted to differentiate the letters (soft *), ^ (soft d) and J (hard r), which have no equivalents in English identical in
alike.
O
but are represented by t, d and r with dots or commas on or under them. For the rest, r%* is
ORTHOGRAPHY
Ml
represented by bh
;
rfc>
by ph
;
& by th
;
r
$ by th
;
^ by ch\ r&$bychh;f>bykh; rt^by and dh\ r$J by rh by sh\ by g& r g^by rS^ by gh. The system employs the vowels with by /*;
1*5-
;
^
M
;
;
the following uniform sounds: (1)
Ordinarily a, as in
t;n (2)
;
as in bold
o,
When a,
Roman
as in prey ; i, as in and u, as in full.
e,
;
;
lengthened
as in
last
;
i,
as
in fatigue
;
and
u,
as
in plwrai.
ABBREVIATIONS Ain B.
I.
S.
H. U. J.
L. S.
R. A.
S. B.
...
Ain-i-Akbari by Allama Abul Fazl.
...
Bibliotheca Indica Series.
...
Home University
...
Journal 'of
the
Library Series.
Royal Asiatic
Society of
Bengal. J.
R. A.
S.
...
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (London).
J.
R.
A.
...
Journal of the Royal Society of Arts (London).
...
Memoirs of the Royal
S.
M. R. A.
S. B.
Asiatic
Society of
Bengal.
M. U.
...
Muslim University Journal
N. K. T.
...
Newal Kishor Text.
P. R. A. S. B.
...
Proceedings of the Royal Asiatic Society of
J.
Bengal.
Trans.
...
Translation (English).
(Aligarh).
CORRIGENDA Page
33, line
4 (from top), for
Humaun
read
Humayun.
souhgt read sought. Page line 2 206, (from bottom), for over read near. Page 37, last line, /c r
Page Page
(from top), insert a after for. (from bottom) for force read forces.
384, line 19 399, line 2
CONTENTS Pages.
PREFACE
...
...
...
...
ORTHOGRAPHY
...
...
...
...
xi-xii
ABBREVIATIONS
...
...
...
...
xii
INTRODUCTION
...
...
...
...xxm-xxvi
CHAPTER
1
of
Information
wrong juxtaposition
x
PRELIMINARY
Sources of Information and the Forct,* that produced
Sources
vii
Their of facts
Modern
India.
authenticity Distortion and Modern India and the forces
that produced it Religious Revival Discovery of the Sea-route to IndiaAdvent of the Great Mughals Import... ... ance of the three forces ... pp. 1-8
CHAPTER
II
ZAHIR-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD BABAR
Introductory Why is the Mughal Dynasty so called ? Babar's early career Conquest of Kabul His early attempts to conquer India- -Political condition of India on the eve of his invasion First Battle of Panipat Babar's difficulties after the battle His war with the Rajputs Battle of KhSn wan Babar's address to his noble-men and soldiers Defeat of Rana Sangha and rout of Rajput ConfederacyImportance of the Battle of KhSnwah Battle of Chanderi Battle of the Gogra Extent of Babar's Indian Empire Story of his death His policy and administration His account of India His Memoirs Fine Arts Architecture
Painting Music The art of illustrating booksGardening Literary Celebrities Babar's achievements His estimate ... ... ... ... pp. 9-32
Poetry
CHAPTER
III
NASIR-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD HUMAYON
Introductory Division of the Empire Political condition of India and Humayun's position KSmrSn's occupation of the
Punjab
War
with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat
War
with
CONTENTS
XIV
Khan Afghan
Sher
Humay On
in
ministrationDrum Fixture
for
He
Persia
In
exile
conquers Kabul and Qandhaa from Kamran tion His accomplishments His ingenious
His Restora-
Works Ad-
Classification of the people Twelve sub-divisions Court-
of Justice
audience
Humayun's love of libraries Progress of Educa- Gardens Humayun's religious beliefs His character
Scholars tion
and estimate
...
CHAPTER
...
IVTHE AFGHAN
pp. 33-49.
...
...
REVIVAL
Sher Shah and His Successors
Sher Shah's early life His early activities Occupation of Bengal Recovery of Bengal by Humayun Battle of Chausa Bat'le of Kanauj Conquests of Sher Shah Punjab and Gakhar land Conquest of Maiwa.
Introductory
:
Conquests in Rajputana Administration Division of the Empire The Land Revenue System Administration of Justice Organization of Police Force Secret ServiceTariff System Means of Communication Postal Service Military Reforms Currency Reform Works of Public Welfare Architecture Sher Shah's ideal of kingship His estimate Salim Shah: Reduction of Malwa and the Punjab Shaikh Alai Government. Muhammad Shaft 'Adil
CHAPTER
...
...
...
pp. 50-70.
...
j
V JALAL-UD-D1N MUHAMMAD AKBAR-
1
Reconquest and Reconstruction
His accession Political life early Introductory Akbar's condition of India in 1556 Second Battle gf Panipat Results of the Battle Submission of Sur claimants and end of the Sur Dynasty Bairam Khan His fall Petticoat Government Akbar's position in 1564 A. C. Rebellion of 1
'
Khan Zaman Of Adham Khan Of Abdullah KhanRevolts of Uzbeg Chiefs Monstrous act of Khwajah Mu'azzam Akbar and the Rajputs Matrimonial alliancesCareers opened to Rajputs and other Hindus Freedom of worship and liberty of conscience Social reforms Effects of above measures Akbar and^thfe Portuguese First P. Mission Second P. Mission Third P. Mission Akbar's *
object
...
...
...
.
jSp. 71-91.
CONTENDS CHAPTER VI-JALAL-UD-DIN
XV
MUHAMMAD AKEAR
2
Territorial Annexations
Early Conquests Gondwana Mewar GujaratBengal -The Qaqshal rebellion in Bengal Kabul- Akbar's North-West Frontier Policy The Roshanite MovementConquest of Kashmir Of Sind and Balochistan Of Qandhar The Deccan Campaign Ahmadnagar Khandesh Extent of the Mughal Empire under Akbar Last days of
Introductory
Akbar
..7"
CHAPTER VII
...
...
JALAL-UD DIN
...
pp. 92-113
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
3
The Din-i-Ilahi Reference to the history of t s.e Saracens To the Muslim Rule in India Akbar's orthodoxyhistory into liberalism Erection of .he Ibadat Khanah-Change The Document Its importance Its effects Preliminaries to the promulgation of the Divine Faith T ts promulgation Anti-Islamic ordiIts principles Its philosophic review
Introductory
of
nancesTheir criticism Von Noer's appraisal of Badaoni, the author of the ordinances -Si; dah or prostration Fireworship and sun-worship Why were boars kept in the
Women in the I mperial Harem Hindu and practices -Why was slaughter of cows forbidden ? Why were Mullahs and Shaikhs exiled? Criticism of Smith's views on Akbar's religious thoughtsImperial Palace?
customs
Conclusion
CHAPTER VIII
...
...
...
JALAL-UD-DIN
...pp. 114-140
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
4
Administration
Introductory
Central
Government
District Administration
Provincial
Imperial Service
Administration of law and justice
tionPostal
Service
Means
of
GovernmentSecret Service
Promotion of educacommunication and
transportation Imperial Mints and their administration Police Force Land Revenue System Its broad basis Its importance Military Reforms -Infantry Artillery-
Cavalry Navy Eleohant Corps Mansabdarl SystemSystem of Payment System of branding horses and keeping dsscrip the rolls
.
...
...
pp. 141-61
CONTENTS
xvi
CHAPIER IX
JALAL-UD DIN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
5
Literature ancfFine Arts
Introductory Literature: Akbarnamah Its historical importance Ain-i-Akbarl Tarikh-i-Alfi Other books Translated versions Hindu literature Illustrated versions Muslim Court-Scholars Abdul Fazl Abul Faiz-Shaikh Mubarak Abdur Rahim Abul Path Other Muslim Court-
ScholarsSome Hindu Court-Scholars Todar Mai
Blr
Other Hindu Scholars Tulsi Das Sur Das Painting Mughal School of Painting Progress of Painting Prominent Painters Art of Music Some musical instruments Hindu-Muslim intercourse through music Calligraphy ... pp. 162-79 Architecture (Jardenr Estimate of Akbar
Bal
CHAPTER
X NOR-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR
1
Accession of Jahanglr Dastur-ul-Amal First Nauroz Khusrau's revolt Execution of Guru Arjan Loss of Qandhar
Subjugation of Mewar The Deccan Malik An.bar Subsequent Ahmadnagar career of Prince Khusrau His character Rebellion of Usman in Bengal Outbreak of the bubonic plague Nur JahSn Mehr-un-Nisa married to AH Quiz Istajlu or Suer Afgan Murder of Sher Afgan Mas the murder premeditated and whether Jahanglr had a hand in it ? Jahanglr marries Mehr-un-Nisa Nur Jahan's accomplishments Her valour Power behind the throne 'Her influence on
Conquest of Kangra
Campaign
4
Her character Rebellion of Shah Jahan Of Mahabat Khan Shah Jahan's subsequent % movements War of Succession Close of Nur Jahan's career, pp. 179-206 the State
CHAPTER XI
NOR-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR-2
Introductory Jahangir's relations with the Portuguese With the English William Hawkins and William Bdwardes Sir Thomas Roe Foreign accounts of Jahangir's reign and their veracity Roe's description of Mughal Court and its customs His description of Jahangir's personal -character State of Fine Arts Hawkins's account Administration
under Jahanglr His love of letters Literary Jems of his Court Promotion of Education Fine Arts: Painting
CONTENTS
XV it
Painters under the Imperial patronage ArchitectureMusic -Gardens Chancter of Jahangir His love for Nur Jah5n and his affection for his relatives -His refined tastes His religious beliefs- His estimate ... pp. 207-22.
CHAPTER XII
MUHAMMAD SHAH
SHAHAB-UD-DIN
JAHAN-1 Accession of Shah Jahan His early acts - Rebellion of Bundelas under Johar Singh Revolt of Khan Jahan Lodhi -Celebration of Nauroz
Famine
of 1630-32
Shah Jahan and the
Portuguese The Portuguese War- Career of MumtSz Mahal- Her character Shah Jahan's Deccan Policy War against Ahmadnagar Further operations in the Deccan
War against
Bijapur Subjugation of Colconda and BijSpur Shah Jahan's Central Asian Policy and his attempts to acquire his ancestral possessions -Recovery of QandhSr Conquest of Balkh and BadakhshSn-Loss of Qandhar and failure to recover it Failure of Shah Jah&ii's Central Asian Policy and its results Early career of Aurangzeb His resignation and renunciation of the world His appointment to the governorships of different provinces His second viceroyalty of the Deccan and administrative achievements His forward policy against the Deccan War against Golconda War against Ahmadnagar. pp. 222-53.
CHAPTER XIIl-SHAHAB-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD SHAH
JAHAN -2 War and its genesis Sons of ShSh Jahan and their character-sketchesDivision of the Empire -Mughal tradition of kingship recognises no kinship 'Illness of the Emperor and nomination of Daraas his successor Absence of the law of succession Da ra's behaviour during the
Fratricidal
'
of his father Alliance Movements
illness
Weakness of
the
of
three
Shah Jahan- Triple Princes*- Bat tie
of
BahSdurgarh- Battle of Dharmat- Battle of SSmGgarh Fate of Shah JahSn Fate of Murad Fate of Shuja' Dara's last stand and his tragic end Fate of Sulaiman Shikoh and of other Poyal Princes Motives which actuated Aurangzeb to enter the Fratricidal War Causes of his success in it Ali Mardan KhSn Asaf KhSn Allama
CONTENTS
XV111
Saadullah KhanShah Jahan's administration Progress of Fine Arts under his patronage -Architecture -Painting Music - Gardens - Shah Janan's philomathy - Literary Gems of his Court Promotion of learning -Character and estimate of Shah Jahan ... ... ...pp.25480.
CHAPTER XtV-MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB
ALAMGIR-1 haily Acts
Afghans
Hindus
Rajputs
Accession of Aurangzeb-His early acts -Appointments and of provincial governors -Career of Mir Jumla transfejs Expedition against Assam and his death Conquest of Chittagong Illness of Auraggzeb- North- West FrontierSuppression of*Yusafz;fiis-Afridi Rising Khattak Rising and arrest of Khush-hal Khan Khattak -Close of the Afghan War 'Alamgir and the HindQs -Re-imposition of the Jizia Dismissal of Hindu officials Destruction of temples Firman issued to the Governor of Benares for the protection of temples Two more similar Fir mans Which temples were destroyed and why? -Whether Hindu schools were destroyed ?- If so, which and why ? Toleration under 'Alamgir Some inferences drawn from the above discussion 'Alamgir justified -Jat rebellion -The Satnaims' Insurrection-War with the Rajputs -Invasion of Marwar and Mewar Rebellion of Prince Muhammad Akbar -Treaty of Udaipur- Results of the Rajput Revolt ...pp. 281-314.
CHAPTER
XV MUHI-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB 'ALAMGIR-2 Rise of the Marhattas
Introductory -Description
of
Maharashtra
Character
and
qualities of Marhattas Their religion Their early training Rise of the Bhonsla Family Sljahj.1 Bhonsla-; Early life of Shivajt His robberies -Seizure and release of his father '
Massacre at Javli -Renewal of hostilities Afzal Kha n s meeting with Shivajl Rout of Afzal Khan's army -Treachery of SJjivajl- Rapid Progress pf Marhatta arms-Shivaji attacked from three sides Shivajl as an independent ruler Shivajl
and Shaista
Khan Sack
of
SQraU-Shivaji's
CONTENTS
xix
assumption of independent sovereignty His submission to the Emperor -Treaty of Purandhar-His visit to the Imperial Capital Was the honour conferred upon him by 'Alamglr below his dignity? His escape from captivity with the connivance of Rajah Ram Singh -Recall of Jai Singh and his death Shivajl styles himself Rajah -He exacts Chauth and Suredeskmukhi from Bijapur and Golconda Renewal of hostilities and sack of Sffrat for the second time Coronation of Shiva jl His further conquests Erttent of his Kingdom His Civil Administration Ad-
Kingdom Administration of The Land Revenue System -Military organization Shiv&ji's Fleet An estimate of his character and achieve-
ministrative Divisions of his Justice
ments
...
...
CHAPTER XVI-MUHI-UD-DIN
...
...
pp. 315-47.
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB
ALAMGIR-3 Conquest of Bijcipur and
GolcondaEnd
Suppression of the Sikhs
of
Marhatta Menace
Anglo-Mughal Administration under ^Alamgir
War
Fall of Bijapur Fall of Golconda Abdur-Razof Impolicy of the Deccan Conquest - Renewal activities against the Marhattas- Rajah Ram as regent and as Rajah - Expedition against him Tara Bai as regent of
Introductory
zSq
III -End of 'Alamglr- Mughal Empire aftei death-Rise of the Sikhs-Guru Nanak Dev-Guru Angad Dev GurQ Amar Das -GurG Ram Das-Guru Arjan Dev Guru Har Govind Guru Har RaiGuru Har Kishan Guru Tegh Bahadur -Guru Govind Singh His reforms Suppression of the Sikhs 'Alamglr and the English Early English settlements in India Anglo-Moghal War under Extent of 'Alamgir's Empire Administration Alamglr -Re-arrangement of the Subahs -Theocratic Character of the Government Suppression of Public Immorality -Bait-ul-Mal -Policy of Over-centralizationjustice Progress of Education -Architecture -Music and Painting Gardens -Character of 'Alamglr -Views of some Europears about his character and achievements ... pp. 347-78.
her son, Shivajl his
*
CONTENTS
XX
CHAPTER
XVII-RETROSPECT
Mughal Culture and. Civilization Introductory -Political
Features:
Law
of
Succession
Mughal
Functions of the Mughal GovernMonarchy and Administrative Divisions Administration mentMethods of Administration of Justice Taxation Police OrganizationSecret Service Postal Service Art and ArchitectureEducationWas Muslim Rule in India a Rule of Foreigners ? Are Muslims Foreigners ? Socia/ Features: its
nature
Cultural Unity of India during the Muslim Rule -Muslim Society and the Sources of its Strength -Splendour of the Mughal Court Male Dress Female Dress Personal DecorationAmusements -Status of Women Slavery Religious Features tion, its
:
causes
Extraordinary Increase in Muslim PopulaIslam vs. Hinduism Spirit of Freedom-
Worth of Muslim Faith, Examples of Muslim Economic Advantages Virility of Muslim Races 'No Compulsion in Religion' Forces that brought about a modus vivendi between Islam and Hinduism Rise of the Bhakti Movement Influence of Islam on Indian Religious Life and Thought Two Royal Houses of Islam in IndiaRevenue System Economic Features: Agriculture Land and its Working Was the land Avenue exorbitant? Farmer of Akbar's time and his brother of to-day comparedFamine Relief Textile Industries Foreign Trade Ship-building- Currency System Means of Communication and Transportation Condition of the People -Relations between Hindus and Muslims - Conclusion pp, 379-412. Intrinsic
Saints
... BIBLIOGRAPHY Addendum on Babar's Death ... INDEX ...
...
...
...
...
...
...
pp. 413-18, .,.
419-20.
PR- 421
ff.
INTRODUCTION The period of the Moghal rule in India is the most interesting period in the history of our country and furnishes a highly fascinating subject of study. Students of Indian history owe a debt of gratitude to Mr. S. M. Jaffar of Peshawar for his book, which 1
*
The Moghal Empire and Babar coming down to
gives a very readable account of
opening with the reign 01* Aurangzeb. Mr. Jaffar has
taken
,
great
pains
to
study the numerous books on the subject that are available in English, Persian and Urdu, and has beautifully
them.
summarised the material
The long
list
of books
used or
contained
in
consulted
by
him, given at the end of his valuable work, will show the range of his wide study and research. The result
from and decidedly treatment and superior style to the existing textbooks on Indian history. The author, as an enlightened Muslim, is naturally in sympathy with the Great Moghal Rulers who professed the faith of Islam and is
a book considerably different in
Succeeded in
Empire
in
a
vast and wonderful establishing a country to which the Founder of the
came
an invader from his Central* Asian home. Mr. Jaffar does not conceal his admiration for the Moghals, yet he is not forgetful of his duty as an historian and comes out with frank criticisms of the -policies and administrations of the
dynasty
originally
Emperors whose reigns
as
are described
by him.
INTRODUCTION
XXli
refreshing to note that the author has not confined his attention to the events of the period It is
with which he
concerned, or to the dates of those These details may be important in themevents. selves, but they are, after all, rightly called the dry is
bones of history. He has clothed the dry bones with flesh and blood and colour by dealing with the many aspects of the social in arts
and
these
vital
of the people, their progress the effect of each reign on
life
and
letters
things.
I
am
sure
that this part of his appreciated by his readers. I
be very much think it is time *hat this line of study in history be developed to the fullest extent possible. I know that
effort will
the
materials
are comparatively meagre and it and collected with great research
for
have to be sifted
the heaps of rubbish, in which they are lying The work, however, is worth doing, and scattered. Mr. Jaffar is one of those who recognize its value and
out of
have tried to accomplish it. He has already contributed very substanthlly to this neglected field of Indian history by writing two other well-documented books, one another on
India
*
9
Muslim India and Some Cultural Aspects of Must im Rule in on 'Education
in
9 .
While dealing with the Muslim point of view and trying to explain the actions of Moghal Emperors, which have been adversely criticised by sorrie modern historians,
Mr. Jaffar does
not
the
general Indian point of view, and he brings out the contribution made by Moghal Rulers of India to Indian culture and to
the fusion
of
ignore
Hindu and Muslim
INTRODUCTION cultures into one
following remarks
common of his
are very interesting
For instance, the
heritage.
about the Emperor Jahftngir
:
"
Like his father, he loved to hear Hindi songs and took delight in patronising Hindi poets. He loved fine arts and encouraged their cultivation. Born in India and of Indian parents, Jahangir loved things Indian and felt delighted in Indian environments." In
another place, the author, while describing the progress made by education during the Moghal
makes the following observat ons It may be mentioned here that in the schools and colleges founded by the Moghal Emperors and others, :
Period,
:
14
Hindu students studied side by side Muslim class-fellows and there was no
with
their
restriction in
this or in
any other respect." Another passage that may be cited to
illustrate the
importance attached by Mr. Jaffar to the efforts of the
Moghals to develop a common nationality in India, runs as follows " Aibak, the first King of the Sultanate of Delhi, and Bsbar, the first King of the Moghal Empire, came :
from foreign lands, no doubt, but they settled down
made it their permanent home, country, identified themselves with the interests of the country, and ruled it rather as Indians than as foreigners. ih
this
Their successors were born
and died inch.
in
India.
They came
Aryans, who
too
in India, lived in India
Thus they were Indian every
as foreigners indeed, but
wre
themselves on the Indian
the
they engrafted sucked into their veins
foreigners, soil,
like
INTRODUCTION
XXIV
the Indian sap, nurtured themselves under the warmth the Indian sun and conditioned their growth, multiplication and expansion under the Indian climate.
of
So with the march
of
time they became with each
V
'
succeeding generation, of the earth earthy Mr. Besides the special features of excellent
many
Jaffar's
referred to above, there
book, briefly other features, equally
attractive,
are
which need
not be dilated upon here and will be better appreciated by the reader when perusing the book itself. I think it
can be safely s&A thaj the 'author has succeeded in giving to the students of Indian history an accurate as well
as
India in
an instructive account of the Moghal rule in its palmy days. The book is a most useful
contribution to Indian historical literature and should interest not only the general reader,
of Indian history in schools
London, 20th December, 1935.
and
but also students
colleges.
ABDUL QADIR.
CHAPTER
I
PRELIMINARY and the Forces that produced Modern India.
Sources of Information
The main
information about the
of our
sources
Mughal Period
may
classed as follows records,
such
:
conveniently
be
~^ contemporary
as imperial
firmans,
despatches and diaries (whether military or diplomatic) sent to and received from the provincial official reports,
others by the Central Government governors and through the agency of news-writers and secret reporters ;
narratives reduced to writing by the participators in the acts arid events from memory after their termination, (2)
or set
down by
their lips
Taimuri,
;
(3)
others
who
imperial
learnt
about them from
autobiographies
and
Tuzk-i-Bdbari
Malfilznt-i-
Tuzk-i-Jahanglri
written either by the Mughal Emperors themselves, or by their court-scholars under their own direction ; (4) court
journals,
such
as
ndmdh and 'Alamglrndmah, Abul Hamld Fazl, Abdul
Akbarndmdh, Bddsliahby Munshi
written, respectively,
and
Lahori
Muhammad Kazim, the best writers of Persian prose, to whom the otherwise inaccessible archives of the State were thrown open for inspection and information ; Von Noer, (5) accounts of foreign travellers, i. e. De Laet, Coryat, Niccolao Manucci, Bernier and t
Taverniei,
who
visited
India
during
that
period
;
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
2 (6)
impressions of English ambassadors, viz., Roe, Terry
and Hawkins, who represented England Court of
in
the reign of
Portuguese
and
others,
Emperor Jahanglr
missionaries,
who
such as
of
(7)
;
Mughal accounts
Monserrat, the Mughal
i.e.,
resided
tazkirds and tdrilchs
(8)
at the
at
later
Muslim
Xavier
Court;
chroniclers,
Muhammad
Qasim's Tdri}&-i-Ferishtii, Khafi Khan's MuntaKhib-iil-Lubab, Kamwar Khan's Tazkirat-
us-Saldtin-i-Chaghtdid and Sayyad Gbularn Hussain's Siyar-ul-Mutd'akhMiirln. Documents of the
first
kind are by far the most
important and
.
raw materials
reliable
a comprehensive constructing of the Mughal Period. Unhistory
for
authenticity.
fortunately, however, very few of them have come down to us, most of them having perished during
the Mutiny of 1857. Of the surviving few, some are to be seen in the libraries of Europe, whither they
and ^ome
travelled after having escaped,
of
Indian
States
and ancient
are not easily accessible to
concerns
himself
relating to the
with the
a
families,
modern
elucidation
Mughal draw almost Period,
and he
in possession
so
that they historian who of
any topic
consequently, the exclusively upon Those of the second remaining sources of information. type also contain some rich stores of information, but constrained
they
to
must be subjected
to
the
is,
correction
of
errors
and the elimination of the mere hearsay. Whereas the information we derive from the imperial autobiographies, court journals and other works written by the proteges of the ruling princes may be regarded as one-sided,
PRELIMINARY only the
giving
3
of the
bright side
picture;
that
we
receive from the accounts of foreign travellers, English
ambassadors and Portuguese missionaries paints mostly The tazkiras and t&rilchs were written the dark side.
by writers who did not keep regular diaries and had little access to official records and State papers. Therefore, the accuracy of their contents must needs be
come
called in question should they
into
conflict with
the other sources of information, though they were often unbiased and free from flattery, distortion and timid suppression of facts.
And,
it
is
not seldom
that the
accounts of contemporary chroniclers come into conflict. This is because, on the one hand, they were written by flattering friends for the eyes
and
ears of their imperial
patrons who raised them above want, even and on the other hand, by hostile critics
Court
not
did
actively
patronize,
to affluence,
whom took
nor
the into
confidence.
Thus, though there Distortion
from
historian
fiction,
with patience and together in such a for
for writing
to
sift
evidence,
separate
brush aside the cobwebs of history industry,
way
as to
recount, for history ceases distorted
ample material
a comprehensive history of the period in question, it is the duty of the
and
wrong juxtaposition of facts. facts
is
ulterior
aims
and piece the material give an unsophisticated
to be
and
history
are
if
facts
juxtaposed
are in
such a way as to present a melancholy picture and an historian ceases to be historian if he writes history ;
money. A glaring instance of and wrong juxtaposition of facts is found
for the sordid love of
distortion
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
4 in the case of
Akbar who has Jbeen branded
as apostate
from Islam.
Chapter VII (The Divine Faith) is devoted to a discussion on the subject and it will be evident that the charge of apostasy is a mere calumny concocted to create an aversion against the greatest ruler of India. Another such instance is found in the case of Aurangzeb
who
is
Hindu
alleged
subjects
imposing
to
have
alienated the
by destroying their temples, by reand by introducing a number of
XIV
the case was quite the contrary
that
who
his
the Jizid
Chapter
repressive
loyalty of
measures.
alienated
destroying
sympathies of
tiie
by
mosques,
show that was the Hindus
will it
their
sovereign
by
women
Muslim
marrying
by force and by defying the authority of the Emperor It was after the Hindus in league with his enemies.
had of
destroyed
Muslim
the
outraged
mosques,
women
and
created
modesty
disturbances
in
the Empire that the Emperor ordered the destruction of those temples that had been built on the sites of
mosques, those that had been newly built and those that
had become centres
of sedition
Before entering
Mughals
Modern India and the forces that produced
upon
the
it
political intrigue.
history
of
the
seems necessary
Great
to give
a
account of the forces that laid
brief it.
and
the
f
oun dation
Modern
of
India, for
the interest of Indian history from the beginning of the sixteenth century to the dawn of the present day will be found in the development of these forces. Referring to the fifteenth century in India, Professor Rushbrook-
Williams remarks that
'
beneath
the elements from which,
all
the apparent chaos,
in future,
modern
political
PRELIMINARY society will
be constructed,
5
are slowly
moment comes
when they dominant and incontrovertible/ The first until the
was
the
Religious
Revival
the
;
taking rise
view,
of these forces
second
was
by Vasco da
Discovery of the Sea-route to India
shape,
in
the
Gama
1498 A. C. and the appearance of European nations on the stage of Indian history; and the third was the Advent of the Great Mughals and the foundation of in
the
Mughal Empire in India. With the establishment of the Muslim Empire in India, Islam became supreme and it Religious launched upon a new career of conRevival ,
version.
Some
adversely affected.
As a
result,
Hinduism was
attracted by the teachings of the
Muslim Faith, others actuated by economic advantages, went over to the religion of their rulers. For full five centuries
this state of affairs
continued
uninterrupted, into
mass
movements, there arose in this country a host of
Hindu
bvt
when conversions
who made The method
religious reformers their lost sheep.
their result
were
accelerated
earnest efforts to recover
they adopted to achieve reconciliation with Islam and the
object was was the Bhakti
Movement,
which preached the
God and
propagated the principles of liberty^ Thus, while the Reformation equality and fraternity. unity of
was revolutionizing the religious life of Europe, the Bhakti Movement analogous to the Reformation Movement was on foot in India. Maharashtra and the
Punjab were immensely influenced by
it
:
In the former
gave rise to the Marhatta Power, which reached climax under the leadership of Shivajl; in the latter it
its it
THE MRJGHAL EMPIRE
6
established the sovereignty of the Sikhs
became supreme under the sTv&y The second, in the scheme Discovery of the Sea-rouie to India.
who
subsequently
of Ranjit Singh. of chronology,
Discovery of the
was the India
Sea-route to
and the appearance of the Portuguese, and the the French
the Dutch,
To the the stage of Indian history. diadems a where India seemed second Peru, Portuguese, of the Princes from the brows torn be nay might on
English
another new world for conquest and conversion to the Dutch, she looked like a large market, which afforded ;
a
favourable
for
field
ambitious
enterprise;
to
the
French, she was a big theatre for lucrative intrigue, where they could reap a rich harvest of gains and fame ; to the English, she was an emporium, which offered untold trade
scramble
In the
facilities.
that
followed
these four European rivals, the English, whose less showy but more sure and successful,
among
methods were
proved to be the remaining
three.
fittest
It is
and,
therefore,
survived
the
the second force, therefore, that
changed the course of India's future history and made her what she is to-day -an integral part of the British Empire.
To
.
Muslim
the student of
neither the
Advent
of the
.
.
.
first .
force.
of the
consolidated
his
it is
.
most important
Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodhi
plain of Panipat in
the foundation
however,
nor the second but the
f
third that stnkes as the
Great Mughals. at the historic
.
history,
1526 A. C. and
laid
Mughal Empire in India. His Akbar the grandson, Great, nut only enlarged and heritage
but
constructed
that
PRELIMINARY and
7
system which gave a definite form and cohesion to the Mughal Sovereignty. By peaceful methods and beneficial legislation, by reconciliation administrative
and universal
toleration,
the
proved
successors,
to the
His peaceful policy,
Rule.
Mughal
he won over the discontented
and reconciled them
natives to his side
the
fiscal
corner-stone
Empire and contributed incalculably
ideas of
pursued by his of
the
Mughal
its
strength and
of these forces cannot
be overstat-
to
stability
The importance -
.
Importance of the three forces.
...
of
dawn
of a
ed.
Though none
an y
notice in
heralded the
ushered in the
the
them
attracted
beginning,
new
era
they
which
Marhattas. the Sikhs and
Mughals, the
the Europeans, who abandoned their respective vocations and entered upon a struggle for the throne of India. The Mughals were the first, in order of time, to establish their
and
successors the Marhattas
transformed
utmost
into
warlike
to extirpate
They
ate into
much
so
towards
During the reign of Shah Jahan and the Sikhs were
in India.
sway his
that
the
Islam
races
from India
the vitality of the it
was
end
easily
of
and they
tried their
root and branch.
Mughal Empire, so
supplanted by the English
the
The century. of Maharashtra and the
eighteenth
Marhattas became the masters
Sikhs established their supremacy in the Punjab. latter were deists.
former were farmers and the
The The
teachings of their leaders, coupled with the conditions of the country and the circumstances of the age, turned
them
into
politics.
warrior:;
end drove them into the vortex of
The obvious
result
was that the
tables
were
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
8
turned
:
men
farms became
men
of arms,
monks and
became soldiers *&nd statesmen, and the became the rulers of India under the East India
mendicants traders
of
Company.
CHAPTER
II
MUHAMMAD BABAR
ZAHlR-UD-DIN
(1526-1530 A.
The most
brilliant period
solicitation
^-,
Babar of
in
begins
history
Introductory.
C.)
,
who the
Ala-ud-DIn,
the annals of Indian
advent
with the
.
,
,.
,
invaded uncle
the
of
of
on the
Indii
ruling
prince Ibrahim Lodhi, and Drulat Khan Lodhi, the Governor of the Punjab, and laid the foundation of the
The
which Babar defeated Ibrahim Lodhi, marked the beginning
Mughal Empire. of a for
first
battle of Panlpat, in
new
era in the history of India.
the
Great
and make
country
at
victory
Mughals
Mughal
Dynasty,
illustrious
it
uome and
to
their
Panipat meant
which
It
settle
in
this
The
permanent abode. the
establishment a
furnished
sovereigns under
paved the way
whom
line
India
of the
of
those
reached
the
pinnacle of her greatness and the apex of her fortunes. Rich in useful institutions and fruitful ideas, the for the Mughal Imperialism was extremely favourable efflorescence of fine arts and the development of It will be seen that during the learning and literature. two centuries of the Mughal Rule the Imperial Court was a bee- hive of poets and painters, historians and
and dancers, engineers and died of nay a hot-house where nothing
philosophers, architects rhilly
musicians
indifference.
successful cultivation
What
gave such
a ?pur
to their
was the Imperial patronage, which
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
10
was no longer the monopoly of the favoured few, but extended to all and sundry wkhout stint.
We Why
is
may now
Babar
to
the
victorious at
the
where
Mughal Dynasty so called
return
?
whom we
plain of
left
Panipat,
had
Ibrahim Lodhi
Sultan
for
fallen fighting
The
his throne.
victor claimed descent from Taimur on his father's side and from Chingiz Khan on his mother's side. He
thus united in his veins the blood of two great warriors of Central Asia
and combined
in
his person,
com-
in
mensurate propo'tion, the courage of a nomad Tartar and the urbanity of a cultured Persian. Babar was not a Mughal.
In his Memoirs he
speaks contemptuously himself a Turk. Therefore, it
Mughals and seems strange that the dynasty he founded should have An explanation been known as the Mughal Dynasty. for this may be found in the fact that the people of the
calls
of India used to call
all
Musalmfm
invaders, excepting
Afghans, Mugjhals, and hence the name of the dynasty. Babar surnamed Zahlr-ud-Din Muhammad, on born was 'the Brave', Friday, the BSbar's early 24th day of February> 1 483 A C .
career
'
His
father,
.
Umar Shaikh Mirza, was
the ruler of Farghana, a fragment of Taimur's Central Asian Empire. At the age of eleven his father passed
away and he was
called
upon
to succeed
him
to his
His succession was an eyesore to his small kingdom. uncles and cousins, one of whom attacked him soon after
he was enthroned, and others continued -to
against him
Ahmad
to the last
Mirza,
who
day
of tbeif
contested
his
plot
Fortunately, supcessioq in the
life.
ZAHIR-UD-D1N MU7 T AMMAD BABAR
11
year of his reign, died a year afterwards, leaving anarchy and confusion to rule in Samarqand. Availing first
himself of
from
himself
Farghana, occupied Samarqand and on the throne of his great ancestor,
He, however,
at the early age of fifteen.
Taimur, in
moment, Babar advanced
opportune
his native
seated
ill
this
his
new
absence and
fell
Taking advantage of his ambitious minister set up on the
possession.
illness, his
throne of Farghana Babar's younger brother Jahangir, was dead. Post-haste he giving out that Babar marched from Samarqand on his recovery to take back
Farghana.
Soon
after his departure,
Samarqand was
In 1498 A. C. he was no occupied by his cousin, Ali. was His Khojend, a small town king. only possession He recovered between Farghana and Samarqand.
Farghana in 1499 A. C. and Samarqand the following But the Uzbegs would not allow him to rule in year. peace. in
Defeated
1501 A.
C.,
in a highly contested battle at
he succeeded
its
saving his
Samarqand was
greatest difficulty.
followed
in
lost
life
Archian
with the
and Farghana
suit soon after.
All prospects being thus extinguished,
Babar bid a
sad farewell to his beloved
Conquest
and
of Kabul.
__.
,
-
.
.
Hindukush
the
m .
Farghana
uc k beyond icno A r 1502 A. C.
out to try ^{3
set
i
he was given to understand that his uncle's kingdom was in an anarchical state and that a strong party of the nobles was
While he was on
his
way
to Kabul,
of the willing to restore the throne to a prince
royal
appropriately be It was called the ami us mirablis of Babar's career: blood.
The year 1504
A.
C.
may
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
12 in
this
year
that
he
overthrew
The conquest
occupied Kabul.
of
the Afghans and Kabul enabled him
Qandhar, Herat and Badakhshan. All this emboldened him to make a bid for Samarqand, the In 1513 A. C. he capital of his ancestor, Taimur. made an alliance with the Shah of Persia and conquered to conquer
Bokhara and Samarqand. Notwithstanding all these The successes, his position was as precarious as ever.
Uzbegs would not allow him to rule in rest. His conformity to the Athna-i-AIiarya (SMa Faith) in his treaty with the Persian Monarch annoyed his Sunni subjects and alienated them from him. The the feelings of the people and Within a successfully fished in the troubled waters. him from his dominions one short time they ousted
Uzbegs
fully exploited
drove him, from post to pillar and pillar to post, and reduced him to such straits that he decided at last to seek his fortune in the east rather than in th? after the other,
west.
The
battle
of
was preceded
Panipat
by some
His early
preliminary attempts at the conquest
attempts to conquer India.
of India.
was made occupied Qbaznin and raided second attempt was made
The
first
of these attempts
150 5 A. C.
V hen
Babar
as far as the Indus.
The
in
in
1519 A.
C.
It
was,
The followhowever, confined to the borders of India. ing year our trans-border hero crossed the Indus and marched called his
into the interior of India; but he
back to Kabul to
old
attempts
enemies,
convinced
the
was soon
meet a combined attack of Uzbegs. L These preliminary
him that he could not conquer
MUHAMMAD BABAR
ZAHIR-UD-DIN
13
So India without strengthening his base at Qandhar. he seized Qandhar from the Arghuns and organised Next he established his of defence. it in a state Khurasan
The Political
the
over
authority
between
in order to facilitate the
Ghaznin
and
conquest of India.
political condition of India on the eve of Babar's invasion was terribly deplorable,
Northern
condition of India on the eve
was
India
seething with
discontent and dissensions.
of his invasion.
in
territory
Lodhi>
1517 A. C. and
ft
capable
ru l er
,
Sikandar
had
died
Ibiahim Lodhi, had His misgovernment and
his stupid s^n,
mounted the throne
of Delhi.
his own kith and kin. arrogant behaviour had estranged His ill-treatment had disgusted the Afgtpn nobles who
him. Bengal against other and provinces outlying Jaunpur, Malwa, Gujarat, had all become independent. The eastern districts of
formed
secret
conspiracies
up arms against him. Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of the Punjab and
Cudh and
Bihar
uncle
Ala-ud-DIn, prince
ruling
and
had
taken
of
Ibrahim,
invited
Babar
revolted against
the
to relieve India of the
Rana Sanghram, or Rana Sangha, as he is known in history, also made overtures to the King of Kabul and asked him to intervene. No more opportune moment could be desired.
tyrant.
Babar's invasion First Battle of
timed.
^M* Panipat: 1526. .
,.
In
prepared.
was
weak and
divided.
Babar was strong, determined 1524 A. C. he set out on his
He
well-
,
and final
followed his previous route and reached Finding Daulat Khan in the train of Ibrahim
expedition.
Lahore.
India was
of India
THE MLGHAL EMPIRE
14
Lodhi, he returned to Kabul
army
there
and then
in order to reinforce his
Towards the end
to attack India.
1525 A. C. he attacked Daulat Khan, over-ran the Punjab and thence advanced towards Delhi via Sarhind. Ibrahim Lodhi gathered together his forces of
and came out of Agra invader.
oppose the advance of the The two armies met each other on the plain
of Panipat in the
to
month
of April,
1526 A. C. Babar
army of 12,000 strong against the assaults of his enemy by surrounding it with wagons chained Ibrahim's together, and a hedge ard a ditch around it. protected his
army, consisting of 100,000 strong, far outnumbered that but the latter had the decided advantage
of the invader
;
a well-trained
of artillery.
set of troops and a good park In the battle that followed, Ibrahim Lodhi
fell
on the
of possessing
fighting
field*
and
his
army was
routed.
Delhi and Agra fell into the hands of the invader, who was hailed as the 'Emperor of India' by the people of On Friday, Aprilt 22, 1526 A. C. the capital cities. the public prayer was said in the capital mosque at Delhi in the name of the new emperor. The first
an end to the Afghan rule and Mughal rule instead. It clowned the career of Babar and gave India a series of capable battle of Panipat put
introduced the
rulers.
The
victory at. Panlpat
Babar's difficulties
made Babar
the King
TT^J
*
after the battle.
of
Delhi, not yet of Hindustan, much i, f T 1.1 e had less of Indla as a wh le
^
surmount. His no were means by Afghan rivals, though defeated, subjugated ; though crippled they were 'not cofnpletely several difficulties to
ZAHIR-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD BABAR
Some
of them still held out and defied the authority strongholds
crushed.
15
in their provincial
of the
Emperor.
The
people were opposed to the change of the dynasty. They hated the Mughal Emperor and regarded him as a
usurper.
They
preferred
a
tyrant to
an outsider.
Babar's position was, therefore, critical, more so when own followers deserted him and retreated to their
his
original
homes.
considerably told
The
the country had
trying heat of
upon
their health
and they requested
Babfir had not, however, invaded India with the ideas of Taimu^: he had come to stay He made a soul-stirring speech and revived the there. their leader to return.
spirits of
He
his soldiers.
them
toid
kingdom which had cost so much wrested from him except by death'.
that
plainly
should
not
Accordingly, he
his determination
issued a proclamation, expressing
'a
be
to
He granted leave to such of his soldiers stay in India. as preferred safety to glory, telling them that he would keep in his service only those who would reflect honour upon themselves their Padsfaah and their country*.
The proclamation had
the desired effect
:
All
murmurs
ceased and his officers took oaths of allegiance to him. When the Afghans were assured of his intention to stay in India, they also sided with
him and placed them-
selves at his service.
Babar's decision to stay in India was momentous in another way : it opened the eyes ~ His war with _, ^1^.1 of the Rji JP uts to the danger that lay .
.
,
.
the Rajputs.
at;
he had
their door.
His own
chiefs,
whom
with grants oijdgirs, reduced a large part of the country for him. They conquered Bianah, satisfied
THE MdGHAL EMPIRE
16 Gwalior,
and
His
Dholpur.
son,
Humayun,
took
Gbzlpur and Kalpi and annexed
possession of Jaunpur,
He himself remained at Agra, kingdom. thinking out ways and means of conquering the whole It was at that time that the mother of of India. them
to his
Ibrahim Lodhi made an attempt to put an end to his by means of a poison. Had she succeeded in her
life
nefarious plan, India Rana. Sangha or
would have had a
different history.
Rana Sanghram, who had
invited
Babar to attack India, was wrong Battle of
Khamvah with as
,
,
i-i
i
i
think that, like his ancestor, the
1527
much
,
to
new
invader too would plunder and retire When he of booty as he could collect.
learnt of the intention of Babar,
he made preparations
who was now encroaching upon and had some parts of it. The rediiced Rajputana Rana was indeed a worthy member of his famous house. As a prince of great wisdom, valour and virtue,
to resist the invader
he occupied a high position among the Rajput princes of India. The Rajahs of Arnber and Marwar acknowledged supremacy. The princes of Ajmer, Slkri, Raisin, Bundi, Chanderl, Gargaon and Rampura all paid him homage as his feudatories. His idea in inviting Babar his
was
to clear his
own way
to the
throne of India.
He
resources
and was
had
sufficiently strengthened his military
was
at that time the
the premier state.
most powerful prince and
Before his encounter with Babar, he
had already been the hero of a hundred on
his person as
his
many
as eighty scars.
fights
and had
He had
lost
On the llth of a hand, a leg and an eye in actions. Babar advanced out^of Agra February, 1527 A. C.
MUHAMMAD BABAR
ZAHIR-UD-DIN
17
against the Ran& who nad encamped at Sikri, a village His first attack was repelled by the near Fathpur. The defeated detachments took to flight Rajputs.
and caused great consternation among the Mughal At this critical juncture Babar broke his wine armies. vessels and renounced the use of wine for ever. When he called a council of war, he was advised to leave a " What strong garrison at Agra and retire to the Punjab.
Muhammadan
such a
kings of the world say of the fear of death obliged to abandon " was the answer he gave to his kingdom ?
officers
and advisors.
will all the
a monarch
whom
by him
delivered
enthusiasm.
of
His address to his
at that time,
He
called
is
as lull of
together his
followers, interest as
companions
and said: "
Noblemen and
Babar's address to his
and
noblemen
soldiers.
is
take
tion.
his
world.
God
gone>
subject to dissolu-
is
When we
are passed
away and
only survives, unchange-
to the feast of
life
must, before
He who cup the inn of mortality must one day inevitably the departure from that house of sorrow
over,
arrives at
Every man that comes
!
the world
in ^
Whoever comes
able. it
soldiers
drink from
How much
to live with
infamy
the
better
of
is it
death.
to die with honour than
!
With fame, even
if I
am
die, I
contented
;
Let fame be mine, since my body is death's. The Most High God has been propitious to us, and
now placed us in such a crisis, field, we die the death of martyrs
has
rise victorious,
that ;
if
we fall in the we survive, we
if
the avengers of the cause of God.
Let
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
18
with one accord, swear on God's holy word,
us, then,
that none of us will even think of turning his face from this warfare,
that ensues,
nor desert from the battle and slaughter
till
his soul
is
separated from his body."
The melo-dramatic eloquence Defeat of
in
Rana
the
above
Sangha and the
successful
rout of Rajput
intended
in
Holy Qur'an woe. A. M.
On
by
that
on
effect
who
followers,
to stand
Babar embodied a PP eal Was wholl y of
produced the his soldiers and
it
now swore by
their leader
in
weal
the
and
the 16th of March, 1527 A. C. at 9 or 9-30
the battle
began and
raged hotly till evening. the leadership
The powerful Rajput confederacy, under of the redoubtable Rana Sangha, and of the Turkish soldiers,
under the
the
command
remnants of Babar,
came face to face with each other at Khanwah. ~~~~ Towards the end of a well-fought day, the Rajputs gave way. The Rana had a narrow escape. His Here accomplices were, however, captured and slain. that the looses of the Rajputs it should be remembered were almost unprecedented. Among the slain were Hasan Khan MewatI, Rawal Udai Singh Dungarpur and a host of lesser chieftains, who had
in this battle
entered into the Rajput confederacy against Babar.
The
battle of
Importance of the Battle of
Khanwah. Williams
Khanwah
is
indeed one of the decisive
have been fought in India, importance has been beautifully
battles that Its
summed up by in
the
following
Professor Rushbrook-
passage:
'.'In
the
place, the menace of Rajput supremacy which had loomed large before the eyes of Muhammadans in India first
ZAHIR-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD BABAR
few years was removed once
for the last
19
The
for aU.
r
v hich depended so
largely for confederacy, its unity upon the strength and reputation of Mewar, was shattered by a single great defeat, and ceased
powerful
henceforth to be a dominant factor
the politics of Empire of India was in
Hindustan. Secondly, the Mughal Babar had definitely seated soon firmly established. himself upon the throne of Sultan Ibrahim, and the sign
and
seal of his
achievement had been the annihilation of
Sultan Ibrahim's most formidable antagonists. Hitherto, the occupation of Hindustan might have been looked
Babar's career of adventure; upon as a mere episode in but from henceforth it becomes the keynote of his activities for the remainder of his life. His days of wandering in
search
is his,
of
And
it.
career
a fortune
of
fortune
it
which
now
are
and he has but
to
significant of
is
this
battle
passed away: the show himself worthy the new stage in his
marks that never afterwards throne and life upon the Fighting there is, and fighting
does he have to stake his issue of a stricken field. in plenty, to
be done
but
:
fighting for the extension
it is
of his power, for the reduction of rebels, for the ordering
of his kingdom. It it is
is
never fighting for his throne.
And
also significant of Babar's grasp of vital issues that
from henceforth the centre of gravity of from Kabul to Hindustan."
his
power
is
shifted
The Rajput
opposition was
crushed.
Rajputs
The
together
of Chanderi
Hindustan.
but
remnants
gathered
Ma dim Rao for the sovereignty of
crippled
At
first
not yet of the
under
and aspired Babar tried
THE MyGHAL EMPIRE
20
methods
peaceful in lieu
enter
into the
;
offered a jdglr to
but
wfcen
in
had compelled the (Lucknow) and
to
took the
former
Babar
army was defeated by the
received intelligence that his
Afghans, who had
refused
Just at this time
person.
Rao
MedinI
the latter
proposed treaty, the
against him
field
He
:
of Chanderl
taken advantage of his absence and Imperial army to evacuate Lakhnau
to fall back on Kanauj. Such a of have the balance a mere news would upset staggering mediocre, but Babar kept his head cool and pushed
on the siege so
much
of
so
Chanderl witn great care and courage, the garrison was reduced to the
that
hope accompanied by a heroic and These events took yet terrible practice of Jauhar. A. The defeat in C. of Medini Rao and 1528 place traditional forlorn
'
of Chanderl
the capture
A
Rajput confederacy.
the collapse of the
completed
afterwards
little
Rana Sangha, The rebellions
hope of the Rajputs, died. and Babar enjoyed an interim Afghans of peace till the end of 1528 A. C. the
last
were subdued
The Afghans were
but they
defeated,
to resist the
strong enough j j They considered
,,
Battle of the Gogra 1529
to
entertained
They
hopes
created
the
espousing
Mahmud later.
and
At
as he
Babar
cause
of
in
usurper
his
their
and
followers,
own supremacy.
Bihar and Jaunpur by Lodhi's brother,
Ibrahim
Babar sent
approach,
'.
,
his
son, Askari,
against
provinces and himself joined him a his
still
themselves superior
and
reviving
disturbance
Lodhi.
the eastern
of
,,
.
were '
'the
enemy
little
melted away',
advanced through Allahabad to Buxar, on
his
ZAHIR-UD-DIN
way he
the
received
MUHAMMAD BABAR
21
submission
unqualified
of
the
Nusrat Sh^h, the ruler of Bengal, had Afghan entered into a kind of convention with Babar to the chiefs.
effect that
neither
but he
other,
would
not only
attack the set
territories
of the
the convention
aside
by
seizing upon the province of Sasram but also by giving shelter to the fugitive Afghan prince, Mahmud Lodhi.
Bengal, the centre of attacked and occupied.
The
net
_
r
,
that the
,
Afghans,
was
India
was
victories in
were crushed, the
Afghans
.
.
Rajput supremacy
"/as
shattered, the
Mughal Empire was founded, and master of almost the whole of Northern
Babar was the
He
rebellious
result of Babar's
hxtent of Babar's Indian Empire.
India.
the
over
ruled
the
Kabul,
Punjab,
Bengal,
Bihar, Oudh, Gwalior and a large part of Rajputana, His empire extended from the including Mewar.
Himalayas in the north to Gwalior in the south and from the Punjab ir the west to the frontiers of Bengal in the east. He would have increased the extent of his
spared ; but as fate would have it, he died a year after the battle of the Gogra. When in the hot weather of the year 1530 A. C.
empire
if
, * Story of his death. ,
.
illness that
.
,
he
Humayun J
given
such a
away
too
ill,
his father,
Babar, was so much upset by his resolved to sacrifice his own life in order
diamond, known as
seriously ^
to save that of his son. to take
fell
step
His friends
and proposed
Koh-i-Noor, might be but the fond father regarded that
in history
instead
;
poor a price
requested him not that the precious
for
as
the
life
of his
most beloved
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
22
Walking three times round the bed
son.
of his
son,
he prayed to God to transfef the disease of his son to him. So strong was his will-power that he is reported " I have borne it to have said I have borne it away !
"
away
!
From
!
historians,
death last
and
Babar declined his son,
he was perfectly
As
.,
we have
that time,
in health
from the Muslim and succumbed to it
Humayun, began
to recover,
till
at
well.
Padshah, or sovereign-ruler of Hindustan, Babar reigned for less than five
His policy and administration.
y
'
b
hjs
t
administration
during &
was characterised by the same energy, decision and promptness as he had always this period
displayed
in his
military
Grand Trunk Road,
laid
beautiful garden-city with wells and water-courses
exploits.
out his
He
the
restored
capital at
as a
Agra
superb palaces, baths, tanks, ordered
;
the
reparation
of
mosques and other buildings and established guardintervals and houses and post-stations at regular maintained an express letter-mail between Agra and Following the traditions of a personal, distinguished from a bureaucratic administration, Kabul.
as
he
toured throughout his Indian dominions td study their the to internal This state. appealed eventually idiosyncrasies of his Indian
reconciled
them
huhrat-i-'Am entrusted,
in
publication of
and colleges
'.
subjects
Mughal Rule.
The
Department) other duties, with
was
to the ideas of the
(Public
addition
and consequently
Works to
In
'the
and the building many respects Babar accepted the
of schools
a gazette
system of government as
he found
in
vogue
in
those
ZAHIR-UD-DIN MUH/.MMAD BABAR
23
and divided his kingdom into fiefs and assigned them to his officers. The country was still unsettled and the financial deficits were untold. So Professor times,
Rushbrook- Williams seems to be '
just
his
in
remark
monarchy which could be held together only by the continuance of war conditions, which in times of peace was weak, structureless and invertebrate'. But it must be remembered that Babar had no time to introduce new Jaws and that Babar
institutions
bequeathed to
the
in
newly-conquered
what he did during that if he had lived himself
an
his son a
his short reign
longer,
It
he would
administrator.
excellent
From
country.
amply
is
clear
have proved His Wasiyyat
namd-i-majchfi (secret testament) to his son and successor, Humayun, embodies in it his administrative policy,
Humayun and and his Akbar logical by It successors. preaches peace and enjoins tolerance as the motto of Mughal Rule in India, and contains the As a essence of its author's administrative genius. a and document monument of enlightened statesmanship of unique historical interest and importance, it deserves which was scrupulously adopted
carried
to
by
conclusion
its
to be reproduced here.
It reads
:
"GOD BE PRAISED Secret
Babar
testament
Badshah
O my creeds.
the
son
!
stability
The
Zahir-ud-Din to
Gba-zi
Muhammad Humayun. For the
of
Prince
May God of
the
Empire
realm of Hindustan
that
He
Nasir-ud-Dm
prolong his this
is full
Praise be to God, the Righteous,
Highest,
Muhammad life!
is
written.
of
diverse
the Glorious,
hath granted unto thee the
THE MU3HAL EMPIRE
24
Empire "of
It is
it.
but proper that
thou,
with
heart
of all religious bigotry, should dispense justice
cleansed
according to the tenets particular
refrain
from
of
each
the
community.
sacrifice
of
cow,
And
in
for that
the conquest of the hearts of the people of way Hindustan; and the subjects of the realm will, through And the temples and royal favour, be devoted to thee. lies
abodes
of
worship of every community under Imperial should not damage. Dispense justice so
sway, you that the sovereign
may
be happy with the subjects and
likewise the subjects wi*h their sovereign. The progress of Islam is better by the sword of kindness, not by the
sword of oppression Ignore the disputations of Shias and Sunnls ; for therein is the weakness of Islam. And bring together the subjects with differenl beliefs in the manner of the Four Elements, so that the body-politic may be
immune from
the
various
ailments.
And remember
deeds of Hazrat Taimur Sdhib-qirdni (Lord of the conjuction) so that you may become mature in matters the
of
Government
And on First
us
is
but the duty to advise.
Jamadi-ul-Awwal 935
H
llth January,
1529." *
*The original document is in Persian and is treasured in Hamida Library at Bhopal as one of its heirlooms. Sometime ago it was first published in the Twentieth Century oi
the
'
'
Allahabad by Mr. N. C. Mehta, I. C. S. with its English translation with the courtesy of H. H. the Nawab Sahib of Bhopal. It may be pointed out here that Ba bar's message is only one of the numerous Imperial Firmans which were issued from time to time by the Mughal Emperors according to the requirements of the time. Some similar rescripts were issued by Emperor Alamgir, for which, vide Chapter XIV. *
ZAHIR-UD-DIN Babar
MUHAMMAD BABAR
25
surveys the political condition of India on the eve of his invasion and
briefly
His account
dwe
of India.
-
^
,, s
and
also
and ^
r
refers
forms
to
its
geographical
a
however, poor opinion of the evident from the following passage " Hindustan is a country that has few pleasures
features.
He,
people, as
is
to
:
recommend
it.
The
people are not handsome.
have no idea of the charms
of
friendly
They
society, of
frankly mixing together, or of familiar intercourse. They have no genius, no comprehension of mind, no politeness of manner, no kindness or fellow-feeling no ingenuity or mechanical invention in planning or executing their
no skill or knowledge in design or have no horses, no good flesh, no they grapes or musk-melons, no good fruits, no ice or cold water, no good food or bread in their bazars, no baths or handicraft
works,
architecture
;
no candles, no torches, not a candlestick Instead of a candle or torch, you have a gang of dirty fellows, colleges,
whom a
they call divatis, who hold in their left hand kind of small tripod, to the side of one leg of which,
being wooden, they stick a piece of iron like the top of the candlestick; they fasten a pliant wick, of the it
size of the
of in
the
middle In
legs.
finger,
their
by an iron pin, to another right hand they hold a gourd,
which they have made a
hole
for
the
purpose
of
pouring out oil, in a small stream, and whenever the wick requires oil, they supply it from this gourd.
Their
great
men
kept a
hundred or two hundred
of
these divatis."
He
continues
to
add
that
there
were neither
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
26 nor
aqueducts
neither elegance nor regularity
canals,
that the peasants
and the
;
moved about naked,
proletariat
a
wearing only langoti to cover their private parts. He, however, speaks favourably of India's wealth in silver
work
;
there
and gold and says that there was no dearth of that there was abundance of occupations that was flourishing trade ; and that the climate was ;
pleasant during the rainy season.
bered
him
to allow of
Babar's
that
habits.
stay
acquaint
The Mei.wirs .
It contains
the
traditions, their ideas
the autobiography of for him the
'
df
prince of autobiographers
we have of and manly expression.
the best account that
most lucid
among
and
character
the
account of India, particularly bound to be superficial.
referred to are
title
in a
with
Babar, which has earned
His _, Memoirs. TT
himself
Therefore, his
in regard to her people, is
.
must be remem-
was much too short
customs
their
Indians,
and
to
It
in India
style
its
author
It
most precious treasures 9f Indian
.
ranks
historical
has jusHy extorted universal admiration literature. for the simplicity of its language, the sublimity of its but the style, and the authenticity of its contents It
;
charm of
greatest
author's
this
personality.
work and
colours, with all his virtues
the best
biographies
Asia and fancy.
It
will
long retain
presents
temporaries in
of
is
reveals
It
the
in
his
its
true
Fit to rank with
vices.
world,
its
Babar,
the revelation of
Babar it
stands unique in
capture our country-men and con-
fascination to
his
their dress, appearance,
tastes, pursuits,
manners, habits and hobbies as clearly as in a mirror. It gives an exact description of the countries hp visited,
MUHAFMAD BABAR
ZAHIR-UD-DIN their
and above
industry.
All this,
and
impressions of
lively
the
works of krt and
features, productions,
physical
narrative at
its
the shrewd comments
all
breaking in upon reminiscences a
author,
his
give
intervals,
27
permanent and penetrating flavour of a rare order. of Babar a lover fine was great
arts.
Architecture, poetry, painting, music,
gardening and the art of illustrating books with beautiful pictures made considerable progress He himself cultivated these arts under his patronage.
and encouraged those given strong were
his
aesthetic
stormy career he could arts
and
to similar
find
time
a keen
not like the
^
,,
edifices 7
,
.
He
architecture.
in
interest
Architecture.
So
them.
to satiate his thirst for
He had
pursuits.
even during his to devote to these
tastes that
did
he came across ,
,
,
at Delhi and Agra, though he was He formed impressed by the architecture at Gwalior. a poor opinion of native art and skill and therefore
pupils of
imported the talented
from Constantinople to design
architect,
according to his
Memoirs "
own
aesthetic tastes.
writes in his
In Agra alone, and of the stone-cutters belonging
680 persons; and Gwalior and
Koil,
in
day employed on
Agra,
have perished.
mosque
in
my
palaces
Bianah,
Dholpur, there were every day employed on
works 1,491 stone-cutters." Unfortunately, almost all
great
He
his buildings
:
to that place only, I every
my
Sinan, the celebrated
The two the
SikrI,
his
beautiful
buildings that have survived are the
Kabul Bagh
at Panlpat
and the
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
28
Jdmi' Masjid at Sambhal. Babar was a born poet.
He
'
3
cultivated
the
art of
poetry from his early days and is the reputed author of a diwan (collection) the poems, many of which figure in Tuzk-i-Babari. Abul Fazl informs us that a collection
of
Turki
masnawis (romances)
of Persian
of
his
composition,
Mubin, had a very large circulation in his days. Besides, Babar wrote a number of other works, which
called
include an interesting book on prosody, called Mufassil. The celebrated Smthor of the Tarilth-i-Rashidi records to his credit
"
only
:
,
In the composition of Turki poetry he was second
to
Amir
All
He
invented a style of was the author of a most
Shir
Mubdiydn, and useful treatise on Jurisprudence, which has been adopted He also wrote a tract on Turkish prosody, generally.
verse, called
superior in elegance to any other, and put into veise the Risald-i-Wdlidiydh of his Holiness."
man
As a convene
of
cheerful
Mushderds
(poetical
versification
extempore Turkish were indulged gathering of literary
and their
and
he used in
contests)
The Memoirs
in.
men even
in
which
in Persian
recitation
to
and
describe
a boat wherein
a,
Babar
his associates
composed verses in order to beguile So supreme was the sway of the mind that even amidst the clash of
weary hours.
Muse over
his
arms he snatched a creations
to
of
brief
interval
to
listen
to
the
poets and the conversations of erudite
At times he himself Cropped in a verse or add to the amusement of the assemblage.
scholars.
two
disposition,
MUHAMMAD BABAR
ZAHIR-UD-DIN
29
Babar displayed a remarkable taste for painting. He is said to have brought to India Painting. with him all the choicest specimens of painting he could collect from the library of his Some of these were taken the Timurides. forefathers to Persia by Nadir Shah after his invasion of India .
and the conquest remained
on and
in
of
India,
they
as
exerted
new impetus
gave a
but
Delhi;
as
long
a
they
influence
great the art of painting in
to
India.
The _,
sister art of
music
also receivjd the attention
Emperor who himself was a TT..i connoisseur. His skill and proficiency
of the
.
Music.
.
t
borne out by a treatise of his own composition which he has written all about it. This book is of a very high order and is as interesting as it is
in
it is
in
bears eloquent testimony to its author's love of music and his knowledge of its technicalities.
informative.
The
It
paintings mistm'ting books,
books
of illustrating
practice
and
in
India
evidence
His
by Babar. in
illustrations,
pictures
making them more ing was, for the
this
respect
also.
lucid
first
Memoirs
with which this book
with
and
and
thereby interest-
time, introduced
afford a crowning
Profusely is
beautiful
coloured
embellished,
form
an essentially attractive feature of it, and the coloured animals of described therein are ^presentations particularly charming.
There are repeated flowers and gardens in
Babar was a great gardener. _ Gardening. .
references his
to
Memoirs.
Among
the
gardens
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
30 that h^ laid out,
Bagh-i-Wafa and Bagh-i-Kilan near an4 *Zohra Bagh at Agra may be the most fascinating. be regarded as It will idea here that the the interesting to remark underlying Great was of the the garden Iram, gardens Mughals
Ram Bagh
Kabul and
held out
a
Muslims
the
to
reward
for
their
their entertainment
for
good
deeds
in
as
world.
this
*
have been given Unfortunately, many of such gardens over to cultivation ', yet there remains enough to show Beautiful flowers,
the artistic tastes of their founders. beasts
birds, gontle
bright
1
and a vast
houries and ghilmans
earthly
(fair
multitude
boys)
of
constituted
the splendour that was Mughal.
Babar ioved
l
celebrities.
Some
and used to associate himself with men whose memory we will had a court His cherish. ng eminent scholars. brilliant set of
literacy
them
of
were
Gfaiyas-ud-Dm
Muhammad
and author Kbudamir, the celebrated Persian historian ^ of the Hablb-us-Siyar, the Khuldsat-ul-Akbar and i
Maulana Shahab-ud-DIn, the famous enigmatist, poet and punster and Mir Ibrahim, a native of Herat and a skilled performer on Kanun.
many
works
other
;
;
Apart from these, those who came into close contact Shaikh with him were Shaikh Mazi, his own tutor Zain Khafi, translator of the Wdqiyat-i-Bdbari; and ;
Maulana day.
It
one of the most learned men of ths also be mentioned that Babar was greatly
BaqT,
may
by the erudite minister of the King of Herat/ who had 'collected a valuable library of the most esteejmed works of the
assisted
in
his
literary
undertakings
MUHAMMAD BABAR
ZAHIR-UD-DIlSi
time and placed him in charge of
it
achievements "
the
in
place
in
Indian
his
upon
Babar's
following
His permanent
rests
history
conquests, which
'.
summed up
S. Lane-Poole has beautifully
words:
31
an imperial line way but his place in biography and literature is determined rather by his daring adventures and persevering efforts
opened the
for
;
days, and by the delightful Memoirs in which he related them. Soldier of fortune as he was,
in his
earlier
Babar was not the
less
man
a
of
culture, the
of fine literary
In
fastidious critical perception.
Latin of Central Asia,
and
he was an
taste
and
Persian, the language as
it is
of India,
native Turki
in his
accomplished poet, he was master of a pure and unaffected style alike in The Turkish princes of his time prose and verse. prided themselves upon their literary polish, and to turn an elegant ghazal, or even to write a beautiful
manuscript, was their peculiar ambition, no less worthy or stimulating than to be master of sword or mace.
Wit and on the
learning,
quoting
spot,
or
good hand, appreciated valour,
and
singing a
infinitely
will break off in the
dangers battles
to
art of
the
Babar's
in
and he found
the
improvising Persian classics,
good
more than
as well
virtue.
perhaps as Babar himself
middle of a story to quote a verse, an ode on
as his
breath of poetry."
highly
much
leisure in the thick of
compose
were
song,
world, as
a quatrain writing a
orgies
his difficulties
his misfortunes.
were
and His
humanised by a
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
32
Another long quotation has His Estimate.
on the
heels of
one which
considerable
occupied v
already '
_.
,
_
space may appear to be a little too as it much, but, gives a correct estimate of Babar, it may appropriately be cited :
"
Upon
the
the
history of are entitled to
whole
if
we review with
Asia,
we
rank
higher
shall find
than
impartiality
few princes who Babar in genius
and
His grandson, Akbar, may accomplishments. be placed above him for profound and perhaps benevolent polify. The crooked artifice of Aurangzib not entitled to the same distinction. The merit is of in
Chingiz their
I^han,
and
of
splendid conquests, achievements of Babar; but
Tamerlane,
which in
far
activity
terminates
excelled of mind,
the in
gay equanimity and unbroken spirit with which he bore the extremes of good and bad fortune, and in the possession of the manly and social virtues, so seldom the portion of princes, in his love of letters and the
his success in the cultivation of th<*m, we shall probably find no other Asiatfc prince who can justly be placed
beside him."
CHAPTER
NASIR-UD-DIN
III
MUHAMMAD HUMAYfiN
(1530- 39 and 1556) Babar was succeeded by
his beloved son,
who ascended
the
Introductory.
under
festivities
great
Humayun,
throne the
amidst title
of
Muhammad Humyaun two
NasIr-ud-Dln
day: before the end of the year 1530 A. C. The new king was not destined to enjoy a peaceful reign, partly because he himself created his own difficuHies and partly
because he was outmatched by his
diplomacy and Acting r
_
.
.
Division of the empire.
in
rival,
Sher Shah, in
statecraft.
accordance with the advice of his father, Humayun bestowed upon his brothers .,
the
,
.
governorships
,
of
..
different pro-
Kabul and Qandhar were Alwar and Mewat were allotted to Mirzfi Hindal, Sambhal was, assigned to Mirza Askarl, and the government of Badakhshan was entrustvinces
given
ed
to
to his
the
:
Kamran,
cousin, Mirza
Sulaiman.
This division
of
empire \vas responsible for the ambitious intrigues
and treasonable designs of his brothers and the early overthrow of the Mughal Empire. Babar did not live long to consolidate what he had i conquered. Humayun was not so Political situation and of India and strong sagacious as to accomplish U Qn >S what his father could not What ?o he added to his own mure, .
.
.
.
,
.
sS
difficulties.
His
leniency
was
his mistake
and
his
THE MTIfmAT EMPIRE
34 inconsistency condition of
was
nis
India
at
blunder.
The
political
his
accession
thgtime of Khan Afghan
was miserable. in the east Sher and Bahadur Shah in the west the former in Bengal and Bihar and the latter in Gujarat were maturing His own plans for the overthrow of the Mughals. brothers were now sufficiently strong to support their
own
and there was nothing to The leading nobles and prevent them from doing that. military' leaders, whom he himself had granted large to the throne
claims
estates in order to increase bis
possession
employed Emperor.
of
the sinews
mutual
in
They
were
popularity,
which they
of war,
warfare and even
ceaselessly
now
in
freely
against their
and
intrigued
plotted
against him in order to push forward their own men. A conspiracy was formed by one Muhammad Zaman
Had it succeeded, the history of against Humayun. India would have been differently written. The secret was out and Muhammad Zaman took refuge in Gujarat, where he made common cause wfth Bahadur Shah. Another aspirant to the throne was Ala-ud-Dln, brother of Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi,
men
against
Humayun
who
sent an
under the
army
command
In the engagement that was Bianah, Tatar was defeated and slain.
Tatar
Khan.
Entrusting the government of Kabul and ,-
-
Kamran
to
,
s
occupation of the Punjab.
his brother,
out at the against
was going
head
HumayQn)
of
a
40,000
fought at
Qandhar
Kamran
se f
huge army
giving out that he
him on bis assumption Humayun was not so.simple^as
to congratulate
royal insignia.
Askari,
of
of his son,
of the to
be
NASIR-UD-DIN such a deceived by j
MUHAMMAD HUMAYUN Forthwith he sent
trick.
35
advance
in
\
an envoy to inform his
brother
had already
that he
decided to add
Lamghan and Peshawar to the fief of But Kamran was not content with this concesHe crossed the Indus and conquered the Punjab sion. and annexed it to his kingdom of Kabul and Qandhar. Kabul.
Humayun
remained
passive;
he
rather,
quietly
acquiesced in the forcible occupation and avoided war with his brother. This was a grave mistake on his
The
Punjab in general and of Hissar Firoza in particular was a blunder of the first magnitude. The former not only deprived him of a most productive province but created a barrier between part.
cession of the
him and the Mughal military base in the North- West, so rich in military resources. The latter gave Kamran command of the new military road running from Delhi to
Qandhar and made
the tap-root of
it
him
possible for
to cut
down
'
Humayun's
military
power
by merely
stopping where he was*.
War
Humayun was
to
deal
with
with
of
the
most
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
soon called upon Bahadur ShaH, one
formidable of his adversaries. rftt
wag then Qne Q
the
Gujaand
^^
most powerful provinces of India. Its ruler was a man He had immense resources at
of towering ambition.
his command. Before trying conclusions with Humayun, he had already increased his army and He artillery. had conquered Malwa with the help of the Rana of Mewar; and the kings of Ahmadnagar, Khandegh and
Berar paid him homage. ledged
his
supremacy.
The Portuguese
He
also
acknow-
had warred against the
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
36
Rana
of Chittor
'ruinous alike to
made
and forced aim to agree to terms He now his pride and his pocket'.
more ambitious venture
preparations for a
conquest of Hindustan as a whole.
He
the
enlisted in his
and the Mughal nobles, who had fled to his kingdom and taken refuge there, and planned the conquest of the country under the Mughal Emperor. Humayun at once marched against him to service the Afghan
chastise
Shah
him
for giving shelter to his enemies.
the
underestimated
opponent and
Babar
chiefs
military
capacity
tried to imitate the tactics
at the battle of I'anipat.
He
Bahadur of
his
employed by
entrenched himself
very strongly anu expected his adversary to repeat the blunder of Ibrahim Lodhi by hurling his troops against his batteries.
of
war
But Humayun, who had seen enough
tactics as a lieutenant of his father, instead
of
him, sent strong trap prepared falling bodies of cavalry to scour the country in the rear of into
the
for
Bahadur Shah's camp and cut
off
his supplies.
The
beleaguered Gujaratis were reduced to a state of famine and the Sultan, after blowing up his guns, escaped with a
few of his faithful followers. He was hunted by Humayun from place to place and compelled to take refuge with the Portuguese at
Diu.
Humayun,
in the
meantime, reduced a great part of Gujarat and Malwa, but he and his officers were so elated by their successes that they did nothing to effect a permanent settlement of the territory. They gave themselves up to feastand ing merry-making. Bahadur Sfya.h availed himself of their negligence and immediately despatched his trusty
conquered
officer,
Imad-ul-Mulk,
who
at once occupied
Ahmadabad
MUHAMMAD HUMAYUN
NASIR-UD-DIN
37
and gathered together a large army for his master, who was also promised aid by the Portuguese Governor. This
Humayun and awoke him
alarmed
situation. inflicted
of Gujarat
with
to the gravity of the
At once he advanced against Imad and a defeat on him. Feeling that his occupation
its
was
secure,
he entrusted
government and
his brother, Askari,
himself
proceeded
Sher Khan Afghan, who had headed
against able revolt totally
in Bihar.
tactless
absence, Askari
In his
and incapable.
His own
apace
a formid-
proved
officers dis-
him for his arrogance and unmannerliness. There was no love lost between the master and his servants. Bahadur Shah, who was waiting for an and at once attacked Ahmadabad opportunity, liked
took possession of it. Gradually he recovered his lost kingdom, but he was not destined to enjoy the fruits of his victories.
left
He
Malwa was Mandu.
the sea.
died in 1537 A. C. by falling into also lost as soon as Humayun
At the approach
Imperial army near the borders of Bengal, the crafty Afghan w^hdrew towards Bihar. In his of the
absence, the Mughals occupied Gaur,
the
provincial
capital,
Again, when Sher Khan
and
renamed
it
Jannatabad.
upon the Mughal possessions in Bihar and Jaunpur and overran the territory as far as Kanauj, Humayun mobilized his forces against seized
Crossing the Ganges at Munghlr, he marched towards Bihar at the head of his army. At Chausa he
him.
was defeated by his enemy, the rebellious Afghan, and At this critical juncture he souhgt the put to flight.
THE MJGHAL EMPIRE
38
i
aid of his brothers
whom
he
had so magnanimously
treated; but they not only 'offered a flat refusal but substantially contributed to the success of his enemy by
Sher Khan, who, after his victory at Chausa, had crowned himself king under the title of Sher Shah, crossed the Ganges and inflicted a
hampering
his preparations.
sharp defeat on
Humayun
A
novelist
Un e3e,
at
Kanauj, whither he had
and expelled him from
retired after his defeat,
India.
and not an
historian can better portray the picture of his flight from India and * he misfortunes that befell him thereafter.
After
his
at the
defeat
Kanauj, he crossed the Ganges and reached Thence he started towards Delhi with his
battle of
Agra. treasure
and family.
Finding, however, that his cause for Sarhind. His brothers, whom he
was lost, he left had so kindly treated, gave him no protection rather, they added to his difficulties and increased his anxiety. ;
Proceeding towards Sind, he besieged Bhakkar, but could not conquer it. It was at this time that he married Hamida Bano Bagum, daughter of Shaikh All Akbar Jaml. Driven to despair, he turned to Maldeva, the Rajah of Jodhpur, tingent
of
who had promised him
a con-
twenty thousand Rajputs. But when he territory, he discovered that the
reached the Rajah's
Rajah meant mischief. At Amarkot, and there he and rousing reception by
his
he sought shelter at party were given a
Rana Prasad, who
also agreed to
was at haven of refuge that the future empress of India
assist
this
him
last
in attacking
gave birth to
Thatta and Bhakkar.
the greatest
It
emperor of Indi&.
After
NASIR-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD HUMAYUN
39
performing the necessary ceremonies on the happy occasion of the birth of his son, Akbar, Humayiin attacked Bhakkar with the aid of
Rana
Un-
Prasad.
fortunately, a picque having arisen between the Muslims and the Rajputs, the latter deserted the Imperial army ;
but fortunately, the Chief of Bhakkar got tired of war and sued for peace. According to the terms of the
Humayiin
treaty,
received
ten thousand
thirty boats,
Misbkdls, two thousand loads of grain and three hundred camels. Thus equipped, he advanced towards Qandhar, it was too dangerous a place foi him to stay in. His brother, Kamran, was the sole master of the entire Afghan territory his brothers, Askari and Hindal, were
but
;
his vassals.
After a careful consideration
to set out in search of support.
Akbar,
who was
Leaving
at that tim^ twelve
he decided his little son,
months
old, at
Qandhar, he proceeded towards Persia and informed the
Shah
of his proposed
visit.
Hearing of Fumayun's intention, Tahmasp, the of Persia, issued instructions to
In Persia.
,
.
his
royal faith
^
^
officers
j
-
.
i
A
him a right The Shah was a Shia by to
accord
welcome on his arrival. and it is said that he received the royal
fugitive
so warmly simply because he intended to convert him In spite of his endeavours and imto his own creed. portunities,
it is
his guest in the
stated,
he could not shake the
Sunni doctrine.
advice of his well-wishers,
belief of
In accordance with the
Humayun
agreed to accept
The
the religion of his host after a great
reluctance.
with promised to help him Bokhara. and conquer Kabul, Qandhar
a contingent
Shah
to
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
40
C
With an army of 14,000, Humayun attacked kingdom of Kamran. Having q
rS
Klb uTa nd Qandhar from Kamran.
q uired
ac-
Qandhar, he advanced upon
Kabul and defeated his ,
the
.
.
t
,
,
his son, Akbar,
whom
Here
brother. ,
,
he had
,
,
left
at
Kamran who had once exposed
the boy him after a long Kamran, though beaten, was still ready separation. to recover his lost possessions. Again he was defeated the mercy of
to a fusillade of shots,
was restored
to
and put to flight In an engagement at night, Mirza Hindal was slab. Kamran, the fugitive king of Kabul, found shelter at the Court of Sultan Salim Shah who, however, treated him so badly that he took himself to the
Gakhar country in disgust and disappointment. Chief of the Gakhars too treated him ruthlessly. handed over to Humayun, who remembered the his father and so did not put an end to his life. blinded and thus rendered chief against his brother.
But the
He
was
words
He
of
was
incapable of creating mis-
At
his request,
he was sent
Mecca along with his wife, who served him faithfully Mirza Askari was also the last day of tiis life. caught and permitted to proceed to Mecca. Having to
to
disposed of his rivals,
Humayun
turned his attention to
the reconquest of Hindustan. In response to the requests of influential Indians,
Humayun, who was
eagerly watching the events ot India and was lon S in g
an opportunity, advanced towards India early in the year 1555 at the head of an efficient army, and occupied Lahore. Sulian Sikandar Sur, who had played ducks and drakes with the Imperial treasury, for
NAS1R-UD-D N
MUHAMMAD HUMAYUN
advanced against him, but was a battle at Sarhind and put to
41
totally defeated
in
Humayun
flight.
entered his old capital in a triumphant procession and ruled his Indian Empire for a brief span of about twelve
He
months.
died of a fatal
on
of his library
from the terraced-roof
fall
1556 A. C.
the 24th of January,
Endowed
he was with a retentive
as
memory, had Humayun acquired proficiency in several arts and sciences in his early
Kmpfehments.
He was
years.
very fond
of poetry
and had great skill in this art. He was an excellent poet, whose verses were elegant and full of meaning. In astronomy he was an adept and in geography a perfect
He
master.
indited
some
dissertations
on the nature
of the elements and ordered the construction of celestial
and
terrestrial globes as
became Emperor
soon as he
Ferishta says that he fitted up seven halls of of India. reception and dedicated them to seven planets in the Judges, ambassadors, poets and travelfollowing order :
lers were received in the Hall of the
and other military
officers in
Moon commanders ;
the Hall of the Mars
;
qvil
officers in the Palace of the Mercury gens de lettres in the palaces of the Saturn and the Jupiter; musicians ;
and
bards
in
the
Hall
the
of
Venus.
In
short
Humayun was gifted with those accomplishments and graces which are highly prized in good and fashionable '
I
societies. '
i-Rashidi, talents
writes
and the
combination
have
seen,' says the
author of the
Taril$h,-
princes possessed of so much natural 'His noble nature,' excellence as he.'
few
author of the of
the
A in,
energy
of
marked by the Alexander and the
'was
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
42
learning of Aristotle.'
became famous
for its
Under him the Mughal Court splendour and magnificence.
has to his credit some
Humayun
Under
vances. US
workT the Jumna.
curious contri-
his instructions
his
Najjdrs (carpenters) constructed
for
him four boats and
on
Each
of
these boats
set
them
had an
When
which two storeys were very high.
afloat
arch, of these boats
were put together in such a way that the four arches remained opposite to one another, an octagonal fountain
which presented a picturesque view. The boats were provided with bazars and Often the Emperor sailed in them from Firozshops. Sbad Delhi to Agra with his courtiers. There was such
was formed witnin
the~n,
a bazar afloat on the
Jumna
that 'one could have what-
Likewise, the royal gardeners made a on the surface
ever one liked.'
for their Imperial patron
moving-garden
But, the most marvellous of his ingenious works was the moving-palace which had three The various parts of this wooden structure storeys. the
of
Jumna.
were so
skilfully joined that
when
but
joint,
which
it
required,
was made.
it
it
looked
could be
The
like
one having no
split into
parts of
stairs leading* to the
upper that were so could be designed storey they dexterously a and unfolded. It was folded wonderful easily per-
This sovereign also made a moving-bridge, which too was no less curious. For purposes of administration, Humayun divided his formance.
A
-
.
.
.
.
Administration.
Bad
(Air),
Ab
four r government into & parts & - according ~ * to the four elements: Attsb (Fire), .
(Water), and
gh&k
(Land),
and placed
NASIR-UD-DIN MUHAMB'AD HUMAYUtt each one of them
4?
charge of a separate minister. Thewith the arrangement 06 armours and weapons and all those affairs which were in
affairs of the artillery, together
connected with Fire, were formed into a separate department, called Sarkdr-i-Atishi, the portfolio of which
was
Khwajah Abdul
Malik; the affairs o stable, Bdwarcfri Khdnd
held by
Karqirdq Kh>cun^ (godown), (kitchen), Shukar Kh,dnd (camel
what was known
as Sarkdr-i-Hawdi,
which was under
Lutf-Ullah; management of Sharbafc -('house for sweet drinks) and AlastuchA Khdnd the
Khwajah
Khdnd
stable), etc., constituted
(store-hcwase) as well as the construction of canals
and
Water were grouped
into-
all
other affairs -connected with
a separate department, called Sarkdr-i-Abt which was placed inchatge of Khwajah Hassan; and agriculture, ,
buildings, the
hold affaks
management
fell
of Crown-lands
to the fourth department, called
which the ministry was vested Jalal-ud-Dki Mirza Beg.
i-Khdki, of
Humayun Drum
displayed
a remarkable
Sarkar-
in Khwajfthi
interest in andi
solicitude for the widespread
of Justace.
.
nation
the famous
and house-
Drum
...
of
justice.
of Justice, called
T,
He
.
intioducedi
Tabl-i-Adl r whichi
the importunate suppliant used to beat once in. case ofc a charge of enmity, twice if the wrong done was not righted,
tbuee
times
a theft or a robbery took place,. murder was committed.. The: not have been frequently beaten, but
and four times
drum
might
if
if
a
the Emperor's sense of justice and! his care and! concern for its impartial .and effective; administration jully borne out by it
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
44
He made
an elaborate classification of the people of
his empire, created gradations
of
ranks
giving
them
constructed palaces for their entertainment and fixed days for The first class, significantly audience.
the consisted blessed, styled as Ahl-i-S'adat, or the the and the learned of law-officers and the pious, the second class, known as Ahl-i-Daulat, wealthy, were the Emperor's kinsfolk, his ministers and nobles as well as military scientists of the
kingdom
;
or the
the
tLird
class, called Ahl-i-Murdd, or the were musicians, singers and story-tellers as well as those who were favoured by nature with
officers;
people of hope,
beauty and refinement. As this class depended upon the charity of His Majesty for maintenance, it should
have been named Ahl-i-Tarab, or the party of amusement, inasmuch as they pleased the Emperor with their songs, beauty
To a
Sahm,
and music.
each of the
heads of thesg classes was
a
or arrow,
a
mark
given
of distinction.
Khudamlr, contemporary chronicler, informs us that during the days he was employed, the Sahm-us-S'adat was in a
Muhammad
Maulana
FarghaH, who was entrusted with the specific performance of the affairs He fixed the stipends and Ahl-i-S'adat. of the charge of
scholarships
of
the
Sayyads,
religious
recluses,
scholars,
and with him rested
professors,
Shaikhs,
teachers their
and
appointment as
The Sahm-ud-Dauldh was well as dismissal. Amir Hindu Beg, who was* responsible management
of the
affairs of
scholars,
research-
held by for the
the Akl-i-Daulat,
and
NASIR-UD-DIN it
was one
of
and ranks
of
MUHAMMAD HCJMAYUN
duties to
his
The Sahm-ul-Murad was Ahl-i-Murdd
the
grades
servants
assigned to
consisted in
duty
principal
the
fix
and
soldiers
of
45 ol
the
pay
State.
Amir Desai whose the
controlling
and
affairs
of
the
supplying necessary requirements of splendour at the Mughal Court. The Padshah also divided the days of the week
and
fixed two days above-named classes
audience.
the
Ahl-i-S'adat,
each of the
of
inhabitants
Thursdays and Saturdays Sundays ~nd Tuesdays for the
as follows for
for
:
Mondays and Wednesdays for the Ahl-i-Murad; and Friday was reserved for Namdz-i-
Ahl-i~Daulat, 9
Juma
or congregational prayers.
,
The
three
enumerated
classes
were
above
sub-divided into twelve smaller ones, i -,1 ,1 and arrows of gold, with varying
Twelve Subdivisions.
proportions of alloy mixed with them,
were the
among them
distributed
as follows
The
:
Emperor,
first
the
of
his
indicating
in order of
importance
purest gold was given to prerogative
royal
the
highest rank ; the second to the royal family, provincials and other high officials the third to the literati and ;
men
religious
nobles;
the
;
the
fifth
fourth
to
to
the
the Maliks,
courtiers
Amirs and
and His Majesty's
personal servants ; the sixth to the general employees ; tiie seventh to the harems and well-behaved femaleservants
young ninth
of
to
the tenth
of
the treasurers to
the
eighth to the Imperial Harem\ the stewards of the State;
household
the royal
maid-servants
the
and
fighting
class
;
the
the
officers
of
the
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
46 rank and the
of the Imperial armies
file
mentals
and
;
the
twelfth
;
the eleventh
to
the palace-guards,
to
camel-drivers and the like.
The
preceding account leaves an impression upon the mind that Humayun was a _ .. J
Court-Scholars.
.
magnificent
prince,
in-
profoundly
Apart from and he attached this, importance clearly the place he assigned to the learned and the pious, terested in the well-being of
the
his
musicians
and the
Khudamlr, the Habib-us-Siyar, was one
story-tellers.
well-known author of the of
his
subjects.
reveals the
it
associates
literary
author of the
the
Jauhar,
;
celebrated
Tazkirat-ul-Waqiydt-i-Humayun, or of Humayun, was his personal
Private Memoirs
chances of such, had ample a ! that in he embodied his book personally observing Abdul Latif, the learned author of the Lub-ut-TwariJch, as
who,
attendant,
1
;
was
invited
also
arrived
at
the
by him
adorn his Court, but he Imperial Capital after the death of to
Emperor; Shahab-ud-Din KhafI, the unequalled enigmatist and chronogramatist of the time, enjoyed his patronage; and Shaikh Husain, the honoured the
a
professor
of
another
recipient
gorgeous of
madrasah his
at
favours.
eloquent testimony to the fact
that
was
Delhi,
All
this
Humayun
bears
was a
sympathetic patron of letters.
Humayun
was a great
bibliophile.
collected a large
the
Imperial
special
pleasure-house
of
number
Library.
firm^n^
Sher Shah
Sun,
Sher
He
had
of books
.Under
Mandal,
was turned
in
his
the
into
a
NASIR-UD-D1N
second
during his
library
MUHAMMAD HUMAYUN So
reign.
intense
47
was
his
books of the day that even in his military undertakings he used to take with him a love for the best
select
for
library
own
his
spite of the fact
In
use.
he was constantly occupied in a fatal contest with a host of enemies, he managed to spare time to spend
that
in
studies.
time
of
his
Count Noer informs us that even at the flight from India he took with him his
favourite books along with his
Beg,
officially
known
Such a
scholarly
faithful
sovereign
At
subjects. at least
founded by him at Delhi. professors
of
this
the
finest
cannot be
said
to
education of his
the
distant date there
this
one instance of a college One of the most competent
institution
was Shaikh Husain.
tomb Mughal monuments
also appears that the beautiful of
Lala
,
Baz Bahadur.
as
have neglected is
librarian
of
It
Humayun
one
seen
the
still
in
neighbourhood of Delhi
was, at one time, used as a place of instruction, for which eminent scholars and influential
men were
appointed as guardians.
Humayiin loved
beautiful gardens quite as
as his ever,
with
Sher
father.
his
long
Unfortunately,
drawn-out
Shah Suri did not allow him
*o turn his artistic fancy
Nevertheless,
his
reign
to
this
tomb,
joy for ever.
which
ij
struggle
sufficient
peaceful
howtime
occupation.
was marked by the plantation
of at least one noble garden at Delhi
to his
much
still
a
the one attached
thing of beauty and a
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE'
48
He
Humayun was
deeply religious. observed the dogmas
an(*
always Muslim. All
religious beliefs.
a staunch
Sunni, Ahl-i-Bait
for the
but
his
leaning
thought that he
favour
in
towards of
the
Shia
that faith
is
his
Faith,
borne out
government
Hnmayfm was
a delightful friend. In the camp, he was a bon comrade
r
of
his
He was an
was
his
inclined
life,
andestlmaS son,
faith
to live like a true
by the *act that the entire machinery of was in the hands of the Stu&s. In private
carefully his
profound love and respect (Family of the Prophet) shows that
he was favourably
and
tried
of
affectionate
and
soldiers
State
officers.
a faithful friend, an obedient
brother.
As a man
of letters, he
passed most of his leisure hours in social intercourse and literary discussions. According to Ferishta, he was a prince as remarkable for his wit and humour as for
the
urbanity
Stanley Lane-Poole
of
his
'his
manners. virtues
In the opinion of
were
Christian,
and
was that of a gentleman '. At life was capable of immense energy and often rose to controlled the height of important occasions and his
whole
times
he
serious
some
the singleness of purpose ; but of his best qualities were marred by the excessive situations
with
use of opium, to which he was badly addicted. The heroic fortitude with which he bore the misfortune*
which
befell
him during
his fugitive
life,
the buoyancy
and the cheerfulness of his disposition His universal sympathy and admiration.
of his temper
exact
unqualified indolence and generosity spoiled
his
career
NASIR-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD HUMAYUN
49
and often deprived him of the fruits of his victories. But for the fact that he vvas eclipsed by the extraordinary genius of Sher Shah, who was undoubtedly superior to him in military skill and administrative acumen, his talents would have found full scope and he would have ranked with the great, though not with the greatest kings of India. his
abilities,
difficulties in
we must
While making an estimate of take
into
consideration
which he found himself
at
the
time
the of
the treachery of his brothers, the the opposition Afghans who regarded the Mughals as foreigners, and the precarious condition of the his
accession: of
Mughal Empire, which his father had founded but had not consolidated. So, if Humayun failed to retain what he had received as patrimony, viz., the Mughal Empire, it was due more to the baffling political he had before him, than to his situation, which personal faults and failures.
CHAPTER
IV
THE AFGHAN REVIVAL Sher Shah and his Successors
(15401556)
A f
.
,
period of fifteen years elapsed between the overthrow and the re-establishment of the .
Introductory.
of
Sur,
interval.
affords
great
Mughal pmpire m India. The House founded by Sher Sh&h Suri, bridged over the The l fe of the founder of the new dynasty .
:
an excellent instance of how the early days of aVe often, if not always, crowded with mis-
men
fortunes, to which, to a certain
extent, they
owe
their
future greatness.
Sher Shah's
original
name was
Farld.
He was
born in the year 1486 A. C. at Hi^sar Firozz, where tys grandfather held a
His
joglr.
jdgirddr of Sasram and Khwaspur
boyhood was neglected by
his
Hasan, was a His early Bihar.
father, in
father
owing
to the
with Disgusted his step-mother and the step-motherly treatment of his father, who was devoted to the youngest of his four ill-
treatment
of
step-mother,
who treated her home and joined
wives and left his
his
i
sons with preference, Farld the service of
his
father's
There he applied Jamal Khan, himself sedulously to the study of Arabic and Persian. His receptive mind imbibed and 'assimilated all that was at Jaunpur.
benefactor,
imparted
to
him.
Impressed
by
his
industry
and
THE AFGHAN REVIVAL of
activity
Khan, the governor
mind, Jamal
him Farid returned home and his
sent a message to Hasan, asking <
kindly.
51
to
treat
father
of Bihar, his
son
entrusted
him with the management of his jagirs, Sasram and Khwaspur. He managed his father's estate admirably and introduced the principle of direct settlement with the cultivators, which may be described as the Raiyatwdrl System in modern terminology. After protecting the husbandmen from oppression and placing the revenue administration of the estate on a sound basis, he set himself to the task of reducing the refractory Zamlndars to obedience. Between 1511 A. C. and 1518 A. C.,
when he was considerable
in
charge of his father's jagirs, he gained '
observes,
biographer period of
During this time, as he was unconsciously serving
experience.
his his
apprenticeship for administering the empire of
In 1519 A. C. he was again compelled to home owing to the hostile influence of his
Hindustan.' qait
his
He
went to Bihar and entered the service Bahar of Khan, son of Darya Khan Lohani. governor, It was under Bahar Khan that he acquired influence and step-mother. its
importance.
From 1522
A. C. to 1526 A. C. service
activities,
of
appreciated
and
Farid was in the
Bahar Khan, who his
services
greatly
in the civil
In one departments. of the hunting expeditions of his master he killed a tiger and received from him the title of Sher Khan in
revenue
But differences having between him and his master, he resigned his In recognition of service and entered that of Babar.
appreciation of that heroic deed. arisen
52
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
his meritorious
services
Babar bestowed
upon him the
parganas, including those of his the death of Bahar Khan his son, Jalal Khan,
governorship of several father.
On
became king under the regency of Sher Khan, who gained considerable power and influence during the When Jalal came of age, he refused minority of Jalal. Smarting under the galling tutelage of an ambitious Afghan, he invited the assistance of the r"ler of Bengal, but the allies were defeated at to play the second fiddle.
Surajgarh and Sher Khan became the ruler of Bihar. Sher Khan'b spirit -vas restless from the beginning. After the acquisition of Bihar, he
turned
his attention
whose favourable
field
anarchical
towards Bengal, state
offered
a
Early
in
for his ambitious enterprise.
the year 1536 A. C. he set out from Bihar and appeared Mahmud Shah, the ruler of before the walls of Gaur.
Bengal, instead of repelling the invader, bought him off with a heavy bribe. The following year he repeated his expedition of Bengal. tracted siege and then
Rohtas, which
He
captured Gaur after a proattacked the stronghold of
soon capitulated.
Thus ended,
for
a
while, the independence of Bengal.
When Humayun Recovery
heard of Sher Khan's successes in
the east, he lost no time in advancing towards Bengal with a large Mughal
of
army.
Humtyun.
Afghan'
At
approach, the 'wily retired to Bihar and evaded his
enemy. The Mughals occupied Gaur and rechristened it Jannatabad. The Afghans, however, compensated his
themselves
in
another quarter for their losses
:
They
THE AFGHAN REVIVAL upon the imperial
seized
territories in
53
Bihar and jaunpur
and overran the country as far as Kanauj. Again, when Humayun heard about Sher Khan's
and
Bihar
in
activities
Jaunpur,
Battle of Chausa.
.
a(
march against him under his own He crossed the Ganges near Munghir, but
army
to
soon found himself
in
ordered
his
command.
a serious
He
situation.
tried to
make peace with
the Afghan war-lord, but in v?in. At Chausa, an engagement was fought between the Afghans
and the Mughals, in which f he latter were defeated and their Emperor plunged into the river flowing by and would have drowned had not Nizam, a water-carrier, saved his
Nizam was allowed
life.
two days and
all
the
officers
to
rub
as king for
were ordered to carry out
his wishes.
After his victory
in his
the
battle of
aSSUmed the
Battle of Kanauj,
was read
in
The coins name.
Chausa, Sher
^
Sh fih were struck and the Khutba
In short,
all
title
the
f
eT
'
formalities
of
kingship were gone through and there remained not the least
semblance of allegiance to the Mughal
Emperor.
Humayun was now assured of the superiority of Sher He now realised how shaky his position was. Shah. He tried to enlist the assistance of his brothers, but The
failed.
him
against
preparations
not only refused to co-operate with the Afghan danger, but hampered his
latter
as
much
as
they
availed himself of the dissensions
sons his
of
army
He
could
among
Sher
Shah
the surviving
crossed the Ganges at the head of and took his position near Kanauj. Humayun
Babar.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
54
advanced from his capital In the battle
Sher Shah.
defeated and put to
* r 01. Conquests of Sher the Punjab
r
upon a career
new
of
into
fall
undisputed ruler of Jaunpur, Delhi and
Bihar, TT
in
to
the .
.
,
.
Hitherto his energies were Agra. concentrated on the expulsion of the Mughals from India ; now that he
:
was successful first
now
Bengal.
r*
Shah
flight.
was
Shah
Sher
and encamped opposite to that ensued, Humayun was
achieving
his
object,
he launched
The Punjab was the conquests. hands. It was willingly handed
his
over to him by Kamran. After occupying the Punjab, Sher Shah reduced the Gakhar territory between the
upper courses of the
Indus and the
Jhelum
order
in
guard against the danger from the North- West; for Kamran, the ruler of Kabul, and Mirza Haider, the
to
Kashmir, might combine together at any time and attack him. Constructing a strong fort (Rohtas) in Jhelum, he left 50,000 men under the command of of
ruler
his trusted generals its
and returned
to
Bengal to re-organise
administration.
After
quelling
rebellions
and
of
Malwa
Mahmud
Mallu Khan,
II,
taking advantage of
the
one of the local
disorganised
took possession of Mandu, Ujjain, other districts,
under
his
and
peace Bengal, Sher Shah turned his attention to Malwa. During the weak rule establishing
of
disturbances
in the province of
and
own
othej independent
state
of
chiefs,
things,
Sarangpur and a few
up an independent kingdom Besides Mallu Khan, two control. set
chiefs
had established
tiieir
sway
75
80
85
90
THE AFGHAN REVIVAL
55
of thu country. MalwS and Delhi so being closely situated, Sher Shah's fears were wellfounded. Therefore, he set out to conquer that kingdom
over vast tracts
some ambitious and
lest
powerful neighbour should the troubled waters* He reduced
successfully fish in
Gwalior, Sarangpur, Ujjain and completed the conquest Malwa by the end of the year 1542 A. C.
of
The conquest
Malwa was followed by a
of
of conquests
Conquests in Rajputana.
in
Rajputana. .
series
Raisin
c was attacked and occupied in 1543 A. C. Sind was conquered and then Here Jodhpur, the capital of Marwar, was besieged.
the Rajputs offered such a
Shah was compelled Maldeva
the
camp
of
stout
resistance
have recourse to a ruse.
Marwar,
of the
that
He
Sher
caused
following request of the nobles forged and thrown near
to be
Rajah Let not the King permit any anxiety or doubt
" find
to
containing the
letters,
of
.
,
its
way
:
to his heart.
Maldeva and bring him
During the
battle
we
to
will seize
to you."
The trick succeeded, for when Maldeva came to know the text of the letters, he suspected treachery and decided to retreat without resistance. The Rajputs gave
him
all
assurances of
the
fidelity,
battle that
believe.
In
displayed
extreme valour,
but he would not
was fought, the Rajputs
but victory sided with the
Afghans. Encouraged by this victory, Sher Shah occupied Mount Abu and then advanced to Chittor, which was
and entrusted to an Afghan officer. Having secured his hold en Rajputana, Sher Shah undertook an expedition against the Rajah of Kalanjar. The taken
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
56
Rajputs again displayed their \ were successful. During the
but
alour,
the
Afghans
when Sber Shah
siege,
was superintending the batteries, a bomb He was removed exploded and injured him fatally. to die This took there. to his tent, only place on May himself
1545 A. C.
22,
Thus ended the
eventful
career
of
Sher Shah, the founder of the Sur Dynasty and the retriever of the fallen fortunes of the Afghan Monarchy,
Sher Shah had acquired an intimate knowledge of Indian life and character.
Born
in India,
had had enough of experience in the worK of administration while he was **e
charge of his lather's estate. As a king, he proved himself a very capable statesman and administrator.
in
In
many
respects he anticipated the
"The whole
Great.
of
work
of
Akbar the
his brief administration," says
His Mr. Keen "was based on the principle of union." with the of of methods dealing India, so peoples different
in character
and
and language,
culture, religion
statesman-
affords a culminating proof of his sagacious ship.
By
his administrative reforms
measures he rendered spite of
its
his
reign
short duration.
He
for
reforming the social and
his
subjects
and
and humanitarian
so
very illustrious in laboured day and night
intellectual
condition
advancing their material
of
interests.
The principal features of his administration are outlined in the account that follows. For purposes of efficient administration, the whole Empire was partitioned into 47 DivifheEmpire.
sions, the
distributed
commands among
the
of
which were chieftains
of
tHE AFGHAN REVIVAL
57 >
hostile clans,
were a
whose intern jcine feuds and mutual jealousies
sufficient guarantee against their ambitions.
A
Division had several Sarkdrs each having a Shiqdar-ia Munsif-iShiqdaran, or Shiqdar-in-Chief, and t
A Sarkdr
comprised a number of Parganas, each having a Shiqdar, an Amln, a Khazanchl, a Munsif, a Hindi writer and a Persian
Munsifan, or Munsif-in-Chief
clerk
accounts.
to write
.
A Pargana
embraced many
villages, each having a Muqaddam, a Chaudhrl and a Patwdrl, who served as intermediary officers between
The Shiqdar was
the State and the subjects.
whose
chief duty consisted
a soldier,
in enforcing the Imperial
firmans and furnishing military aid to the Amln whenThe Amln was a civil officer, who ever he required it.
Government for his The Shiqdar-in-Chief and the Munsif-in-Chief
was responsible actions.
were
work
the
to
the Central
principal
civil officers
of the officers of the
who
looked
Parganas under
after the
their charge.
Their chief duty was to watch the conduct of the people and to administer justice. The Subahddr, now known as provincial governor, was in charge and was responsible only to the Crown civil as well as military.
God on As an
earth,
astute
d
Revenue System. turists.
He
Division
Sher Shah
was
He was the shadow authority. answerable to no human authority.
the fountain-head of of
The Crown
of a
for his actions,
all
manager of the estate of his father, Sher Shah had realised at an early date that the stabilit y his em P ire de P end ' \
ed upon the happiness of the agriculhad ahc understood that the traditional
methods of the hereditary revenue
officers
deprived the
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
58
of a large amount of its dues. He, therefore, caused the whole land under the plough to be measured
State
and portioned into bighds. The holding of every tenant was measured at harvest time and ^th of the gross produce was fixed as the share of the State. The agriculturists
revenue
were allowed the option of paying the land in cash or in kind according to their conveni-
The
ence.
industrious
looked
No
after.
ryots
and
obnoxious taxation
injury
were
protected
from
their interests
were carefully
to cultivation
was tolerated
:
Special guards were stationed to see that no damage was done to the growing crops. Agriculture was
encouraged, forests were cleared and opened for cultivation. Granaries were erected and corn stored for the of need.
times
The
instructions
were worked with great the
cultivators
This
to
the collectors
efficient
actual
to
lenity.
relieve their
Advances were made distress in
measurement
of the land untier
all its essential features,
name
of
to
bad davs.
system of revenue settlement, based on the cultivation,
subsequently developed by Akbar the Great and the
of
revenue were couched in humanitarian terms and
land
was
has, in
survived in British India under
'Raiyatwari Settlement'. % was administered throughout justice
Even-handed
the length and breadth of the empire.
06*58 and Mir-i-Adls (judges) tried civil suits and criminal cases in the Dar-ul-'Adalat, or Courts of Justice. They dealt out inflexible justice, so much so that no one could evade law
and escape punishment by reason of his high birth or rank. Punishments awarded were very severe, so severe as 'to
THE AFGHAN REVIVAL
59
The Fanchdyat System also was in The Hindus had their disputes decided in the vogue. The jurisdiction of these courts of Panchdyats.
set
an
example'.
was
arbitration
restricted to civil
and the
inheritance, succession
disputes relating
to
like.
Sher Shah organised a most modern police force. He did not make any punitive police out f but converted the of gentlemen, PoUc^lSrce. the the and robbers rebels,
malcontents
He
peace.
and
the
miscreants
repressed crimes
into
in his
custodians
of
kingdom by introand enforcing
ducing the principle of local responsibility it
throughout his dominions. for
responsible
the
detection
The Muqaddams were cases
of
of
theft
and
highway robbery. If they failed to find out the thieves and the robbers, they were forced to make good the losses. Likewise, if a murder occurred within their and they failed to produce the murderer, This system of were arrested and put to death. they
jurisdiction
'
local life
responsibility
resulted in the complete security of
The
and property.
travellers
without the least anxiety even
in
and wayfarers slept a desert, and the
Zamlnddrs themselves kept watch over them The Police Department was of the king*. assisted
by a body
Muhtasibs, who
of censors of
for fear
greatly
public morals, called
put down such
crimes as adultery and drinking and enforced the observance of religious laws.
There
also existed a service,
Secret Service.
age.
An
efficient
regular department of secret
because
espionage
was ab-
so i ute ly indispensable in that despotic
army
of diligent
spies
was employed
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
60 in order to
keep the Emperor in touch with
all
that
occurred in his empire.
Sher
Shah abolished many oppressive taxes and took only & J those which he thought System. were legal and less burdensome. So he made a clean sweep of all internal customs and allowed the imposition of excise duties on the frontier
__ Tariff _
and
at the places of sale
within the
This reempire. revived trade and
of the system of taxation and removed burden the reduced commerce, The Jizid was discontent to a considerable extent.
construction
tariff
also abolished.
Shah paid great attention to the development of the means of communication and His name is intitransportation. Communication. Sher
tion
mately associated with the construcroads and highways on a large scale. The
of
of
longest
Sunargaon
roads
his
the
to
was
Indus.
the
one running
Besides
this,
from
there were
other important roads which were so dexterously planted that they linked almost all the strategic cities
many
Of them, three of the empire to the Imperial Capital. deserve specific mention at this place: (1) from Agra to Burhanpur, (2) from Agra via Bianah to the borders of Marwar,
and
sides of these
intervals
after
a
from Lahore to Multan.
On
both
roads shady trees were planted and at constructed for the comfort and
serais were
convenience
a well,
(3)
of
travellers.
Each
mosque and a garden
by a set of
in r
officers,
viz.,
*a,h
serais had waS looked Imam, a Mu'azzin
of
the
it.
and some watermen, appointed by the
It
State*
Inside
THE AFGHAN REVIVAL the
serais,
separate
61
accommodation was allotted to Brahmans were employed for the former and Muslims for the
Hindus and Muslims. convenience of
the
the
service of
Dwelling upon the importance Mr. Qanungo remarks that they became
latter.
of these serais,
veritable arteries of the empire, diffusing
'the
a
new
hitherto benumbed limbs '. There sprang market towns them and a brisk trade busy up around was the natural consequence. life
among
its
Sher Shah was equally interested in the maintenance of a highly *
.
,
Postal Service.
The
serais,
them the news
dak chowkis, and through parts of
remotest
organised postal service. B r referred to, served as
were
the empire
of
dispatched
the
to the
two horses were kept to and foot-runners and horsemen service; provide postal were posted along the highways and they carried the imperial firmans^ or dispatches, from place to place. In
Emperor.
serai
every
an excellent
If there
existed
Shah,
was because he had
it
means
of
postal system under Sher sufficiently
developed the
communication.
Sher Shah Military Reforms.
endeavoured
introduced several reforms in the army. In the first place, he tried to put an
to
end
to
^
feudal
system
^
bring his soldiers in close contact with
Therefore, he combined in his person the functions of the Commander-in-Chief and the Pay-
himself.
Master
General.
their officers officers
the
not
and
He told
as their
Emperor.
himself
them
paid
to
obey
personal chiefs
Previously,
the
soldiers
their
and
immediate
but as servants of
whenever
a
provincial
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
62
gove-nor rebelled against the Sultan, his soldiery sided with him and not with the latter. Sher Shah at once abolished this system and ordered his soldiers to obey the imperial firmans first and those of their immediate
Thus, with one stroke of wisdom the main cause of rebellions and revolts was removed. Second-
officers
ly,
after.
Sher Shah checked fraudulent
Ala-ud-DIn the service of
the
soldiers
The marks on
troopers.
in their
and drew up descriptive
of the State,
and
Oil
the hodies of
descriptive rolls
their
persons
rolls
of the
were entered
their horses
and compared
at
the time of
by the Emperor were fixed after personal
salaries
The system
inspection.
the
were recruited
Soldiers
inspection.
himself and
musters by reviving the horses in
of branding
system
Khilji's
of assigning jaglrs
in lieu of
was abolished and cash salaries were paid to the rank and file from the State Treasury. Military
service
were not allowed to stay in one place for more years. During their f marches they were ordered to behave properly and were strictly warned officers
than
two
against damaging the growing Shah established fortified posts
kingdom
in order
to prevent
invasion.
As
result,
immunity
from
a
foreign
population was kept
At
his
its
credit
and
many
Sher
parts of his
the possibility of external India enjoyed complete
attacks,
Sher Shah
SyStem
and
the recalcitrant
f
the
found the currency COuntr y under his
.
control in
the financial
in
Finally,
in check.
accession
Currency Reform.
crops.
stability of a credit upon
confusion.
He knew
that
government depended upon He, therefore, currency.
its
THE AFGHAN REVIVAL undertook
the
establishing
He
of
task
issued gold,
silver
the
reforming
the financial
63
stability
and
coinage,
of his
and copper coins
government. in
abundance
and gave them a fixed standard of weight, fineness and execution. The twofold advantage of the reform in the current coins of the country was that prices were low and trade was brisk. Sher Shah was a remarkable S
UC
f
Welfa re
aim-houses,
patronised art
maktabs and madrasahs, monasteries,
and
teachers of free
public
agriculture,
systematically constructed roads and bridges, laid out beautiful gardens
and terraced-walks, erected caravan-serais,
of
promoter
He encouraged
welfare.
and
hospitals
founded
literature,
established
and
mosques
and
granted stipends and scholarships to the the taught, maintained a large number
kitchens
in
short,
he tried to
do
all
that he
betterment of his subjects. His guiding one should be of principle deprived of State benefactions and that no one his due share
could for the
was that no
should have a superfluity of the same. Sher A
.
Shah was a good builder a
.
Architecture.
magnificent
erected in the Punjab.
city J
the famous
also.
at fort
The mausoleum, which he
He made Delhi
and
of Rohtas built
while
he was living and in which he was buried after his \ieath, is one of the splendid monuments in India.
The
palace he constructed in the Fort of Agra has exacted the encomiums of Fergusson, the historian of Indian Architecture?
"
Ini
the citadel
of
who
writes
:
Agra there stands
or
at least
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
64 stood
when
was there
I
a fragment of a palace built which was as exquisite
Sher Shah, or his son Salim,
by
a piece of decorative art as anything of its class in India. Being one of the first to occupy the ground, this palace was erected on the highest spot within the fort hence ;
the present Government, fancying this a favourable site for the erection of a barrack, pulled it down, and
by a more than usually hideous brick erecThis is now a warehouse, in whitetion of their own. washed ugliness, over the marble palaces of the Moghals it
replaced
a
two
fit
standard
of
comparison
of the
tastes of
the
races.
"Judging from the fragment that remains, and the received on the spot, this palace must have
accounts
gone far to justify the eulogium more than once passed on the works of these Pathans that they built like for the stones seem giants and finished like goldsmiths to have been of enormous size, and the details of '
'
:
most exquisite like
many
finish.
another
under
has passed away, however, its noble class, building of It
our
rule.
Mosques we have
and sometimes tombs, because they were unsuited to our economic purposes, and it would generally
not
spared,
answer to
offend
the
religious
feelings
of
the
But when we deposed the kings and appropriated their revenues, there was no one to claim their now useless abodes of splendour. It was consequently found cheaper either to pull them down, or use them as residences or arsenals than to keep them up, so that natives.
very few *
now remain for
the adrrfiration of posterity."*
Ferguson's Indian and Eastern Architecture, pp.
572-73.
THE AFGHAN REVIVAL
65
Sher Shah's ideal of kingship was very high ^nd be Shah's ideal
^
t
*.
*
!t -
u He
j
he
fell little i
j.
use d to sa y
:
T^ "
behoves the great king to be always himself looked into the minutest details of
He
active."
*.
s " ort
of kingship.
to his credit that
said
it
vShcr
government and kept a vigilant watch on his civil and military officers. He spared no pains in advancing his
In his
the interests of his subjects.
"The tecting
essence of royal
the
(kings) should in
all
should
of the
They
subjects.
use the principles of justice and equality dealings with
their
:
protection consists in pro-
and property
life
own words
instruct powerful
their best to refrain
all
classes
officials
and
of people,
so that they
from cruelty and oppression
may
try
in their
jurisdiction."
Suffice
secured
the
he lived up to this ideal and homage and acquiescent good-will
to say that
it
sincere
Hindus and Muslims alike. Sher Shah is a most interesting figure in the history oi Muslim India. Commencing career
of his subjects,
TT
.
His estimate.
.
a private soldier, he raised himself sovereignty of India and ruled successas
gradually to the fully for
about
one who
hesitated to
the capacity of an emperor. cessary bloodshed and 3,
staunch
He was
five years.
never
SunnI,
handle
He
self-made man,
a
spade even in never indulged in unnea
was all averse to cruelty. was not intolerant
but
He was of
other
He was
a bigot without intolerance. He was his Hindu subjects. He exempttowards kindly disposed ed them from the JiziZ and other taxes imposed upon
creeds.
the Zimtnls (non-Muslims).
He
encouraged education
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
66
among them and took them
in his service
without
restric-
As a
general, he occupies a high place in history. His military operations against Humayun were directed
tion.
wonderful
with
and
skill
strategy.
In the
decade he overthrew the Mughal Empire
space of a and revived
Afghan Rule by founding the Sur Dynasty. His successful campaigns against Malwa, Bundelkhand and Rajputana speak much for his military genius and show that he was a great military commander. But the
he
will
tration
go deep down
which
vvas If
more for his adminisju^t, wise and vigorous, than for he knew how to conquer, he also in history
anything
else.
knew how
to consolidate his conquests
by
his indefatig-
industry and sleepless vigilance. By his administhe land revenue reforms, by system which he introduced, and by tho policy of religious toleration able
trative
which he always adhered to, he prepared the ground for the greatness of Akbar the Great. In view of his civil and military achievements, one is inclined to agree with one who says that 'if he had b'een spared he would have established his dynasty, and the great Mughals would not have appeared on the stage of history'. Unfortunately, like Babar, he enjoyed a brief ^eign of about five
short
years
;
period,
but
all
that he
entitles
accomplished during this him to rank with the greatest
sovereigns of India.
Sher Shah was succeeded by his young
Khan,
who
son,
Jalal
was
proclaimed king because of his arrival in the camp in
time on
Becoming
king, he
assumed
the
death
of his
father.
the title of Sallm'Shah, but
THE AFGHAN REVIVAL
67
maxim " Uneasy wears a crown". The turbulence of
soon he discovered the truth of the the head that
:
lies
the
unruly Afghans compelled him to have recourse to drastic He issued several regulations and strove measures.
hard
to
his
strengthen
He
position.
arrested
the
Amirs, who were
against him, and imprisoned them, or put them to death, as he thought fit. Although he fell far
short of his father's standard, he proved himself
Barring out a few disturbances, he a enjoyed peaceful reign of about eight years. quite a capable king.
The
was Shuja'at Malwa, who had Khan, accumulated enormous wealth and had
to feel the force of his arn*s
first
the governor of
M^wa^and^ the Punjab.
effectively
over
the
established
hfc
under
country
authority his
rule.
Receiving intelligence of the indentions of the Emperor, he sent submissive and reverential representations and so secured
the
his
safety.
was
Punjab, Salim Shah
When
not go
act
orders to
Punjab. of
the
lebellion.
of
Azim Humayun, governor but
prudent
summoned him
personally
but
sent a
The King took
representative.
an
less
insubordination.
more
of
arrogant.
to his court,
he did
substitute to act as his
an
this
as
He
issued
insult
and
peremptory head against the Azim anticipated drastic action on the part Emperor and therefore broke into open his
army and
He was
set out at its
defeated
at
Ambala and put
to
Again he gathered strength and fought an engagement and again he was defeated and put to flight. In Kashmir he was shot dead by certain tribesmen. flight.
The Punjab was
occupied.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
68
Another important event of Salim Shah's reign was r
the
~
Under it
eloquence
pursuasive
masses and
when
rise
a
of
religious
movement.
*
created
the influence of
Alai's
disturbances in the Punjab.
assumed threatening
it
Shaikh
roused the religious zeal of the
dimensions
But,
and
its
adherents began to defy the State authorities in the open, the Sultan was compelled to order the immedi-
and execution of the Shaikh.
arrest
ate
were carried
out and Alai was put to death. the movement author died
The orders With the when it
death of
its
was quite
in its inception, its followers gradually
dwindl-
ing into insignificance. repression in order
Salim Shah adopted a policy of
*
to establish his authority in his
Government ot Sriliin
Shah.
dom.
He
standing enforced
his
authority.
.
.
..
,
king.
.
maintained a well-organised army and through it he
He
curbed
Amirs and took away from them
all
the power 01 his the instruments
war they had in their possession. He deprived them of their elephants and put an end to the practice of
of
granting money for a certain quota of horses supplied He held the strings of tne State coffers to the State.
own hand and effected economies wherever He maintained an efficient spying possible.
tight in his it
was
system and kept himself informed about all the events of his reign through it. A new code of regulations was formulated and justice was administered in accordance with the
it.
Neither the
Munsifs,
were
Qazls
nor
empowered
regulations. In order to enforce the
the to
Muftis,
interpret
only these
new code 'throughout
THE AFGHAN REVIVAL
69
the kingdom special troops were stationed and the King himself endeavoured to see that the machinery of his
government worked well. Salmi Shah died in 1553 A. C. by
Muhammad Shah
Shah
'Adil.
a profligate debauchee. the nickname of 'Adali, his
after
followed
to the throne.
Khun,
K^
and
king
Muhammad
He was
The latter was, however, killed by hjs und ^ Mubariz who became
'Achl
1553-5o.
:
his son, Firoz
'
enthronement,
assumed
the
title
of
The new king proved
himself
He
himself
soon earned
the fooMsh
he
began
for
'
Tor
;
to
immediately
dissipate
the
resources of the Imperial Treasury in senseless prodigality. Himself a chartered libertine, he allowed t^e adminisof
tration
his
empire to be controlled by his clever and
capable minister, Hemu, who managed the affairs of But even the State with great vigour and wisdom. then it was impossible to bring under control the
elements
jarring
Salim the
The
King's
and
Delhi,
machinery
when
broke of
out
at
the
death
everywhere
administration
of
and
collapsed.
own
cousin, Ibrahim Khun, seized upon Agra but he was soon beaten by his brother,
Sikandar Sur, whole of the
Ganges.
had escaped
Rebellions
Shah. entire
that
who succeeded
in securing for himself
the
between the Indus and the was the Such chaotic condition of Hindustan territory
messengers
Humayun,
inviting
were
him
sent to
to
the
occupy the
ex- Emperor
throne of
his
ancestors.
This brings us to tne main theme of our history. Humayur, our homeless hero, was not idling away his
THE MTTGHAL EMPIRE
70
Though
time.
the
of
their
his
courses
of the
help
defeated
deposed and driven out
was not altogether deserted by fortune
India, he stars in
defeated,
Sultan lost
months he
Persian
fighting
King,
Sikandar Sur
empire. fell
were
After
from the
on January 24, 1556 A.C.
a
stairs
he
;
of
the
him.
With
attacked
India,
for
and
took
possession
brief
reign
of
of his library
twelve
and died
CHAPTER V
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
JALAL-UD-DIN
(1556-1605 A. C.) Reconquest and Reconstruction
Humayun was j
succeeded
Akbar,
t
who
unrivalled
He
Indian history. about fifty
for
mighty
human
by
his illustrious son,
stands as a splendid and figure in the annals of
successfully ruled in
years,
and during
this
this period
country he made
and
enduring contributions to the cause of His versatile activity, embracing happiness.
every sphere of human endeavour, and manysided achievements assign him a place second to none in the history of India. No other Mughal Emperor
almost
is
extolled so
much by
historians as he for his sagacious
statesmanship, dexterous diplomacy and military skill. In this short space it is impossible to do justice to his reign, which most unmistakably comprises the brightest
epoch
of
therefore,
The present account is, history. to be imperfect. It does not, however,
Indian
bound
omit anything important. For the sake of clarity and convenience the subject is divided into five parts: (1)
Reconquest
Annexations,
(3)
and
Reconstruction,
Din-i-Ilahl,
(4)
(2)
Territorial
Administration,
and
(3) Literature and Fine Arts.
Akbar was born Akbar's early against
life.
Sind
Amarkot on the 23rd of November, 1542 A. C. His father, Humayun, was out on an expedition at
with the Rajah of that place (Amarkot)
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
72
when son.
he
received
He
searched
the
news of the
birth
of
his
the saddle
bags of his escort and found only a bag of musk which he distributed among his friends and prayed that the fame of his son might spread in the world like the smell of that substance. The boy was brought up in the camp by his mother,
Hamida Bano Begum.
At the tender age of twelve months his father left him in Qandhar at the mercy of his uncle, Kamran. There his education was sadly At the age of five years his vindictive uncle neglected. exposed him
when
the
f
o
a
latter
of
shots fired by his father
was besieging
he had
however,
volley
a
narrow
Kabul.
escape.
By
Fortunately, the time he
attained the age of twelve, he had acquired considerable in the control of camels, horses and elephants.
skill
He had had enough
of experience in the use of arms much of warfare as a companion of his
and had seen
father in his fugitive life. At the age of thirteen he was called upon to occupy the throne of Hindustan on the
death of his father.
While Akbar was on his way back from the where he had gone with his Punjab, J u accession. His father's faithful friend, Bairam Khan, .
.
put an
end to the misgovernment of its governor, Abdul Mali, he received at Kalanaur the news of the to
death
of
his
father.
After performing the customary
mourning, the coronation ceremony was gone through in a garden on the 14th of February, 1556
rites of
As the new king was only a boy of thirteen, 1 Bairam Khan began to act as regent and formally
A. C. took
charge of
the
Imperial
Government.* Akbar's
JALAL-UP-DIN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
73
brother, Muhammad Hakim, was confirmed government of Kabul, which, though a dependency of Hindustan, was none the less an independent kingdom.
younger in his
After his restoration,
Humfiyun
did not live long to
establish his authority in Hindustan.
The political
He
condition of India in 1556.
died only ,
a
,
Akbar,
son,
year
and
after,
r
i
therefore,
In 1556
a troublous inheritance.
to
his
succeeded
A. C. anarchy and confusion reigned supreme in India and famine and pestilence were rampant in the rank
and
The
file.
fairest
and Agra,
Delhi
including
which carried away
a
were
Northern
visited
by
India,
plague,
number of f he people. Delhi had become a bone of
large
throne of
the
Politically,
of
provinces
contention between the Afghans and the Mughals, and the country had been reduced to a mere geographical or
expression,
a
congeries
of
small
The
states.
North-West India was contested by on the one hand, and Muhammad Shah 'Adil on the other. The former had collected a large
sovereignty
of
Sikandar Sur
arrny in the Punjab and was aspiring for the sovereignty of the whole of Hindustan the latter had retired to the ;
uas increasing the area of his but his indomitable commander-in-
eastern provinces and
influence chief,
there
;
Hemu, who had earned
for
himself
a
unique as
many by successfully fighting from was battles, advancing twenty-two pitched towards his of the master, Agra Chunar, capital with a large army, gathering strength on his march military
distinction
as
from the enemies of the Mughal cause.
Before Bairam
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
74
Khan came Beg,
to the rescue,
Governor
the
and
put
Hemu
occupied Delhi,
to
coins
struck
Canopy
r
Agru had fallen and TardI defeated Delhi, had been fall
of
Agra,
ascended the Mughal Throne,
own name,
his
head
his
the
After
flight
in
over
of
and
raised
the
Imperial
assumed the title of he was with the ambition
Consumed as Vikramaditya. of conquests, he was equally aflamed with
idea
the
of
The fact that Humayun acquiring the empire of India. was dead and that a boy of thirteen was on the throne broadened the horizon of his ambitions.
Kabul,
v
under
Muhammad Hakim, all
intents
threatened
enjoyed
was an independent kingdom to and purposes. Its existence as such was by
its
of
inflicted
Badakhshan.
of
under
independence
The Rajputs shock
Sulaiman
Rajasthan
its
Bengal
Afghan
Chiefs.
had recovered from the
on them by Babar
;
they were
now
in
Malwa ?nd unchallenged possession of their castles. Gujarat had renounced their allegiance to the Central Government during the
Gondwana
was
ruled
reign of
by
its
Muhammad own
local
Tughluq, chieftains.
Orissa was independent. Kashmir, Sind and Balochistan were free from external control. The Deccan Sultanates of
Ahmednagar,
Khandesh and own Sultans, who were at
Bijapur,
Golconda,
Berar were ruled by their daggers drawn with one another. of
Vijayanagar
then
towered
The Hindu Empire supreme
in
wealth,
The Portuguese were powerstrength and civilization. ful in the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf ; they sway of the western sea-coast and possessed some good sea-ports, including Goa and Diu.
held the
JALAL-UD-DIN
Such was the
MUHAMMAD AKBAR India
of
situation
ascended the throne. eof
when Akbar was fortunate
he
Mughal Dynasty that the young Emperor had a powerful supand an excellent general and statesman in Bairam for
ISt!lSk porter
It
75
*
Khan, who served his master and secured he attained the age of discretion.
till
his position
The
first
important thing that he was required to do as
regent
Hemu, who was advancing
against
was
to fight against
the
Mughal Emperor
at the
head of a huge army. Almost
Mughal armv advised the Emperor to retreat to Kabul, but Bairam Khan successfully resisted such a pusillanimous step as would have spoiled all
the officers of the
Forthwith he prospects of the Mughal Dynasty. ordered the immediate arrest and execution of TardI the
Beg on a charge of misconduct enemy, and himself marched out
in the face of
to
the
oppose Hemu.
Fo-tune favoured the resolute Mughal general from the An advance-guard had already handicapped
outset.
Hemu
by capturing the whole park of
his artillery.
The
commanded by a military genius of no came to severe blows at the memorable
two armies, each
mean
merit,
plain of Panipat.
Hemu made
a furious charge of his
wing of the Mughal elephants and soon threw the army into confusion, and there was considerable conleft
sternation
in
the
turned at once in thick of fight,
Mughal Camp. The tide of favour of the Mughals when,
Hemu
was
and rendered unconscious. his
elephant
decided
Mughals won the day.
the
hit in his
The fate
fall
of
victory in
the
eye with an arrow of the leader from the
battle.
The
Hemfl, the hero and the hope
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
76 of
the
Hindus,
was
taken
and
prisoner
brought
Emperor. Bairam was anxious to see the young emperor slaying a most formidable enemy, but the chivalrous Shahinsktih refused to do so, saying before the
that
it
was unchivalrous
to slay a
upon Bairam Khzln took out
Hemu. The
his
fallen
There-
foe.
own sword and
slew
removed the most powerful Hemu was opponent of Akbar. His army was defeated and slain.
victory at Panlpat
the'eatul
A
routed.
ruthlessly
large
including a big treasure and 1,500 elephants,
fell
booty, into the
Delhi and Agra and the hands of the victorious army. were The way was districts occupied. neighbouring prepared
Hindus
for
further
own
to establish theu
The
The
conquests.
rule in
hopes of the India were dashed
Mughal arms was established and Akbar was hailed as the Emperor of The Afghan Rule came to an end and the Hindustan. Mughals began to rule in India. These were the net to the ground.
results of the
A month
prestige of the
Second Battle of PanTpat. after the Battle of Panlpat,
and Submission of Sur
Akbar
towards thr n6
the f
turned
their
attention
Sur claimants to the
^^
elusions with
Bairam Khan
Bef
re
^'^
Hemu, Bairam had
CO "' sent
against Sikandar Sur, who had retired to the Siwalik Hills and had taken shelter in the
an army
stronghold of Mankot, from where he could easily defy the authority of the Emperor. The fort was
beleaguered and Sikandar
was reduced
to su^.h straits
JALAL-UD-DIN that he
was compelled
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
77
He
consented
to sue for peace.
to surrender himself if he was decently provided for. The stronghold was occupied and Sikandar was assigned an estate in the east, where he died in 1569 A, C. In
1557 A.
C Muhammad Shah
Adall met his death in a
Thus, within a
conflict with the king of Bengal.
span
time, the three acknowledged
of
Akbar were got
of
and he was now securely seated Delhi. Next year (1558) Ajmer,
rid of,
on the throne of Gwalior
brief
adversaries
and Jaunpur
were annexed to the
Mughal
After these conquests, Bairam Khan turned his serious attention to the internal administration of the
Empire.
But ere long he carne into conflict with his ambitious and impatient royal ward. The story of his rise and fall is an interesting episode in the early history
country.
of the present reign.
A Turkman Bairam Khan, or
by birth and a Shia Muslim by faith, Bairam Khan was one of the most
and
devoted
Khan Bba.
Humayun. master
by him his
been
all
in
He
followers
had suffered with
of his
and had stood the privations of a fugitive some of his most trying situations. But for
advice able
faithful
life
and to
assistance,
reconquer
Humayun would
India.
Akbar was equally unmixed and
not have
loyalty towards his services to the
His
was at his instance Mughal cause were invaluable. It chat the Second Battle of Panlpat was fought and a At his accession Akbar cannot be decisive victory won. It was said to have possessed any definite kingdom. and the surrounding during his regency that Delhi, Agra were occupied, and Ajmer, Gwalior and districts
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
78
It was he, again, who Jaunpur were conquered. removed the rivals of his young master and securely seated him on the throne of India. His ability, age and
experience enabled him to acquire an inestimable influence in the Mughal Empire. He was a shrewd
He was
and a
rigid disciplinarian. his master's youthful friendships and
politician
any favours which the
jealous of tolerate
would not
might bestow upon
latter
his
servants without his consultation.
Unfortunately TT
His
,
,,
fall.
enongh, Bairam Khan had made many enemies at the Court byJ his .
,
haughty
Hamlda Bano Bagum,
behaviour.
Maham
the
Ankah, and
foster-brother
Delhi
all
demeanour
;
foster-mother
him
;
Adham
;
a
Khan, Governor of
the
reasons of
for
arrogant
the Queen-mother
Shahab-ud-Dln,
these disliked
and
their
own.
They availed themselves of every occasion to foment the feelings of irritation between the Emperor and the At last a trifling incident brought about a Protector. serious quarrel between
two.
the
was amusing himself with an got out of
Once,
when Akbar
elephant-fight, the
two
broke
contesting animals They the Bairam, Kuan's enclosure, stampeded camp through In spite of Akbar's close by, and put his life in danger.
strong
protestations
accidental, the
Khan
that
the
lost his
control.
occurrence
temper
and
was purely immediately
execution of an innocent personal servant At this Akbar's indignation knew no of His Majesty.
ordered
bounds.
the
For some time there was a
between the reconciliation
feeling of coldness
Emperor and his Atallq (tutor), but a was effected when the former soothed the
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
JALAL-UD-DIN ruffled
feelings
of
the
79
by giving him the hand Humayun. But before
htter
of Salima Sultana, the niece of
long Bairam executed another courtier, Pir Muhammad, for an alleged offence. By such actions as these he not
only strained his relations with the Emperor but also The earned for himself a host of enemies at the Court.
appointment of (Shias) to
high
his
own
and
offices
kith
kin
and
co-religionists
in the State grossly offended the
Sunnl Orthodoxy. His punishment of the Emperor's servants and courtiers for the most trivial misconduct had already estranged him to the Emperor but when that his regent was harbouring learnt latter the ;
plans of placing Kamran's son, Abul yasim, on the The breakingthrone, the tension took a serious turn. Now a conspiracy was point had already reached.
organised
against
him and
at the instance of
Maham
Bano
Ankah, Begum, Shahab-ud-DIn, the Emperor went to pretext
hunting,
with
order
his
feelings
mother,
regent.
Maham Ankah
Bairam against the Emperor,
Khan.
Soon
following
henceforth
to
tutelage
of
govern our
far-removed
Mecca from
to Delhi to see
While he was
already smarting
rather
domineering
'
:
being our intention people by our judgment, let
our well-wisher withdraw from retire to
matter.
from Delhi, Akbar issued
after his return
declaration
his
the
employed all arts of She fomented the
who was
of
under the galling
and
Bianah, on the
to discuss
it
intrigue
the
in
was arranged that he should go mother, who was given out to be ill.
There his
of
Hamida
Adham Khan and
It
all
worldly
to pass the rest of his
the toils
of
attachments life in 1
public
life.
prayer,
Bairam
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
80
Khan soon
what was passing behind the that he had gone too far, he sent Realising
screen.
discerned
-
two trusty officers to the Court with assurances of unabated and offered loyalty towards the throne and Akbar supplication humility.' imprisoned the *
',
*
messengers and sent a certain Pir Muhammad Khan, once a subordinate of the Khan, at the instigation of the Court Party, in order to hasten his departure to Mecca.
Bairam Khan's pride was touched the
outburst
He
rebellion.
and
of
him
in
he
wrath,
was, however, the
before
brought
pardoned
his
view of
and
to the quick,
broke
in
open
taken prisoner
defeated,
Emperor,
into
who
graciously
When
his past services.
he
reached Lahore, where the Emperor was holding his Court, he was greatly impressed by the reception He threw himself at his sovereign's accorded to him.
and burst into tears. The forgiving King at once raised him up and made him take his former place on the right hand side at the head of the grandees of the
feet
Then His Majesty
Empire.
robe
magnificent alternatives
would be
:
(1)
of
honour
invested
him
and offered
with
him
a
three
he preferred to remain at Court, he honour as the benefactor
If
treated with profound
(2) If he chose to remain in Royal House be he would office, given the governorship of one of the Imperial provinces, and (3) If he wished to retire to a
of the
;
he would be honourably provided for and comfortably escorted to on his pilgrimage to Mecca He replied that, having once lost his master's confidence, religious
any more added that the clemency of the Padshah was
he was
and
life,
not
willing
to continue in his service
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
JALAL-UD-DIN
81
enough, and his forgiveness was more than a regard " for his former services. Let me, therefore, turn my " to another and be thoughts from this world," he said, to
permitted
Padshah approved suitable escort his
the
to
proceed
the
Holy
Shrine."
of his decision, provided
The
him with a
and assigned him a liberal pension for But he was not destined to reach
maintenance. '
He was murdered on
Holy Shrine*.
private
This
at Patan.
enemy
his
way by
a
took place in January
1561 A. C.
Bairam Khan's dismissal cleared the way for the Court Party, the most prominent 'Petticoat Government':
member
1560-64 A. C.
whom ,
which was Mahr.m Ankah, v u j historians have described as of
u-
,
*
'
the
'prime confidante of the Ring in all the affairs of the State. While dwelling upon the dismissal of Bairam
Khan, Dr. Smith remarks that the Emperor shook off the tutelage of the Khan-i-Khanan only to bring himself under the monstrous regiment of unscrupulous women ', '
and further observes that the most unscrupulous of them was Maham Ankah, who conferred high offices upon her
The Doctor
worthless favourites. in
his
remarks.
Akbar was not
Had
at
all
that been the case,
his fall,
enemy
the
terrible
facts.
;
for
he had no greater
Court than that women.
contrary to her wishes that the treated after his rebellion.
been undei the
all justified
dominated by Maham Ankah. the fate of Bairam Khan, after
would have been at
not at
is
His views are contradicted by
thumb
of
Khan
Again,
Maham
if
It was quite so was honourably
Akbar had
Ankah, as he
is
really
alleged
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
82
Adham Khan, her son, would have been man to receive a high title or a big jagir. But we know for certain that he was not entrusted with any
to
the
have been, first
Doubtless, he was responsible post in the State. sent against Malwa at the head of an army, but
once
when
the spoils of war after success, marched against him in person and chastisEmperor ed him for his brazen insolence. Afterwards, when he murdsred Shams-ud-Dln Atka Khan, on whom the
he
misappropriated
the
Emperor wished the
against
will
thrown down result that his
to
bestow the
of
his
from
office of
Vakil, quite
foster-mother, he was twice
the ramparts of his
brains were
fort,
with the
knocked out and
his
life
came to an end. If, Emperor had been under the influence of Maham Ankah, the punishment awarded to Adham Khan must have been much milder. therefore, the
Akbar acted independently own judgment, though he sought the
That was, however, not
so.
according to his advice of the Court
Party in certain affairs of the kingdom and held his foster-mother in high esteem.
By
the year 1564 A.C. Akbar had fully establishS
n
A. c!
seated
firmly
ed his authority; he had taken the reins of administration in his own hands, had overcome his rivals and had himself on the throne of Delhi. He had
the tutelage of Bairam Khan and the influence of the Court Party and had entered upon his personal As a man of strong imperial instinct, government.
shaken
off
he aspired to become the spyereign-ruler of India. Before he entered upon a career of conquest, he was called
upon
to suppress a series of rebellions
and
revolts.
JALAL-UD-DIN
One
of the
~
MUHAMMAD AKBAR officers
of
to the position
of
Uzbeg
Akbar had
xisen
Kban Zaman
appreciation of his valuable
KhanZamln.
83
at the Battle of Panlpat
U556
in
services
A. C.).
In 1560 A. C. the Afghans of Bengal, headed by Sher
Muhammad
'Adali, made an were They utterly defeated by Khan Zaman, who, however, refused to send to His
Shah
II,
son of
Shah
attempt to recover Delhi.
the elephants, included in the spoils of war. The Emperor took the field against him in person and advanced towards Jaunpur. When the Kh?n heard of the
Majesty
Emperor's advance, he marched out to pay homage to His Majesty, taking with him not only the elephants but the rest of the booty as well as other propitiatory With his usual generosity, the Emperor offerings. passed over his act of insubordination and confirmed
him
government of Jaunpur shortly afterwards. Adham Khan was employed by Akbar against Baz Bahadur of Malwa. He won a decisive in the
f
AdhamKha n.
Zaman by quest.
As
victory near Sarangpur over his enemy, but followed the example of Khan
and retaining the spoils of the conwas not enough, he went a step further
rebelling
if
this
Elated by his success, he
:
made
a lavish distribution of
the booty in order to increase his popularity, retaining, however, for himself the royal ensigns and a major part of the treasure, which ought to have been sent to the
Emperor as a matter of course. Akbar instantly marched into Malwa at the head of the Imperial army, took Adham Khan by surprise before he could break into open rebellion, captured the booty and removed him
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
84
from the government of Malwa
After his misconduct
the expedition against Malwa, Adham Khan was kept the Imperial Court, where he grew jealous of the promotion of Shams-ud-Dln to the position of Vakil, i.e.,
in
at
Smarting under the loss of his government of Malwa, he entered, one night, in the Diwan-i-KJ}as with some of his retainers and stabbed
Prime
Minister.
Vakil
the
to
The
death.
noise
that
the
followed
mi Her, aroused the Emperor from his sleep, brought him out of his private apartment and attracted him to 1
the scene of the occurrence.
the
Finding
his minister dead,
dealt such a blow to the traitor that he
Emperor
senseless to the ground.
He was
twice thrown
fell
down
from the terraced-roof of the royal palace inside the and killed. This took place in 1562 A. C.
fort
superseded by Pir Muhammad the government of Malwa. But
Adham Khan was in
^
Abdullah Khan.
r
was more a man
the
people
f
letters
than
His barbarous treatment of
of war.
of the province strengthened the cause of
Baz Bahadur,
who was
thus
enabled
to
expel
the
dominions with the help of the Mughals Pir Muhammad .was drowned Sultan of Kbandesh. out of
while his
Narbada.
command
his
defeated
troops
were
crossing
the
river
Akbar dispatched another army under the of one Abdullah
Khan who
inflicted
a severe
Baz Bahadur and recaptured Malwa. After some futile efforts to recover his kingdom, Baz Bahadur
defeat on
took
service
under
the
of the province
Mughal
wa made
Emperor.
The
over to Abdullah
government Khan, who soon followed the example of
his predecessor
JALAL-UD-DIN by an attempt
him and,
after
at
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
85
Akbar marched against fighting, compelled him to take
rebellion.
some
refuge in Gujarat.
Hotly chased
into
(Abdullah) Revolts of Uzbeg Chiefs- 1565-1567
.
,
chief
rebellious
ultimately
T
,
the
Gujarat,
made .
,
.
his ,
,
way ,
Jaunpur, where he joined hands with the traitor, Khan Zaman, and
in *
common cause with them against Mughal Emperor. An insurrection of threatc:;In &
Asaf Khan, and made the
dimensions broke out in Jaunpur in 1565 lasted
till
1567 A. C.
rising of the
Uzbeg
family of Babar, of
Akbar and
was somjthing
A. C.
and
like a general
Chiefs, the hereditary enemies of the
who his
It
did not like the Persianised ways
sympathetic
attitude
towards
his
much so that they now intrigued favour of Kamran's son, Abul Qasim. The
Persian officers, so against him
in
Imperial army sent against Khan Zaman was defeated in 156j A. C. Thereupon the Emperor himself advanced
towards the insurgent chiefs, who at once made a show of submission, but never submitted. A little afterwards they were joined by the disaffected Afghans and the discontented Musalmans of the eastern provinces. Before Akbar could find time to suppress the rebellion
he was called upon to protect the was which simultaneously invaded by Mirza Punjab, Muhammad Hakim of Kabul. At this critical juncture
of the
Uzbegs,
he displayed marvellous courage, resourcefulness and He lost no time in marching to the presence of mind. the allies of his brother and putting Punjab, dispersing
them
to
discomfited
flight.
The
Mirza
returned
to
Kabul
After restoring internal tranquillity in the
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
86
Punjab, the Emperor again turned his attention to the insubordinate Uzbegs. Post-haste he marched into the
and took them by surprise at Mankuwal (ten miles from Allahabad). Khan Zaman was killed in the battle which ended disastrously for the His Uzbegs. east
accomplices were severely punished while Abul Qasim was executed in the fort of Gwalior. Thus, the back of the
Uzbeg
"nnressed
rising till
was broken, though
it
was not
Another instance of insubordinate and of^cers,
Monstrous act of
finally
1573 A. C.
who
head-strong
tried to take
law
in their
own hands and
Khwajah
escape punishment misconduct owing to their .
for their
Mu'azzam.
.
,
.
friendship with or influence over the of Khwajah Mu'azzam, a half-brother
Emperor, was that
dowager-queen, Hamida Bano Begum. This half insane monster took his wife to his country-seat
of the 1
'
and stabbed her to death. This tragic accident took At the request of the deceased's place in 1564 A. C. mother, Emperor Akbar hurried to the scene of the occurrence, seized the murderer, Mu'azzam, and his accomplices, and threw Gwalior.
them
Akbar did not take long
into the State Prison
to
realize that
there
of
was
something grievously wrong with the P i TT soon He policy of his predecessors.
Akbar and
.
the Rajputs.
discovered establish his empire he
that
if
must broad-base
he
wanted to on the
his rule
acquiescent good- will of his subjects, irrespective of their creed. Of all the dynasties that had yet
caste or ruled
m
*
India, that of
Tamerlane was the most insecure
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
JALAL-UD-DIN in its foundation.
secure the
the
Rajputs born
This sense of insecurity led him to of
sympathies
the Hindus
in
general and
The latter constituted the Hindu community. They were
in particular.
of the
military class
the
'
87
war-lords
indispensable
the
to
and
India
of
cause
new
the
of
was
their support
dynasty.
Accordingly, Akbarset himself to the task of reconciling
Rajputs to the ideas of the Mughal Rule. The following were the methods he adopted (1) With the true acumen and insight of a statesman the
:
he entered into matrimonial alliances Matrimonial
...
.,_
--
TU The
-a.
Wlt " t" e Rajputs.
alliances.
c.
*.
first
-o--
-.
Rajput
Rajah to give him his daughter in marriage was Bharmal Kachhwaha of Amber. This support of a brave It symbolised, Rajput family. says Dr. Beni Prasad, the dawn of a new era in Indian politics, it gave the
marriage secured
the
powerful
'
'
'
sovereigns ; it secured to emperor the services of some
of remarkable
country a line
four generations of
Mughal
f cap ains and diplomats that mediaeval India produced'. This marriage was solemnised in 1562 A. C. In 1570 the Emperor married princesses
of the
greatest
from the Rajput States of Jaisalmir and Bikaner. In 1584 A. C, Prince Salim (Jahanglr) was married to the daughter of Rajah Bhagwan Das. (2) Towering above the trammels of religion and the petty
prejudices
of
the Age, Akbar
appreciated and rewarded the services
and other Hindus,
of his
Hindu
Rajputs. posts of power
and
subjects, particularly the
He
responsibility,
granted
both
them
high and
in the civil
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
88
He
departments.
military
took them
dence and admitted
into
confi-
his
them to every Todar Mai, Rajah Bharmal, Rajah Bhagwan Rajah Das and Rajah Man Singh were some of those who degree of power.
enjoyed high commands in the army. Nearly half of Akbar's soldiers and many of his generals were Hindus. (3)
The
was
basic principle of Akbar's policy
To
his subjects
all
toleration.
he granted
freedom of worship and the liberty of
conscience.
conscience.
He
the
liberty of
abolished the Jizia, ,
.
levied
upon the Ziwwts (non-Mus-
the taxes imposed upon Hindu pilgrims. treated his Hindu subjects as well as his Muslim
lims),
He
and
all
'
subjects
former
rather,
;
To
'.
adopted
their
with
please
customs
a
Hindu
his
and
Akbar took a
mixed
of
the
he often freely with
beliefs.
lively interest in the welfare of his
Hindu
subjects.
He
tried to eradi-
ev ^ s that had honeycombed While following the society.
cate the
Reforms.
Hindu policy
favour
subjects,
practices,
them, and seemingly shared their (4)
in
leaning
toleration
of
hesitate to
and
reconciliation,
remove the abuses
he
did
of Hindu* society.
not
He
forbade child-marriage, discouraged Sati* and encourag-
ed widow-remarriage. against
caste-restrictions
humanity. *
Besides, he
He
and
practically
inculcated
preached love
encouraged fellow-feeling among
of
all his
rite of burning widows alive with the dead bodies of husbands, in vogue among t he Hindus in ancient and madiaeval India.
their
The
:
JALAL-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
89
and imparted education to all and sundry. During his reign the Hindus studied side by side with the Muslims without any restrictions of rank, race or subjects
religion.
By such methods as enumerated above, Akbar won over the Rajput element to his Effects of the
Three
side
above methods.
accrued
benefits
from
the policy of toleration and reconciliation
over
him:
adopted by ;
(2)
when was and
support
Uzbegs
the
used
The Rajput danger was
(1)
Rajputs were as
a
reconciled,
against
counterpoise
insubordinate
officers
;
and
(3)
their
the their
loyalty served as a strong safeguard against the opposition of the Afghans who had been freshly dethroned.
For the
Emperor
operation universally
hand,
it
it
was wise to
enlist
the
active co-
the Rajputs whoi.e martial qualities were For the Rajpilts, on the other admired.
of
was equally wise their
appreciated
merits,
submit to a sovereign who rewarded their services, res-
to
pected their feelings and tolerated their faith. After erecting the famous Ibadat-Khana at Fathpur Slkrl for the meetings of the intele
lectuals
of his
formal
letter of
reign,
Akbar sent a
invitation
to
the
Goa, requesting them to send to bis court some of their most learned and well-qualified Christian theologians to enlighten him on the philosoPortuguese authorities at
phical
basis
of Christianity.
The hopes
of the Portu-
guese ran high at the prospect of winning so desirable a convert as the Emperor of India.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
90
In 1580 A. C., .
Rudolf
whom
the
after
invitation,
they
with the Imperial complied request r r ^ t and sent a mission under Father
_. ... First Mission. .
a year
.
Acquaviva and were renowned
Father Monserrat, devotion
their
for
both
of
the
to
Akbar accorded the missionaries a most He treated them with great respect hearty welcome. and permitted them to build a chapel at Agra. He Christian faith.
evinced a keen
ana
Mary.
their
He
even
in
order
tuition
teachings on
sacred pictures of Christ
interest in the
the
placed
his son,
tc
the
try
unbiassed
Sallm,
effect of
mind
of the
under
Christian
young
;
but
nothing could shake his belief in his own faith. The Fathers were grievously disappointed in their expectations ; for indeed the Emperor was a hard nut to crack. first
achieving
mission its
years at the Mughal Court, returned in 1583 A. C., without
three
After a stay of
the
object,
i.e.,
without converting Akbar to
Christianity.
The second ***. Second Mission. .
mission, sent from
Court Mughal ~T
in
it
failed
to
convert
Akbar
1
590 A. C.
It
at the
too did
.
not fare better for
Goa, arrived
than to
its
predecessor
Christianity.
;
The
convinced the Jesuits that Akbar's inscrutable, though he still remained
failure of this mission
mind was most
most favourably disposed towards them and loved to have some of them with him. It remained at the Mughal Court for three years
(1590-1593
returned, as unsuccessful as the
first.
A.C.)
and then
JALAL-UD-DIN
The
third
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
mission arrived Imperial
Third Mission.
91
Lahore, where the then resided, and it
at
Court
was extended a rousing reception. It fared better than the first two inasmuch as it was allowed to build its chapels in Lahore and Agra and to
make
converts
valuable trading
permanent
To
if
it
could.
facilities
and
institution in the
the Portuguese
Akbar's object.
secured
it
Besides,
more or
became,
many less,
a
Mughal Empire.
Akbar was
at first
ment, then an enigma,
an encourage-
and
finally a
disappointment. Why ? because his object in inviting the Portuguese missionaries to his Court and showing profound veneration for the bitter
Gospel was to befriend
political
rather than
the Portuguese at of artillery,
and
to
He wished
religious.
Goa,
who
secure
possessed
their
a
assistance
large park against the stronghold of Aslrgarh as well as against his own son, Salim, who had rebelled against him. Akbar was more a politician and a statesman than a religious
Behind all his acts there propagandist or a missionary. were always some ulterior political motives
CHAPTER
JALAL-UD-DIN
VI
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
(CONTINUED) Territorial Annexations
(Conquests)
The
the
experience of
and the events daily notice alike awoke
past
to
his
coming Akbar to the dangers and difficulties that he would have had to face if India had continued J
T
Introductory.
.
to be a congeries
He
pression.
at the centre
was
to
or a geographical ex-
of small states
felt
the
necessity for a
to control the outlying
enjoy
the
blessings
paramount power provinces
eternal
of
if
peace.
India
The
unification of India, therefore, presupposed the conquest of all those
no
which the Mughals had
parts of India over
control.
After the Battle
U556
of
Panlpat occupied Delhi
Early conquests.
the
and
V>
/
Protectorate of
A.C.)
Akbar
Agra. During TT-I_ Bairam Khan he
^
t
Chunar and Gwalior, Jaunpur, conquered Ajmer, 1 564 A. he had C. the Mirtha firmly seated year By himself on the throne of instinct,
he now
the
whole of
own
sway.
aspired
Delhi. to
As a man
make
himself
of imperial the ruler of
Accordingly, he buckled himself to the task of reducing the whole of India to his
Hindustan.
He embarked upon
which was crowned Aslrgarh.
in
1601
a
A. C.
career
of conquest, the by capture of
MUHAMMAD AKBAK
JALAL-UD-D1N
In 1564 A. C. ht dispatched an
(1)
army
Gondwana in the under the command
^ Central Provinces
of Asaf K]]an, the governor of Kara-Manikpur. vati,
defended
as regent for her
acted
was
futile,
Gondwana was overrun and
battle-field.
The
dued.
Finding, however, that she stabbed herself to death
army.
Imperial
further resistance
Rajah, resumed
(2)
By
which was
at stake.
the end of the year 1566 A. C. Akbar had broken the back of almost all his
He now
formidable foes. self free to
had been
Bir Narayan, the
and perished on the
the fight
a desperate defence of the reputation
field of battle after
of his house
sub-
was plundered and immense
royal treasure
booty was obtained by the invaders.
minor
Durga-
young son, gallantly offered a stout resis-
kingdom and
her small
tance to the
on the
against
the Rajput State of
Oondwaiia.
who
93
found him-
campaign against Rajputana, which postponed owing to the Uzbeg Revolt and renew
his
Akbar, who wanted to rule over a united and peaceful India, could not brook the existence of such strong forts on the
An
other rebellions.
borders
Rana
of
frs
ambitious
empire
as
king
like
Chittor and Ranthambhor.
Rajput chivalry was dead. His son, Udai Singh, was now the premier prince of Rajasthan. Udai utterly lacked the qualities that had Sangha, the
characterised
flower of
unworthy scion Colonel James
Mewar had
He
proved to be the most of the famous house of Bapa Rawal.
his father.
Tod
justly
remarks
' :
Well had
it
been
poniard fulfilled his intention ; and had the annals never recorded the name of Udai Singh
for
the
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
94
'
It was, therefore, high catalogue of her princes time for the Mughal Emperor to resume his campaign
in the
He
Rajputana.
against
did
not,
forget that
perhaps,
Rana had given shelter and even pecuniary help to Baz Bahadur of Malwa after his defeat at the hands of the imperialists. The Ranas of Chittor were very proud of their noble ancestry. They had refused to enter into matrimonial alliances with the Emperor and had all the
An attack on Chittor was, along defied his authority. In 1566 A. C. Akbar a conclusion. therefore, foregone took the
person against Udai Singh at the head At his approach, the Rana retired
field in
of an efficient army. to the inaccessiole
leaving a
his person,
Rajput
soldiers
command
mountainous country
of
in
garrison of
the
eight thousand brave
stronghold under the and Patta. In October, 1567
Jayamal
thousand craftsmen
by which
order to save
charge of the
A. C. the famous fortress was five
in
walls
who had
invested with the help of
skilled in engineering operations
were
to
be
undermined.
the decided
The
of position,
advantage Rajputs, defended themselves with great courage, but they could not check the progress of the siege which was conducted in the
or
most
covered
planned to
scientific
manner then known. were
made
approaches, blow up the stronghold
Two and
with
sabats, it
the
was aid of
gunpowder. During the operations the powder exploded and killed no less than five hundred of the
too soon
and many more of the besieged, crowded on the The Emperor ordered the construction of new mines and continued the siege with renewed energy. besiegers
bastion.
By February, 1568
A. C. everything was ready and a
JALAL-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
95
/
furious
attack
was
made- on the
Rajputs.
One
night
Emperor chanced to se^ Jayamal while the latter was directing the repair of one of the breaches made by
the
the besiegers and shot him through his head. As usual, the fall of the commander decided the fate of the
As Akbar advanced
garrison.
them undefended. the
rite
of
to the breaches,
The Rajputs had
Jauhar.*
Wishing
to
he found
retired to
spare
perform
their lives,
Akbar summoned them to surrender. Committing their wives and children to the flames, they came out "ana fought and fell on the field of battle. Some of them cut their way through and others saved themselves and their families by binding their own women and '
children as prisoners, and, seizing a favourable opportunity, marched quietly through the cordon of besiegers as
if
were a detachment of Akbar's
they
conducting
their captives to
the Rajputs resorted
the rear
to this ruse to
'.
It
Rajput
allies
appears that
save their families
from death, availing themselves of the knowledge that the
Emperor had abolished the
prisoners
of
tolerated the
war,
otherwise
humiliation
daughters to fall into the
of
practice of enslaving the
would not have allowing their wives and they*
hands of the Mughals.
Akbar
returned to his capital, bringing with him this time as trophy a pair of wooden gates instead of a beautiful bride. *
When defeated and driven to despair, the Rajputs maswomen in order to prevent their falling into the
sacred their
hands of their victors and plunged themselves in the field with swords in their hands, fought their foes without fear and fell fighting on the field and dhd to a man. Sometimes their women willingly perished in the flames kindled by their own hands. This
was known as Jauhar.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
96
folio we J by the capture of the two Ranthambhor and Kalinjar. A little after the conquest of Chittor, Akbar sent an army under efficient generals for the reduction of Ranthambhor in
The
fall
famous
of Chittor
was
fortresses of
Rajasthan and himself appeared at the scene of action in February, 1569 A. Taking his position on the top of a hill close to the almost impregnable fortress, he
C
commenced bombardment and such
Rajah, Surjana Hara, to
He
to sue for peace.
the
and
Emperor who sent
the Rajput he was forced
sent his sons, Bhoja and Duda, to robes of honour on them
conferred
them back
was so much
reduced
straits that
to
impressed
father.
The Rajah
this act of
magnanimity
their
by
serve His Majesty, was complied with.
that he expressed his willingness to
Emperor Akbar. His wish At first he was made a Qildddr at Garhkantak, and a little later he was appointed governor of the
Benares and Chunar.
Before advancing
thambhor, Akbar had
detailed
an
against Ran-
army under the
Majnun Khan Kakshak against Kalinjar. Rajah Ram Chandra had already received the news of the fall of the two famous fortresses of Rajasthan. He submitted in 1569 A. C. and surrendered his
command
of
resistance. He stronghold to the imperial army without was granted zjagir near Allahabad, and Kalinjar was
placed in
mander
Majnun Khan, the valiant comMughal army. Ram Chandra's example
charge of
of the
was followed by many
other
surrendered their states to the
Rajput
princes,
who
Emperor and joined his But Udai Singh was ^ecure in his mountain fortresses, whither he had retired at the approach of
service.
JALAL-UD-DIN Akbar
There he had
at Chittor.
named 1572
it
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
after his
Udaipur was
A. C. and
Pratap Singh,
new
built a
his
by
to be a
destined
city
He
own name.
succeeded
who was
97
and
died in
son,
Rana
most
deter-
mined enemy of Islam and an avowed champion of Hinduism. He is said to have taken a vow to vindicate and to expel the Musalmans from India. Although his resources, as compared to those of the Mughal Emperor, were absolutely insignifithe honour of his house
cant and
chances
his
*
between, yet he those
who
fight
were few and
success
of
was fighting
for a principle
the chances of success or failure
for his
principles
do not stop '.
rar
and
measure
to
This bravest of the
brave Rajputs plunged himself into a life-long struggle to retrieve the sinking fortunes of his famous house and continued an unbalanced war till he recovered a considerable
excuse
for
part
of
the lost territory of Mewar.
war against him was needed.
a
No
Since he
refused to submit to Akbar, his destruction was, there-
determined upon. Rajah Man Singh, assisted by Asaf Khan II, undertook an expedition against the fore,
Rana
at the
head of a large army.
He
attacked
the
Gogunda in the Iravallies, but Pratab Singh was guarding the pass of Haldlghat leading to Gogunda. At the approach of the imperial army, a fierce hand to hand fight began and ended in victory for Akbar. The fortress of
Rana
received
a
serious
wound and
retired
to
the
For some time he was hardpressed by the and was compelled to live in the distant Mughals But in 1578 A. C. he was again in the hilly fortresses. mountains.
field
though
only
to
lose
Gondwana and Udaipur.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
98
Afterwards he was able to recover
almost
all
of
Mewar, absence
Ajmer and Mandalgarh, whose presence at Lahore was highly Emperor Rana necessary till the danger from Turan was over. of C. the whole in died 1597 A. after filling Pratap The danger from the India with his undying fame. in the
except, Chittor, of the
North-West Frontier being over, son, Salim, against of
Rana
Emperor sent his Amar Singh, the son and successor the
Realising the impossibility of success
Pratap.
mountain warfare against an indomitable race, the Prince retreated to Fathpur and thence to Allahabad, leaving Amar Singh secure in his possessions to the end
in a
The net result Mewar was that
of his father's reign.
of the
campaign against Rana was humbled and the famous
the
protracted of the
pride
fortresses of Chittor
and Ranthambhor were taken, Kalinjar and Ajmer were occupied and Rajputana was constituted into a separate province of the
Rajputs on
Mughal Empire. With most of the Akbar could now freely indulge in
his side,
his ambitious projects in other regions, (3)
It will
.
be Remembered that Gujarat was conquered and occupied by Emperor Humayun
though therefore
wished
only to reclaim it
Akbar temporarily. as a lost province of
Mughal Empire. Even in his own reign it had become a place of retreat for insurgent officers and The Mirzas, the Uzbegs and the refractory chiefs.
the
had taken refuge there. It was there that a serious insurrection had occurred. Above all, the wealth and plenty of the place, its flourishing trade and maritime commerce had a lure that was thriving royal cousins
JALAL-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
99
The time was highly favourable for the Mughal Emperor to recover what was once a province of
irresistible.
For anarchy and confusion reigned supreme in Gujarat owing to the struggle between Muzaffar Shah II and the Mirzas who had established
his father's empire.
themselves there
Humayun. The nominal
in the reign of
king, Muzaffar Shah, was a mere puppet in the hands of this faction or that. Moreover, Akbar received an invitation from Itimad Khan, the minister of Muzaffar Shah,
requesting it
was
him
in.
Shah, who
to relieve the fair province of the chaos
Forthwith, he marched against Muzaffar concealed himself in a corn field when he
heard of the
arrival
Ahmadabad.
After
chiefs
of Gujarat
foster-brother, laid
siege to
of
the
receiving
Emperor the
and putting
its
In
his
capital,
submission of
the
under
his
capital
Kban-i-Azam Mirza Aziz Koka, Akbar Surat which surrendered soon afterwards.
The Emperor, who had never seen a sea, made an excursion to Cambay and enjoyed a short sail on the ocean. He also made acquaintance with the Portuguese there. After introducing necessary administrative reforms,
Akbar returned
to
Fathpur
his back, the Mirzas
Slkrl.
As soon as he turned
broke into a serious revolt.
Post-
haste he marched again against Gujarat and, covering six hundred miles in nine days, he reached Ahmadabad 'a marvellous
the rebels by
upon them. rebellions
(1573 A.
surprise,
The
physical endurance*.
he
Mirzas,
inflicted a
crushing defeat
who had headed
the
Taking so
many
were
Emperor, finally crushed Order was soon restored and fortune
against C.).
feat of
again began to smile over Gujarat.
Rajah
Todar Mai
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
100
played a conspicuous part in restoring peace and plenty to this province
The conquest
his indefatigable efforts
by
of
marks a new
Gujarat
history of Akbar's reign.
Mughal Empire,
it
bounds.
It
a
increased
vastly
After to
began to
brought
the
income,
its
epoch in the annexation to the
prosper
by
leaps
and
Exchequer
Imperial
roughly
The Emperor
Rs. 50,00,000 annually.
and industry.
estimated
was
for
at
the
time brought into personal contact with the Portuguese, whose dealings with him had important political
first
Finally, the con-
on the history of the period.
effects
for further conquests. quest of Gujarat prepared the way It was used as a jumping-off point for the invasion of It opened the way into the the southern kingdoms.
Deccan and
Sulaiman Kara-am, who had founded an independent kingdom of Bengal in 1564 A.C.,
(4)
6nga
also accelerated the conquest of Bengal.
'
was wise
enough
to
acknowledge 1572 A. C.,
Akbar as his suzerain. On his death in he was succeeded by his headstroiig son, Daud. accession, the
He
decessor.
new king read the
At
his
reversed the policy of his pre-
Khutbd and struck coins
in his
own name and openly defied the authority of the Emperor. The conquest of Gujarat had extended the Empire of Akbar
the west
in
natural
that the
right
up
ambitious
to
the
sea.
It
Emperor would
was but desire to
Only a pretext acquire a similar frontier in the east. was enough to enable him to achieve his object. He found one when Daud attacked and occupied the fort of Zamania. Akbar himsejr marched against him
and drove
him from Patna and
Hajipur.
He was
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
JALAL-UD-DIN
101
defeated at Tukarai in Orissa and was compelled to submit to the Emperor and pay him tribute. Bengal was annexed to the Mughal Empire and Munim Khan
was made his
its
death
governor.
Munim
Daud
enabled
to
died in 1575 A. C.
recover
his
and
lost territory.
Akbar could not bear such an audacity. At once he ordered his army to march against him under the
command
Again he was defeated Rajmahal (1576 A. C.) In connection with the conquest of Bengal a of a capable general.
and taken prisoner
~
at
must bt made
u _i The Qaqshal
reference
Rebellion in Bengal.
which broke out
T*.
causes were
Its
Jahan.
who
Q{ (1)
:
to the rebellion
in tha* province after
its
governor>
Kh
Muzaffar Khan Turbati,
was appointed
governor after Khan-i-Jahan, his measures and offensive in his speech*.
was 'harsh in He was disliked by the people, specially the Qaqshals, for the new methods of assessment and the new regulations regarding the confiscation
unauthorised hold-
of
His harsh policy and its rigid enforcement earned ings. him enmity from all quarters. (2) Owing to the bad climate
of
allowances
When
the
Bengal, of
his
Emperor had
soldiers
in
increased
the
that
province. Imperial Diwan, reduced these half, the soldiers suffered and agitated.
Mansur,
serving
the
allowances by To allow discontent to enter the army was a blunder of So rigorous was the inquest that the first magnitude. even the Sayurghal lands were not exempt from it. This offended the Ulama, who preached and propagated against the Emperor. (3) Akbar's Sulh-i-Kul policy also precipitated the
crisis.
The
bigoted
Udlmd
declared
him
THF MUGHAL EMPIRE
102
an apostate from Islam and called upon the people to a
carry
The
crescentade
impious emperor
the Chughtai Qaqsfadls
'.
who
pay the ddgh tax and advanced upon the arms in their hands under their leader,
refused to
with
capital
Baba Khan. tents
were
revolt
to
first
'
the
against
who
joined by other malcon-
They were soon
aggravated the
Rajah Todar Mai
trouble.
was sent by the Emperor to suppress disorder in Bengal, uui the rebels had gained strength and the situation had taken a serious turn. Muzaffar was murdered and the whole of Bihar and Bengal lay at the feet of the
Koka
Al;bar then sent Aziz
Qaqsbdls.
to the
aid
of
Todar Mai, and the two generals combined to crush the Their efforts were crowned with success Qaqshdls. ;
but soon after the suppression of the Qaqsbdl rebellion, A there appeared another danger on the horizon.
Jdglrddr of Jaunpur, called against the
him and
defeated
Siwalik
established
hills
him.
Imperial private in
Bengal
he did
favours
enemy for
compelled
refuge favour and the
But a
his
;
not
Shah Baz Khan
time,
him
to
Emperor was live
long
into
to
fury
the
put in
reconciled
enjoy
was cut short by
Though
the
flee
Aziz Koka
there.
career
little later.
some
Farankhudi, rebelled
government.
to find
a word in his to
Masum
the his
fighting continued
of
the recalcitrant
movement had considerably abated and the danger was practically over. (5)
Many
of the orthodox
Musalmans,
particularly of
the eastern provinces, intrigued against the Emperor and wished to depose
him
iu favour of his
younger brother, Mirza
Muhammad
JALAL-UD-DiN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
103 >
Hakim.
Encouraged by this and emboldened by, the and revolts that followed one another in rapid succession, the Mirza sent an army under one of rebellions
When this expedition Punjab. he launched another under his general, Shadman,
his officers to attack the failed,
who was head of
by Rajah Man Singh. In the Punjab at the thousand horse. In vain he tried to
and
defeated
Hakim
1581 A. C.
fifteen
slain
invaded
himself
induce the inhabitants of India to join him. Akbar not only repelled him, but pursued him to Kabul and compelled
him
surrender his
to
the sovereign-ruler teristic till
anJ
territory
to
With
Hindustan.
of
submit to
his charac-
clemency, he allowed his brother to retain Kabul Mirza Hakim died in 1585 A. C. and
his death.
Kabul was converted It
Empire.
into a
was placed
who was soon
in
charge of
Mughal
Rajah Man
Singh,
called back because he could not keep
He was
the unruly Afghans under control.
Rajah BIr Bal,
the
of
province
who
relieved
by
was, however, killed in a campaign
The results of the conquest of against the Yusafzals. Kabul may be enumerated here In the first place, :
it
to
dealt a death-blow to the orthodox rebels
make Mirza Muhammad Hakim
who wanted
the ruler of India,
inasmuch as he was regarded as a strict Sunm. Secondly, it cowed down the conspirators and the personal awe, inspired by Akbar's character, courage and capacity,
held the waverers
a free indulge
hand in
impunity.
for
his
to duty.
the rest religious
Fourthly,
it
of
his
gave him he could now
Thirdly, life
innovations
removed the
;
it
with absolute barrier
which
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
104
had hitherto prevented the inhux of hardy soldiers from Afghanistan and immensely increased the military resources of the Emperor. Finally, it removed the possibility
Frontier and
from
invasion
of
kept
India
in
beyond the North-West immunity from external
aggression.
The problem
of the North- West Frontier has always
engaged the attention and influenced North-
Chat's Frontier West
t he
Policy.
policy of
internal as
well
the
as
external
almost all Indian governments. During the early Muslim period
the Emperor-Sultans adopted effective measures against the
invasions.
Mongol
by constructing a series points in the
They safeguarded
their
kingdom
of military outposts at vulnerable
North- West
Frontier
and
by stationing there. and Balban, garrisons strong experienced redoubtable made Gbazi Malik and Ala-ud-Din Khilji With Akbar as efforts to fortify the frontier outposts. officers
the emperor of India, it was but natural to firm hold on the North-West Frontier.
conquest of
Kabul,
he tried to
reduce the
establish a
After
the
tribal terri-
He shifted his court to Lahore, where it remaintory. ed from 1585 A. C. to 1598 A. C. During this period he was busy
in
reducing
The Uzbegs, under
the Uzbegs and the Afghans. had ousted
their leader, Abdullah,
Badakhshan and had now fixed Abdullah, an ambitious and experienced general as he was, was likely to receive support from the orthodox Afghans against the 'heretical Emperor '. Akbar's fears were not ill-founded and he was ful'y alive to the gravity of the situation. Mirza Sulaiman
their
out of
eyes on Kabul.
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
JALAL-UD-DIN
105
But, before dealing \.ith his formidable enemy, he turned his attention to the suppresRoshanite , sion of disaffection caused by the Movement. .
,
,
Roshnai Movement. The Roshanites*
were defeated and
their leader, Jalal,
was
who had
intended
at Gbaznln and his and sent to the Imperial captured accomplices Court. This occurred in 1600 A. C. After effectively suppressing the Roshanites, Akbar undertook to put an
an invasion
of India,
killed
were
end
who
to the agitation of the Yusafzai Pathans,
make common cause Zain Khan was sent
migni,
against him with Abdullah Uzbeg. He defeated them against them.
twenty-three fights and established fortified posts to But the Imperial troops were soon hold them in check.
in
exhausted owing to foe, so
much
so that Zain
for reinforcements.
activity of
the wily
Khan was compelled
to apply
the ceaseless
The Emperor
ness of the situation and
realized
soon sent an
the serious-
army under
the
Rajah Bir Bal and Hakim Abdul Path, none of whom had any experience in the use of arms.
command As soon
of
they joined Zain Khan, the three generals began to quarrel among themselves and thus gave their enemy the advantage of divided counsels. The result as
campaign was that as many as 8,000 Imperial Bir Bal soldiers were slain with stones and arrows. of the
was
also
killed
In order to
and Zain
retrieve the
Khan had a narrow
escape. disasters of this campaign, the
Emperor sent Rajah Todar Mai and
his
own
son,
* The Roshanites wre the followers of one Bayazid, who claimed to be a prophet himself and attached little importance
to the teachings of the
Holy Qur'an.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
106
This Prince Murad, at the head of a large army. was the luck in for store better a imperialists. completely crushed
the
rebels,
and according
to
time
They Abul
A
'
Fazl, large number (of the enemy) were killed, and many were sold into Turan and Persia. The country of Sawad (Swat), Bajaur and Bunir, which has few
equals for climate, fruits cleansed of the evil doers/
and cheapness
of food,
was
The result of this campaign was that the Yusafzals were subdued and Abdullah was
convinced of the imperial resources, so that he gave up the idea of Indian conquest. (6)
The conquest
Kashmir was accomplished in 1586 A. C. without any serious / The Muslim opposition or difficulty.
Kashmir. rulers of
Kashmir
cruelties
on
their
of
were reported subjects
to
have committed
who were mostly Hindus.
This afforded a favourable opportunity to interfere with the
independence
of
that
kingdom.
The
excellent
climate of the valley and its natural scenery must have During equally attracted the attention of tHe Emperor. stay at Lahore, Akbar availed himself of the anarchical state of Kashmir and made an attempt to
his
annex
it
to his empire.
He
sent Mirza
SLah Rukh and
Bhagwan Das against Yusaf Shah, its ruler. A was peace patched up between the imperialists and the Sultan when the latter agreed to send his two sons to the Emperor as hostages. Akbar disapproved of this and dispatched another army under the command of Rajah
Qasim Khan
to
wrest
Kashmir from
its
ruler
who
had evaded the humiliation of paying personal homage to His Majesty. The imperialists pressed Yusa* so hard
MUHAMMAD AKBAK
JALAL-UD-DIN he offered
that
his
who had managed
But
submission.
107
,
his son, Yiaqub,
to escape, continued to struggfe
he too was defeated and forced to submit.
and his son, Yaqub, were enlisted
Both Yusaf
tnansabddrs
as
Kashmir was constituted into a part In 1589 A. C. Akbar paid a Kabul.
till
and
of the province of visit
to
Kashmir
and entrusted its administration to efficient officers of Henceforth Kashmir became ability and experience. the of the summer-seat Mughal Emperors. (7) Multan had been under the Mughal EmperoiS since 1574 A. C. Its governor, KhanSmd and _ T i-ivnanan Abdur Kahim, was entrusted Balochistan. .
.
,,,
.
,
with the task of conquering Sind and still outside the ambit of the
Balochistan which were
Empire. Mirza Sind, was defeated
Indian of
Beg,
the Tarkhan ruler
two
engagements
Jam in
and
compelled to surrender both the stronghold of Sehwan and the small state of Thatta. This took place in 1592 A. C.
Through the good offices of the governor of Multan, Mirza Jam Beg was allowed to retain the principality of Thatta and was made a commander of 5,000.
He
gave a good
proof
of
his
loyalty
and
The
distinguished himself in the Deccan campaign. year 1595 A. C. saw the annexation of Balochistan.
Mughals attacked and occupied the Mir Masum. As a result, the Balochistan succumbed to the Mughal arms.
In February the fort
of
whole of (8)
^ x QandhSr. ..
Sibi
under
The conquest
of Sind
Akbar
and Balochistan supplied
with
an excellent ^ point
d*
.
appui
for the conquest
of Qandhar,
the scene of his ancestors' activities and exploits.
In fact
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
108 it
was a necessary prelude
Mirza
tu
that premeditated idea.
Muzaffar Husain, the
King of Qandhar,
was
harassed by the Turks and theUzbegs. A kbar benefited from this weakness of the Shah. He sent an expedition to
Qandhar
at the
invitation
the
of
Shah,
who was
In May, 1595 entangled in a conflict with the Uzbegs. A. C. the imperialists took charge of the province without bloodshed. It was indeed a master-stroke of
Without straining his relations with the Akbar annexed Qandhar to his empire. The
diplomacy.
dian,
conquest of Qandhar completed the conquest of Northern It secured Akbar's position in the countries of India. the North-West.
It
brought home to Abdullah Uzbeg
the military strength of
he
tried to
Uzbeg
Emperor Akbar and henceforth
now
invasion of India was
The
The
maintain friendly relations with him.
a thing of the past.
acquisition of Kabul, Kashmir, Sind, Balochis-
and
tan
conquest
rounded
completed the Northern and India
Qandhar of
off
the
Mughal Empire which
The turn of steadily extended and consolidated. It was next. Akbar's the South came long-cherished
was
desire to bring the Shia Sultanates of the his
Now
own sway.
Deccan under
that he was successful in establish-
the North, he found himself at authority The leisure to turn his attention towards the Deccan.
ing
in
his
distracted state of the Sultanates induced
the troubled
With
waters.
Hindu Empire
the
him
destruction
to fish in of
the
of Vijayanagar, the motives of co-operaSultanates had died, giving place to the amongst disunion and disorder Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golconda,
tion
:
JALAL-UD-DIN Berar and
Shia
109
had renewed their hostilities against Akbar could not tolerate this. First he
Bidar
one another. tried
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
methods and sent embassies
diplomatic Sultans,
them
to the
acknowledge his As only regular tributes.
inducing
to
suzerainty and to pay him the king of Khandesh agreed to the imperial proposals and the remaining four gave a flat refusal, war was
declared against them. (9)
Owing
to
Ahmadnagar.
geographical position, the state of Ahmadnagar was first to be attacked. its
.
.
Moreover,
its
a bone of contention between
throne was at that time
two
rival claimants,
one
of
whom had
sought theassistance of the Mughal Emperor. Akbar sent a large force under the joint command of
Murad, and Khan-i-Khanan Abclur Rahim, who laid siege to the city early in the year 1595 A. C. But, owing to the heroic defence and stout resistance his son, Prince
offered
by Chand
Sultana,
make when the
to
the
imperialists
in
lady herself sword in her hand and a veil on her face, and
breach
failed
the ramparts except one appeared on the scene with a
any serious breach
In the end the
repaired.
Mughal
had
the
generals,
who
did not co-operate with each other in perfect harmony, were obliged to abandon the siege. A treaty was made
who
with the Sultana
Mughal Emperor. the minor prince, for regent,
Owing
In
agreed return
to
for this,
whom Chand
was acknowledged
cede Berar to
Sultana acted
as the king of
as
Ahmadnagar.
to the internal dissensions which resulted in
Chard Sultana and
the
Bahadur Shah,
the
the attempts of the the of terms treaty by recovering intriguers to violate the
assassination of
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
110 Berar from
the
was
war
Mughals,
again
declared
Ahmadnagar. In February, 1597 A. C, an was fought, in which both the parties and warfare claimed victory. followed Desultory continued till Akbar sent his intimate friend and to restore discipline in the Fazl, counsellor, Abul Abul imperial army despatched against Ahmadnagar. Fazl reached the Mughal camp after Murad had died of In 1600 A. C. the Emperor himself drinking. advanced against Ahmadnagar and took the field in person. Burhanpur was easily occupied Prince Daniyal and Khan-i-'vhanan Abdur Rahim attacked Ahmadagainst
indecisive battle
nagar.
Chand Sultana, the
life
and a singular instance
and soul
of
heroic
was no was stormed Ahmadnagar and about 1,500 of the garrison were slain during the siege. Ahmadnagar was then annexed to the Mughal defence
longer alhe.
The
of self-sacrifice,
fortress of
Empire. (10)
The campaign
against the Deccan was brought to a termination -in 1601 A. C.,' when
Khanclesh.
the
famous
fortress of Asirgarh (in
was stormed and the entire kingdom of Khandesh annexed to the Mughal Empire. Before the siege of Ahmadnagar, Khandesh was submissive and its ruler, Raja 'All, was a friend of the Mughal Emperor. But the new Sultan, Miran Bahadur (also known Khandesh)
as off
Bahadur Shah) was a headstrong youth, who threw the imperial yoke and refused to recognise Akbar as
his overlord, relying for his safety
Asirgarh,
which
impregnable
was undoubtedly
fortresses in
on the strength of one of the most
the South.
Akbar himself
JALAL-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
111 t
undertook an expedition against Bahadur Shah and* laid siege to Aslrgarh early in the year 1561 A. C. .The
months and the beleaguered
siege lasted for full seven
most heroically
out
held
to surrender.*
Emperor fell
the whole kingdom
they were bribed by the Asirgarh fell and with its fall till
of Khandesh.
The southern
conquests were organised into three siibdhs, or provinces, and their and Berar viz., Ahtnadnagar, Khandesh ;
government was made over to Prince Daniyal. At his accession in 1556 A. C., Akbar inherited an India divided and ruled by different
Mh
f
the lers,
Mughal,.Lmpire
On
under Akbar.
Hindus
his death,
as well
as Muslims.
he beqreathed a solid
and compact empire to his successor. A. 1605 C. he was the sole monarch of the By the year *
There are three different accounts of the siege of Aslrgarh as given by 'Allama AbulFazl, Faizi Sarhmdl and the Jesuits. My account of the siege is based on a careful study of these three sources. Dr. Smith calls in question the evidence of the first the accounts of the Jesuits as entirely correct. no reason why the accounts of the foreigners be preferred
two and accepts 1
find
to those of the natives, especially when there are other sources of evidence, too reliable to be refuted. FenshtS, than whom
there can be no more trustworthy historian of the Deccan, in important supports the accounts of Abul Fazl and Faizi When the Dr. charges Akbar of perfidy and says that details he had recourse to treachery in order to capture the stronghis condemnation is wholly Akbar bribed the garrison against Bahadur Shah and there is ample justification for this In the first place, the prestige of the empire demanded that Aslrgarh should be captured by any means.' Secondly, Prince Salim had revolted in Northern India and the Emperor's presence was
hold, he
not at
is
unfounded.
It is
all
justified;
true that
'
'
Considerations such as these urged the urgently needed there. emperor to employ bribery to g;un his ends, and in apportioning
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
112
whole of Northern India and in
the Deccan
as the
his
sway extended
Godavari.
as far
North the
the
In
Himalayan range formed the boundary of his empire. Within these limits the Mughal Empire extended from sea to sea. It had as many as 18 important provinces :
(6)
Oudh,
Delhi, (2) Agra, (3)
(I)
(4)
Gujarat, (7) Bengal, (8) Bihar,
(II)
Sind,
(12)
Multan, (13)
Allahabad,
(5)
Ajmer,
(9) Orissa, (10)
Malwa,
Lahore,
(14)
Kabul,
Kashmir, (16) Kbandesh, (17) Ahmadnagar, and Akbar died soon after the capture of Aslrgarh. Berar. (18) Had he lived a little longer, he would have conquered the (15)
remaining parts of InJia and annexed them to his empire. The closing years of Akbar's reign were embittered sorrows and disappointvv His sons were a great source Murad and anxiety to him.
by J a
r
Last
days
series of
ments.
of Akbar.
of
Daniyal had already gone down graves in 1599 A. C. and 1604 A.
C.,
Salim
son
(Jahanglr),
the
pilgrimages, was no
surviving
into the
less inveterate
drunkard's
and prayers and
respectively, of
and intemperate
in
the use of intoxicating liquors. He survived probably He became the because of his stronger constitution. chief cause of
annoyance to
1600 A.
while
C., in
the
his father in his old age.
In
was conducting
his
Emperor
the Deccan, his son, Salim, revolted and set
campaign up an independent kingdom at Allahabad. In 1602 A. C. he gave another terrible shock to the old Emperor
by engaging a robber-chief, Bir Singh Bundela,
for the
blame, we ought to bear in mind the difficulties and anxieties of a statesman, whose reputation w.;s staked on the success or failure of a single siege.' Smith should be studied with caution.
JALAL-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AKBAK
assassination of Abul Fazl.
Akbar was reconciled lious son
However, before
to his over-ambitious
through the good olfices of
He
servants.
nominated him as
formal manner with
some his
due ceremonies.
113 his cteath,
and
rsbel-
of his trusted
successor
in
a
But the Prince
was far from being popular with the people. A party of the Rajputs at the Imperial Court, headed by Rajah Man Singh, attempted to secure the succession for Prince failed
Khusrau (Sallm's son). Though the intrigue in the end, it had none the less disturbed the peace
aged Emperor on the eve of his departure from world. In 1605 A. C., Akbar 'became ill with
of the this
severe diarrhoea or dysentery which the physicians failed He was buried at and he died of it. cure *
to
Sikandara during his
tomb which he had begun to build lifetime and which was subsequently com-
in the
In the reign of Emperor pleted by his son, Jahanglr. the 'Alamglr Jats plundered the tomb, dug out the bones of the deceased and burnt them to ashes.
CHAPTER
JALAL-UD-DIN
VII
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
(CONTINUED) Din-i-llahi
ovo usque ad mala Akbar's
life was an enigma his religious life, was more enigmatic ntroc uctory. which has ever since remained wrapIn in mystery. trying to reveal it, historians have ped Whereas some hit either above or below the mark h m as others have a branded him extolled have prophet,
Ab
;
:
;
The present is an attempt to clear the as an apostate. to a In order to understand the subclose. controversy ject
and
to appreciate the spirit that lay behind
it,
it
is
on the one hand, and to the history of Hindustan on the other. necessary to revert to the history of the Saracens
The Prophet
of
Islam, to begin with, united in his
person Reference to the
the
Church and
history of the
Islam.
Saracens.
headship of the Muslim of the
TT was He
well as temporal
were the
also
after the other.
four
Caliphs
Commonwealth .
of
.
the lord spiritual as of his subjects.
So
who succeeded him ope
Under them the Crescent was
carried
and wide. The motive force underlying their expansion was their religion. The Commonwealth was far
ruled
in
accordance
with
the
commandments
of the
Qur'an, the precepts of the Prophet and the discretion The State, in brief, served the interests of of the ruler. the
Church.
But with the
rise
of
the
Ommeyades
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
JALAL-UD-DIN
Under them the Chvarch
took a different turn.
events
was harnessed
to the State
its
;
115
interests
were subordi-
nated to those of worldly well-being. And, gradually as the globe was girdled by the followers of Muhammad, there sprang up a world-wide empire of Islam, which attained
widest dimensions
its
under Walid
him, when the Caliphate sank governors of
the
far-flung
to
the
supreme
allegiance
I.
After
into insignificance, the
provinces
renounced their
authority at the Centre, the State separat-
Thus was
except in matters religious.
ed from the Church for the first time. This separation was the inevitable outcome of the unwieluy growth of the Commonwealth and the collapse of the Caliphate. With the appearance of the Abbassides on the stage, there
a new chapter in the annals of Islamic Under them the Church was once more
opens
history.
the State in the person of the ruler, who became the spiritual as well as the temporal head of the united
with
Faithful. of
the
Baghdad became
Abbassides and
the Capital (Dar-us-Saldm) there the rules regulating the
Caliphate were systematised by the jurisconsults, and the conception of the Caliph-Imam (Pope-Emperor) took its
and developed into a doctrine. While the rest of the Muslim World was passing through such metamorphoses, Muslim
birth
Reference to the history of Muslim Rule in India.
India was following
and by the Muslim to
it.
Here,
an independent not different in aim .
policy of
World
own, character from its
as elsewhere,
the
that
followed
but
almost parallel king based his powers
in general,
not on Islamic law but on Persian tradition.
Kingship
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
116
had been a secular
throne,
the
with
interfere
he did
impossible for
institution ever
since the
advent of
The Skariyat was seldom allowed
Islam in India.
take
not
him
When Akbar came
Stat2.
long
realise that
to
to rule successfully
to
to the it
was
a country, signi-
museum', on account of and religions, customs and
ficantly called 'an ethnological
the
diversity
of
races
its
To cultures and conceptions of morality. the class the selfish the powerful, priestly cap this, and the self-centred Mullahs - would not allow him to traditions,
rule as a liberal king.
A
of inventions, and
the hour of need. uniting in his
own
Necessity
has
ingenuity did not fail him in Ere long he hit upon the idea of >bar's
double duty of a doing this he did not go
person the
and a Mnjtahid and in beyond the Muslim Kings outside ;
tions of the country,
played.
been the mother
1r
moreover,
India.
justified
The Divine Faith was only
a
The the
King
much condi-
r61e
phase of
he the
same movement. It crowned its author with success. ever a gordian knot. It aimed at Hindu-Muslim Unity
Through
it
Akbar endeavoured
concordance among succeeded
to a
all
to bring about a general
the existing creeds in India and extent. Here it may be
considerable
pointed out that in
all his
undertakings and experiments
he was guided by bis confidential friend and advisor, Abul Fazl, who has left an ineffaceable impress on the history of the Akbarian era. From the date of his accession (1556 A. C.) to the
Akbar's orthodoxy.
the
dogmas
year 1578 A. C. Akbar lived the life of a staunch SunnI, strictly observing of his faith
and swerving not an inch from
JALAL-UD-DIN the path of the
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
Shariyat (Muslim
Law).
117
He
offered
his prayers regularly in the mosque along with the He paid congregation and often acted as Mu'azzin. due respect to the time-honoured Ultima and did
the pious and the holy. So supreme was of the sages on his simple mind that he used to keep their company for hours together and never hesitated to do them the meanest service rather, he felt
homage to the sway
;
pride in carrying out their smallest wishes.
he made a pilgrimage to the tomb of Chishti
at
Ajmer,
Every year
Shaikh
Sallm
circumambulating the sacred
and,
sepulchre several times, he sat there for a considerable time.
He
and had named
believed in miracles
his son,
after the name of the celebrated Saint who had promised him three sons. 'Yd Hddi
Sallm (Jahangir), of Ajmer,
and Yd Mu'in' (O Guide
!
and
O
at the tip of his tongue.
Helper
!)
exercised
were always a mesmeric
They mind and fired his followers with immense enthusiasm. As soon as he uttered them, the whole of his army, Hindus as well as Musalmans, responded sonorously to his calls and fell fearlessly on the He believed in Pirs and Faqlrs and visited their foe. influence
on
his
His inquisitive nature inspirthe ambition of studying the Qur'dn and
shrines often bare-footed.
ed him with the Hadith
;
his
marvellous
imbibe and assimilate his teachers.
He
all
memory enabled him
that was
imparted
to
to
him by
did not stop short at this ; he appointin every part of his kingdom in
ed Qdzis and Muftis
order to administer justice in accordance with the Code and went so far as to persecute 'the heretic in '
of Islam
obedience to the dictates of the Uldtna.
Besides,
Bairam
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
118 the
Khan,
of
victor
merit and
tried
and a servant of proved Abdullah MaWidum-ul-Mulk
Panlpat
fidelity,
and Shaikh Abdun-NabI were his religious guides. The young king was so fond of the Shaikh that after the fall Bairam Khan he appointed him Sadr-us-Sudur and himself used to call on him daily to learn lessons of the Hadith at his feet. By deeds such as these, he completely won over the SunnI orthodoxy to his side.
of
So
far so well.
of
hSfsm
t0
Now
a change sets in to the shock
the
SunnI
sect.
The Emperor,
hitherto an orthodox SunnI,
a liberal
Once, on
Musalman. so runs the
anniversary of his birthday, coloured his clothes, presumably under
with
becomes
story,
Hindu
the
Akbar
influence,
and appeared before his preceptor, the who was so highly exasperated at this
saffron
Shaikh,
unexpected sight that he instantly raised his cane in such a way that it almost touched His Majesty. The youthful king could not brook this insult and the
would have been sealed had not the queen-mother appeased her son's anger by telling him that the incident would be the cause of his salvation.
fate of the Shaikh
Singularly enough, the prognostication proved only too true, as will be evident from the ensuing account.
The Ulamd were not
only narrow-minded, but their
was wholly schismatic. The implicit obedience, which they exacted from the Boyunbounded them, and the Badshah, intoxicated from the orthodox sect reverence they received blinded them to the interests of the State. They influence
in
the
could not tolerate
State
the honest
difference of
opinion in
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
JALAL-UD-DIN matters
governed their a
Pow^r,
religious.
number
of
and prejudice
Under the charge
passions.
Musalmans
pride
119 alike
of heresy
suffered death at their
hands,
many more escaped many with their lives and lived as exiles. Apropos of this may be cited an instance: Both Makhdum-ul-Mulk and died in dungeons, and a good
Abdun-Nabi, demanded the summary execution of Shaikh Mubarak, the most erudite man of the day, on the ground that he subscribed to the Mahdi Movement. They even succeeded in securing a*. his
colleague,
Imperial firman,
ordering
But
imprisonment.
which
Mubarak
his
the
for
received
immediate
from
arrest
and
information, timely a friendly quarter,
enemies would have spared him no insult bound chains they would have dragged him to the court
his in
most formidable of his foes. However, having lived the life of an exile for some time, he returned to Agra only when Mirza Aziz Koka had put in a of the
word in his favour. Though allowed to return, he was never in immunity from the hostility of the Ulama, who frequently hurled charges of heresy and blasphemy against him and never allowed him to rest
a liberal
in
So much did the Ulama
peace.
Muslim
;
their
dislike
against the Zimrnis, against the Hindus, knew
hatred
(non-Muslims), particularly They could not
no bounds.
any concession Akbar was fully and would not allow it to tolerate
accorded to them by the Emperor. alive to this
state of
Once
affairs
he decided to curb the power of one stroke he broke loose With priestly from MaWidum-ul-Mulk and Abdun-Nabi and felt persist.
the
for all
class.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
120
the acts of
sorry for
commands
committed under
injustice
their
(fatwds).
1575 A.
in the year
Early
C.,
when
the
returned from his military
Emperor undertak-
winning decisive victories enemies, he was full of love
in g s after
over his for
God and
time
adoration for Islam.
and attention
Accordingly, he hall (Ibddat
arrive
facilitate
a
the
devoted his
of his
subjects.
a debating
of
erection
Fathpur Sikri and invited the discuss the controversial points and
Khdnah)
at
He now
interests
the
ordered
Doctors of Islam to to
the
to
at
definite
conclusion
in
order
Islam.
None
but
of
unification
to
the
Sayyads, the Shaikhs, the Doctors and the Ulamd of Since high rank was admitted to the Ibddat Kljandh. all
these classes were mangled
promiscuously, disputes did not take long to arise as to the seats and the order His Majesty did not like this and was of precedence.
soon constrained to assign
a separate
quarter
to each
of the classes, himself gracing the four apartments, into which the House ,vas divided, on every Thursday
But the Ulamd, the most clamorous class, who had hitherto dominated the State and had so jealously guarded their supremacy, had, in fact, become too night.
self-centred to
Calumnies,
have a stomach for defeat
contumelies
and
in
vilifications
arguments. replaced
and arguments. Charges of and apostasy, heresy blasphemy were hurled by one
common-sense, against the against different
the
reasons
other.
Fatwds were
accused.
sects of Islam
Thus, into a
ceaselessly issued instead of fusing the
common
brotherhood,
JALAL-UD-DIN these
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
dogged discussions rekindled
and divided them asunder.
It
may
their
121
animosities
be said
that the
foundations of the Debating Hall were laid with a view to reform the Ulamd, but as they proved incorrigible,
was thought expedient to render them politically In 1578 A. C. the discussions took a more impotent. it
with a tendency to defeat the purpose of the Emperor. Even in the presence of His Majesty the Ulamd lost their temper and called one another serious turn
Unity had already disappeared, now even the ordinary rules of etiquette were cast to the winds. One Thursday night, when a polemical discussion was Kafirs.
raging hot, in the bebel of several conflicting voices, the question was raised as to what was the final seat authority in matters religious when, at a certain Shaikh Mubarak point, the Doctors were at variance.
of
Emperor as In conjunction with his sons, Abul Fazl and he drew up a document, in which Akbar was
set the ball
such. Faizi,
rolling
by acknowledging
the
recognised as Imdm-i-'Adil and therefore higher in rank than a Mujtahid. The document reuds as follows: " Whereas Hindustan has now become the centre _.
^ The Document. T
of security J .
.
and peace, and the land _ and beneficence, a large learned men and lawyers, .
,
,
of justice
number
of people, especially
have immigrated and chosen this country for their home. Now we, the principal Ulamd, who are not only well-versed in the several departments of the Law and in the principles of Jurisprudence, and well-acquainted with the edicts which rest on reason or testimony, but are also
known
for our piety
and honest
intentions,
have
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
122
duly considered the
deep meaning,
first,
of the
verse
'
Qoran (Sur. IV, 62) Obey God, and obey the Prophet, and those who have authority among you ', and secondly, of the genuine tradition, 'Surely, the man who is dearest to God on the day of judgment, is the Imdm-i-'Adil whosoever obeys the Amir, obeys Thee, of the
:
and whosoever rebels against him, rebels against Thee ', and thirdly, of several other proofs based on reasoning or testimony and we have agreed that the rank of ;
Sultdn-i-'Adil (a just ruler) is higher in the eyes of God than the rank of a Mujlahid. Further we declare that the King of Islam, Amlroi the Faithful, Shadow of God in the world, Abul Fath Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar Padshah-i-GbazI, whose kingdom God perpetuate, is a
most
a most wise, and a most God-fearing king.
just,
Should, therefore, in future a religious question come up, regarding which the opinions of the Mujtahids are
and His Majesty, in his penetrating understanding and clear wisdom be inclined to adopt, for the benefit of the nation and as a political expedient any of the conflicting opinions which exist on that point, and should issue a decree to that effect, we do hereby agree that such a decree shall be binding on us and on the
at variance,
whole nation. "Further, think
fit
we
to issue
declare that
a
new
order,
should
His
we and
the
Majesty nation
shall likewise be bound by it, provided always that such order be not only in accordance with some verse of
the Qoran, but also of real benefit to the
such
;
and
any opposition on the part of his subjects an order passed by His Majetsy shall
further, that
to
nation
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
JALAL-UD-DIN involve
damnation
property and 11
the
in
123
world to come and
loss of
religious privileges in this.
document has been written with honest intentions, for the glory of God, and the propagation of Islam, and is signed by us, the principal Ulamd and lawyers, in the month of Rajab of the year 987 of the This
Hijrah."*
This document, of
had
better
Supremacy
Importance of the Infallible Decree.
we
of
call
it
Akbar's
the Act reign,
stands unique in the history ot Islam. its astonished at Historians are
Here it is reproduced in full for worldly character. In the first place, it reveals most some special reasons :
the statesmanship of Akbar, \vho caught the ferocious lions in their own dens. Prepared by the
unmistakably
Emperor, Ulamd.
it
It
was written and signed by the principal bore the signatures and seals of men like
Makhdum-ul-Mulk and Abdun-Nabi, and was presented Like King John's Magna to His Majesty for rpproval. Charta it was a petition to the king from the most influential
Ulama, but unlike
it,
it
increased rather than
In the second the royal prerogative. of the Imam-i-'Adil it declared the authority place, to be higher than that of a Mujtahid and based it
diminished
on the
threefold sources
:
the Qur'an, the
Hadlth and
In addition to his being a temporal head, the Reason. he was recognised as the most supreme spiritual guide Ulama were It was thus that the of his subjects.
reduced to the state of a cipher * Ta.'ihh-i-Badaom, vol.
ii,
p. 279.
in state-politics.
In the
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
124 third place,
it
authorised the
Emperor
to pass orders of
kinds as political expedients, provided always that they were beneficial to the whole nation and were all
supported by a verse from the Qur'an.
The
document was fraught with
signature of this
Em P eror
freed
It
consequences.
far-reaching
the
from the bigoted Ulama
and enabled him to give currency to One Friday, 1580 A. C M he ascended the pulpit of a masjid and played the part of a Mullah. In keeping wi;h Arab and Persian traditions, he himself his catholic ideas.
the
delivered
following verse
which
Khutba,
is
contained
in
the
:
"The Lord
to
me
the
Kingdom
gave,
He made me prudent, wise and brave, He guided me with right and ruth Filling my heart with love of truth No tongue of man can sum His state ;
Allaho Akbar.
This
body
sent a
God
thrill
of Islam in India.
of
is
great."*
horror
through
For the bigoted
it
the whole
was a
bolt
from
the blue. It stirred up a storm of opposition which soon assumed a threatening character. In 1589 A.C. afatwd was issued against the impious emperor* by Mullah Muhammad Yazdi and a conspiracy was '
hatched up with a view to depose him in favour of his brother, Mirza Muhammad Hakim, who posed to be an
orthodox Muslim.
At the same time a rebellion broke
out in Bengal and Bihar. *
This
is
Considering
this
to
be an
Mr. Green's translation of Faizi's verse in Persian.
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
JALAL-UD-D1N
125
Mirza in /aded the Punjab at Akoar had anticipated such a
opportune moment, the this critical juncture.
and was fully prepared to nip it in the bud. was repelled, the eastern disturbances were quelled, and normal conditions were restored. Now that he had established his supremacy, he could
storm
The
invasion
take larger liberties with his subjects without courting opposition he could now defy all hostile criticism with All this was rendered possible by absolute impunity. ;
the success of the Kabul Expedition. Had that failed, the history of India would have taken a different course. In this way, threading his Preliminaries to the promulgation of the Divine Faith,
way through a series of commotions, the Emperor proceeded .,,
r
i
,
,
r
i
,
!
a P ace Wlth the task of fusing hostile elements into a homogeneous whole.
Favourably impressed by the unmixed
Hindu subjects, while sitting on moods the solitary stone at Fathpur pensive devotion of his
he had resolved to
them co-equal alone
could
utilize
status with
not
bring
their
the
about
services
in
his
Sikri,
by allowing
But this Hindu-Muslim Unity.
ruling
race.
Something more than this was required to unite the two different peoples, possessing not only different but also mutually antagonistic religions,
ceptions
of
morality.
Before
cultures
long, Akbar
or founding necessity for finding mon to both the communities a
and confelt
something
common
the
com-
platform,
where they could meet and greet each other in perfect harmony. But what was that common platform to be a Masjid or a Mandir ? Neither, but a new religion, which could command sincere devotion. Carefully
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
126
considering the pros znd cons of the experiment, Akbar
decided definitely to establish a religion, embodying the principal features of all the religions of India.
in
it
He
Hinduism was nothing more than a set of ceremonies, to which the Hindus clung so tenaciously; that other religions had little political importance; and that
knew
that
Islam alone, being superior to
all
others, could best serve
Having gradually gained the sympathies of the Rajputs and other important sects by seemingly sharing their beliefs and adopting their practices, by appreciating their merits and rewarding their services, his purpose.
he proceeded to prepare the
common
of that
for
way It will
religion.
introduction
the
be remembered that
formerly the Musalmans alone could have free access to the Ibadat Khanah ; now the learned professors of all
other religions were
and asked
invited
The
case for their respective creeds. the whole experiment was indeed
mon
religion acceptable
Now what Would
to
everyone
was that common
Zimmls
the
to
accept
idea
of
his
com-
subjects.
religion to be ?
Islam
The answer
it ?
There was, however, one way out of fuse the rituals of Hinduism and of other
into Islam, or to unite the fundamentals of
a
underlying
establish a
evident. to
make
to
?
is self-
this fix
:
religions
and
Islam
other religions with Hinduism.
The ground having been tA
Its
.
,
promulgation.
prepared, a coup de etat was required to carry the experiment to
.,..?.
its
points
and
feeling secure in his position,
convened a military
,
.
,
logical conclusion.
meeting,
to
which
all
commanders and masters
A Armed
the
,
at all
Emperor
religious experts,
of
learning
were
JALAL-UD-DIN
and the
invited
addressed them "
of
evils
religions were exposed
MUHAMMAD AKBAR the
existence
in their presence.
in these
wordo
127 so
of
many The Emperor
:
We
ought to bring the different religions of India into one, but in such a fashion that they should be one and
with the greatest advantage of taking good in every creed and discarding the In this way, honour would be done to remainder.
what
all
:
is
God, peace and prosperity would be restored people and security to the empire."
The
resolution
was carried
The Its principles.
,.
,
the
unopposed.
new
salient features of tha
-
,
almost
to
faith
,
having been discussed,
i
its
principles
and practices were read aloud. It bore the name of Din-i-Ilahi, or Divine Faith, also Tauhid-i-Ilahi, or Divine Monotheism. Its basis was the Unity of God, was eclectic, Its ritual the corner-stone of Islam. borrowed chiefly from Hinduism and Zoroastrianism. to perfect disciple of the Divine Faith was bound believe in the Unity of God and to acknowledge Akbar
A
as His Caliph
He had
to
make
a four-fold dedication
honour and religion to His Majesty. was expected to abstain from eating meat of all
of wealth, life,
He
to the
was allowed to be done Reverence for the sun and veneration
Prostration, or Sijdah,
kinds.
Emperor.
became a prominent part of the ritual. Sunday day of performing the ceremony of conversion, when the convert received from His Majesty the Great Name and the symbolical motto Allaho for fire
was
fixed as the
1
1
'
:
Akbar.'
Instead
of
the
usual
Muslim
salutation
As-Saldm-Alaikum and Wd-Alaikum-As-Salam, which
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
128
the brethren in faith observed on seeing each other the members of the Divine ]?aith saluted one another '
by saying 'Allaho Akbar* and J all-a-J alalohu\ From time to time disciplinary rules and regulations were passed by the Emperor according to his need.
A
careful
for the
consideration practices
members the
of
of
the
to the
his
principles
Divine
summarised above, reveal
of
and
Faith, as not fail to
will
reader the
embraced almost
creed
statesman-
the important cleverly manipulated as to Its soul was the cardinal attract the entire population. the Hindu and Zoroastrian its body principle of Islam,
ship of
its
religions of
ritual.
author. It T
It
ndia.
The
all
was so
monotheistic
principle
of
Islam
was
other religions were adopted retained and the in proportion to their importance in the political history rites of all
To
was Islam preHindu, whose prominent ceremonies were incorporated, it was nothing To a Zoroastrian, whose articles short of Hinduism. of Hindustan.
sented
in
a
a liberal Muslim,
To
different form.
it
a
sun-worship and fire-worship were included, it was nothing but their religion. Sunday was fixed as the day
of
of initiation only to please the Christians.
Thus, almost every shade of Indian religious opinion was represented It was, in a sense, a universal in the Divine Faith. having enough in
religion of India,
to
its
Indian
originator.
of
to attract
whose
anyone knowledge of
pre-Islamic
times,
is
and whose acquaintance with the history
of
history,
superficial
Historians,
it
particularly
the Saracens, particularly with that of the
Ommeyades
JALAL-UD-DIN and the Abbassides,
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
is deficient,
ha,e
failed to
129 understand
the real meaning of the Divine Faith and the sole of
Branding Akbar
author.
its
have condemned
his
an
as
creed in the
aim
apostate, they
bitterest of
words.
"The Divine Faith," of Akbar's folly calls
" it
a
silly
others have
says Dr. Smith, "was a monument and not of his wisdom." Elsewhere he
invention".
Blochmann and
Similarly,
been deceived by
They have mistaken
it.
Following Badaoni, a bigoted appearance for actuality. over-strict Muslim, with whom the omission of a
and
ceremony of Islam amounted to apostasy, and adopting the same line of argument as hs, they have As a proinevitably come to the same conclusion. found student of Indian as well as Islamic history, single
Akbar made a
direct appeal to the innermost sentiments
by giving his Sdngha a religious characNeither the aim of the order nor the object of its
of his subjects ter.
author can be duly appreciated unless it is regarded as an instrument with which the master-mind endeavoured to consolidate the
Mughal Empire by
the minds of the ruled their sense
Muslim
rulers.
The
chief
eradicating
from
subordination to
of
motive
underlying the prowas the unification of
mulgation of the Divine Faith To achieve this, it was
India.
conquer and then to
command
to necessary first sincere devotion from
and sundry by granting them the freedom of worTherefore, he drew ship and the liberty of conscience.
all
up such a
religious
mentas
would commend
Momentous was,
code
in
essence
itself to
as the proclamation
equally
far-reaching
were
a
political
docu-
the whole population.
of its
the
Divine Faith
consequences.
It
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
130
of
Muslim Rule
The Mughal Emperor was no
longer regarded
changed the character
completely in India.
as a foreigner trampling
the
sons
of
birth-rights.
the
soil
upon the lives and liberties of and depriving them of their
The members
of
the Divine
Faith
had
bound themselves by an oath to stand by the Emperor in weal and woe, to sacrifice their religion, honour, wealth, The vow was faithfully life, liberty and all for him. His could and always rely upon them. Majesty kept
The
fact that
he was able to induce the proudest of the
Rajputs, who prided upon the nobility of their birth and the purity of their blood above everything else, to give
him and
speaks
his
volumes.
sons
their
Dealing a Faith
daughters in marriage, coup de grace to Rajput
supremacy, the Divine
kept up the integrity of the Mughal Empire for a century and a half.
Thus, there can be no doubt that the Divine Faith (Din-i-Ildhi)
was not a
religious
cult
or
creed,
but
not political code, prepared by a politician and a prophet, in accordance with the conditions of the country, the tendencies of the times and the sentiments a
of his subjects.
As long
as
Akbar
lived,
he enjoyed
After his death, the unmixed loyalty of his subjects. his successors a he bequeathed to legacy of loyalty to
dynasty immeasurably richer than any other Muslim No one can king before him had left to his heirs.
his
appreciate the real importance of the Divine Faith and its exact place in Indian history except in connection with the history of the Saracens on the one hand, and
The Divine Religion the'history of India on the other. was the child of the Age ; its founder was the true son of
JALAL-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
131 *
the Renaissance and the Reforn.ation.
There can be
no shutting ones eye to the fact that Akbar was statesman, splendid and unsurpassed in the annals
He was
an empire-builder Indian history. a religious propagandist or a missionary. indeed the Apostle of Indian Unity, and his
Message his
of Peace.
He
a of
rather than
established
He was
was the and consolidated
empire through the instrumentality of but in formality.
religion,
not
in reality
The promulgation by a
of the Divine Faith
was followed
series of anti-Islamic ordinances
alle g ed to
have heen
iss ~ ed
b Y Akbar
with the sole aim of destroying Islam, Badaoni has recorded them in his book and repeated
them more than once. serve our purpose: to the
Emperor,
enjoined, (3)
(2)
The
following
will
suffice
to
Sijdah was allowed to be done fire-worship and sun-worship were
(1)
boars were kept in the Imperial Palace and
every morning was regarded as meritorious, (4) the use of beef, garlic and onion, and the wearing of beards were forbidden, (5) Mullahs and Sfaaifahs were exiled, (6) circumcision of children before looking
at
them
the age of twelve and the marriage of girls before the age of puberty were prohibited, (7) the study of Arabic was discouraged, (8) public prayers and the Azdn were abolished,
(9)
Muslim names, such
as
Muhammad,
Ahmad
and Mustafa, were changed to other names because they had become offensive to His Majesty, (10) pilgrimage to Mecca and fasting in the month of
Ramzan were
Qur'an and the Hadith were tabooed, (12) mosques and prayer-rooms discontinued,
(11) the
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
132 were turned
into
s'
ore-houses
and guard-rooms
;
so
:<
much so, says BadaonI, that the straight wall of clear law and of firm religion was cast down, so that after not a trace of Islam was left in him and (Akbar) everything was turned topsy turvy,' and " Akbar showed bitter hostility to the concludes that faith of his ancestors and his own youth and actually Blochmann and perpetrated a persecution of Islam." Smith follow Badaoni and maintain that by the year 1582 A. C., which saw the proclamation of the Divine five or six years
Akbar had ceased
to be a Muslim.
According them, he died without the benefit of the prayers of any church or sect. Faith, to
Before examining these ordinances, to enquire
n 1 heir criticism.
.
into
it
their
Born
in
essential
This
origin.
...
."
necessitates a criticism their author.
is
,.
of
Badaoni, an age, when party-politics ruled
supreme even in Islam and when sectarianism swayed the hearts and the minds of even Muslims, Badaoni
was the product
of his environment.
Educated
in
the
orthodox school under the influence of the most bigoted
Ulama, his views had been moulded accordingly. He was a Muslim with whom, in common with his He regarded class, ritual weighed more than religion.
of the
the
omission
of
a
single
ceremony
as
amounting
Naturally, therefore, he did not like the Emperor on account of his liberal ways and As a necessary sequel, he was hated by catholic views. His Majesty, who always kept him at arm's length on
almost to apostasy.
account
of his inflexible orthodoxy. 'Allama Abul Fazl was, on the other hand, "a man capable of teaching
JALAL-UD-DJN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
the Mullahs a lesson."
133
when he was taken
Aiid,
into
confidence by the Emperor, Badaom's anger knew no bounds. Thus exasperated, he began to pour out the venom of his wrath on the Emperor and his confidential
His diatribe
friend.
is
couched
a
in
He
teems with anathemas and exaggerations. the 'Allama responsible for the acts of the
"The
'Allama was the man," world on flames."
he
said,
All this creates doubts in the
mind
^e
Von Noer's
anc^
appraisal of
account at
Badaoni.
,
cannot .
.
set
the
of the historian,
Badaoni's
accept
_
holds
Emperor.
"who
A
face value.
its
that
language
bigoted
.
,
and narrow-minded sectarian as he
was, he could not help misconstruing Akbar's catholicity. He saw everything with jaundiced eyes and so painted a melancholy picture. Von Noer's criticism of his " character is significant : Badaoni certainly takes every opportunity of raking up the notion of Akbar's apotheosis for the
purpose
current
among
renewing attacks upon the great He, however, was never in intimate relation emperor. to the Din-i-Ilahi, he repeats tlie misconceptions of
and alloyed by Akbar might justly have
the populace, marred
popular modes of perception. contemplated the acts of his reign with legitimate pride, but many incidents of his life prove him to have been
among the most modest of men. It was the people who made a God of the man who was the founder and head of an order at once religious. all
One
time a pre-eminent place
humanity
political,
philosophic
of his creations will assure to
among
him
and for
the benefactors of
greatness and universal tolerance in matters
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
134
very deed he had contemplated the deification of himself, a design certainly foreign to
of religious belief.
his
If in
character, these
"
his vindication
words of Voltaire would serve as
C4st
:
le
du vrai genie
privilege
du gbnie qui ouvre tine impundment de grandes fantes. surtout
et
carriere, de faire
19
Sufficient has been said
prostration.
prostration,
the
examine
their
it
character
their veracity.
one of the positions
concession to of
old
it
Hindu sentiment
was a recognised
indicated the depth of devotion
by
his subjects.
:
With
it
shown
:
had
been the
popular
to
of
faith
it
was a
Hindu
kings
place,
the
was quite
Secondly, At the court of Persian traditions
prostration
first
institution
and
to
Muslim prayer, It was allowed
at the
In the
us
Sijdah, or
and no one except God is entitled to it. to be done to the Emperor, not as an article but as an act of salutation.
the
of
origin
now behoves
;
ascertain i?
about
ordinances
inasmuch as
it
to the sovereign
keeping with Persian autocrats in
mode
of greeting.
Thirdly, the Abbassides had also adopted this ritual They made their subjects kiss the ground before them.
:
Sometimes a concession was accorded
who were
to high officials
hand or foot or the edge of his robe. Finally, when Akbar was treated his friends as the representative of God on flattering by required to kiss the Caliph's
'
he had to permit this practice, else the people at large would never have submitted ', Fire-worship and sun-worship were adopted only
earth,
Fire-worship and sun-worship.
to enlist the sympathies of those with
whom
these constituted the ; r creed>
JALAL-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
135 '
where the v^ry word 'Muslim was an to the natives, Akbar thought it expedient eyesore In
a
land,
Hindu
subjects in spite
respect,
he went even so
to subscribe to the beliefs of his of their hollowness.
In this
far that the professors of
reasons
identity in
"
a
convert
to their
fact,
The Hindus who
animals
his
cults.
religious
believe in incarnations said that
bar belonged to the ten God Almighty had
^he
Why were boars kept in the Imperial Palace ? these
as
had good
religions
he always concealed byways and corners. in
Whereas,
him
claim
to
various
which
forms once -
assumed. were
in
kept
number
So a
certain
the
Imperial Palace to
of
please the Rani-Queens, whose smallest wishes the Emperor took care to carry out to their entire satisfaction.
To Women
the ignorant of Indian history the presence of a large number of women in the the Imperial Hprem. i mper ial Harem may appear as another one to but sacrilege ; acquainted with it, it is a monu-
ment
in
of his
wisdom.
daughters of Rajput
Emperor. alliances
whom
Among the number, there were Princes who owed allegiance to
To cement were formed.
this
allegiance,
the
the
matrimonial
From
every Rajput Prince, he reduced to obedience, Akbar took his daughter
him independence, subject to his Thus were the most formidable control. of reduced to vassalage. For once Islam antagonists in
marriage and
granted
they entered into matrimonial alliances with the Emperor, was then no escape: They could not withdraw
there
their allegiance, for that
would have meant an attack on
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
136 their
own
daughters. Exactly in the
same spirit Akbar introduced some Hindu customs and practices. For
Hindu customs and practices.
His Majesty himself used mark, called tttak, on his The use of garlic and forehead to please the Ranis. of were forbidden partly beards onion and the wearing to
wear
i
nstance>
Hindu
the
because they were inconvenient in kissing and partly because they were repugnant to his Hindu wives. Cow has prevented the possibility of Hindu-
Muslim unity more than anything /. TTT1 TT Whereas Hindus regard it as slaugter of forbidden? M&f& (mot her), and hold it thejr its flesh and regard it their eat sacred, Muslims kill it, favourite food. Akbar understood the philosophy of Gau Ralthshd and Gau-Bhakhsk<*> and knew that it was impossible to unite the cow-caring and the cow-killing
Why was
classes in
.
f
cows
,
else.
view of the teachings of contemporary Hindu As he wanted to unite and rule, the
religious leaders.
slaughter of cows was prohibited. Some of the Mullahs and Shaikhs were doubtless
banished from the
Why
were Mullahs and Shaikhs exiled
g ut ?
their
Mughal Empire
t h e ir
banishment was due not to but to the religious beliefs
enmity they cherished against the established regime, which was characterised by the freedom of worship and the liberty of conscience. They were exiled because they had become a source of trouble to the State.
The remaining
regulations were passed, as
admitted by Badaoni himself, to please the
and the Ranis
inside the Palace.
is
also
infidels outside
They, however, were
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
JALAL-UD-DIN never
en forced, as
strictly
indicated
is
137
by the trend
ol his
They were issued time and again under presrure from Hindu friends and wives. Some of them were such narrative.
were cancelled soon after they were passed. Others remained confined to the Palace and were never
that they
ventilated
hearsay,
Most
outside.
there
for
had personal knowledge his narrative or that
veracity.
took
their
He
them were based on show that he
of
no evidence to
is
he
recorded
in
he ever attempted to ascertain
its
of all that
supported only by the Jesuits, who cue either from BadaonI himself or from is
others of his class,
i.e.,
war against Akbar,
'
the orthodox,
who nad
the impious empenr'.
declared
Under the
it is not fair to attach any importance to the allegations made by BadaonI. Dr. Smith has exhausted his eloquence in trying to were prove that these regulations
circumstances
.
.
Criticism of Smith's views on
_
\
many
.
_ <
,
acts of fierce intolerance
.
,
r
If
British Government attempted " such measures, "says he, it would not last a week." Does he mean to point out that the Mughal Emperor was successful in enforcing them because his
the
government was stronger than the British Government ? be sure if the British Government, with its incom-
To
parably vast
incalculable
resources,
weapons
in
its
its matchless organization, is unable to stem the tide of opposition once excited by religious intolerance, how could Akbar, who did not possess even a single standing army, succeed in systematically outraging
armoury and
the
sentiments
of his
n
ubjects, specially the
Elsewhere he remarks that
*
Muslims?
on occasions he performed
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
138
from motives of policy/ Now, if it is permissible that the Emperor after 1582 A.C. conformed to the faith of his forefathers from motives of policy, acts of conformity
there
every reason
is
to
believe that
similar
motives
prompted him to discard its ceremonies sometimes. And, when he did this, theZiwwJs, specially the Hindus, were quite satisfied. with the Muslims was the
Underlying his disagreement his agreement to disagree with
Hindus
without offending their susceptibilities. This enabled him to introduce his beneficial legislation
which would have been impossible otherwise.
While declaring him as an apostate from Islam, ~ Dr. Smith says that Akbar died as he J Conclusion. had lived a man whose religion nobody could name and he passed away without the '
.
.
benefit of the prayers of
any church or
sect
'.*
In
the
same breath he
strikes the following note: "Akbar, been have in his failings practice, was may a sincerely religious man, constitutionally devout. Jahangir declares that his father never for one moment
whatever
'
God
He
performed his prayers fourf times a spending a considerable time over them day Apart from formal religious exercises, his whole course of life testified to the extreme interest taken by him in
forgot
'.
the problem of
and many of
the his
relations
sayings
between
express
his
God and man, views
on
the
* Akbar the Great Mogul, by V. A. Smith, p. 323. fAs a rule, Muslim canonical prayers are offered five times a day, but in certain circumstances t vo afternoon prayers can be offered together and the number of times is thus reduced to four from five.
JALAL-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
139
subject."* Such a man cannot be said to have 'died Without the benefit of the prayers of any church or sect '. The Ain-i-Akbarl and the Akbarndmah, written under
who
by 'Allama Abul Fazl,
his orders
held the highest
place in the innermost circle of his intimate friends, and the Tttzk-i-Jahangiri, written by his son, Jahanglr, do
not
the slightest
betray
religion
of
his
fully confirm
sign
On
forefathers.
the
fact
of
that
his
renouncing the
the other hand, they
he
remained
a
Muslim
throughout his life. The assertion of some scholars that he made formal profession of his faith in Islam by repeating the Raima and declaring himself a Musalman
on
his
death-bed,
consistent
as
it
is
with his career, by foreign con-
when corroborated temporaries and when viewed in the light carries
conviction
discussion.
According
to
Father
of the
above
Antony Botelho, a '
he (Akbar) died contemporary Portuguese missionary, as he was born, a Muhammedan .f Sir Thomas Roe f
supports the statement of Father Botelho that sect
'
'.{
he (Akbar) died
Major
in the
when he
says
formal profession of his
Price's translation of the
Tuzk-i-Jahdngirl
contains the following passages apropos of the topic "He (Akbar) had .... desired me (Jahanglr) to send for Mlran Sadr Jahan in order to repeat with him :
the
Kalmd Shahadat
Jahan on both *Akbar
the
knees
On his arrival, I placed Sadr by my father's side and he
Great Mogul, by V. A. Smith, pp. 349-50. to the Emperor Akbar, J, A. S. B, part
1[The Jesuit Missions
Vol. Ixv, 1896, by E. D. Mac.agan. %The Embassy of Sir Thomas Roe, Society, 1899.
ed.
1,
by Foster, Halkuyt
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
140
commenced
reciting the creed of the faithful
After expressing himself as above, he directed Sadr
Jahan once more to repeat the Kalmd, and he recited the solemn text himself with a voice equally loud and distinct.
He
then desired the Sadr to continue repeating Surd Neish, and another chapter of the
his pillow the
by Koran, together with the Adeildh prayer, in order that he might be enabled to render up his soul with as little struggle as possible. Accordingly, the Sadr Jahan had finished the Sara Neish and had last words of the prayer on his
lips
when with no
symptom than a
other
tear drop in the corner of his father resigned eye, his soul into the hands of his Creator."*
my
The
down to this that Akbar Born as a Muslim, he lived as a a Muslim and was succeeded by a
discussion then boils
was a Muslim
:
Muslim, died as Muslim. To say that he benefit of the prayers of
'passed
any
away without the
church
or sect'
is
a gross
misrepresentation of facts. *
Tuzk-i'Jahangiri, trans., Major David
Also see A. Yusuf
Ah
in
/. of
E.
I.
Price, pp.
75-76.
July, 1915, p. 309
Assoc.,
;
Darbar-i-Akbari, by M. Muhammad Hussain Azad, p. 36 ff.; and Tarikh-i-Hindustan, M. ZakSullah, vol. v. pp. 808 ff. I may appropriately point out at this place that recently some doubts have been cast on the genuineness of the Memoirs o/
Jahangir, which Major David Price translated in 1829 A. C. and from which I have reproduced the above extracts. They are regarded as spurious by some and as genuine by others. It is not easy to ascertain the truth. However, on the question
whether Akbar died as a Muhammadan or passed away without the benefit of the prayers < t any church or sect \ the evidence of the two contemporary Christians quoted above is conclusive, unless their accounts too are called in question. *
'
'
CHAPTER
JALAL-UD-DIN
VIII
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
(CONTINUED)
A dministration Akbar did not take long
to realize that the existing
based on the
system of government, Introductory.
.
strength
commanded by
a
of
who
general
position in his province
,
each
standing armies,
occupied
and cared uiore
a
foi his
central
personal
aggrandisement than for the interests of the empire as a It was woefully whole, was absolutely unfounded.
wanting
in
the
principle
unity and cohesion.
of
secured no attachment, conciliated no cared
little
the
for
and
faith
It
and
prejudices
feelings,
customs and
traditions, ideals
and aspirations
and,
remained without root, exposed to
therefore,
of the sons of the soil all
storms oi misfortune. Considering carefully the pros and jons of the old system, he evolved an entirely new system quite in consistence with the spirit ot the age
and the
He built up an empire and sentiments of his subjects. a nation not oil the foundation of swords and military terrorism subjects.
but
on
the
acquiescent good- will of his In Indo-Islamic history he has always figured
as a
champion not
of
his
subjects and,
as
any
particular section but of all
such,
he
There was not a
present day. cut off from active
hard to find a
sympathy
is
recognised
single person
with him.
parallel, either in
to
the
who was It will
be
ancient or in modern
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
142
history, to the far-sighted statesmanship
and construc-
tive administrative genius with which he fashioned and set in motion the wheels of his government The Emperor himself was at the helm of civil as well He was as military administration. .
the fountain-head of
Government.
and
religious
were unlimited and his
number than
will
of ministers, but
authority,
His
secular.
as
pupil,
marvellous
government,
powers
was irresistible. He had a he was their teacher rather
suggested by Smith. organization, which he effected
their
both
The
is
was mostly the
outcome
of
in
his
his
own
He
was, no doubt, an autocrat, little short of Banthamite demo-
extraordinary genius.
but his autocracy fell He secured the greatest happiness of the cracy He was indeed the beau ideal of a greatest number.' '
:
statesman.
couched
in
methods of administration were humanity and fellow-feelings. He employed His
the services of a set of brilliant officers in the various
departments of
The
administration.
his
Vakil was
the highest officer, next only to the Emperor. He was, so to say, the Vice-regent, Chancellor, or Prime Minister. did not hold any definite portfolio but, like the Vazlr of the Abbassides, acted as the alter ego of His Majesty
He
in
important administrative serious
sought
in
Diwdn,
the Chief
the
Exchequer,
affairs.
situations.
Revenue
who
His counsel was
Below
him
was
the
Officer, or the Chancellor of
controlled
the finances
of
the
Empire, superintended the state treasuries and audited He regulated the fiscal policy and decided all accounts. revenue matters
in
concurrence
with
the
Emperor.
JALAL-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
143
He had
a separate office where all revenue papers, and dispatches were received from the various parts of the Mughal Empire and disposed of under his returns
The
personal supervision.
Paymaster-General Secretary of
War
of
the
BaJchshl was, so to say, the Imperial Army, and the
rolled into one.
of all civil
and military
passed by him.
Besides his
bills
officers
own
As such, the salarywere examined and
duty, he performed a
odd jobs he assigned positions to military number commanders before the battle, laid the muster-roll before the Emperor and looked after the recruitment of of
new
soldiers,
:
though
it
did
not
fall
to his duty
to
The Khdn-itake command himself in the battle-field. Sdmdn was, as the word implies, the Superintendent of He was in charge of the Imperial household Stores. establishment and had the entire control of the Royal Mess and other supplies. He accompanied the Emperor in all his
tents
out-door undertakings and managed his food, He was also the head of His stores.
and
Majesty's personal
stiff.
The Sadr-i-Sudur was
the
He
might be highest judicial officer in the Empire. called the Lord Chief Justice of India at the time of Akbar. The Mohtasib was the censor of public morals.
and foremost duty consisted in seeing that the Sfiariyat was properly observed and the Muslim Law His
first
was obeyed in its entirety. He suppressed public immorality by punishing those who drank, those who gambled and those who paid court to dancing-girls. Besides these, there were some other officers who held different portfolios of the Mughal Government. Their duties cannot be detailed here but their
names
will give
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
144
They were the Awdrajah Nawis, or
a sufficient idea of the naturp thereof.
Mustaufi, or Auditor-General
;
the
:
of
Superintendent daily expenditure at the Imperial Court; the Nazir-i-Buyvtat, or Superintendent of the Imperial Workshop ; the Mushrif, or Revenue Secretary, or Admiral and Officer the Mir-i-Bahri, of the
Harbours the Mlr-i-Barr, or Superintendent of Forests Qur Begi, or Superintendent of the Royal Stud ;
the
;
;
Kiiawdn Salar, or Superintendent of the Royal Kitchen; the Wdqd Nawls, or the News- Writer, and
the
9
the Mtr-i-Arz, one
brought
Majesty
who
b'y
before the Euiperor,
For purposes Gowranfent.
i.e.,
all
-presented
who
those
petitions to His
wished to lay them
Secretary.
and effective administraabolished the system of Akbar tion, and parcelled out the assigning jagirs of efficient
Mughal Empire
into
provinces
or
Subahs, as they were then called.
Each Subdh was
replica of the
and each Subdhddr The Subdhddr was
in all respects,
Empire was a sovereign on a small
officially
known
scale. $
as Sipdhsdldr.
a
As a representative of tiie
Emperor, he exercised unlimited powers as long as he enjoyed that office. His jurisdiction embraced civil as well as military department. He in-Chief of the provincial forces
was the Commanderand the head of the
He
own
could appoint and dismiss officers at his sweet will. But he was not authorised to declare
war,
or
judiciary.
interfere
make
treaty,
in religious matters.
questions
and were
sanction.
Next
punishment, or These were imperial
inflict capital
Emperor for his importance was the Diwan,
referred* to the
in order of
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
JALAL-UD-DIN
who
acted
responsible
145
independently of the Subahdar and was to the Central Government He was in
charge of the revenue and finance departments and
new appointments and
dismissals
all
rested with
therein
'He possessed the power of the purse, and all payment were signed by him/ Besides, he
him.
bills of
looked officers
almost
came
after
and all
such
judicial
functions
as
the revenue
were entrusted with
collectors
When
revenue cases.
into conflict with the
referred to the Central
at a
and
tried
certain point he
Subahdar, the point was
Government
for
decision.
The
provincial BaJchshl had the same status ,and performed
functions
similar
province had a Sadr,
Sudur
of the
his
as
Imperial
who was deputed by
Central
provincial Sayurghals.
Government
He was
Each
prototype. thfe
Sadr-i-
to administer the
quite
independent of
Subahdar and the Diwdn and had a separate He looked after the welfare of the office of his own. the
rent-free
Jdglrddrs and regulated public
charity.
commanded great influence and respect in the The Amil was the revenue collector. He was
He
province.
entrusted
with the task* of maintaining general law and order by suppressing highway robbery and other similar crimes, ascertaining the extent of the area of land under the
plough, reclaiming waste lands, promoting cultivation, punishing illegal exactions in the collection of land revenue, and submitting monthly reports
regarding the
market prices and the economic condition of the people to the Central Government,
rates of
tenements,
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
146 ,
To
control and systematise the machinery of govern-
ment more minutely, each Subah was sub-divided
Administration.
of
Pargands modern
Faujddr. as military.
Sarkdrs
and each Sarkar into a multitude The Sarkdr corresponded
District
The
and was
duties of the
As a
in maintaining
several
Mahals.
or
to our
into
civil officer,
administered
by the
Faufddr were civil as well he assisted the Sipdhsdldr
law and order.
According to Professor
the only commander of a military Sarkar, force stationed in the country to put down smaller
"he was
rebellions, disperse or arrest robber gangs, take cogniz-
ance of
all
force to
or the
and make demonstration of
violent crimes,
overawe opposition to the revenue authorities criminal
or
judge
the
censor."
Though
his
appointment as well as dismissal rested with the Subdhdar, he was required to keep himself in direct
communication with the Central as much as with the Provincial Government. The Kotwdl was the custodian His duties were multifarious.
of public peace.
first and foremost duty and detect, punish prevent crime, to trace the abouts of all offenders and evil-doers, and to He kept the life and property of the people.
Policeman-in-chief, his
As a was
to
whereprotect
watch
over the movements of strangers, patrolled the city at night to prevent theft and robbery, examined weights and measures, kept a register of houses and roads, and
took care of the property of the heirless missing persons.
He
in certain cases.
The
as the
A mil.
deceased and
also exercised magisterial powers
Bitikch* held the
He was
expected to
same
have a
status
thorough
JALAL-UD-DIN knowledge of the customs Sarkdr in
in force in the
good accountant and a consisted
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
vogue and the regulation? He must be a hi* charge. in
facile writer.
supervising the
in
147
work
His chief duties of
the
Qdnungos,
preparing revenue abstracts and submitting a report to the Court every year. The Khizdnddr, also known as
Potddr, was the treasury officer. He received payments from the cultivators, issued a receipt for every payment
made and absolutely
kept a ledger in order
He
accurate.
unless he received
Waqa Nawis was
occurrences.
Waqa Nawis
keep his accounts not make payment
to
signed by the Dlwan. the recorder of events and
a voucher
1
The
could
When
the Sipdhsdldr held his court, the took his seat near him and penned
down to
the proceedings on the spot and submitted them the Central Government. There was a regular
army of these officers and it was through them that the Emperor acquainted himself with the events that took place
in
officers,
his
Other important provinces. in the subordinate services, large
various
who loomed
were the Karkuns, the Qdnungos, the Muqaddams and the Patwdrls. All these were revenue officers, but in addition to this, the Qdnungo was the head of a
Pargand and the Muqaddam was the head
of
a village.
Akbar appreciated and rewarded merit from whatever sources it was evinced, irrespective Imperial of caste or creed. The Imperial Service was not the monopoly of the ruling class. It was open to all men of merits, rulers or ruled. No ban was
put on the Hindus.
Those among them, who deserved,
148
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
were entrusted
with
the
of civil as well
highest
as
As appointment to every post rested military posts. with the Emperor, he used his judgment independently in
By
the selection of the pick for the Imperial Service. opening careers to talents he secured the services
of the best brains of India
of
departments
Service
Imperial
If
the different
Government worked Akbar, it was because the
Mughal
time of
the
in
efficiently
the
and outside.
was maintained
a high
in
state of
efficiency.
While
the
conduct officers
.
of
was
Secret Service.
military
to the subject J
scrutiny ...
of
separate
and
civil
all
department
the of
sovereign, secret
there
was
intelligence.
still
a
There
who watched the movements of and kept the Emperor informed of their The Subahdars also employed spies in order
were several scouts State
officials
actions.
acquire information about the working of the administrative machinery and to prevent corruption.
to
The system worked officials
so well that almost
all
Government
to be honest in their dealings with
tried
the
people and the Emperor.
Akbar himself was the fountain of justice. His was the highest court of appeal, and Administration of law and
him.
justice.
everyone could have
The Sadr-i-Sudur
tried all
especially of religious character.
free
access to
important
civil suits,
The Qazi-ul-Quzat,
Qazis and Muftis and Mir-i-Adls, disseminated justice in accordance with the Code of assisted
by a
set of
The Qazl
and sifted the evidence, the Mufti expounded the law and the Islam.
investigated
the
case
JALAL-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
149
Mir-i-Adl delivered the judgment. The proceedings were usually verbal and there were no professional lawyers as
we have
awarded
The usual punishment days. minor crimes was detention in prison Fines were not unknown, but were rare.
for
or whipping.
The and
these
in
sentence of death was awarded for treason, rebellion wilful
murder,
the
by
serious cases were referred to
All Emperor himself. him and he could annul
or reverse the decisions of the lower courts.
ments
were
inflicted
The
punish-
very severe
certainly severe,
if
judged by modern notions of criminal law and procedure, but they served as excellent deterrents.
Akbar was deeply
promotion of Schools and colleges were
interested in the
Promotion of
education.
education.
founded and
richly
endowed.
Not
institutions provided with the entire system of education but professors, In the first place, the curriculum reformed.
only were the
educational
renowned
was
was so modified
as to enable the
students to equip
according to
aims and
themselves
intellectually
ambitions.
Secondly, the modus operandi of teaching it took comparatively very little
their
was so improved that
time to acquire a fairly decent education. Stipends and scholarships were granted to deserving students and
arrangements were made for the free education of poor Provisions were also made for the education students.
Hindu students in Muslim schools and Persian was made a compulsory subject for all. Women's education was not neglected. The Emperor himself maintained a
of
girls'
school
in
his
Technical education
own was
palace diffused
at
Fathpur
SikrI.
by the system of
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
150 apprenticeship. '
There existed a welUorganized
system of postal
service in India at the time of Akbar. Postal Service.
.
.
.
.
the serais along the imperial routes horses were kept to provide a regular mail-service in order to acquaint the Emperor of the important events In
all
that took place in the far-flung provinces of his empire The Waqa Nawis sent daily dispatches to the Central
Government through the horsemen or mail-servants Swifter, perhaps, employed especially for the purpose. On every than the horse-post was the foot-post. imperial
highway there was,
at
an interval of
six miles,
a post-office, called Chowkl. Every runner, who brought the imperial dispatches, placed them on its floor and the
runner appointed to go to the next Chowkl picked them up and set off at full speed without delay. Thus were the news transmitted.
At night time the runners were and protected by the avenues of trees planted on guided either side of the roads. Where there were no trees,
heaps of stones were set up at a distance of every five hundred paces and ,kept white- washed by the residents of
the neighbouring
Thus
village.
it
was that the
runner was often swifter than the horseman in the
;
for at night
dark the former ran on undeterred by darkness
or storm, but the latter was compelled to ride slowly.
This system stability
close
of the
contact
served subjects.
worked
as
a
so
well
empire by
with
the
that
keeping
provincial
it
the
secured
Emperor
governments.
connecting link ^between
him and
the in It
his
JALAL-UD-DIN
The
principal
means
MUHAMMAD AKBAR of
communication and
151 trans-
communication
portation were roads and highways, Tfaey were , ooked after fay the p ubHc
transportation.
Works Department.
Means
of
Great
arterial
roads linked the remotest parts of the Mughal Empire over myriads of miles. Special care was taken to At secure the life and property of the travellers. roads along stages public important with fruit-gardens, water-tanks and provision-
convenient hostels,
shops, were built and separate arrangements were made for the lodging and messing of Hindus and Muslims.
Rivers were also availed of for popular traffic and trade purposes, but chiefly where the nature of the country did not permit of proper road-making. Previously, the various mints had been under the Imperial Mints
and
their
administration.
char e
of
minor
officials,
called
Chaudharis, who did not possess sufficient rank and personal weight to .
secure satisfactory administration. Abolishing all local coinages, Akbar established five imperial mints in
Bengal, Lahore, Jaunpur, Gujarat and Ahmadabad and them to Todar Mai, Muzaffar Khan, entrusted
Khwajah Shah Mansur, Khwajah Imam-ud-Din Hussain A responsible Master of and Asaf Khan, respectively. of the Mint was appointed at the Capital to exercise general administrative control over the provincial mints selected was Abd-us-Samad. Subse-
and the person quently,
several
mint regulations.
modifications were
The
result
introduced in the
was an extremely varied
coinage, excellent as regards the purity fullness of weight and artistic execution.
of
metal, the
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
152
The ...
Police Department
was maintained
satisfactory state.
F
officer
have been described at
by a number manifold
The
in
a most
principal police
was the Kotwdl whose duties some length. He was assisted
of subordinate officers in discharging his
He was
authorised to employ spies in order to obtain information about the actual state of duties.
the
affairs in
cities.
The Kotwdls worked
so efficiently
and security prevailed in cities, business was and foreign merchants were well protected '.
that 'order safe,
The ,
1 he
crowning
achievement
Akbar
of
as
an
administrator was the reorganization
,
T Land
Revenue System.
of the land revenue system.
indeed
the
boon
greatest
It
was
that he
But it presented no conferred on the people of India. new invention. Strictly speaking, neither Akbar nor his revenue ministers are exclusively entitled to the tribute a they have exacted for having evolved so elaborate Sher Shah Suri must have his due share, for system. it was he who made a systematic survey of the land
under cultivation and
laid the
foundations
on which
Akbar raised the superstructure. As he died too soon, much of his excellent work was destroyed by the anarchy that followed his death. At his restoration, Humayun found the empire divided into two parts,
and Jdglr land and the timewas in vogue. When honoured Akbar ascended the throne, he resumed the work of Sher Shah and accomplished what the latter had only His principal revenue officers were Itirnad attempted. Khan, Muzaffar Khan TurbatI and Rajah Todar Mai.
Crown
land, or Kb.dlsd
practice of crop division
;
JALAL-UD-DIN
The one
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
named had
served under Sher Shah duwng and had acquired considerable short-lived regime
his
last
experience in revenue
affairs.
In order to elaborate Its
153
J L
broad
system '
.
basis.
necessary
paimdish
(measurement)
the
existing
land
four
things
were
:
of
(1) to
the
make whole
revenue
found
a
correct
land
under
cultivation, (2) to ascertain the average produce of each
bighd of land,
and
(4) to fix
the share of the State per bigha, the equivalent for the share of the State so (3) to fix
money. In order to survey correctly the entire area under cultivation, the instruments of mensuration were improved. The Jarlb, joined together fixed in terms of
was adopted as the standard landmeasure and the land survey was carefully done on its
with iron rings,
To
basis.
ascertain the average produce per bigha, all
the cultivable land was divided into four classes, viz., (i)
Polaj, which
was constantly cultivated
and was
never allowed to remain fallow, (ii) Parautl, which was left fallow for some time after continuous cultivation,
(M) Chachar, which was allowed
to remain fallow for
about four years in order to recuperate, (iv) Banjar, which remained out of cultivation for more than five years.
The
All these four classes were dealt with differently.
two were further divided into three grades The good, middling and bad, according to fertility. average of these three grades was to be the estimated first
:
basis of produce per bigha and this was to serve as the the For example, suppose the assessment. yield from the good grade of land is 60 maunds of wheat per bigha, from the middling it is 45 maunds per bigha and
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
154
from the bad grade it is 30 maunds per bighd. Now the total produce from the three grades together is 135 maunds. The average produce per bigha, therefore, maunds of wheat. The remaining two classes is 45 were treated separately, inasmuch as they were not equal to the first two classes in point of fertility and the produce
Their revenue was to be increased only In the assessment of the land revenue,
raised.
progressively.
other circumstances were also taken into consideration, e.g.,
access to
water,
Great care was
situation, etc.
taken to apportion the different descriptions among the The all. peasantry in such a way as to give benefit to average produce per bigha having been ascertained, the share of the State was fixed at one-third of the aggregate
produce for good. To revert for a while to the example cited above, the average produce per bigha, as worked One-third of this is 15 maunds, out, is 45 maunds.
which
the share of the State,
is
demand
fixed the State
commute
it
into cash
in
i.e.,
kind,
payment.
it
mahsiil.
Having
was necessary
To do
this,
to
statements
of prices current for ten years preceding the survey were
town and every village, and the the Government as its legitimate share
sent for from each
produce due to
was commuted
payment according to the At average of the rates shown in those statements. times the commutation was reconsidered at the request of the peasant and he was allowed to pay in the produce rate was fixed too high. if he thought that the cash The commutation business was done by Government officers
and
for
the
cash
cash
rates
were
fixed
Different rates were fixed for different crops.
by
them.
The
rates
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
JALAL-UD-DIN for barley
and wheat were
different
155
from those of indigo
was the first or tentative sugarcane. settlement made by Rajah Todar Mai and Muzaffar
and
This
Khan Turbati
It Gujarat during 1573-75 A. C. served as a model for the rest of the Mughal Empire
in
subsequent years. It was known as the Zabti system of assessment as against the Nasaq and Ghalldbhdsha. in
The system
of farming was abolished and the collectors were instructed to deal directly with the agriculturists.
At
first,
regularly
made
annually. But since and measurements, valuations
the settlements were recurring
assessments of individual holdings were found to be vexatious and cumbersome, the settlement was soon
made decennial on
the basis of the
average payments This preceding decade (1571-80 A. C.) alleviated another evil inherent of term the prolongation
of
the
in the existing
system
:
since
with the kind of crop cultivated, tithe
inasmuch as
it
assessment varied
the it
had the
effect of
a
indisposed the cultivator to obtain
a richer description of produce, which, though it might yield a greater benefit, would have a higher tax to pay at
made and
Arrangements were succeeding settlement. to record with great assiduity the measurements
the
classifications detailed above.
The
distribution of
land and increase or decrease in the land revenue were entered
regularly
in
the
village
The
registers.
husbandmen were allowed the option
of paying the State share in cash or kind as they pleased, but the latter
method
of
payment was
beneficial both to the payer
preferred,
because
and the payee.
it
was
They were
encouraged to bring their rents personally to the State
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
156
at definite periods so that the malpractices of the
intermediaries
that the
be
might
prevented.
If
low
they thought
amount claimed by the State was too high or any way dissatisfied with the average fixed,
were
in
they
could
on the actual measurement, division of their crops. They were exempted
insist
and valuation
from a number of obnoxious taxes and ensured easy
means
of access to
rents
were
rebates
Emperor
from
collected
on the
especially
the
in
them.
exorbitant
case
In
demand were allowed
full
when the land
suffered
cases
many to
them,
from droughts,
floods,
inundations or famines, or remained out of cultivation for certain reasons.
loans were
Besides liberal allowances, Taqqavl
granted to
them from the State treasury
to
purchase seeds, cattle and agricultural implements, and were recovered in easy instalments. When famine was rampant, remissions were common in enable
them
to
the case of the poor and public works were constructed Akbar stationed to afford relief to the famine-stricken. a
Dlwan
in
each Subah and entrusted him with the
task of collecting the State revenues and remitting them In to the Chief Dlwan of the Central Government.
each Sarkdr an Amil, in each Pargana a Qunungo and in each Dastur a Muqaddam, assisted by other revenue the officers, collected the State demand and remitted
These officers were Treasury. not instructed to deal kindly with the cultivators and
same
to the Imperial
'
to extend the
hand of demand out
of
season
'.
To
facilitate the collection of the State revenues, the empire
was parcelled out (
in
= 10,000,000) of dams
parts,
each
(=Rs.
250,000 or
yielding
a
Crore
25,000) and
JALAL-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
157
having a collector, called Qrori. Formerly, the revenue Henceforth they w~re accounts were kept in HindL kept in Persian.
The importance
of the revenue
the ^System.
system as organized Akbar merits by perfected a careful consideration. In the realm
of administration
it
and
Importance of
Akbarian Age.
the most enduring glory of the was twice-blessed It benefited the
It
is
:
State as well as the peasantry.
The
share of the State
being fixed for ever, fluctuations in the land revenue and frauds on the part of the revenue officers were
Consequently, the Imperial Treasury was enriched and the prosperity of the peasani. increased by
prevented.
leaps
and bounds.
We have
seen
and
The (i)
law and order the need
The
Artillery,
four
important
(Hi) Cavalry,
infantry consisted of
the environs
for a well-
better imagined than described.
Imperial Army had (ii)
recover
.
army can be
Infantry,
To
'
his patrimony, to establish his autho-
to restore
organized
career with-
definite territory. out any J
Military Reforms.
rity
how Akbar commenced
and
divisions (iv)
:
Navy.
or riflemen,
Banduqchls Shamsherbaz or swordsmen, Darbdns, or porters, Khidmatyds or guards of
of
the
Imperial
Palace,
Pehalwans,
or
and Kahdrs or doli-bearers. The Emperor himself acted as the Commander-in-Chief and had a number of commanders under him, called Sipdhsdlars. The artillery was in charge of the Mir-i-Atash or
wrestlers
Ddroghd-i-Topjckdnd (Superintendent of Ordnance Department), who was
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
158 assisted
by another
officer of
importance called
"The Mir-Atask laid before the Emperor all demands made on his department all orders to it passed through ;
He
pay-bills and inspected the of the Arsenal before sending them on to the
him. diaries
checked
Khan-i^Saman ings
of
losses
hands
;
by him. The desof artillery recruits passed through his new appointments and promotions were
was nominated
pay-office
all
made on his initiative. The cavahy constituted * t ^ie I
Cavalry
to the post-
and received reports as to The agent at the head of the
force
deficiencies.
criptive rolls
He saw
Lord Steward.
or
the artillery
and
artillery
the
most important
the
m P er a i
part
Army. The Mansab-
'
ddri System, a
short
description of
will nothing presently follow, was excellent organization of the cavalry.
which
Akbar maintained a well-organized
but
fleet in
defend the coasts against the
an
order to
Maghs
Arakan and the Portuguese from The Naval Department was placed in of
Mundalgarh. charge of an
whose
officer called
fourfold duty
was
Amir-ul-Bahr, to
provide vessels capable of
to appoint expert
carrying elephants ; diagnosing the temper of the sea
and
or Admiral,
seamen
skilled
in
guard the rivers, imposition, the realization and
to superintend the remission of tolls and duties.
;
to
The Emperor gave
a
number of Pargands to the Amir-ul-Bakr to meet the requirements of his department. The fleet was maintained at an annual cost of Rs. 8,40,000. The
large
ship-building industry received a
considerable attention
JALAL-UD-DJN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
159
Emperor. The important ^hip-building centres were Lahore, Allahabad, Kashmir, Bengal and That f a banks The vessels were the of the Indus) (on
of the
variously classified according to
Naval
strength.
batteries
their
were recruited from the sea-faring tribes. There was also an elephant corps. .
tained
i
,
Llephant corps.
The
and
size
kind,
were installed and
sailors
was main-
It
a
high state of efficiency. elephants were organized into in
.
.
,
groups of ten, twenty or thirty, commonly called Halqds, Some of the Marsabddrs were asked to or circles.
maintain a
number
certain
number
a fixed
horses.
of
of elepnants in addition to
All
elephants
had
their
names. Literally, the
word Mansab means
place,
rank,
The Mansabddrs,
Mansabdari
dignity, or office.
System.
(rank-holders) were administrative
normally engaged
cers,
in civil work,
offi-
but each of them
number of troopers of which he held The Mansabdari System, therefore, imthe Mansab. were bound to render military plies that civil officers had
to furnish the
whenever they were called upon to do so. On paper there were as many as sixty-six grades of Mansab-
service
ddrs,
but
in
(thirty-three).
actual
Of
practice
only
half
the
number
these, the first three grades, ranging
from 7,000 to 10,000, were reserved for the members of Sometimes exceptions were made to the Royal family. this rule
and men
of extraordinary merits were admitted
to the rank of 7,000.
held the
Rajah Todar Mai, Rajah
Man
Rukh and Qulich Khan, for instance, Mansab of 7,000 each. The Mansabddrs were
Singh, Mirza Shah
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
160
paid regular salaries from the State treasury and were req^ired to pay the cost of their quota of horses, elephants, beasts
of
and
burden
Their
carts.
appointments,
promotions, suspensions and dismissals rested with the
Emperor, who enforced
his regulations in respect of the
Mansabddrl System with great strictness. The Mansab was granted for personal ability and military merits. The sons of the Mansabddrs It was not hereditary. had to start anew, independent of their fathers' services In connection with the Mansabddrl System or status. two there are important terms, viz., Zdt and Sdwdr, which have
baffled the ingenuity of scholars in distin-
guishing betwsen. Dr. Ishwari Prasad only approximates The Zdt was the personal rank the truth when he says, of Man*abddr, but to this was added a number of extra '
which an officer was allowed to draw extra allowance, and this was called his Sawar rank.' Besides the Mansabddrs, there were some other soldiers, generThe ally foot, known as the Dalzhlis and Ahddis. of number soldiers in former formed a fixed charge of horsemen
for
the Mansabddrs. latter
They were
constituted
a
class
gentlemen soldiers, enlisted
The
paid by the State.
by themselves. by the
Emperor
They were himself
for
his personal service.
The system
of assigning jdglrs to the officers of the
was abolished by Sher Shah __ , , Suri only to set in after his shortAkbar did not like a lived regime.
State
System of payment.
,
.
f
system which put so much power in the hands of the Jdglrddrs and diminished the revenues of the State. He
resumed the/d&tfs, which were, so
to say, states within
JALAL-UD-DIN states,
and converted
lands, fixing cash
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
their, into
161
the Khdlsa, or
salaries for his officers.
Crown
There were,
Officers claiming kindred however, a few exceptions with the Emperor or enjoying his favours and such :
charitable institutions as schools
and seminaries were
since no danger accrued to the Govern-
granted jagirs ment from them. If
Mansabddri System worked well because the Emperor took
the
the
safeguard against O rpen to. False muster
brandmgTo^es and keeping descriptive
rolls.
it
was
care to it
was
was an
evil
abuses
.
from which the Mughal army must check this he revived the system To have suffered. of branding the horses in the service of the State and of keeping descriptive rolls of the troopers and their horses,
by Ala-ud-DIn Khiljl, continued by Gbiyas-ud-Din and reintroduced by Sher Shah Sun. A was created and placed separate department of branding first
introduced
under a separate Btf&hs&i and a Darogha. Descriptive rolls of officers were prepared and their names, parentage,
and personal description were entered. Chirahs (descriptive rolls) of horses were
caste, residence
Likewise
and the details of their descriptions were At the time of inspection the marks on the entered. body of every soldier and his horse were compared with It can be those detailed in the descriptive rolls. prepared
gathered from the
Am
that elaborate rules were
in respect of admission, inspection,
of
horses.
and ordered
The Emperc* his
officers
muster and the
himself inspected to
like,
the horses
look after them
maintain their military efficiency.
made
and
to
CHAPTER
JALAL-UD-DIN
IX
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
(CONCLUDED) Literature and Fine Arts Akbar was a great patron
of art
The contemporary
Introductory.
and
of the
most renowned
names
and scholars
artists
have
chroniclers
preserved for posterity the
some
literature.
of
whom
As one the Imperial Court took under its warm wings. one comes across a large reads through their accounts
who sought and Court without fail. The
number of the
of those
secured the patronage well as the
artistic as
literary productions of that period are still
excellence.
their
Here
it
account of literature and
is
admired
for
intended to give a short
without which no
fine arts,
account of Akbar can be called complete. Great as was Akbar's love ol learning, no
less
was
his fondness for fostering literature,
Literature.
j/j
j ij which feeds on knowledge and feeds knowledge again, and becomes a valuable asset to the His reign was remarkable for its cause of civilization. .
literary activities.
/
i
Numerous books on
various subjects
were written, compiled and translated under his auspices, and historical literature of a very high order was the result.
'AlUmah Abul Akbarnamah. fascination
Fazl's
hook
Akbarnamah,
of
will
and charm as a minute
Akbar,
called
always retain its account of the
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
JALAL-UD-DIN
163 >
customs and historical
set
traditions ol the people of India. Thp of this work has been importance excellently
by one of
forth
words
its
translators
in
the following
:
'
It crystallizes
and records
Its historical
state of
importance.
itg
in brief for all
Hindu
statistica i
time the
learning, and,
serves
utility>
besides
an
as
admirable treatise of reference on numerous branches of
Brahmanical science and on the manners, beliefs, traditions, and indigenous lore, which for the most part still retain
mind.
long continue their hold or\ the popular Above all, as a register of the fiscal areas, the
and
will
revenue settlements, and changes introduced at various periods, the harvest returns, valuations and imports
throughout the provinces of the empire,
originality
is
surpassing historical importance/ valuable than the Akbarndmah is the Ain-i-
indisputable as
More
its
its
ii
which
is
by
far the finest fruit
of the Emperor and partly a minute partly a history record of the revenue, royal household, treasury, military
and other important matters, with a gazetteer India and -a collection of His Majesty's sayings and No other work gives a better and more
regulations of
teachings.
elaborate pen-picture of contemporary India
customs,
traditions,
religious innovations
etiquette,
cookery
its
lore,
recipes,
and
under the pompous style of Court
Apparently a fiscal manual Journal, than this book. of all the departments of the State and its industries, it is
much more than
an encyclopaedia.
a history, a gazetteer, nay must form the foundation of every
that It
;
it is
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
164
book written about Akbar the Great and
The
a
Tdrilch-i-Alfi,
his reign.
history of the
millennium
from the dawn of Islam to the days of
j j * u -iju Akbar, was ordered to be compiled by a company of distinguished scholars singled out by the Emperor, including the reluctant Badaoni. The important events of a thousand years of Islam were accordTankh-i-Alfi. ~"
from the Athnd-i-Ashariyah point of view and the chronology was reckoned from the date of the of his Prophet's demise and not from the date ingly related
emigration, *&, Hijra. Apart from these books, at this
many more were written time. The Tdr%l$h-i-Baddom,
- ,. , A by Abdul Qadir ; a commentary on the Ayat-ul-Kursl, by Abul Fazl and and his letters ; the T&bqdt-i-Akbari by Nizam-iid-Din Ahmad and the Mun&iat of Abul Path are some of the Other books.
.
,
secretly written
other
literary
monuments
,
produced
.
,
at
this
time.
Historically, they constitute a great asset to this reign.
Akbar extended every possible encouragement to those engaged in the work of translaTranslated versions.
^t
^j s dj rec tion several copious from other languages. Persian works were translated into Khan-i-KhanSn Abdur-Rahlm put into Persian the t j on>
Wdqiydt-i-Bdbari (Memoirs of Babar) from the original Turkish for the first time and presented the Persian version to his Imperial patron, who was not slow in rewarding him handsomely for his labours. The Jamd-iRashidi was translated into Eersian from Arabic by
Abdul Qadir and the Mu'ajam-ul-Buldan, a geographical work of singular charm, by Mullah Ahmad Qasim
JALAL-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
165
Munawwar, Abdul Oadir and many other The celebrated Shahndmah was turned into
Shaikh
Beg,
scholars.
prose
and the Hayat-ul-Haiwan was rendered
into
Persian.
Akbar patronized Hindu
literature just as
Muslim. In order to encourage
...
...... , Hindu Literature.
and
social
as
and
it
r
,
<
a
also to religious
much
exchange of promote ideas and ideals between the Hindus free
and the Musalmans, he ordered the translation of many an important Sanskrit and Hindi book. Here are a few instances Faiz! and a number of learned Brahmans :
put their heads together
and turned
into
from
Persian
Sanskrit an episode of the Mahabhdratd, called Nail Damyanti, after the manner of Laild and Majnun.
1582 A. C. Akbar ordered the whole of the translated into
Persian.
Having
invited
to
epir
some
and In
be
erudite
Pandits, he gave them directions to indite an explanation of the copious epic and for several nights, says Dr. Law, he himself devoted his attention to explaining the meanMullah Sben, Abdul Qadir, ing to Naqib Khan.' Sultan Haji Thanes war! and Shaikh Faizi were constant*
ly
in
engaged
its
translation.
When
the arduous task
was accomplished, the Great Shaikh wrote its epilogue and the book was rechristened as Razmndntah, or the Book of War. When the Imperial Court was at Kanauj, (then
known
BadSoni Persian
to
with
Parshotam,
as
Akbar Shergarh), the Singdsan
translate
commissioned Battisl
into
help of a Brahman scholar, called When the rendering was complete, it
the
received the appellation of Khirad-afza-ndtnah, or the Book of Increasing Intelligence. Above all, the Rdmdyana
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
166
was put into Persian by BadaonI
in
1589 A, C.
After
*our years' strenuous labour che Lilavatl (a treatise on arithmetic), the Bhagvatagita and the Atharvavedd
were rendered into the language of the Court by Faizi
;
the history of Kashmir, called Rnjtarangini, written by Kalhana, was translated by Maulana Shaikh Muhammad
the Panchatdntra, or Kaliladamnah, was also done at this time by N asm 11 ah Mustafa and Maulana Husain Waiz. The translation of the book last-named being difficult, an easier adaptaA tion was also made under the name of Ayarddnish. f Tables he Astronomical of of was Beg Ulugh portion
Shahabadi;
the translation of
also translated into
Amir Fathullah
under the supervision of The Sanskrit works of Kishu
Persian
SbJrazI.
Gangadhar and Mahesh Mahananda were turned The into Persian under the guidance of Abul Fazl. of the Persian version was also for the latter responsible Holy Bible. The Haribansd was also put into Persian.
Josh!,
The
mentioned above being Illustrated complete, they were profusely embelversions. Hshed with charming illustrations and supplied with beautiful bindings. They were then placed translation of the books
The elaborately illustrated Imperial Library. of the Mahabh&ratd, now called Razmndmah, were given gratis to the nobles of the Court. Among
in
the
versions
the
Persian works, the story of
ndmah, Akbarndmah,
etc.,
Amir Hamzah, Zafar-
were
also
decked with
illustrations.
The
Imperial Court was a 'iterary focus because the Muslim CourtEmperor was a prominent patron of Scholars. letters. By means of his extensive
JALAL-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
167
had drawn around him a galaxy of famous The author scholars, historians, philosophers and poets. of the A In has given a list of as many as one hundred and forty learned men and about sixty poets whom the generosity he
raised above want, even to affluence. Here is account of some of the most brilliant luminaries
Emperor a brief of
His Majesty's Court
The
ablest
:
and the most renowned among the literary magnates was Akbar's intimate friend
and confidential
Fazl, the celebrated author of
He
Akbarndmah.
ranks
Abul the Ain-i-Akbari and the
among
adviser,
the greatest Persian
scholars that India has ever produced.
He was
a
'
man
and pure spiritual ideals '. Dr. Smith compared him with his 'junior contemporary/ Francis Bacon, for combining in his person 'the parts of His and man of affairs '. scholar, author, courtier was a magnatic personality, permeated with an almost
of wide culture
has
mesmeric
The judgment
force.
of
posterity
on
his
penmanship is admirably summed up by the author of the Ma'sir-ul-Umara in the following words " The Sheikh (Abul Fazl) had an enchanting :
He was
literary style.
and epistolary the
tricks of style
collagation
diction,
another to imitate. Persian words,
it
;
secretarial
and the force of
pomposity his words,
of the expressions, the application
single words, the beautiful
power of
from
free
of
compounds and wonderful
were such as
As he strove
has been said of
would be hard
for
make special use of him that he put into
to
prose the qualities of Nizaml."
The
talented
Shaikh
was indeed
the
greatest
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
168
writer of the day.
assign
him a
India.
The
His unique
achievements
literary
place splendid in the literary history of reason why some of the Westerners have
failed to appreciate the linguistic
beauty of his works books, with
to be found in the fact that Persian
is
all
enchanting metaphors and pure cannot stand the ordeal of translation, vigorous diction, their captivating style,
and
as
Prof.
Blochmann
justly
remarks,
'a
great
familiarity not only with the Persian language but with
Abul Fazl's style is required to make the reading of any of his works a pleasure Abul Faiz, known in history as FaizI, the elder '.
brother of Abul Fazl, comes next in
~ A Abul Faiz. .
.
,
He was
the Imperial Librarian and the Persian Poet-Laureate of the India order of merit.
of his time.
His inquiries into Hindu
form a most conspicuous part age.
He
translated a
arts
and sciences
of the literature of that
number
of Sanskrit
and
Hindi
books on mathematics and other sciences into Persian. giant whose literary d He was great book-lover and, activity was prodigous. like all other bibliophiles, he took immense pleasure in
Truly,
he was
an
intellectual
the collection of useful books in a library of his own. On his death about forty-six thousand ^volumes were
obtained from his private collection and removed to the Imperial Library.
Shaikh Mubarak, the learned father of Abul Faiz and Abul Fazl, was a man of no Shaikh Mubarak. versed riddles.
in
He was wellordinary learning. Persian prosody ariJ the art of composing
In mystic philosophy he
was an adept.
He
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
JALAL-UD-DIN was one
169
most delightful companions, being full of " I have known ", says Badaoni, his no man of more comprehensive learning tfcart
of the
curious anecdotes. "
enemy, Mubarak."
Khan-i-Khanan Abdur-Rahim, son of Bairam Khan, was an accomplished scholar in many A n r J Abdur Rahim. ,
,
.
He was
languages. versant Brij
with
Persian,
thoroughly conSanskrit, Turkish and
Arabic,
The Kabits and
Bhasha.
the
Dohas
of
his
simply bewitching and a deal of originality of thought and display good style. He was an excellent writer of nrose and verse alike.
composition
in vernacular
are
He
wrote under the pen-name of Rahiml. The best of works was the Persian translation of the Waqiydt-iBdbari. The Khan was an energetic promoter of his
learning
and an
eminent
patron
of
The
letters.
Maslr-i-Rahimi records that
'ninety-five literary personalities enjoyed his patronage in various ways, and
many more came
to
him
to
become
his pupils.
Masih-ud-DIn Abul Path was another Akbar's Court, about
Abul Path
litterateur of
whom both Abul
Fazl and Badaoni supply us with a favourable information. He was considered among the best writers bf the day.
has been carefully
A
rare
treasured
copy of the
in
Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal. poet
of Shiraz,
was
his
his
library
Urfi, the
encomiast; Faizi
It is
a sufficient proof,
his literary genius.
if
proof
is
of
the
renowned
composed a
heart-rending elegy on his death ; and the himself offered a prayer at his tomb not reasons.
Mun&iat
Emperor without
required, of
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
170
Over and above those mentioned above, there were numerous other gens de lettres at Court-Scholars. Court the They were Ilpperial Abdul Qadir, Bairam Khan, Pir Muhammad, Amir Mir TaqI SharifI, Maulana Kher-ud-Dm Ruml, Shaikh Abun-Nabi Dehlawi, Mirza Muflis, Hafiz Tashqandl and Mullah Sadiq Halwi, all endowed with varied Other Muslim
accomplishments. Akbar,
who always appreciated and rewarded merit and made no distinction of creed or
Some Hindu
be genius unremunerated
He
literature.
among
.
,
for their
selected his
'
justly remarks,
have
said to
Hindus and
both
^
,.
.
,
colour in choosing his officers, cannot
Court-Scholars.
Hindu men
left
of
achievements in arts and
friends
and advisers from
Musalmans, and as Smith
with a leaning in favour of the former
His Court exhibited
a*
assemblage
greater
of
'.
Hindu
any other Muslim Monarch in India had Here is a list of some of ever been able to produce.
scholars than
them
:
With the exception -,
.
.,
,
1 odar Mai.
He
Service.
among
the
of
Sufi
(Abul Fazl
Brothers
and Abul Faiz) Rajah Todar Mai J was the ablest man in the Imperial was unquestionably* the most 'distinguished ,
Hindus,
,
.
f
wielding his
pen
as
well as his
sword with equal skill. He was a consummate scholar of Persian and is credited with the Persian translation of the Bhagvatapurdna. Hitherto, the Hindus had not evinced
any
real
interest
in
learning *
Persian,
the
language of the Court. This meant their practical from the loaves and fishes of the State
exclusion
JALAL-UD-DIN Service.
By means
of an extensive
paganda he succeeded take seriously
in
the
to
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
171
and persuasive pro-
inducing his co-religionists to
study of
the Imperial language.
The Hindus,
accordingly, began
of literature
and not a few works have come down
us the authorship of which Blr Bal _ _ BirBal. ,
domain to
ascribed to them.
is
was another learned Hindu attached to the Imperial Court. His intellectual r
uncommon
gifts,
won him
to shine in the
a place
in
the
as they were, soon
innermost
circle of
Akbar's
He was a past-master of witty-sayings and in that capacity he is remembered to this day. He was a > musician, a poet, a conversationalist, a story-teller and
friends.
a clown,
all
rolled in one.
His Majesty had conferred
upon him the title of Kabrdi, i.e., Hindu Poet-laureHe was a man of extraordinary eloquence and rare
ate.
intelligence. literary repute, who were the recipients of Imperial favours in the form of jagirs, mansabs and posts,
Other Hindus of Other Hindu Scholars and Tulsi Das.
were
Man
R
j
ah BKagwfin Das, Rajah Nath, etc. Mai, Han
Bihar!
Singh, Rajah author of the time," the says greatest " does not Hindu seem the Tulsi Dr. Smith, Das, poet,
"
But
to
have
been
known
Ramcharltamanas, or from the Sanskrit field
of
Hindi
epic,
to
is
literature.
The
Akbar personally."
the Hindi
Rdmayana, adapted
an enduring It
is
glory
regarded
in
as
the
'the
great national work of the Hindi-speaking population of India '.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
172
Another distinguished poet of this time was Sur Das, the blind bard of Agra. The simple and pathetic figure of this remarkable poet next continued the line of Hindu poets in Muslim India. Devotion to Krishna in its entirety the keynote of his poetry. Be it said to the credit of the Emperor whose friendly attitude towards Hindu is
learning
afforded
a favourable
for the opportunity Hindi literature. Tulsi Das and his
development of contemporary, Sur Das, passed their days undisturbed under the Mughal Rule, the former in the celestial Benares, and the latter in Agra, plying their occupations in peace.
Akbar was endowed with an n
.
He had
genius, b
.
Painting.
.
.
His views on
developed a strong
f
artistic taste
,
from
the art of painting
exquisite aesthetic .
,
are characteristically
own words by Abul Fazl as follows There are many that hate painting, but such
expressed in his 41
men
,
his very early days.
do not
I
:
like.
It
seems to
me
that a painter has,
of recognising God ; for he, that has life and in devising its in painting anything limbs, one after the other, is ultimately convinced that he cannot bestow individuality on his cieation and is
as
it
means
were, peculiar
thus forced to think of God, the giver of life." He gave the first definite spur to what came to be .,
.
.
.
.
Mughal School of Painting.
known
on as the Mughal *- School He founded and enPainting. later
.
*
.
dowed a State Gallery under personal care and control.
runners and
inspirers of
The the
his
own
celebrated Persian fore-
new
art
soon coalesced
MUHAMMAD AKBAK
JALAL-UD-DIN
under the influence of the Indian native
173
talent,
with the
Mughal School Proper was born, which has continued to our own days.
result that the Indian
As the might and means
of the
Emperor
increased,
of Imperial palaces began tO take sha P e and ver y SOOn the need
his visions '
Painting
was
felt
paintings and pictures of architectural
monuments
were accordingly
ornament them
to
decked
the
The
splendour.
unparalleled of
with
Town
of
with pictures
Fathpur which
in
Slkrl ele-
gance was wedded to beauty. He encouraged the painters with bonuses and increase of their salaries in proportion to their progress in their pursuit of painting. In the Painting Gallery which he constructed, painters
assembled from
far
their art so as to
and near to emulate one another in become more proficient in it The
Mughal magnificence is now a thing of the past, but the Town the remains of the mural decorations of Victory, among many others, memorials of that glorious age.
of
Among Prominent
stand as
splendid
the most prominent painters, patronized by the Emperor, may be mentioned Mir
Sayyad AH Tabrez, who illuminated the Dastan-i-Amir Hamzah Daswant, who could paint and Barwan, a rival of Daswant figures even on walls in his art. Khwajah Abdul Samad and Kesu were other painters.
;
;
famous painters attached victories achieved in the
strikingly
set forth in
to the Imperial Court.
Most
this
art
an exacting passage
Akbarl, which reads as follows 11
of
field
The
have been
in the
Ain-i-
:
excellent painters are
now
to be found
and
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
174 masterpieces the side of painters
who
worthy of a Eihzad may be placed at the wonderful works of the European have attained world- wide fame More
hundred painters have become famous masters of
than the
art,
or
of
while the
those
number
who
of those
are mediocre,
who
is
reach perfection,
very great.
This
is
particularly true of the Hindus, their pictures surpass our conception of things," The art of music reached the summit of its splen.
A
dour under the Imperial patronage. r r o
f
Art of music.
It
.
received considerable
encouragement from the Emperor, who himself was highly accomplished in this art and had an adequate knowledge of its " " His Majesty," says Abul Fazl, technicalities. pays
much
music and patronizes those who Hearing of his bounty, numerous practise musicians hailed from Persia, Turan, Kashmir and other attention this
to
art."
Mughal Court. They belonged to both the sexes. Some of them were Subhan Khan, Sarud Khan, Sri GiSn Khan, Mian Chand, Mian Lai, Daud Dhari, Muhammad Khan Dhgri, Mullah Is'haq Dhari, Nanak Jarju, Bites Khan, Tantarang Khan, Rang Sen, RahmatBut the all experts in this art. ullah and Pir Zadah most skilled and proficient of them all was Mian Tansen, the matchless musical gem of Akbar's Court and the places to the
By the greatest musician that India has ever produced. said his voice he is (metaphoribewitching sweetness of cally
speaking)
to
have
set
the
Jumna on
fire.
His
in Gwalior has become a place of pilgrimage for Besides Tansen, there the later-day musicians of India. flourished in his time two other famous singers, Ram
tomb
JALAL-UD-DIN
Das and Hari Das, the Instrumentation of
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
175
Mughal Darbar. a very high kind and bewilder-
bi:lbuls ot the
ing variety has been a
most
disting-
uishin g feature of Indian music principal 6tn, flute,
musical
'
The
instruments were
:
ghlchakj karana, qabuz, sarmandal, surna,
tamburah, rabab, and qdnun. The best instrumental performers were: Shaikh Dawan Dhari, Shihab Khan. Purbin Khan, Ustad Dost of Meshed, Mir Sayyad AH of Meshed, Bahram Quli of Gujarat, TSsh Beg of Kipchak, Bir Mandal Khan of Gwalior, Ustad Yusaf of Herat, Sultan Hashim of Meshed, Ustad
Ustad
Muhammad Amin,
Abdullah and
Qasim.
Muhammad
Husain,
Ustad Shah Muhammad, Mir As to the use to which the
instruments were put, nothing can be definitely said, but their high and complex kind certainly points to a It is just possible that some developed state of music. of them were invented in this very reign, e.g., Qasim is reputed to have invented an instrument intermediate
between rabdb and qabuz. divers
The
vocal
music with
its
rags and ragnls, some of which are now out of many of which have long been forgotten
fashion and
want
of
were popular in those days ; music was equally indulged in. The Darbarl music, which became so popular afterfor
cultivation,
whereas instrumental
wards, was introduced at this time.
The
Indian
Hindu-Muslim social intercourse
through music.
intermutation
music, like other fine arts, proved a new channel of intercourse between the
Hindus
and
process
co-operation and thing in the time of
-
,
The
was not a new
of
the
Musalmans. ^.
,
I/O
IHfc,
MUUHAL,
had begun centuries before. In the domain of music it became distinctly perceptible how the two communities were borrowing from each other the precious stores they possessed in this art, and thereby Akbar.
It
enriched each other.
which was
Khiyal, for example,
invented by Sultan Husain Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur, has become an important limb of Hindu music. Dhrupad,
on the other hand,
has engrafted
on Muslim
itself
music. Calligraphy as a separate branch of the fine arts had been cultivated by the Musalmans in Calligraphy. / India ever since their advent in this .
,
.
.
Akbar encouraged the
country.
'
art
of fine
writing,
'
hand, the obvious reason nastallq invention of the printing that before the the fact being the
particularly
and
press
beautiful
its
introduction into India, clear,
hand was an absolute
legible,
and
It is idle to
necessity.
has long ceased to be recog-
linger long over this art as
it
nised as a fine art.
equally futile to enter into
various forms.
It is
Suffice
it
to say that
it
received
its
its
due
share of encouragement from the Emperor.
Akbar loved buildings and, A
.
he
A
Architecture.
possessed ;
like
a cultured prince,
a
for unique taste ,1 His Majesty, says and dresses the works .
architecture.
" Abul Fazl, plans splendid edifices of his mind and heart in the garment of stone and clay." Smith informs us that this imposing phrase not merely a courtly complement that the historian is paying here. It is sober truth and is endorsed by Fergus' son, who describes Fathpur Slkri as a reflex of the great is
mind
of the
man who
built
it.'
Even
architecture speaks
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
JALAL-UD-DIN
177
for Akbar's statesmanship,
aiming at Hindu-Muslim Unity. His buildings were characterised by a happy blending cf Hindu-Muslim styles. They combined both Hindu
and Muslim sometimes architecture,
monuments be
other
execution
his
the
The style of was eclectic. The existing
predominated.
was any,
there
if
of
expected,
which sometimes the one and
features, of
the
are
reason
fewer
than
the fact that
might several
being were subsequently pulled down by Shah Jahan, whose canons of tastes
of his superb edifices his
grandson, from those of his grandfather. The best that have survived are the tomb of Ilumayun, the most differed
:
Persian in style and renowned for the simplicity and purity of its design ; the magnificent Masjid with
Darwaza
Buland
classic
its
or
the
Lofty
Portal,
"
appearance noble beyond that of any portal attached " to any mosque in India, perhaps in the whole world ; the Jahangm Mahal at the Agra Fort ; the Tomb in
of Shaikh
Salim Chishtl
;
the
handsome mosque
erected
the Palace of Jodhabai ; the Central Hall of Akbar's original Palace the Liwdn, or Service-
at
Fathpur Sikri
;
;
portion of the Great Mosque at the Town of Victory the beautiful Masjid built at Mirths in RajputanS ; the ;
Tomb
of
Saint
Muhammad Gbaus
at
Gwalior
;
the
of Sati-burj, immortalizing the self-immolation of a wife Rajah Bihar! Mai ; the Hall of Forty Pillars at Allahabad ;
the
House
of Bir Bal
;
the four temples of Gobind Dev,
Madan Mohan, Gopi Nath and honour to the
tomb India
deified KrighnS
at SikandarS, either
'
before
quite unlike or
since/
;
Jugal
Kishor,
and above
doing
all, his
own
any other tomb
built in
considered
as the
are
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
178
admirable specimens
moist
the architecture of that
of
period.
Most of the monuments _
beautiful gardens within their premises.
,
Gardens.
The gardens Kashmir may it is
Thus
town
^
,
of
_
Fathpur
at
'
on which the popular remark, earth,
at the
Sikandara and the Naslm Bagh at be mentioned among those fortunate places
and those
Sikri
had
enumerated above
flits
is
a paradise on
here/ has repeatedly been passed.
it is
here,
there
if
the pageant of a
reign,
the
panorama
of Akbar, his achievements in the arts r n r j u* war as well as of peace and his
Estimate of Akbar.
contributions to the cause of Indian culture
and
deliberate policy of
promoting
was a systematic and literature,
architecture,
dancing, calligraphy, poetry and other which made considerable progress under
music,
painting, fine
His
civilization.
arts,
What
his patronage.
gave
a tremendous impetus to
these fine arts was his catholicity of mind which, soaring above the snares of sectarian psychology, appreciated
and encouraged true worth without making invidious
The widespread
distinctions.
diffusion of education, the
extensive perfect
promotion of fine arts, the maintenance of religious freedom and liberty of conscience, the
abolition of the hated Jizia
the
and other obnoxious
taxes,
Sail and female infanticide, the prohibition encouragement of widow-remarriage, the extinction of the
of
evil practice
and that of
of
trial
enslaving
by
elaborate system of land restoration
of law
ordeal,
prisoners
the
introduction
revenue,
and above
war
of
the
of an
all,
the
and order and the establishment
of
JALAL-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AKBAR
179
peace and prosperity throuchout tlie length and breadth of the Mughal Empire by the introduction of such wise innovations
as
issued not from a Parliament, a Cortes
or a States-General, but from the head of one man whose era was that of Queen Elizabeth, Philip II and Louis XIV, whose age was that of religious intolerance, rigid Inquisition and ruthless persecution, and whose evironments were those of malice, tyranny and oppression
are
the
index
annals of the world.
of
unsurpassed in the whatever side we approach
a genius
From
him, whether as a man, a soldier and a statesman, or as a philosopher, a military commander and a political administrator ; or as a reformer, a legislator and a peace-
maker, the conviction is forced home on us that he was really one of those few inspired personalities of bupreme
powers and singular endowments
who
have, as it were, In view of his revealed the future to their present age. contributions to the wisdom of the world and the science of humanity, he has been called the 'guardian of mankind '. As a protector of Hindu learning, as a promoter of Hindu civilization, as a patron of Hindu
genius and, above all, as a social reformer of Hinduism, the Hindus have recognised him a hero after their own hearts.
CHAPTER X
NtJR-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD JAHANGlR
(16051628 Having put down
all
A.C.)
political
Salim
intrigues,
ascended the throne of his father at Accession of
Agra;
Agra on the 24th day of October, 1605 A.C. under the proud title of World Grasper '. At Jahangir, or
1606.
'
was
that time he
thirty-six years old.
His addiction to
wine and indulgence in luxuries afforded little prospect but his natural abilities, combined of a happy reign with his liberal education and strong common-sense, ;
him
to
Mughal Empire
to
carry on the administration of the entire satisfaction of his
to
secure the
amply the
qualified
order
In
subjects.
co-religionists,
religion
;
to
he
promised
alleviate
to
of
sympathies protect the
the suspicions
and
his
Muslim
fears
of his
and trusty officers, he confirmsd them appointments and to gain the goodwill of his Hindu subjects, he extended his pardon to men father's faithful friends in their
;
Rajah Man Singh, who had espoused the cause of He abolished a number of obnoxious Prince Khusrau,
like
granted a general amnesty and instituted a gold connected with a cluster of bells, in his chamber chain,
taxes,
receive the petitions of aggrieved persons with a view to redress their grievances. The chain of not have been justice might frequently pulled by the in order to
importunate suppliants, but the Emperor's interest
in
the
MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR
NUR-UD-DIN dissemination of justice
These .
-
acts were .
,
Dastur-ul-Amal.
is
sufficiently borne out
181
by
it.
accompanied by twelve ordinances,
popularly J called the rules of conduct, ,/ , ^ ^ (dastur-ul-d mdl), which the Emperor ,
,
.
,
,
ordered to be strictly observed by his officers throughout his extensive empire. According to them (1) Jahangir forbade the levy of several customs and transit duties of vexatious nature and of the oppressive tolls and cesses
which the landlords of every province had imposed for own benefit and increased at their own sweet will.
their
He
ordered the Jdglrddrs to encourage in every possible way a residential population along solitary roads by erecting rest-houses, mosques rnd wells, and (2)
for the purpose. (3) He of to the merchandise be bales strictly prohibited opened the consent of their transit the without owners. during
providing
He
other
facilities
abolished the
whereby the property of the deceased was appropriated by the State and ordered that henceforth it should go to the rightful If anyone died without heir, his property was heirs. (4)
existing practice
used for the repair and reconstruction of mosques and (5) He forbade the manufacture, sale and
madrasahs.
consumption of such spirits and intoxicants as opium and wine throughout the kingdom. (6) He prevented
and Jdgirddrs from misappropriating the lands of the ryots and cultivating them on their own account. his officers
He
ordered the construction of State hospitals in all the cities of the Mughal Empire a number of Govern(7)
;
ment
dispensaries
werp established
and provided with
paid physicians. (8) He prohibited billeting ; henceforth soldiers were not to be stationed in private houses.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
182
He
abolished the barbarous punishments of mutilation by which the limbs of offenders were amputated and their eyes were put out. (10) For a certain number (9)
of days in the
year he
animals.
He
forbade the slaughter of certain (11) put a ban on inter-marriage by ordering that officers of the same pargana should not marry within their own pargana. (12) By a regular
firman he forbade, on pain of capital punishment, the horrid
practice
of
which was prevalent
and
making
selling
at Sylhet in Bengal.
confirmed the jaglrs and
offices of his
Having secured _.
Finally,
his
f
of
,
.
his
in
and planted his the hearts and the minds
succession
popularity in
Ar
First Nauroz.
he
father's faithful
and increased them by 20 per cent and cases b*> 300 and 400 per cent.
servants certain
eunuchs,
.
subjects,
Hindus as well as
Muslims, Jahangir celebrated the first Nauroz of his reign with great pomp and show amidst ecstatic rejoicings at
March, 1606 A.C. The festivities lasted for over a fortnight and were finally crowned with a lavish bestowal of gifts and presents on the grandees
Agra
in the
of the
month
of
Empire by tne Emperor.
It will
be
recalled
that in
*
1605 A.C. a party ot
Ram Das, Rajah J ... T ., Murtaza Khan, Sayyad KjQan, Qulich Muhammad and Mirza Aziz Koka, and headed by Rajah Man Singh, had intrigued against the accession of Sallm in favour of his son, Khusrau, but had failed. Though
_ Khusraus Revolt. ,
nobles, consisting * of
.
the father and the son were reconciled after the death of
Akbar, there was no love lost between them. The former thought that he was irreparably wronged by his son
MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR
NUR-UD-D1N
183
the latter's fiery spirit and
impetuous youth would not rest on He could not forget to his* him oars. allow that he had once contested the claims of his father.
manners and attractive carriage had made him extremely popular and the cynosure of Moreover, his engaging not
a
few
of
officers
Rajah Man
Singh and son
As a nephew of importance. the son-in-law of Mirza Aziz '
delicice of the people,'
the amor et Emperor, and he was the centre of sedition and
the pivot of
intrigue.
Koka,
as
a
of
the
Actuated by ambition, goaded by both, he escaped
political
or driven
by despair, or from Agra in 1606 A.C. and marched towards Lahore at the head of as many as three hundred and fifty
At Mathura horsemen, gathering strength on his way. he was joined by not less than three thousand horsemen <
under their leader, Husain Panlpat he was joined by the ly,
Diwdn
Abdur Rahim, who was on
*k
Badakhshani.
Beg
At
Lahore, nameway towards Agra. of
his
At Taran Taran he received the good wishes of Guru Arjan, the editor of the Granth Sahib, and also some pecuniary opposition.
help.
At Lahore he encountered a serious
When
juahore, refused
siege to the city
Dilawar
open the gates and burnt one of to
was reinforced by Said Khan week.
Khan,, the
After that,
when
its gates. Dilawar and the siege lasted for a
the Prince learnt of the arrival
of his father, he fled towards the to stir
up opposition
in
father
quarter.
His
in order
flight
was a
Negotiations having failed, the came to grips at the battle of
there.
and the son
that
North-West
Emperor who feared the Uzbegs
serious matter for the
and the Persians
governor of of the city, he laid
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
184
The rebels were routed and put to flight, Bahjowal. and the Prince had a narrow escape. His jewellery-box and other valuable things formed a considerable part of the booty obtained. ists
The
and producing him capturing and hand-cuffed chained heavily. Emperor of the royal captive were sewn, and he was
succeeded
before the
eyes
thrown
After a hot pursuit, the imperial-
in
in
His accomplices
prison.
were
ruthlessly
treated.
Guru
Arjan,
who had distress,
^ Court
Execution of
.
Guru Arjan.
helped Khusrau in his dire called to the Imperial
was
,
i
to explain
property was fined at the instigation to
annoyed by refusing
The Guru
declined
of
j
j.
conduct.
confiscated
TT-
His
and he was
Chandu Shah, whom he had
marry
his
pay a single
to
uhis
son to his daughter. cowrl and was at
'
It must suspicious proceedings '. be remembered that his execution was not the outcome
last
executed for his
of religious
was due
bigtory but
to
political
Dr. Beni Prasad has justly stated that the
have ended
his
the cause of a
days
Guru would
he had not espoused peace, But the murder was a mistake
in
rebel.
reasons.
if
up the Sikhs against the Mughal Empire and had no mean share in mould-
of the
first
magnitude.
It stirred
ing the subsequent history of the Punjab.
Qandhar was conquered by Akbar in 1595 A.C. Its loss was deeply resented by the Under their King, Shah Persians. Abbas, who was one of the greatest Asiatic
rulers
of his
time,
they
made an attempt
to
MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR
NUR-UD-DIN recover
but
it,
resorted
failed,
In
to.
was ably defended by failed, diplomacy was gam his end, the ShSh made
because
When
Khan,
Shah Beg
185
it
force
order to
overtures and exchanged sugar-coated compliments with the Mughal Emperor, who was thrown off his guard;
and as a necessary
sequel,
the
defences of
Qandhar
were neglected. In 1622 A. C. the Shah again attacked Qandhar and took possession of it without encountering Jahangir ordered his son, Khurram, to accompany the expedition against that far off province. The Prince thought that hi? absence would ensure his opposition.
and
exclusion from the throne
the
His
orders.
Imperial
therefore refused to
refusal
was
obey
fully availed of
Jahan who wished to secure the succession for Shahryar, the rival and opponent of the Prince. She poisoned the ears of her husband against
by
Niir
her son-in-law,
him and convinced him that
The Emperor the
Prince
forces he
at
his son meditated treason.
once issued an order to the
should send
had with him
in
effect that
back to the Capital all the the Deccan. Khurram hesi-
and again Niir Jahan found a chance to inflame iTiis time she sucher husband's mind against him.
tated
ceeded
in securing for
Khurram had long
Shahryar the
desired to obtain.
her husband to promote her
of
Dholpur which
She
also persuaded
fief
son-in-law to
the
mansab
Zdt and eight thousand Sawdr, and head of the campaign against Qandhar. All these circumstances combined to horrify the Prince of twelve thousand to put
him
at the
who now found safety in He tried to allay father. making apologies
submitting to the will of his the anger of the Emperor by
for his past conduct, but the backstair
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
186 intrigues of
Nur Jahan drove him As a result, Qandhar was
to break into
rebellion.
lost
was made
to recover
The crowning
open and no attempt
it.
exploit of the reign of Jahangir
was
indeed the
of Kangra in the conquest ^ b Punjab, which commanded an excellent situation and enjoyed a wide
^
Conquest of Kangra. as an
reputation
centre
important
Murtaza Khan, who was
in
of
Hindu worship.
charge of the Punjab,
was
entrusted with the reduction of Kangra but owing to the opposition of the Rajputs, he could not make headway ;
against the
liill-chie's
in possession of the strongholds
famous fortress of Kangra. After took place a little later, Prince which Murtaza's death, Khurrani was appointed to the command of the Kangra
that surrounded the
campaign. The hill-chiefs of the surrounding strongholds were defeated and the formidable fortress inside
was besieged. were cut
off,
The supplies of the beleaguered garrison so much so that they were compelled to
feed themselves on boiled dry grass.
After a protracted for over a year, the inmates of the siege, which lasted to such straits that they found reduced were garrison safety in
The conquest
submission.
of
Kangra wab
November, 1620 A. C.
accomplished in In Mewar, the
Premier
heroic Subjugation of
u-
of Rajputana, the
Rana Pratab was succeeded A Amar
O-U^TTJ-
Singh, at Udaipur in the year 1597 A. C. The new he While his father. would not was as patriotic as
Mewar.
Rana
v
State
by
his son,
submit to the Muslim yoke, Jahangir could not tolerate the existence of an independent and rather hostile State
NUR-UD-DIN on the border of
MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR
187
his empire.
Reruming the ambitious an attack on the principality, putting his son, Prince Parvez, in command of the Mughal army and providing him with The Rajputs offered a stout ample war material. policy of his predecessor, he ordered
and
resistance,
concluded
,
after
between
an
the
indecisive
battle a truce
belligerents.
After
a
lull
was of
about two years war was again declared against Mewar. This time the supreme command was entrusted to
Mahabat Khan who defeated the Rajputs but failed to accomplish anything substantial owing to the mountainous
Mewar
The ill-success of the country. campaign was due, to a considerable extent, to the nature of the
frequent changes in the command of the Imperial army In 1614 A.C. Prince Khurram received oHers to
also.
an expedition against Mewar. He opened the campaign with renewed energy and fresh vigour. Aided lead
by able military officers, he established strong military posts round Mewar and cut off the supplies of the Rana in
order
to
starve
the
State
into
submission.
military tactics took the Rajputs by surprise
the
Rana
to
His
and reduced
such a state that he expressed his desire to in which victories were as costly
put an end to the war
as defeats. Negotiations were opened for peace. The Rana agreed to acknowledge the overlordship of the Mughal
Emperor and
sent his son, Prince Karan, to the
Mughal
upon the Emperor. He also agreed to contribute a contingent of one thousand horse to the Capital to wait
Mughal army. In return for this, the fortress of Chittor was restored to the Rana and his son was enrolled as a commander of five thousand. He was not forced to
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
188 enter, into a
matrimonial
alliance
with
the
Emperor
;
rather, he was exempted from personal attendance at the Mughal Court on account of his old age. Not only
Emperor treated him in a most chivalrous In order to remove the humiliation of defeat and to do special honour to his vanquished foe, he caused two full-sized portraits of the Rana and his son to be carved in marble and set up in a garden at Agra this,
the
manner.
"
below the Jarukhd (audience window). Jahangir's " is conduct in this affair," observes Dr. Ishwari Prasad, wholly worthy of praise. Mewar had given the Mughals no small amount of trouble, but the emperor forgot the past and adopted a conciliatory policy in dealing with the
R&na.
honoured
"
his
By such
acts
of
chivalry, Jahangir as as well himself. In appreantagonists
against Mewar, Prince Khurram was honoured with the appellation of h.ah Khurram and a mansab of thirty thousand. Quite in consistence ciation of his success
with the condescension of his father, the Prince received the son of the Rana with all respect and treated him
He
*
bestowed upon him a of a honour, jewelled sword and dagger, superb dress and a horse with a gold saddle and a special elephant '. with marked
It will
generosity.
Akbar had conquered and KhSndesh. Ahmadnagar, His ambition was to advance further
be remembered
that
Berar
Deccan campaign.
South, but immediately after the capture of Asirgarh, he was obliged to go back to the North, where his son, His absence from the Salim, had rebelled against him.
Deccan adversely
The
imperialists
affected failed to
the Mughal position there. follow their successes with
NUR-UD-DIN
When
vigour.
MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR
Jahanglr came to
the forward policy
of his
Ahmadnagar was
first
t>"e
throne, he resumed
against the
father
to be
189
attacked
;
but
Deccan. in
Malik
Ambar
the imperialists found a tough foe and a military leader of the first water, one whom it was not easy to
overcome.
A word might
_
,
,
be said here about the
A
Malik Ambar.
military of
Kingdom
perience had enabled him
matters of activities
tration.
j commander
.,-
and Nizamshahl
abilities of
Malik Ambar, the Abyssinian minister
Ahmadnagar.
the
to acquire a deep insight into
civil as well
importance,
of
Age and ex-
as
military
His
embraced almost every department of adminisHe was a great financier. His multifarious
reforms have earned him fame that cannot be tarnished.
His most remarkable achievement was the re-organizaIt tion of the revenue system in his master's kingdom. was modelled after that of Akbar the Great. His political
elicited
acumen and sagacious statesmanship have But he was admiration e TT en from his enemies.
He was
no mere administrator. rr
;
of
genius Marhattas in the !itary
of the
No
and revolutionized the
State by
introducing
wonder, therefore,
fallen fortunes of the
nagar. of
his
also
He was king
against him.
endowed with a
He
order.
enlisted
the
army and organized them into a He trained them in the guerilla mode
fighting force. of fighting
a
rare
if
entire military
he succeeded
Nizamshahl
speedily recovering
when
system where necessary.
reforms
JahangTr
in retrieving
dynasty of the
ordered
lost
an
the
Ahmadterritory
expedition
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
190 -
Khan-i-Khanan /bdur Rahim was entrusted with the supreme
He was
army. Malik
command
__
Ahmadnagar.
Ambar owing
Jahangir replaced
of the Imperial
totally
defeated by
Prince Khusrau.
to the rebellion of
him by Khan Jahan
Lodhi, who 1611 A. C.
assumed the offensive with fresh vigour A combined attack was to be delivered on AhmadPrince Parvez and Khan Jahan were to march nagar from Khandesh, and Abdullah, the governor of Gujarat, was to proceed from his own province. The plan matured a little too soon for the latter advanced before the fixed time and vvas defeated by Malik Ambar. The in
:
;
imperialists were compelled to beat a disgraceful retreat.
Abdur Rahim, who had been recalled from the scene of operations, was reappointed to the command. The veteran Khan forgot the past and earnestly undertook to
the
retrieve
Deccan.
He
prestige
of
defeated the
Mughal arms
the
enemy
in a
in the
hotly contested
but again he was ordered to withdraw for notwithstanding his brilliant success, he was accused by
battle,
his
In the
enemy
;
of having accepted the Deccani gold in bribe.
another army under Khurram who had become success in the Mewar campaign.
1617 A.C. Jahangir detailed
command
Shah Khurram
of Prince after his
by able imperial generals, he compelled All 'Adil Shah to accept the terms of peace dictated by Assisted
the
Emperor
The Shah waited
Prince and offered
him presents
in
person upon the
of the value of fifteen
and promised to cede all the territory which Ambar had seized from the Mughal Empire, The Mughal Emperor bestowed upon him the title of
lakhs
Malik
MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR
NUR-UD-DIN
Farzand
(son)
191
and treated him with great love. The Khurram were duly appreciated and
services of Prince
the
of
title
do him
Shah Jahdn was
To
conferred upon him.
special honour, Jahangir
poured
head a
over his
small tray of jewels and a tray of gold (coins) from the The Empress held a special feast in his Jhartikha.
honour and showered upon him some valuable presents. Other officers were, likewise, rewarded without stint for their
profuse gifts and Dr. Ishwari Prasad, lay the hard
'Behind
services.
these
all
'
to
rewards,' fact, that
the Deccan was not conquered, and that
Malik
of
spirit
quote
Ambar was
as
unbroken as
The campaign terminated in 1629 A. C. of Jahangir and Ahmadnagar was lost
the
ever.'
after the death to the
Mughal
Empire. Prince Khusrau had been thrown
After his revolt, _
into
,
Subsequent career of Prince Khusrau.
his
father.
blinded tatter,
the
and
The his
prison.
succeeded
in
affection
accomplices
of his
rebellion
having again
Prince was
f
.
winning the hearts of his
captors and organizing a plot against The Prince was plot miscarried.
only four were executed.
memory
Not long afterwards he
.
partially
were ^arrested.
With
wore
revived,
restored
Of the
the lapse of time,
off
and the fatherly
the
eyesight of the
through
the
skill
of
an
and he was permitted to pay his He was regarded as every day. the heir-apparent and the future sovereign of Hindustan. Shah Jahan resented this very bitterly. But he had neither
efficient
physician,
respects to his father
the power to dissuade his father from his intentions, nor
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
192
the attractiveness to dislodge his brother from the place he had found in the hearts of the people. Nur Jahan, who
push the claims of her son-in-law, Shahryar, She hated Khusrau from the very nature of the case. succeeded in supplanting her husband's affection for his wished to
own son with
hatred,
and Khusrau was forbidden
to
pay he on the that showed no of signs pretext respects he was always mournful openness and happiness and and dejected in mind '. In 1616 A.C. he was made '
his
over to the custody of his most relentless enemy, Asaf Khan, and in 1620 A.C. he was transferred to his hostile brother,
Shah Jahan, who had him murdered
A.C. at
giving out,
Burhtinpur,
He
died of colic pain (Qulanj). burial
when
his
father,
in
1622
had however, was accorded a second that he
Jahanglr,
relented
and
felt
compassion for him. His remains were removed to Allahabad and interred in a garden, since known as
Khusrau Bagh. Khusrau was indeed .
,
His character.
one
figures of
tribute
deserved.
Says he
' :
of
the most captivating
the present reign. r his character
to
For that
he
prince,
presence and
gentleman
of a
Saetonius
writes of Titus, he
very lovely so exceedingly beloved of the
Terry's J is
well-
was
a
fine carriage,
common
people that as
was amor
et delicice, etc.,
and delight of them, aged then about He was a man who contented himthirty-five years. self with one wife who with all love and care accomthe very love
panied him in all his straits, and therefore he would never take any wife but herself, though the liberty of his religion did
admit of his
plurality.'
MUHAMMAD JAHANG1R
NUR-UD-DIN
Usman, who had
rebelled in
P rovince
the
the
He
rule in India.
of
harboured
Mughal Empire and aimed
against the
He
and branch.
rallied
removed b^n
Man
Mughal
desire
the
in
had
but
1
Rajah
by
to
allegiance
cherished
secretly
^g*
of
suppressed
owed outward
Afghan
1599 A. C.
reign of Akbar in the remotely
Rebellion of
but
193
Singh,
Emperor, the
reviving
bitter hostilities
to destroy
root
it
round himself the rebellious
The rapid Afghans and Zamlndars of Bengal. of in that enabled him change governors province In 1612 A. C. to fortify his position without fear. made an attempt
he
again
the
In
dynasty.
to overthrow the
that
engagement
was
Mughal the
fought,
Mughals were victorious over the Afghans. Usman was so great was his composure that fatally wounded, but '
even
in
movements defeated,
where
them
of
the
their in
condition
this
men
his
enemy
he for
retired
continued six
hours
to
their
to ',
direct
On
the
being
entrenchments
gallant leader died of exhaustion, leaving
a state of confusion.
This was the
last
Afghan
Jahangir was so much rising against the Mughal Rule. pleased with Islam Khan, the governor of Bengal, and his officers
who had
suppressed
it
that he raised their
ranks and rewarded their services without treated
the
Afghans with kindness and
stint.
He
conciliation.
without They were taken As a result of this policy, the Afghans restrictions. were completely won over and the security of the in the service of the State
Mughal throne was ensured.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
194
The Memoirs of Jahang^r and Outbreak
concur
of the
bubonic plague.
the
Iqbdlnamah the bubonic
in recording that
p j ague broke Qut j n India for the
firgt
As usual, the epidemic first affected It began in the rats and mice and then the people. whole of over almost the soon the Punjab and spread time in 1616 A. C.
*
Northern India.
ravages were so great
Its
'
contemporary
chronicler,
that
one
in
says a house ten or ',
twenty persons would die, and their surviving neighbours, annoyed by the stench, would be compelled to desert their houses full of habitations. Mortality was extremely
heavy
in
again in
The
Lahore and Kashmir.
Agra and took away a
disease broke out
large
number
of
the
people.
The most romantic event was
of the reign of
his marriage
Jahanglr with Mehr-un-Nisa,
the most beautiful daughter of Mirza
Qbiyas Beg, a native of Tehran. student
is
acquainted
with
the
Almost every Indian story
of
her
birth,
Her father, Mirza Ghiyas, was marriage and character. reduced to such straits that he proposed to leave his native-land
Accordingly,
good and to try his luck elsewhere. he set out towards India in search of
for
employment. was then in a
When
he reached Qandhar,
state of expectancy,
his wife,
who
was delivered of a
who was
destined to be the empress of India. daughter, Qbiyas was so poor that he could not take care of the newly-born baby and her mother. Luckily, a certain
kind-hearted
whose
merchant,
protection he
compassion
for the
was
named Malik Masaud, under towards India,
felt
woe- begone family and offered
his
travelling
NUR-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD JAHANG1K
195
assistance, but for which Ghiyas, v horn fate had fouied so much, would have found his lot intolerable. The
merchant commanded some influence
He
Court.
him
introduced him to Akbar
at the
who
at
Mughal
once took
into his service.
By sheer force of character and capacity, Gbiyas soon made his mark in the service of his master, who raised him to the rank of three hundred in appreciation of his excellent
and
Nisa
her
mother
work.
Little
Mehr-un-
were allowed access
the
to
Harem where
Imperial they were shown great favours by the Royal household. When Mehr-un-Nisa attained the age of seventeen,
she was married to All Quli
Mehr-un-Nisa married to Ali r a SherAf an
j
surnamed Thrower'.
~
A
<-t
Sher
t
Afgan,
Originally
(table servant) of
a
Istajlu, *
or
*r*-
Tiger
Saj^rchl
Shah Ismail
II of
AH
Persia, Quli had distinguished himself in the service of Emperor Akbar. He was appointed to the staff of Prince Salim when the latter was ordered to march He acquitted himself so admirably that against Mewar.
the Prince was pleased to reward
and cleverness,
Afgan
him for his courage and bestowed upon him the title of Sfaer
for slaying a tiger.
When
the Prince broke into
he was deserted by many of and his followers, After Sher Afgan was one of them. his accession, however, Jahangir extended him his pardon and placed him in charge of the government of
rebellion against his father,
Burdwan
When Murder Afgan *
in
Bengal.
reports
of Sher
came from Bengal, province,
that
'
insubordinate
the most troublous
Sher
and
was
Afgan
disposed
to
be
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
196
summoned him
rebellious/
Jahanglr his conduct. explain
On
refusal to
to his
Court
to
obey the Imperial
Qutb-ud-Din Koka, the governor of that commanded to send the refractory officer was province, to the Capital. Qutb-ud-DIn made a foolish attempt to firmans,
arrest
him.
Finding a large number of
men surrounding
In a fit of rage him, Sher Afgan portended treachery. what proceeding is this of thine ? he exclaimed As soon as addressing the governor and his retainers. '
'
the governor approached him to convey the Imperial message, he attacked him with his sword and inflicted serious injuries on his person.
enraged the retainers
who
This unexpected incident upon Sher Afgan and cut
fell
him to pieces. After the murder of her husband, Mehrun-N *a and her little daughter were sent to the ;
Harem where
they were entrusted to the In custody of Sallma Sultana, the do wager- queen. 1611 A. C. May, Jahangir married her. Sher Afgan's death was purely incidental and Imperial
Jahangir had nothing to do
Was
Sher Afgan's murder premeditated and whether d " n
hand fn
if?
with
it.
The
report from Bengal that he was insubordinate and disposed to be .
<
,
'
rebellious
;
the Imperial firmans, sumto the Court to explain his
moning him conduct;
obey the Imperial commands;
his refusal to
the appointment of Qutb-ud-DIn Koka, the governor of Bengal, to bring the rebel to book if he showed any '
'
futile,
seditious
ideas
;
the
foolish
attempt of the
governor to arrest him without ascertaining his offence
;
Sher Afgan's apprehension of treachery and his attack on the governor in self-defence all these are important
MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR
NUR-UD-DIN
links in the chain of the crsis
murder of 3her Afgan.
whrh
They
197
culminated
in the
cumulatively contribute
What subsequently
to the theory of Jahanglr's innocence.
the story that the murder was manipulated by Jahanglr, or that he had a hand in it, was that soon rise to
gave
the
after
occurrence
were issued to
orders
Imperial
remove Mehr-un-Nisa to the Royal Harem, where she was entrusted to the custody of Sallma Sultana and then
married to
the
But
Emperor.
this
militate against the theory of innocence.
show that the death It
by Jahangir,
It
not
does not
Afgan was brought about
of Sher
only
Emperor was
does
gives
birth to a suspicion that
but
the
suspicion does not stand in the face of other facts
and
the
with
love
in
the
kdy,
vanishes like a phantom. De Laet, the Dutch witer, that in love with her when had been says Jahanglr
she
was
Dr.
Ishwari
still
a
'
maiden. 4
Prasad,
If
the
were
this
motive
for
'
true
says the murder is
Granted that Mehr-un-Nisa's beauty had attracted the attention of Jahangir during his father's lifetime and clear/
had been madly in love with her granted also that the murder was premeditated, now was it that after her betrothal to Sher Afgan when the latter was appointed to the staff of Salim (Jahangir) in the Me war campaign, the Prince treated him so kindly and that he
;
conferred
upon
him
the
appreciation of his courage
title ?
the
him
charge of
Sfaer
why was
at his accession, did not punish
when
of
him
it
Afgan
in
that Jahanglr,
for his desertion
Prince Jahangir had rebelled against his but extended him his pardon and even placed father, in
Burdwan
in
BeogSl
?
why was
it
that
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
198
Jahangir, an impetuous lover as he was, waited for such a long time when the object of his desire was well To be sure, if Jahangir had wished within his reach ?
remove Sber Afgan from his way to Mehr-un-Nisa, he could have found one hundred and one pretexts and
to
achieved
his
long
object
before
waited for such a long time. is
no clue to
and would not have
As apart from this, there Afgan was murdered
this story (that Sher
Jahangir) in the accounts of contemporary chroniclers, nor is there any corroborative evidence of European travellers who were too prone to at
the
instigation
of
upon the scandals relating to the Royal family and raking th^m to the utmost. The so-called positive seize
'
'
historians are based on a mere and be cannot relied upon. ephemeral suspicion Four years after the murder of Sher Afgan, Jahangir marries Jahangir saw Mehr-un-Nisa and fell
assertions
of
later
Mehr-un-Nisa.
month
jn
j
ove wjth her
He
married her
j
n
May, 1611 A. C. Faithful to her former husband, Nisa was equally faithful to her new husband, who loved her so much that sometimes he would call her Ntir Mahal, the Light of the Palace and sometimes the
of
'
'
Nfir Jahdn, Nisa,
the
'
the Light of the
World
'.
Thus, Mehr-unthe most adverse
who was born in who had lived with her husband, sixteen years, and the widow who had
baby
circumstances, the lady
Sher Afgan, for wept in chaste seclusion for four years, emerged as the Empress Nur Jahan, the most beloved wife of Emperor In token of his love for her, Jahangir put her on the coinage along with his own a unique
Jahangir.
name
circumstance in the history of Muslim money.
MUHAMMAD JAHANG1R
NUR-UD-DIN
Nur Jahan was endowed with the
Nurjahan's
all
is
noble
in
She was a highly
nobler sex.
accomplishments.
that
199
cuUured ady> we ll. V ersed in Arabic and Persian literature. She was a good poetess. One of her charms with which she captivated Jahangir was ;
her facility in composing extempore verses. Under her edifying influence the Mughal Court became famous for its
'She
noon-day splendour.
age, designed new varieties fabrics, and suggested new models
the
unknown roses for
Her
in
Hindustan/
which she
is
silk
of
and cotton
of jewellery, hitherto
She invented the attar
remembered
of
to the present day.
physical feats were on a par with her personal
charms and Her
set the fashions
of
endowments.
intellectual
valour.
She used
to
She was very tond ot outdoor Barnes. accompany her husband on his hunting
excursions and often shot
one
occasion
feat
of
Jahangir
valour
that
bracelets
precious
of
he
down was
so
ferocious tigers.
On
by
her
impressed
presented
her
a
pair
diamonds and distributed
of
one
thousand asfarafis among the poor to mark the excess So remarkable was her presence of of his happiness.
mind
that she never wavered in dangers and difficulties.
She displayed ample courage and resourcefulness when was taken prisoner by husband her (Jahangir)
Mahabat soldiers
Khan.
generals
and veteran
were surprised to see her seated on the back of
an elephant and in
Experienced
firing a fusillade of
the thick of fight.
arrows
at the
enemy
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
200 If
she had become what Dr. Smith behind the throne/
'
a power was because
calls, it
she was possessed of a quick understanding and a sharp intellect which '
enabled
her
to understand the
most
intricate political
problems without any difficulty/ To quote Dr. Ishwari Prasad No political or diplomatic complication was beyond her comprehension, and the greatest statesmen '
:
and ministers bowed
to her decisions/
She
carried
on
the administration of the country so carefully that even the minutest details could not escape her ever-vigilant eye.
So supreme was her sway over the Sovereign and
the State that even the proudest peers of the realm paid her homage because they knew that a word from her
would make or mar
their careers.
But her influence on the State was not all for good. She used her power and influence in e
advancing
ontte State
the
interests
of
her
own
She surrounded herself with family. her own kith and kin and appointed them to responsible In order to strengthen her position, posts in the State. she married her daughter by Sher Afgan to Shahryar and
tried to
push him
fact that Prince
to power.
Notwithstanding the
Khurram was the acknowledged
heir to
Mughal throne after Jahanglr, she put forward the This claims of her own son-in-law in preference to his.
the
led to very serious consequences.
Harem
alike
became
The Court and
centres of political intrigue.
the
By
playing upon the feelings and fancies of her husband she ceaselessly intrigued to dislodge Khusrau from the place
he had found
in the hearts of the people.
She worked
MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR
NUR-UD-DIN
201
hard to undermine the increasing power and influence of
Khurram, who had become Sfaah Khurram after the Mewar campaign and Shah Jahan after the Deccan. It will
death of
be seen that the
the
Khusrau,
loss
of
Qandhar and the rebellions of Khurram and Mahabat Khan were owing to her machinations and mischievous influence.
Nur Jahan
Although
resorted
to
sorts
all
of
underhand means, plots and intrigues, was not devoid of genuine sym-
Her character.
she
She was
pathies, so often the share of the softer sex.
a
generous patron of the poor daughters uf Islam, for She was she found both husbands and dowries.
whom
She protected the for orphan and poor girls. weak and the oppressed and provided for the poor and Her charity and the powerless out of her private purse.
an asylum
munificence enhanced her reputation and increased her Her She was a most faithful wife. popularity.
was unmixed. Under her Jahangir's paroxysms of rage and drunkenness diminished and the expenses of the Court were Her filial affection was no less considerably reduced. devotion to
her
husband
influence
intense,
and she
enter tained the
warmest
feelings for her
brothers and other relatives.
Shah Jahan could not disentangle his father from the web of romance which Nur Jahan was /T
Rebellion of
at the
infatuated
instigation
his posts
and
revolt
self-defence.
in
around
weaving '
him,
j
.
Shah Jahan.
fiefs,
the
,
.
him.
When
the
'
old
emperor
deprived
of his imperious consort, of all
Prince In
unfurled
1623
A. C.
the
flag of
the
Prince
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
202
advanced upon Agra with as many troops as he happened to possess at that time. The armies of the fatjher and the son met each other at Balochpur and in the battle that followed, the Imperialists inflicted a crushing
Imperial general, Mahabat Kban, drove him from place to place till he reached Asir
defeat
on
the Prince.
and occupied
pwn
The
Deserted by without opposition. Malik Ambar he turned to followers,
his
it
for
On receiving a curt refusal, he sought refuge support. in Golconda against the Imperialists who were pursuing him under the Mahabat K^an.
command The ruler
to quit his country
and seek
of of
and that State ordered him Parvez
Prince
shelter elsewhere.
Driven
he betook himself to Bengal where the local authorities espoused his cause and owed him allegiance. to despair,
Becoming master
of
Bengal, he
Orissa and advanced against there he flight.
Oudh and
was defeated by the
Resting for a while in
reduced
and put
fortress of
next proceeded to the Deccan where he was received by Malik Ambar, the old enemy of the
he
and
Allahabad, but
Imperialists
the
Bihar
to
Rohtas,
warmly Mughal
Having made common cause with him against In the the Mughal Emperor, he attacked Burhanpur. the meantime he was overtaken by Imperialists again. the Prince Ambar's Malik alliance, Notwithstanding found further opposition impossible. His generals and soldiers had deserted him and gone over to the side of the Imperialists. Although he was still in possession of the famous fortress of Rohtas in the North and the Empire.
stronghold of Asir in the South, he could not stand against the vast military resources of the Empire.
MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR
203
safety and prudence compelled father to forgive his faults.
The
NUR-UD-DIN
write
Empress, of
to his
who viewed
Mahabat Khan and
at
him
of
Considerations to
once agreed
with fear the growing influence
his alliance
to the
proposal
with Prince Parvez, of Prince
Khurram.
Accordingly, the Prince surrendered the strongholds of
and
Rohtas
Aslr,
sent
his
two
sons,
Dara
and
Aurangzeb, aged ten and eight respectively, to the Court as a guarantee of good faith, and offered gifts worth After this he retired Rs. 100,000 to the Emperor. Nasik with his spouse and son, Murad.
The
to
splendid successes of Shan Jahan had silenced Nur Jahan for SOITIP time and the
Mahabat Khan.
question of succession was temporarily But the relegated to the corner.
Khusrau and the defeat of Shah Jahan revived the idea dorment in her mind, and in order to death
of
secure the succession for her son-in-law, Shahryar, she
began to mobilize her forces of intrigue against Mahabat Khan, the most redoubtable general and diplomatist of *
the empire/ whose only offence was his intimacy with Prince Parvez, the principal claiman to the throne and 4"
the most serious rival of Shahryar at that time. Orders were issued for Mahabat to resign the command of
the
Imperial
army
and
to
take
charge
of
the
government of Bengal. Prince Parvez protested in vain against an order to which both he and his associate ultimately bowed. As if this was not enough, Mahabat was accused of embezzlement and corruption. He was ordered to account for the moneys he had acquired by dismissing certain fief-holders.
He was
further indicted
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
204
having betrothed
for
daughter to the son of a certain Naqhbandl without royal permission.
Khwajah Umar
b''s
His prospective son-in-law was treated with unsparing He was deprived of all his wealth and ordered insults. to attend the Imperial
was
Mahabat
Court to explain
his
conduct.
by this unmerited treatment. Suspecting treachery, he set out, suitably escorted by five thousand Rajput followers, and seized the person of the Emperor when he and his wife were about
to cross the
her son-in-law. in-Chief,
but
offended
deeply
Nur Jahan
Jhelum.
escaped, so also
Fidai Khan, the Imperial Commanderan heroic dash to rescue the Emperor,
maae Nrr Jahan
crossed the river on an elephant and tried to organize the Imperial forces but in a state of contusion the panic-stricken officers took to flight. failed.
;
Asaf
Khan,
with
his
thousand
three
sought
soldiers,
Although Nur Jahan her characteristic displayed courage and coolness in this shelter in the
fort
of
Attock.
her
crisis,
Where
masculine qualities proved of little avail. force failed, the wiles of woman succeeded. She
joined her husband in his
captivity,
and by a
clever
stratagem she managed to throw Mahabat Khan off his She plundered his treasure and reduced him to guard. sore
straits.
Thus,
after
a
short-lived
ascendancy,
Mahabat made his way to Mewar and thence to the Deccan, where he joined Shah Jahan and concluded an alliance
with him.
When Mahabat Khan Shah Jahan's subsequent
movements.
revolted
the Deccan
-
towards the ,,
Shah Jahan was
in
Forthwith he proceeded North to try his luck
there once more.
..
.
,
,
Reaching Smd, he
NUR-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR
205
made an attempt to capture the fort, but failed. Cowed down and crest-fallen, he retired to the Deccan again. There he met Mahabat and made an alliance with him, Prince Parvez died in 1626 A. C.
as remarked before.
and Jahangir
1627
in
The
Kashmir.
on
A. C.
claims
way back from Shah Jahan were now
of
for his only serious
strengthened who was a mere mediocre. ;
While the corpse
buried at Shahdara
War of Succession.
.
was Shahryar,
rival
Emperor was
the
of
his
in
being Dilkusha
~
the
^T
Garden or Nur Jahan near Lahore, the At this fate of the Mughal Empire lay in the scrle. time there were two sons of Jahangir who had survived him Shah Jahan and Shahryar, each of whom had :
his
own
was
Prince Shah Jahan supporters at the Court. the Deccan at the time of his father's away in
The news
death.
him by
his father-in-law,
towards the
North
Shahryar was
in
his mother-in-law,
finished
to
event
secure
Lahore.
his
succession.
Prince
His cause was espoused by that time
Nur Jahan, who had by
the
with
was conveyed to Asaf Khan, and he set out
of the sad
funeral
rites
of
her
husband.
Encouraged by the Empress and egged on by his wife, Shahryar seized the Imperial Treasure and proclaimed While Asaf Khan, who himself emperor at Lahore. wished to see
up
at
his
own
Agra the son
son-in-law
on
the
throne,
set
of the ill-starred Khusrau, called
Dawar Bakhsh,
as a stop-gap emperor till the arrival of Nur Jahan wanted to see her Meanwhile Shah Jahan. brother, Asaf Kban, in order to gain him to her side but the latter thwarted her plans by evading her. At ;
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
206
army, Asaf advanced upon Lahore and inflicted a sharp defeat on Shahryar. The defeated prince was imprisoned and his eyes were put out. the
head
of a strong
Meanwhile Shah Jahan's arrival was anxiously awaited at the Capital. His coronation took place on February 6, 1628 A. C. immediately
after his arrival.
Finding that her cause was to f
Shln's the
forgot
respect
and
pension
of
wishes.
life.
private
Nur Jahan
retired
Although she had
been the arch-enemy of Shah Jahan and the main cause of his misfortunes,
carler.
latter
lost,
the
kindnens.
past
and treated her with
He
granted
two lakhs and took care
her an
all
annual
to carry out her
Now
she gave up all thoughts of luxury and and began to live a simple life. She passed days at Lahore in company with her daughter,
luxuriance her last the
widow
December,
She died on the 8th of Shahryar. 1645 A. C. and her body was interred in of
mausoleum which she had raised over the grave her husband. Thus ended the days of Nur Jahan.
the
of
CHAPTER
XI
MUHAMMAD JAHANGlR
NUR-UD-DIN
(CONCLUDED) the
During Introductory.
was
reign of Jahangir India
a
number
of
visited
by
representing
foreigners,
*u
ri-
*
Portuguese, the
the nationalities, European Dutch and the English, all of whom
endeavoured
establish
three
to
Mughal Emperor, who was them.
friendly
of
Jahangir's of
their
this
impressions under the Great Mughal.
the
favourably disposed towards
In the present chapter
short account
with
relations
it is
intended
relations
country and
to
give
a
them and
with
condition
its
In order to please the Sunni orthodoxy and to secure his succession to the throne, ...
, I
Jahangir had severed his connections ... ~ ., ^ with the Portuguese. But as soon
relations with the Portuguese.
,
,
he firmly seated himself on the throne, he renewed his relations with them and began to "how favours to
as
the
Jesuit
reign of his
churches
Fathers as liberally as he had done in the He allowed them to run their father.
in
Agra and Lahore without molestation, to
conduct their church processions with complete Catholic ceremonials through the streets of the city of Agra, and He to make converts to their religion if they could. himself loved to
around him. adorned
his
see
the
Figures of rosary
pictures
is
Christian saints
and the Virgin Mary reported to have granted
Christ
and he
of
THE MUGHAL RMPIRK
208
cash allowances to Christian missionaries for ecclesiasti-
So
and reverence for and Mary that the Christians had come to claim
cal purposes.
Christ
him
as
great
convert
a
was
to
his love
their
creed.
It
that
appears
JahSngir's policy towards the Portuguese was actuated by an ulterior political aim his object was to secure the ;
support
of
the
who
Portuguese
possessed
a strong
artillery imported from Europe. In 1613 A. C., however, they incurred the wrath of the Emperor by seizing
four
imperial
and plundering
ships
retaliation, their settlement
wen
churches
their
All
stopped.
their cargoes.
Daman was
In
attacked,
closed and their ceremonies were
was
this
at
due
to
their
own
high-
handedness.
The East Indian .u u n iu \Vith the English. AI-
of
was extremely lucrative. To Portuguese, who had a monopoly A it, it yielded enormous profits. trade
...,,,
European nations were attracted to India to and the English were among them. The participate in it, East India Company was founded by them in 1600 A. C.,
number
but to
it
of
was only
make
India.
the reign of Jahanglr that they began earnest efforts to advance their trade interests in in
Between
A
1600
C. and
1608 A,
C.
the
Mughal Court to Company establish friendly relations with the 'Great Mughal and The to conclude a commercial treaty with him. sent
three
missions to the
'
missions
failed
in
hostile influence of
their
the
object
mainly
Portuguese who
owing
to the
looked
the English as their rivals and therefore intrigued plotted against them.
upon and
NUR-UD-DIN was
It
1608 A.
in
C
En g lish
William Hawkins and William Edwardes.
seeking
MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR
William Hawkins, an
that
sea-captain,
'Hector,' arrived at
from
rr .
T
King
James
the
^commanding Agra with a letter T I
r
of
T^
j
i
England,
trade with India and to build a
to
permission
209
Hawkins was hospitably received by Emperor and granted a mansab of 400 with a salary
factory at Surat.
the
The
of thirty thousand.
asked
concessions,
which he
were readily granted, but were subsequently
for,
withdrawn
owing
to
Portuguese.
After
the
only the
trade
when
the
the
inimical of
departure
Portuguese another
influence
had
Hawkins, fallen
out
of
the
it
was with
William
that
Englishman, Emperor Edwardes, arrived at the Imperial Court and secured trade facilities which were, however, withdrawn a little later at the instigation of the
The Sir
Portuguese. Hawkins and of missions informal
^ Thomas
Roe.
Edwardes
were followed by a formal embassy ' ,, ^ Sir Thomas Roe, the accredited .
,
of
plenipotentiary of the King of England,
the
Mughal
Court
in
1615
A. C.
who in
arrived
at
order
to
As a dexterous negotiate a trade treaty with Jahangir, diplomatist and a shrewd politician, eminently endowed common-sense and business capacity, Roe was He best-fitted for the task he was entrusted with.
with
was
far superior to his predecessors in point of intellect, education and experience. By offering valuable presents to Nur Jahan, Asaf Khan and Prince Shah Jahan, he
gained them to his side and presented the terms he wanted to secure for his nation in the form of a treaty.
Though the
draft of the
treaty,
which he submitted,
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
210
was ^not accepted in the Emperor, which
The English were hire
to
any
site
toto, yet
he secured a firman from
otfered
considerable
concessions
:
allowed to build a factory at Surat, they liked for the factory to erect on,
and to enjoy the The evils and abuses of the right of self-government. custom-houses were put an end to, and tolls were Above not to be levied on articles entering into a port. to trade freely within the
all,
if
the British
country
merchants
were attacked
by the
Portuguese, they would be assisted by the local governor with boats and other necessary requisites. The grant
indeed an important landmark in the In short, it humbled history of Anglo-Indian relations. the pride of the Portuguese, enhanced the prestige of of
this
firmun
is
the English and laid the British
A Foreign
foundation-stone of the
first
of India.
Empire large number accounts
of Jahangir's reign and their veracity.
of
Europeans
visited India
the reign of Jahangir.
have
~
Some
during of
them
impressions about -^ , the Emperor and
left their ^
Court
-
, ,
of
the .
the
Roe's Journal deals almost condition of the country. exclusively with crart life and the political intrigues of the it
time.
As regards the condition
reveals very
same from
little,
though we can
of the country, catch glimpses of
Terry's account contains a description of the country and the condition of the people; whereas Hawkins* account is mainly confined
the
it
at intervals.
to the description of the personal character
and
his daily routine.
these
They
But
it
of Jahangir
must be noted that
all
accounts are not entirely free from exaggerations. are useful only so far as they corroborate certain
MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR
NUR-UD-DIN Indian
of
facts
and contradict others.
history
where they come
with
conflict
in
211
the
But
cumulative
contemporary native historians, their authenticity must needs be called in question. Ignorant as the European travellers were of the life and thought of the people and their psychology, their accounts of
testimony
cannot be expected to be unmixed, more so when sometimes their wishes were not complied with, From Sir Thomas Roe's accounts it can be that
gathered
and
its
order
customs.
to
he
achieve
had to bribe his
object.
speaks of some grave abuses ports where the arbitrary prices.
and tyrannical
They
were,
foreigners.
luxurious. festivities
governors seized
local
Most in
of the
He sea-
upon goods
at
Subahdars were exacting
dealings with
their
at
a
their subjects.
however, generally sympathetic towards The Court was magnificent and even
Roe
length on the customs and He of the Court and the fashions in vogue. dwells
at
says that the nobility was courteous and the courtiers, The highest as a class, were corrupt and unprincipled. officials
were
extravagantly
paid
and
bribery
was
commonly practised. His narrative also shows that travelling was unsafe between the coast and the capital, and the port officers were grossly cruel. There was no written constitution. his
word was
law.
The
The King was
the State- aixl
provincial governors behaved
as d^SpoSfand their aUegiance to the Central Govern-
ment
According to the Law of the property of the deceased belonged to the
was
Escheat,
half-hearted.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
212
The
State.
the
of
cities
neglected appearance. Speaking of the
D';ccan
Emperor was drunkard, but by day
remarks that the
an inveterate
was
he
personal character.
_,
a
of temperance. .. , ,, witnessed the scenes
picture ,
,
The ambassador
of drunkenness
and
character of Jahangir,
personal
Roe
sad
bore a
his nocturnal
and revelry only during
Emperor never allowed anyone, whose
visits.
The
breath
smelt of
wine,
to
enter
addiction to spite of his excessive
his daily
levees.
In
wine and occasional
was not paroxysms of rage, tue Emperor, remarks Roe, wanting either in good sense or in good feelings. He describes His Majesty as an amiable, cheerful man, full When of passion, but free from pride and prejudice. Roe visited India, KJjusrau was alive. He found the
He describes Prince a general favourite of the people. him as a man of lovely presence and fine carriage. According to the ambassador, Prince Khurram was He
portrayed as one who was flattered by some, envied by many and loved by none. Roe The fine art? were in a flourishing state.
cold, stiff
and
repellant.
was State of Fine Arts. his
.
T
is
amazed ,.
of Indian
at
... artists.
the
workmanship learn from
We XT7
,
.
account that once he presented an English picture
Emperor, who immediately had it copied at ^ The the hands of his own artists. copies were so to the
faithful
could
that even after a close scrutiny the ambassador not distinguish them from the original. A
somewhat follow.
detailed account of the fine arts will presently
MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR
NUR-UD-DIN As mentioned
befcxe,
213
Hawkins too has
an
left
the Emperor, his Court and the country ; but his description
account of
Hawkins account.
.
.
.
confined mainly to the character of Jahangir and the He describes the Emperor daily routine of his Court. is
as very fond of drinking and giving feasts, the most notable of which was that of Nauroz. His account
shows that Jahangir was cruel and unpopular that he took delight in inflicting barbarous punishments that his administration was not good, that the Law of Escheat ;
;
was
in force
common
that bribery was rife and corruption was the local authorities were oppressive
;
that
;
and the pay of the nobles was extravagantly high. It must be remembered that Hawkins had left the
Mughal Court be
in disgust,
to
expected
have
and
been
for this reason
he cannot
unbiassed
writing his
in
narrative.
The
essential elements of administration introduced
by Akbar the, Great were continued ,. ,. uuTUand kept in order by his son, Jahangir whose Dastur-ul-Amal is a decided
Administration of Jahangir.
improvement on predecessor. reign was
king,
the administration
Dr. V. A. Smith's
'
who
'
inglorious
retained
is
not
intact
view
borne the
of
his illustrious
that
out by
Jahanglr's facts,
A
vast possessions of his
House, with the solitary exception of Qandhar, must have been a successful administrator. The fact that peace and prosperity, question of succession excited
his reign constituted a period of
except
only when
the
rival interests, speaks
administration.
much
for
The view may
the efficiency of his hold good in respect
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
214 of certain traits of
his oersona*.
respect of his administration. of truth in the
by a
certain
view that his
amount
but
character,
not
in
There may be a measure administration was marked
compared with
of deterioration as
high standard maintained by his talented father, but the view that his reign was inglorious is not at all
the
'
'
justified,
Jahangir was not deficient in natural His love of
unfortunately letters.
r
Ha
use of wine and opium.
was
highly
of
his
great
j u u were marred by his excessive
,,
faculties
he
some
but
abilities,
proficient
himself in
us
informs
Turkish
and
that
Persian.
William Hawkins, who knew Turkish well, found him well-versed in that tongue. This knowledge of the Turkish language enabled him to read the Wdqiydt-iBdbari in the original. The copy which he possessed
was not finished. and wrote a few
He
supplied the four wanting sections lines in Turkish to indicate that the
complementary portion was added
by him.
He was
a profound
common
with other
student of history.
In
Mughal Emperors, he had an innate desire to leave behind him a record of all the important events of his With this aim in view, he wrote his autobioreign. called the Tuzk-i-Jahangiri after his own name, graphy, with the help of two consummate historians, Muhammad Hadi and Mu'tamid Khan, When the work was done, the mutasaddls (amanuenses) were ordered to make other copies of the original in order to distribute them among the high officials of the Imperial Service and the
influential
dominions.
The
men first
of
the
copy
different
parts
was presented
of
his
to Prince
NUR-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR
215
Khurram (Shah Jahan) s a mark of honour to him. Under Jahangir the Imperial Court was the cradle i
of the sage and the scholar, the poet and the painter, as much as of
It
accomplished savants of both the sexes. can be gathered from the Tuzk-i-Jahangir% that the
Emperor used
associate himself with learned
men, of Some the on and recluses divines, Friday evenings. best scholars attached to his Court were: Ni'mat-Ullah, the historiographer who crytallised into a book the to
material accumulated by Haibat
Khan
of
Samana about
the history of the Afghans; Mirza Gbiya^ Beg, the able arithmetician, who also stood splendid and unsurpassed elegance of composition ; Abdul Haq Dehlawi, one of the most erudite men of the day, who came to wait upon the Emperor and presented him with a work in
the
written by
him on the
lives of the
Shaikhs of Hindustan;
Naqib Khan, the most honoured historian, who wrote a and Mu'tamid Khan, who of books on history
number
;
assisted Jahangir in preparing his autobiography, since styled as the Tuzk-i-Jahangiri, or the Memoirs of
Besides these literati, the celebrated author Iqbalndmah (an account of Jahangir's reign) has
Jahangir. of the
given, at the
end of
his
book,
a
of
list
some more
scholars and prominent poets of the present reign. Great as was Jahangir's love of learning, no less
was
his zeal for the extension of education f
USSSiin?
Tarilch-i-Jdn his
accession
structed even
"
in his kin g dom -
to the
those
Jahan
throne, he
is
recorded in the
that
" repaired
soon after
and recon-
madrasahs which had been,
for
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
216
three decades, the
dwelling-pKces of birds and professors and students."
them with
beasts
One
and
filled
the
twelve clauses of the Rules of Conduct ordained
of
that the property left by the heirless deceased should be used for the repair and reconstruction of moribund
madrasahs. Sir
me
Thomas Roe
us
gives
understand
to
manual arts were in a and were not confined
r s*
that
flourishing state to those peculiar
to the country. The plenipotentiary of England presented the Great Mughal with a handsome coach. Within a " short time several others were very manufactured, very
and
superior in materials,
JahSnglr was Painting.
X""
the
workmanship".
He is lover of painting. " Prince of Artists". rightly called the an ardent ,
f
t
Himself a painter of no
he gave a fresh creation,
fully equal in
and
Indian
the school
impetus to
his appreciation
*
mean
of his
merit, father's
and encouragement raised
the highest pitch ever " In this time/ says Timurides.
painter's
art
to
1
attained under the " there were found Catrou,
in the Indies native painters
who
copied the finest of our European pictures fidelity that might vie with the originals."
One
of Roe's presents to the
of extraordinary elegance.
presented with "
a
number
Padshah was a
with a
picture
The envoy was soon of
its
copies,
after
including the
original, and they were so very similar that by candlelight one could not be distinguished from the other." It was only after a close scrutiny that he could make
out the original picture.
MUHAMMAD JAHANG1R
NUR-UD-DIN
From mural .
^
as
decoration,
connection
.
.
Portrait Painting.
with
217
remarked
already
Akbar's reign, b
9
in
the
.
Mughal Painter passed on
to exquisite
which reached the zenith of its glory under Jahanglr, than whom no keener or more discerning, more critical or more aesthetic, more lively or more portraiture,
patron has ever been found in the whole The bulk of his commissions
munificent
Hindustan.
of
history consisted
of painting
of portraits
Amirs and
the
of
at the Mughal Court and of Court scenes. Under Jahanglr Persian and Hindu artistic tradieach impioving and tions were happily blended, each the other, striking the chord and stirring enriching
Maliks
the sensibilities of the seer, each demanding ness of
attention
to
the creations of that
a minute-
details, which, on account of time, have been a marvel for the its
succeeding generations and a despair to
all
the would-be
imitators of this art. If art
found
took the
it
best painters
of Jahangir's Court
mentioned the names of the following that prince of painters
Nadir-ul-Asr* (the his art*
and
his
aften
whom
Wonder
Jahanglr
may
be
Ustad Mansur,
:
officially styled
of the Age),
was unique
in
He
was a past-master in animal portraiture pictures of birds and beasts are still the living
* Martin says a painter,
Jahangir's
was mainly through the
Imperial patronage, which, no longer the monopo j y of the poet or the every kind of artist under its wings.
Patronage.
Among
in
highest expression
reign,
Painters under the Imperial
painter,
its
" :
Mansur,
worthy
Jahanglr was a great lover of birds, and had portrayed his favourites (birds) in a way
who
of Diirer."
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
218 creatures of his
immortal b ush.
He
found a fervent
devotee to his art in the person of the Emperor. Abul Hasan was another eminent painter attached to the
He was an adept in producing Jahanglr. and human Once he brought to landscapes portraits. the Emperor a delightful picture of his Court, which was used as a frontispiece to the Jahdngirnamah. He Court
was
of
held, in
common
with Mansur, in Das was another
Bishan
Jahanglr.
About him Mr. K. T. Shah
was *Ind
high esteem
by
portrait painter.
writes in his Splendour that
:
"
Every granaee of the Court has been immortalized by his undying brush and every noteworthy incident at Court or in the Camp, where the Emperor was present, or in which he was interested, has been recorded and preserved by the labours of these immortals." ;
had a
Jahanglr .
_. A
keen
The
A
Architecture.
sense
architecture.
of fine
magnificent monuments
of his
.
to those of in comparison reign, and son, are very few and insignificant, unless we ascribe the Jahangiri Mahal at Agra and the tomb of Akbar ?t Sikandara to him. The mausoleum his
father
Mirza Gbiyas Beg (Itimad-ud-Daulah), a stately structure in which elegance is wedded to beauty, of
was
built
Jahan,
at
the
marble, on a
his
Agra by cultured raised
octagonal tower
wife
beautiful
of
platform, in
on each
angle,
Jahangir,
two
in
storeys,
with a
snowy with an
central
pavilion enclosed by a square walled garden.
most
Nur
daughter,
It
open is
the
striking specimen of the architectural achievements
of Jahangir's reign.
NUR-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR
219
This aesthetic Empero. had also an ear for mus'c.
The Iqbalnamah
Music.
the following
records the
names
who were
singers
of in
on him Jahanglr Dad, Chatar Khan, Parvez Dad, Khurram Dad, Makhu, and Hamzah all noted for the captivating sweetness of their voice.
attendance
:
This Imperial Artist surpassed even aesthetic
Gardens.
order
He
tastes.
.
number win
to
the
his father
in
planted a large ? \. .
of gardens in his
;
in
Nur Jahan.
heart of the reluctant
Dilkusha Garden (Shah Dara) at Lahore
kingdom
Nishat Bagh,
Shalamar Bagh, Bagh and Verinag Bagh at Kashmir the Royal Garden at Udaipur the Garden Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah at Agra and Wah Bagh at Achibal
;
;
Hasan Abdal were Salim, '
the
all laid
out by him.
promise, was ptayer and extravagantly loved and spoiled in his He g reW U P to be a earl y y uth
son
of
'
most
violent,
man.
indulgent,
He was
indolent,
and if it not thwarted was was, his sympathetic if Almost all authorities outbursts of wrath were terrible. He was and vigorous. agree that he was just, wise endowed with an intellect which enabled him to
wilful
and
easy-going his will
kind
;
comprehend the most
intricate problems of the State a confirmed drunkard, he Himself without difficulty. forbade the manufacture and sale of wine and prevented " As he advanced in age, his subjects from using it.
the old impetuosity of his temper was sobered down, and his outlook was modified by the appreciation of the 1
responsibilities of his exalted office.'
When
sober,
he
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
220
work wisely and carjfully for the betterment of kingdom. He administered even-handed justice and
tr'ed to
his
Law and order suppressed tyranny with a heavy hand. were maintained throughout the length and breadth of the Mughal Empire and even the remotest parts were not neglected in this respect.
Jahanglr was extremely
benign and generous. His Memoirs teem with instances of his munificence and good-will. There was no man of merit who was not rewarded by him. A slight '
claim
of service,' he used to say,
*
a great thing with He felt great pleasure in patronising the poor and us.' supplying tneir material requirements.
The me TI
t
remarkable
Jah:.n
'own
and
Sh
trait of his
character was his
Jo
appreciation of beauty and everything
_
.
His love ,for XT Nur .
is
.,
beautiful.
his
He
was
passionately attached to Mehr-un-Nisa, whom he used to call Nur Mahal, or the Light
d km.
of the Palace, and
Nur Jahdn,
or the
Light
of
the
No misunderstanding or mistrust,' says Dr. world. ever marred the happiness of their Ishwari Prasad, While the Empress loved him conjugal relations '. *
*
with
all
her
heart
and guided him through
all
the
problems of the State, the Emperor shared with her the sovereignty of his Kingdom and cherished her above all in the world.
As a
son, he proved to be
most untoward
during the lifetime of his father ; but on becoming king, he repented of his acts of disobedience and became a In his Memoirs he speaks reverently of his father and praises him for his noble qualities. Many a dutiful son.
time he walked to his sepulchre at Sikandara to pay him homage. As a father, he was forgiving and forgetful.
MUHAMMAD JAHANGIR
NUR-UD-DIN If
the fate of Khusrau was tragic,
was owing
it
He
Nur Jahan and Shah Jahan.
of
221 to the
treated his
enmity kinsmen with great kindness, but he never forgave them for political offences.
As a man
u refined His ~
,
.
of learning, lettres.
.
tastes.
,
%
biography
history,
He was
he was very fond of belles His favourite subjects were J
a good poet
and a penman.
and
geography. According to Dr.
Ishwari Prasad 'his intimate knowledge of the flora and fauna of Kashmir and other parts of Hindustan will cause surprise to a naturalist in these Like days '.
he loved
his father,
Hind* songs and took
hear
to
delight in patronising Hindi poets.
and encouraged
He Born
their cultivation.
Indian parents, Jahangir loved things delighted in Indian environments.
loved fine arts in India
and of
and
Indian
felt
Just like his father, Jahangir too has suffered on
account of his HlS rellglOUS
ans have
beliefs
opinion opinion their
of
own
his
as
a sincere
Christian.
beliefs.
It
an
eclectic.
Muslim, is not
religious beliefs.
about
his
a
Histori-
J/-- A
definite
The
religion.
was
contemporaries
religious
atheist, to others
liberal views.
r-ij^r failed to form
,
coloured
by
To some he was an Some looked upon him
whereas difficult
others to
state
Although he took a
called
him a
his
positive
lively interest in
the teachings of other religions, specially of Sufism and Veddnt, and never persecuted anyone on account of his '
religious
and
said
beliefs,
his
he
prayers
denounce him as an
retained like
a
atheist or as
intact his faith in
Muslim
'.
God, Those who
an apostate from Islam,
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
222
which he was brought up and the influences that surrounded him in his early days. Nurtuied as he was amidst the most probably forget
the
liberal influences,
it
enviro iments in
was natural
for
him
to
remain above
the trammels of religion. He was Akbar's son and his was the same Sulh-i-Kul policy. To sum up, Jahanglr was a great ruler, capable of If he had not immense energy. J e allowed himself to be dominated by the
His estimate.
Nur Jahan
clique,
he would have
excellent administrator, of his father.
the
real
It
worthy
proved himself an
to be placed
must, however, be
pointed
by the side out
that
glory of his reign has been greatly eclipsed
the splendour
of
the
two
reigns
that
followed
by and
preceded his, and he himself has suffered much on account of coming between two illustrious sovereigns Akbar the Great and Shah Jahan the Magnificent.
CHAPTER
SHAHAB-UD-DIN
XII
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
(1628-1658 A. C.)
When Shah
Jahan
from
returned
Dawar Bakhsh,
the
the
Deocan,
emperor
stop-
, ,, ^ was allowed to escape to Persia but the rest of his collaterals were murdered and their supporters were ruthlessmercilessly So startling were the scenes of the ly chastised.
Accession of Shah Jahan.
,
,
6 a P>
;
Royal Harem were taken aback, so much so that some of them went even so far as to end their lives by committing suicides. Thus tragedies that the ladies of the
wading his way to the throne through bloodshed, Shah Jahan crowned himself at Agra on the 6th day of February, 1628 A. C. in a formal manner and assumed the title of Abul Mazaffar Shahab-ud-D!n
Muhammad
Sahib Qiran-i-SanI Shah Jahan
Badshah
The Khutba was recited and the coins were The coins struck in the name of the new emperor. that bore the name of Nur Jahan were at once withGbazl.
drawn, and
she
was asked to
retire
to private
life.
becoming dignity and was allowed to pass her days in peace on a handsome Amidst odes and pension of two lakhs a year. encomiums, prepared by the prominent poets that had ceme from far and wide, the coronation ceremony was gone through and the beat of drums implied,
She
was
treated
perhaps, that a
new
with
era
had been ushered
in the history
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
224
melted
man
But, for the
of India. at
the
was
felt
thickness
blood
of
becoming the
Emperor of fitting retribution, and no when the inhuman acts of Shah Jahan
prospect India, fate had reserved a surprise
/hose
of
were imitated by his son, Aurangzeb, towards the close of
own
his
reign,
as
be
will
seen
a subsequent
in
chapter.
The new emperor inaugurated number His early acts. ations
of
his
by
reign
important
acts.
began by strengthening laws of Islam, which, if Abdul
Lahorl be believed, were Sharlyat was
strictly
by
Akbar
a
in
enforced. as
an
of
state
act
of
y
He
Hamid
decline.
Sijdah
a
found _
the
the
introduced
of
The
which was
salutation
and
continued by Jahanglr as such, was regarded as bid' at and was at once replaced by Zaminbos, or kissing the ground, from which the Sayyads and the Shaikhs, the learned and the pious
were exempted.
A
however, Zamlnbos too was looked upon
little
later,
as similar to
Sijdah and was therefore soon superseded by a much milder mode of salutation, called Chahartasllm. Quite The solar in the same spirit was the calendar reformed. system was stopped because
it
was tantamount
to bid'at
and its place was taken by lunar computation. In recording official events the lunar system was adopted and A number of administhe Hijra era was adhered to. trative changes were also introduced and the city of
Agra was named anew as Akbarabad, after the name of Akbar, for whom Shah J^han had the greatest The officials of the Empire, who had espoused regard. the cause of
the
new
king,
were
rewarded for their
SHAHAB-UD-D1N MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN services
according they on honours his great helped him of his sister,
r, c AU Rebellion of the Bundelas under jo ar mg .
had
their
to the throne after
.
checkmating the plans
Shah Jahan was
of
called
with
the
clan
under their
gj f
murdered
instigation
,
deserved.
Nur Jahan.
Meanwhile, .
nd
mansabs were raised 2hah Jahan conferred father-in-law, Asaf Khan, who had
without stint as
225
the
to cope
Bundela
ambitious
chief,
gj n gj^ fae Imperial protege
Allama Prince
of
rebellion
upon
Abul
Sallm.
Fazl at Bundelas
The
who the
had,
blackmailing their neighbours, become Towards the close of a power to be reckoned with. of the Central control the Jahangir's reign, when
by means
of
Government had slackened, they had acquired considerIn 1628 A. C. Bir Cingh able power and influence. His son, Johar Singh, incurred the wrath of the new Emperor by quitting the Capital without taking
died.
his
permission.
Lest he
should
be called to
the
Court to explain his conduct, as Qazwini suggests, he hostilities against the Empire. began to harbour Miscalculating the strength of the
Imperial
army and
over-estimating his own limited resources, he concluded that he could easily defy the authorities from his
mountainous country, which, he knew
well,
was well
Reaching his stronghold, Undcha nigh inaccessible. (or Orcha), he set about raising his forces, strengthening '
munitions of war and closing the roads.' Shah Jahan could not brook this insult. Forthwith he ordered his generals to conduct a campaign the
forts,
providing
against the rebellious clan.
Islam Khan, Firoz Jang and
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
226
Mahabat Khan, order,
highest
Mansabdars
associated with the
of the
advanced from three directions
and
appeared before the walls of the fort of the Bundela Chief. but bloody battle, in which two or three were destroyed, Undcha was stormed with Asaf Khan's artillery and Johar was taken aback by the a short
After
thousand attacks
lives
of
the
Imperialists.
Reduced
to
sore
straits,.
the Chief surrendered himself without further opposition. He was made to pay fifteen lakhs of rupees as
indemnity and one thousand gold mohars as a present to His Majesty. Besides, he surrendered forty elephants
and agreed to contribute a contingent of 2,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry in the impending campaign against In return for all this, he was allowed as the Deccan.
would have enabled him to enjoy the mansab of 4,uuO Zat and 4,000 Sawar. The rebellion of the Bundela clan was followed by the revolt of Khan Jahan LodhI,
much
as
Counting upon
otherwise
known
account
of
the
as Salabat
Khan on
military
talents.
his
uncertainty of
succession
to the
he had displayed Shah Jahan ascended
throne after the death of Jahanglr, hostility
for
Shah Jahan.
When
the throne in a formal manner, he implored forgiveness.
His offence was pardoned and an Imperial firman was issued
to
Deccan.
confirm
him
After sometime,
in it
the governorship of the was discovered that he
for the Emperor. He was, to back the where he lived for therefore, Court, seven or eight months, but all the time gloomy and The court life had no attraction for his dejected.
still
cherished
called
hatred
SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN restless
the
became the more miserable
lifv
received intelligence from a
State
he and
that
imprisoned.
and
His
spirit.
when he
The
his
certain
officer
guarantee of good
repeated assurances of the Khan, were not a
prudence disgust.
The
overtook him
Emperor sufficient
Considerations of safety and him to quit the Court in
faith.
alike compelled
of
would be shortly
sons
Minister, Asaf
his
227
Imperial army, sent for his arrest, near Dholpur. Crossing the Chambal,
passing through the Bundela country and skirting along Gondwana, the rebel reached the Deccan, where
and support. The and defeated him in Imperialists some skirmishes. Crossing the Narbada on his retreat, he reached the neighbourhood of Ujjain, where he Chased into Bundelkhand plundered its inhabitants. and defeated in a contested engagement, he was put to
him pursued him
Nizam-ul-Mulk
lent
shelter
thither
and was ultimately brought to bay near Kalanjar, was totally defeated and killed at Tal Sehonda, His
flight
The commanders
followers were slain in large numbers.
of
the
Imperial
Muzaffar,
were
iorces,
fitly
honoured and rewarded
successes in the arduous campaigns. of the former general was raised to
and the
six title
mansab and the
and
Abdullah
particularly
for their
While the mansab thousand Zat
six
thousand Sawar and he was honoured with of Firoz Jang, the latter was promoted to the title
thousand Zat and
thousand Sawar, of Khan Jahan was conferred upon him.
of five
Shah Jahan celebrated the 4
Celebration of first Nauroz.
five
first
reign in the
month
w tfa
great
A C
j
Nauroz of
of
March,
edat
In
his
1628 the
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
228
the courtyard of the Daulat Kh ma a splendid canopy was set up and the found was covered with carpets
The Mnghal Emperor, surrounded
of divers colours. his
sat
on the throne placed
sons,
daughters,
a
presented
picturesque
held, and the grandees participate.
The
granted
and
gifts
and
wife
by
other
A
view.
relatives,
The scene
the centre.
in
was
feast
grand
the Empire were invited to members of the Royal family were
titles.
of
Mumtaz Mahal,
the
Imperial
consort, was the recipient of the richest reward She was granted fifty lakhs from the public treasury. Jahan Ara received twenty lakhs and her sister Raushan Ara, :
To
lakhs.
five
each
of the four princes,
Aurangzeb and Murad, twenty lakhs Asaf
Khan, honoiaed for
was
Imperial
It is said that
moities.
equal
father-in-law,
loyalty and nine thousand
his
to
raised
Sawar.
the
Dara, Shuja',
in
devotion.
was
fitly
His
rank
Zat and nine thousand
from the day of
his
coronation
Nauroz, Shah Jahan expended altogether one crore and sixty lakhs from the public treasury in granting rewards and pensions.
to the feast of
17
During 1630-32 A. C. Gujarat, Khandesh and the Deccan were visited by a terriole J IA*
Famine
:
1630-32.
proportion
Amin of
of
Qazwini,
the
,
,
heart-rending
in the
shop-keepers
.
,
,
carried
away a
According to
large
Mirza
who was an
famine-stricken,
everywhere
.
famine, which the population.
sold
this
eye-witness to the scenes sufferings of the poor and the dire
rank and
file,
was
distress
and
powdered bones
in
rampant
the bazar
and
flour
the
mixed
together and dog's flesh which was mistaken for meat
SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN by the heels
suffering
followed
Pestilence
classes.
famine and exacted a heavy
of
and
from their houses
a
many
on
the
People fled
toll.
fair
229
city
became
The testimony of Abdul Hamid Lahorl, who visited the Deccan in 1630-31 A. C.,
desolate.
Peter Mundi,
and other European
Amin
writers points
In
account.
Qazwini's
to
order
the to
veracity
of
mitigate the
and the pestilence that followed it, Shah Jahan remitted l/3rd of the land revenue on the Crown lands. The remission altogether amounted to seventy lakhs. Sarkarl langars (State kitchens) were opened and food was distributed gratis to the poor and the indigent. Every week Rs. 5,000 was given away in charity to the famished, and in twenty weeks one lakh In Ahmadabad of rupees was spent in this way. horrors of the famine
'
where the famine raged most furiously, the His example sanctioned Rs. 50,000 in excess.
(Gujarat),
Emperor was followed
by
Mansabdars
his
and
provincial
governors, who evinced great interest in and solicitude for the sound administration of famine relief; they
made
similar
respective
remissions
provinces.
of
But,
in
revenue
land those
times
in it
their
was not
combat srch a calamity so successfully as in these days. Sbah Jahan was, nevertheless, fully alive to the sufferings of his subjects, and the relief he afforded
possible to
to the
sufferers deserves
our respect and admiration.
Dr. Vincent Smith relies on the imperfect translation the Padsfaahnamah by Elliot and Dowson and discounts the efforts of Shah Jahan in removing the of
distress
bring
of
out
the the
famine-stricken. difference
While seeking
to
between the conditions of
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
230
under the Mughal Rule and the British Raj, he forgets to allow for the time that has elapsed since then time that has been noted for the marked native
life
in
improvement
means
the
of
and
communications
transportation.
Both Akbar and Jahangir had shown great favours to the Portuguese, who had established themselves at Hugli and developed
the Portuguese.
by building a number and provided with of important factories, Shah Jahan had seen enough of fighting material. He was the acts of aggression committed by them. them to in for their a own coin. looking pay pretext The year 1632 A. C. saw their destruction. The their resources all
causes were:
both
sides
ever the
(1)
of the
previous
taking the lease of the villages on river Hugli, the settlers tyrannised trade
of
emperors,
customs duties on
so
They shamelessly abused to
granted
much own
their
revenues of the
the
(2)
poor people.
concessions
the
By
fortified
State
so
that
account.
suffered
them by the they
imposed
As a
serious
result, deficits.
was and torture/ Often cruelty of both Hindus and Muslims the orphans they kidnapped to them (4) Their and transported foreign countries. a most fanatical manner. They priests behaved in (3)
They
carried
on lucrative
slave-trade 'which
accompanied by much
by force and not infrequently (5) They had offended the succeeded in their object. Empress Mumtaz Mahal by detaining two slave girls whom she claimed as hers. These acts of brazen insolence were bound to bring down upon them the
tried
to
win
converts
SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN 231 wrath of the
Emperor, who thought it expedient to to check theik influence.
them and
chastise
1631
In
A.
C.
Shah Jahan
appointed Qasim governor of Bengal and entrusted him with the destruction of the
Khan 16
?Sf uglfese! settlers fort
Portuguese Settlement at Hugli. The were attacked and their
on
either side of the river
was besieged. The
Cunningly of rupees,
as
siege lasted for over three
the
enough, together with a
months. a lakh
Portuguese offered
the Emperor, but
tribute, to
secretly they prepared themselves for a vigorous defence.
Putting their forces in order, the} organi/ed a force of seven thousand gunners to cannonade the Mughals. In the deadly fight
that followed, the Portuguese were
completely routed, their forts and factories were levelled and the garrison, altogether ten thousand
to the ground souls,
were either
killed or
drowned
Those
the river.
in
Islam were spared. On the side of Shah Jahan as many as one thousand soldiers lost their As a result of the war, the Portuguese tyranny lives.
who embraced
was over and ten tnousand inhabitants of the country, who had been confined in prisons, were liberated.
Arjumand Banu Begum,
also
Mahal,
the
Lady
woman
of
MumtLM?hT
known
as
of the
dazzlin s
Mumtaz was a and was the
Taj,
beaut y
She powerful intellect. of Asaf Kj^an, the most influential noble of
daughter the Mughal the
title
jgoddess of
Empire, whose Like of Aristotle. beauty.
abilities
had earned him
her aunt,
she was
the
Her name was a household word
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
232
and her charms were a subject
of
comment
the
in
Born in 1594 family circles of the Mdghal aristocracy. A, C., she was married to Prince Khurram in 1612 A.C. the latter was
when
Jahan loved
twenty-two years of age.
her quite as
much
for
Shah
her physical attrac-
His passionate was her with added intensity. love reciprocated by While he was a homeless wanderer during the closing years of his father's reign, she was his best friend and tions as for her intellectual attainments.
guide.
of a
With him life.
fugitive
she cheerfully braved the privations At his accession, she was honoured
M>.Mha-i-Zaman, and her allowances were boundlessly increased. Her advice
with the titL of
and jagirs was sought in all important matters of the Government and valued so much that the Emperor took no initiative without taking her opinion. She was entrusted with the custody of the Royal Seal, and instance that afterwards.
it
was given
Since
had remained
to her
her betrothal
faithful to
it
father
was
at
her
some time
Shah Jahan, shehim and there was nothing on to
mar the happiness of their conjugal relations. She bore her husband fourteen children and remained a constant source of strength to him till she Her death, was due quietly passed away in 1630 A.C.
earth
that could
a fatal delivery. The tragic event took place at when her husband was conducting his camBurhanpur
to
Her remains were paign against Kban Jahan Lodhl. removed to Akbarabad after six months. There she was given a provisional burial for later her remains were transferred to Agra and interred in the mausoleum ;
known
as the Taj.
,
SHAHAB-UD-DIN
Mumtaz
Mahal
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN was
endowed
of her
time.
secured
di g nit y of
womanhood.
regarded
as a
those
all
which add
accomplishments
MuS?MahaL
with
She
233'
the
to is
justly
most virtuous woman'
Her
pardon
She generosity was par excellence. from the Emperor for a number of
who had
Her charity was boundless. There was none whose prayer was not She could be approached for granted at her door.
criminals
lost all
without any
assistance
hopes of
life.
To women
difficulty.
low
of
and limited means, she granted daily allowand cash money according to th^ir material Her gentle heart was moved at the sight requirements. fortunes
ances
of poor
a
poor
orphans and widows
and
helpless
in
girl,
For many found husbands
difficulties.
she
and provided them with dowries. By the nobility of her character and the serenity of her temper she enthroned herself in the heart of her husband and suitable
gained the good-will of her subjects. In the Haramsarai she was assuredly 'a warmth-diffusing bliss'. Few
polygamous households can claim happiness
as
household
the
to
of
have enjoyed such
Shah
Her
Jahan.
memory has been safely preserved by her husband in the Taj, a 'monument of conjugal love and fidelity', and a thing of beauty and a joy for ever. The existence of the Shia Sultanates of the Deccan was Shah Jahan's Deccan Policy.
^
an
eye-sore
tmperors. A. C. and
,
1605
the
to
^ Between
.
,
Mughal .,
r Ark
the year loOO A. C. Akbar was
1
Deccan campaign. He was able to annex occupied to his Empire the whole of the kingdom of Khandesk' in his
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
.234
and a
large
India,
and
of
part
His ambition was
to
including Berar. extend his sway over the whole of
prevented his plans to mature His son, Jahanglr, resumed his
but his death
materialise.
father's policy
tough foe
in
with added enthusiasm
was
Mughal
but he found a
;
Malik Ambar.
'Was accomplished and
the
Ahmadnagar,
all
Hence, nothing substantial efforts to annex the Deccan to
Empire ended
in
To Shah Jahan
smoke.
the policy of reducing the Shia Sultanates as a It must, however, be remembered that family legacy. vwhereas Akbar and Jahanglr were actuated by purely left
political
motives in their
aggressive policy
against the
Deccan Sultanates,
Shah Jahan's wars against the Shia Sultans were the outcome of his religious zeal mixed with political prejudice. In his object he was
more
successful than
his predecessors,
because in the
he himself was acquainted with the ins and outs of the Deccan secondly, a devastating famine had first
place,
;
-wrought havoc
in that quarter
and thus
and
lastly, Malik Ambar, .conquest vigorous defence, was no more alive. ;
The
facilitated the
the very soul
successful suppression of the rebellion of
Jahan
of
Khan
Lodhi afforded a favourable
opportunity to Shah Jahan to declare
war against Ahmadnagar. which the rebellious Lodhi had received
Nizam Shahi King, was to wage *was needed, which was torn by
a sufficient pretext,
war
against
internal dissensions.
The
help
from the if
pretext
Ahmadnagar In 1630 A. C.
the Imperial forces besieged the fortress of Parenda, but *soon the siege was raised in the teeth of vigorous
SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN Path
opposition. into
his
stepped Sultan Murtaza his
ruin
Khan, Malik father's shoes,
Nizam
of the
Ambar's son, who had was imprisoned by
On
for his military inefficiency.
he applied
release
235
his
newly gained
liberty to the
Ahmadnagar. At once he Shah Jahan and, on receiving
Sultanate of
communicated with from the
instructions
Emperor, seized the person of Sbltan Murtaza Nizam and threw him in prison, where he was treacherously done to death. Then he raised a
young himself
prince,
named Hussain Shah,
became
his
regent.
In
Mughal Government. he proved perfidious to Shah Jahan.
support of
the
to the throne
all this
and
he had the
Equally quickly He defended the
Daulatabad against the Imperialists under A strong pressure of the command of Mahabat Khan.
fortress
of
the Imperial forces, coupled with a tempting offer, was Path's fall decided the sufficient for him to surrender.
Ahmadnagar tor good. The young Sultan Hussain Shah Nizam was taken prisoner and sent to the State Prison
fate of
where he sighed out his life in dark despair. traitor, Path Khan, was amply rewarded for his
of Gwalior,
The
He was granted a liberal salary and treated with respect. The Nizam Shahl dynasty was thus brought to a sad close and the Mughal flag was planted on the ruined ramparts of Daulatabad. An attempt was made by Shahjl, father of Shivaji, to treacherous conduct.
retrieve
the fallen fortunes
of the
Kingdom
of
Ahmad-
He set up a young boy of the Royal family on nagar. throne in order tc achieve his object, but the
the
Imperialists reduced
Ahmadnagar
him
to absolute submission.
as an independent
kingdom was
Thus
definitely
236
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
removed from
the political
/
when
A. C.
Shah
'Adil
territories
its
of Bijapur
India
of
map
were divided
and Shah Jahan.
in
1636*
between All
may be
It
pointed out that the conquest of this kingdom, as alsoothers in the Deccan, was the real cause of the
of
conflict
in
which
Hindus
of the
the
Marhattas
these
Aurangzeb was involved with the
South.
It
who had
gave
rise
served
to a third
under the
power
rulers of
kingdoms, but had been cashiered by the Mughal
Government.
Of
the five offshoot? of
the
Bhamni Kingdom, two
were added to the Mughal Empire The Imad Shahi kingdom of Berar :
Further operations in
was annexed by Akbar the Great and Nizam Shahi Kingdom of Ahmadnagar by Shah Jahan. As for the Band Shah! Kingdom of Bidar, it was automatically reduced to a small principality and the
it
ceased
remaining
an independent kingdom. The two, namely, the 'Adil Shah! Kingdom of
to
exist as
Bijapur and the Qutb Shahi Kingdom of Golconda, were sufficiently strong to hold their own. Of these the former was more powerful, independent and two,
wealthy therefore its turn came annexation of Ahmadnagar. ;
When
after the
immediately
Shah Jahan attacked Ahmadnagar, Sultan Muhammad 'Adil Shah of Bijapur had ma de common cause with his neighbour, Sultan Murtaza Niz5m, lest
his
own kingdom
should meet a similar
when Ahmadnagar was annexed the
to the
fate.
However,
Mughal Empire,
whole brunt of the Imperial forces
fell
on 'Adil
SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN Shah who had openly
the authority
defied
237
of
in league with his neighbour, Murtaza Nizam. Asaf Khan was deputed by Shah Jahan to conduct the
Jahan
He
campaign against Bijapur.
to the city,
laid siege
but the Bijapuris put up a heroic defence with the aid of Marhatta light cavalry which cut off the food supplies of the Imperial army and thereby compelled the Mughal general to raise the siege without success.
the independence of Bijapur was saved for the time being, though a large part of it was laid waste by
Thus
Further operations against the Bijapuris the Mughals. were postponed owing to the death of the 2 ueen f r ;
the Emperor was then occupied with the construction of the Taj in order to immortalise the memory of
Mumtaz Mahal. Hostilities
were renewed against Bijapur A.
when
C.
written
in
firmans
1636 were
issued to the Sultans of both Bijapur
of Golconda.
and
Golconda,
ordering
them
to
Shah Jahan, to pay suzerainty acknowledge tributes to the Central Government regularly, to abstain from helping Shahji Bhonsla and from interfering in of
the
the
affairs
quences
of
Ahmadnagar. Considering the consedefiance and disobedience, the ruler of
of
Golconda regarded discretion
as the better part of valour.
He complied with the demands and agreed to the terms of the treaty proposed by the Mughal Emperor. But the proposals of Shah Jahan fell flat on the
^f Of
_
.
ears
of
the
ruler
of
Bijapur.
offered
therefore declared against
a
curt
Bijapur, J r
refusal.
him without
who
War was
delay.
Three
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
238
him from three sides sent to attack from was aiiack to Khan Jahan Sholapur, Khan-i-Zaman was to proceed from Indapur, and Khan-i-Dauran was
armies
to
:
advance from
east. all
were
The
of Bidar
the direction
territory of Ali 'Adil
in the north-
Shah was encircled on
the Imperial generals failed to take the They, however, devastated the surrounding
sides but
capital.
country, so much so that the Sultan was compelled to sue for peace. Negotiations were opened and a treaty
was concluded with the following clauses: (1) Ali 'Adil Shah agreed to owe allegiance to Shah Jahan as his vassal.
(C)
He
offered a
pe&kasli
(present) of
twenty
lakhs to the Emperor. (3) He made a solemn promise the frontiers of Ahmadnagar. would he that respect
Nizam Shahi territories were to be divided between the two parties and according to the proposed partition, (4)
Bijiipur received fifty
of
huns
respect
parganas, yielding twenty lakhs
or eighty lakhs of rupees. (5) He promised to the integrity of the Qutb Shahi Kingdom of
Golconda, the ruler of which had accepted the Imperial he agreed to abstain from (6) vassalage. Finally,
God and the help to Shahji Bhonsla. Prophet were made witnesses to the solemn text of this treaty and both the parties agreed to abide by its giving further
clauses
on a solemn oath.
Sultan, Shah Jahan sent
him
At the request of his
portrait
the
studded with
The ruler of Golconda sent a tribute precious metals. in gold to his overlord, lest he should remain behind his '
elder brother
pacified
twenty
'
in pleasing his suzerain.
and the settlement then years.
On
his
return
The Deccan was
effected lasted for
to
Agra,
about
Shah Jahan
SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
239'
entrusted the charge of his conquests of the Deccan to his third son, Aurangzeb, who wsj at that time hardly of the viceroyalty of
events
be told in
will
Aurangzeb
The
old.
eighteen years
connection
with his
early
career.
Shah Jahan's
attention of
"his
attempts to acquire his ancestral
.
Bz\\&
associated
with
successors.
His
the
j
,
,
.
He was
prosperity
the
to
win
encouraged
in
his
of
his
reign and
the regions
Taimur
of
was
object
to acquire
efforts
an(j Badakhshan,
glories
.
,
an d made abortive
possessions.
lands.
Deccan,
Shah Jahan. He followe d the example of his predecessors -
11
Pohcy and
the
recovery of Central Asian possessions occupied the serious
after the
Next
fame
the
,
and in
his
distant
undertaking
by
of
his
flattery
He
began with Qandhar, because its possession was invaluable to the Emperor of India both on account
friends.
of
its
and as a principal commercial on the trade-route between Persia and
strategical position
station
India. military
lying
.Moreover,
its
operations
situation afforded a strong base for
against
and Badakhshan,
Balkh
which Shah Jahan longed to acquire. Said Khan, the Governor of Kabul, was commissioned by Shah Jahan to reconnoitre :1638.
Qandhar and
to
make an
estimate of
its military strength. All Mardan Kban, the Persian Governor of that province, was not satisfied
with the treatment meted out to him by his
He
was, therefore,
lukewarm
sovereign.
defending the province result was that the Imperialists
The under his charge. advanced upon Qandhar and
in
easily
took possession of
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
40
The
it.
who
Persian forces were defeated under their general was encamped ~ix miles off Qandhar. A large
booty passed into the hands of Said Khan and
his
army.
Mardan Khan was received with great kindness by Shah Jahan. He was paid one lakh of rupees and All
enrolled as a grandee of the
After the conquest his
Conquest of Balkn and
,
Qandhar, Shah Jahan turned towards Balkh and thoughts
Badaklishan, the famous dependencies r of the Kingdom of Bokhara. In
Baclakhshan.
Jahan
Mughal Empire.
of
Shah conquering these provinces, with the same motive that of war actuated
conquest.
His
provinces
were
result
natural
confusion
was involved
A
was
in
a state
of
dynastic
ruled supreme
had created content.
invasion
there.
dispute in
the Royal
in
Jahan 1646 A. C. he sent a
generals,
intimate
following
which
Balkh was
to interfere
knowledge
month
the
without opposition,
seething
family there
Bokhara.
son
with dis-
made Shah
In June
huge army under the command whom were associated renowned
Mardan Khan, who
All
including
his rebellious
All this encouraged
the affairs of
Murad, with
As a
anarchy and The ruler of Bokhara
him.
for
both the
dissensions,
in the difficulties
confusion worse confounded.
of his son,
well-timed, for
of hopeless defence.
of
the
city
Persian of
had an
country.
Balkh
Nazr Muhammad,
was the
The
occupied
King of
Bokhara, who had fled to Persia, leaving his vast wealth to fall into the hand? of the Mugiials, came
back without securing any support from the Persian In the scramble that followed his flight, the Emperor,
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
'SHAHAB-UD-DIN Mughals were able
only a part of the large rupees, 2,500 horses and 300
to acquire
12,00,000
booty,
viz.,
camels
in all.
241
Caused by the temporary weakness of
the Uzbegs, the conquest of Balkh was short-lived. Prince Murad, who pined for the pleasures of the strong determination and
plains, lacked
not follow up his success with vigour.
call him back to Hindustan. he returned and his place was
he requested
his father to
Despite repeated refusals, taken by one Sa'adullah K]]an, ment of the whole country
When
who in
he went back to Kabul,
Aurangzeb and Shuju' the proposed to
proceeded
therefore could
More than once
to
campaign Kabul to
command
effected the settle-
about three
weeks.
Shah Jahan ordered the Imperial
army
in
against Bokhara, and himself direct
operations
against
the
enemy. The expedition was very liberally financed, but Aurangzeb and his brother, Shuja', encountered a they found that their forces were of the Uzbegs. those outnumbered by Moreover, the Mughal officers in the newly-conquered country were
serious
not
handicap;
willing
attractions
to of
stay there.
Indian
On
social
life
the other
had a
hand, the lure
which
they could not resist. Above all, the methods followed by the Uzbegs added to the difficulties of the of warfare
Mughal 4
Cossack
who
generals, tactics
',
which
were, their
indeed,
far
inferior
enemy followed
in
to their
But Aurangzeb was a man of greatest advantage. iron-will and there was nothing that could shake his He inflicted a crushing defeat on the determination.
Uzbegs and entered $alkh in triumph. Investing the supreme command of that place in Madhu Singh Had a,
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
242
Rajput Chief, he set out on his onward march towards Aqcha with a view to destroy the Uzbeg hosts, a
who were now
round the Imperial forces. fighting continued for some time and the
Desultory
hovering
News arrived Mughals sustained severe hardships. from Balkh that a huge army was advancing from Bokhara to oppose the onward march of the Mughal army, and Aurangzeb retreated without losing time. In the fight that
followed, the
Mughal musketeers made a army and won the day.
furious attack on the Bokharan
Aurangzeb displayed wonderful coolness and courage in the thick of the fight and his was the moving spirit
Even amidst
everywhere. spread
his
carpet
the clash of arms
and say
his prayers
he
would
without
fear.
Bokhara was surprised at his presence of The King He was convinced that mind and determined resolve. of
to defy a
man of
such mettle was to court despair and desProposals for peace were made and Aurangzeb
truction.
entered
Balkh quite
safely.
Negotiations continued for
months but no permanent peace was patched Shah Jahan wished to restore the kingdom of up. Bokhara to its ex-King Nazr Muhammad, but at the same time he insisted on the condition that Nazr must acknowledge him as his suzerain. Between the devil
over three
and the deep
sea, the
Mughal Emperor
ex-King sent his grandsons to the on him and evaded to agree
to wait
of the treaty proposed by Shah Jahan. attendance was excused on the plea of His personal his illness. Placing the charge of the city and of the in the hands of Nazr's grandsons, the Balkh fort of to
the terms
Prince
left for
Hindustan.
On
his
homeward march he
SHAHAB-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
243
With great difficulty he was attacked by the Hazaras. This retreat of the reached Kabul with his entourage. army
Imperial
is
compared with the 1842 A. C.
correctly
the British from Kabul in
Shah Jahan was able
to
'
Mardan
not on good terms with the But the Persians, Kin S of Bokhara. who cherished that province, recover-
under their new
it
of All
who was
expensive but
ed
the aid
1638
in
governor of that province, b *
Khan, the
and three highly
Qandhar
occupy
A. C. with Loss of Qandhar
retreat of
ascended the throne
king,
in
who had Aurat gzeb, who
Shah Abbas
1642 A. C.
II,
had been appointed to the government of Multan after his departure from Balkli, was recalled and ordered to conduct an expedition against Qandhar, where the
had capitulated after a desperate fight which had lasted for nearly two months (1659 A. C.).
Mughal
The
garrison
Imperial army, numbering
and
ten thousand foot
thousand horse, advanced upon Qandhar under the joint command of the Prince and his associate, Sa'adullah Khan, and delivered a furious attack on it.
sixty
The
Persians,
replied
who had
by opening
that after a
siege,
strongly secured
on
their position,
The
result was enemy. which lasted for about four months, fire
their
The Prince was called back by the Mughals retreated. his father and again appointed to the supreme command This time the Prince was better
of the Imperial army.
equipped crores
of rupees
was put
defray the expenses
He
was
A sum
with the instruments of war.
assisted
of
at his
the
war
disposal in in
a
of
two
order to off
land.
by Rustam Khan who had shone
in the
far
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
244 previous general,
fight,
and
Qandhar
his
Sa'adullah
two
sons.
He
laid siege to the fort of
May, 1652 A.
the beginning of
in
famous Mughal
K]?an, the
C. and
allotted
the Imperial generals their proper places.
ordered
the
Mughal
gunners to
blow
off the
He
ramparts,
but the Qandharls frustrated their attempts to storm the fortress so that they failed to make any breach in The Persians, the walls which were so ably defended.
who
possessed a strong park of artillery, ceaselessly poured fire on the besiegers, so that a large number of
them were wounded and transported to the next world. The siege was raised after about two months. Annoyed at the military
ordered him
inefficiency
of Aurangzeb,
Shah Jahan Deccan
u> take over the governorship of the
and entrusted the governorship of Kabul to son, Dura, who had poisoned the ears of
his eldest his
father
and incessantly plotted against him. He took permission of his father to renew the siege of Qandhar and boasted that he would effect the conquest of that place within a week. At the head of a against his rival brother
huge army, consisting five
thousand
gunners,
six
cutters, the
of
seventy
thousand
horse,
thousand Ahadis, ten thousand thousand sappers and five hundred stonefoot, three
This
who had
boasted, advanced
upon was huge Imperial army preceded by
braggart,
Qandhar. thousand horse
command
Rustam Khan Bahadur, Najabat Khan and Qasim Khan as its The siege commenced in the third week of vanguard. three
November,
under the
1652 A. C. and continued
for
of
full
seven
In spite of their repeated attacks, the Mughals could not effect a single breach in the walls of the fort.
months.
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
SHAHAB-UD-DIN
On
the other hand, they
and
material.
When
245
sustained severe losses in nien
starvation
stared
them
in
the
they regarded discretion as the better part of valour and abandoned the third and the last siege of face,
Qandhar.
Thus
it is
evident that Shah Jahan's Central Asian Policy was a colossal failure. In fact,
was so doomed from the very It was not easy to cross the outset. jt
Asian
and
and
Policy
its results.
Hmdukush in order to conquer Balkn " To mobilise an Indian army Badakhshan.
through the Hindukush
in sufficient
numbers
for the
"
says Dr. Ibhwari Prasad, conquest of Central Asia was " a foolhardy enterprise without any chance of success." In the fatuous war in Balkh, four crores of rupees '
f
was spent in two years and not an inch of its territory was annexed to the Mughal Empire. The net gain was about twenty-two and a half lakhs of rupees
which the conquered country yielded. The three sieges of Qandhar cost Sh'lh Jahan some twelve crores of The military prestige of Persia was definitely rupees. established and the repeated repulses of the Mughal army and the final retreat of Prince Dara pronounced to the world the weakness of the
Mughal arms.
Buoyed
up with success against the mighty Mughal Emperor, the Persians now entertained ambitious ideas, and henceforth the ghost of a Persian invasion of India would haunt the minds of the rulers of Delhi " Such is the throughout the seventeenth century. terrible price ", says Professor Jadunath Sarkar, "which aggressive imperialism
makes India pay
for
wars across
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
246
the North-Western Frontier."
Aurangzeb, the third son of Shah Jahan, was born on October 24, 1618 A. C. His Early career of
f
,
,
was
father
Aurangzeb.
,
the
of
viceroy
,,
,
,
,,
.
.
at that time serving as the
Deccan.
Breaking
Shah Jahan, was ultimately compelled to surrender in 1625 A. C. One of the conditions of his submission was that he should send his two sons, Dara and Aurangzeb, his father,
into open rebellion against Jahangir,
The
to his father as hostages.
Princes remained
under
1628 A. C. when Shah Jahan ascended the throne and his sons were restored to him. Next we hear of Aurangzeb when he tamed the custody of
Nur Jahan
till
and controlled an infuriated elephant before the Agra father, who was watching his
Fort and for which his heroic
action,
rewarded
him handsomely.
Towards
the close of the year 1634 A. C., he was granted rank of ten thousand horse. In September of following
year
was
he
ordered
to
the the
accompany the
Imperial expedition against the Bundelas of Orchha. In July of the succeeding year he was appointed to the viceroyalty of the Deccan, where he remained for about
His charge comprised (1) Daulatabad, eight years. with Ahmadnagar and other districts, having its capital at
Daulatabad subsequently ; (3) Kbandesh, (2) Telingana, with its capital at Nandar with its capital at Burhanpur and (4) Berar, with its
Ahmadnagar
at first
and
at
;
;
capital fairly
at
Ellichpur.
large
country,
These provinces constituted a containing
about
sixty-four
and yielding a yearly income of about five crores of rupees. During his first viceroyalty of the fortresses
SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
247
Deccan, Aurangzeb made some important annexations. He reduced the principality of Balgana, with its thirtyfour
parganas and two famous
Mallr,
The
fortresses,
Salir
and
ruler of Bharji offered his submission
and
he was
left
agreed to enter the
Service
if
Imperial unmolested in hispargana of Sultanpur.
Shah Jahan
acceded to his request and enrolled him as a Mansabdar of three thousand Zat and two and a half thousand
Sawar, and was
also confirmed in his possession of the
The Imperial generals, who had Sultanpur. already been sent by Shah Jahan to the Deccan, the overthrow of the Kingdom of completed fief
of
Ahmadnagar, which was
finally
incorporated
in
the
Mughal Empire. They also compelled Shahjl to submit, and under their pressure the alleged heir to the Nizam Shahl Kingdom was handed over to the Great Mughal
and thrown In the
in prison.
month
His resignation
and renunciation
May, 1644 A. C. took place the most r mantic episode of Aurangzeb's early career, This was his renunciation of
of
purposes,
it
the
world.
To
all
intents
and
was brought about by the machinations of who was interested in making
his eldest brother, Dara, his viceroyalty of the
Deccan an easy failure. Smarting Dara and Shah Jahan's
under the undue interference of condonation
of
that
interference,
he
tendered
his
Thereupon, his father resignation in bitter resentment. This deprived him of all his ranks and allowances.
was early estrangement between the father and the son bridged through the good offices of Jahan Ara Begum, the eldest sister of Aurangzeb.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
248
Living as a recluse in
seclusion
some time,
for
appeared in the February, 1645 A. C. and simultaneously he was made the
Aurangzeb
again
public in
governorships of different provinces.
.
r
~
_,
.
,
.
,
,
,
viceroy or dujarat, which he governed to the entire satisfaction of his father.
From to
was sent
there he
the
consolidate
substantial,
position
and
distant province,
if
was no
it
of
the
part.
:
No amount
a
order that
tradition
of effort
in that inhospitable
failure against the sturdy
has become
Mughals
in
in
he failed to accomplish anything
fault of his
and endurance could ensure success
The
1647 A. C.
to Balkli in
North-Westerners
which the Anglo-Indian
rulers
have maintained by repeatedly risking their men and money against them. His attempts to reduce and retain Balkh having proved abortive, he retired to Kabul
1647 A. C.
in October,
From
there he went to take
over the government of Multan and Sind, but was soon called back to undertake an expedition for the relief of
which
Qandhar,
beleaguered. little
too
the
had
Persians
he
Unfortunately,
to
time
that
Qandhar a
reached
Twice he attempted
late.
at
recover
that
province, but failed,
Early
in
the
His second thC
year
1653 A. C. Aurangzeb was the governorship When he reached
to
re-appointed the DeCCan -
of
and assumed the reins of his office. . , , he found that large tracts of lands had become desolate and the Deccan as a whole had
administrative achievements.
become a source country
.
,
.
.
,
of trouble rather than of income.
could not
pay
its
own way and
The
there were
SHAHAB-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
249
Other provinces, such as Malwa recurring deficits. and Gujarat, bore the brunt of the cost of administration. The new viceroy was confronted with a serious
The
situation.
so to
land was,
say,
sucked dry, the
peasantry was in a state of decay and the recurring deficits continued to affect the Imperial Treasury every In order to meet the year in ever-increasing amount. needs of administration without rackrenting the cultivating classes, Aurangzeb began to draw on the cash reserves deposited in the strongholds of DaulatSbad
and
spent about forty thousand in about two years. The low cash balances still continued till at last, at his suggestion,
which were
Shah Jahan granted him productive jagirs These in the hands of inefficient officers.
smarting under the loss of their jaglrs, misrepresented the whole situation. They told the Emperor
officers,
that the Prince was too
who was
ambitious and the Emperor,
never unmindful of his
his father, at
own
rebellion against ordered his son to once believed them and
take half a lakh worth of
productive land in the Asir and to diminish his cash by the same
parganas of amount so that
The
normal. falsity
his
less
actual
income might be made
Prince exonerated himself by proving the* Handling the financial allegations.
the
of
way, he devoted his time and' energy to ameliorating the economic condition of the peasantry of his province, despite the discouragement he
situation
in
a
proper
received from his suspecting father at the instigation of vile intriguers. He secured the services of Murshid
Quli Khan, an exceptionally skilled revenue officer, and' with his assistance he extended the approved system of
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
250
survey and revenue assessment over the whole of the
For revenue purposes, the province was Deccan. divided into two main parts (1) the Balaghat, or Highlands, and (2) the Palnghat, or Low-lands. The former :
included one- half of Berfir and the whole of Khandesh
whereas the latter embraced the one-fourth of
gether, there were in the
;
The
was measured and the share of the State was
entire land
fixed at
rest of the country.
Deccan,
now
the
aggregate produce.
Alto-
three revenue systems in vogue
viz., (I)
In certain backward areas the
previous practice of apportioning the State demand per was adhered to, but due allowance was plough
made
for the difference in the fertility of the soil
yield thereof.
many
places.
(2)
and the
The Batal system was followed
According
in
to this system,, the share of the
State was one-half where crops depended absolutely on rainfall ; it was one-third where wells irrigated the
land
;
and
it
was
raised high or reduced low, according
conditions suggested, where irrigation was -done by canals, tanks and river-chinnels. <3) According to the Jarlb system, the whole land was measured as the local
vrithjartb and the share of the Government was fixed according
to
the
officers, similar to
and the after.
kind
of
those in
crop sown.
the
Revenue
the North, were appointed were properly looked
interests of the peasants
The
arable lands, which
had long been neglected
and continuous period of misgovernowing ment, were restored to cultivation and loans were to a long
advanced to the cultivators in order to enable them to purchase seeds, cattle and agricultural impleliberally
ments.
In other respects he improved the administration
SHAHAB-UD-D1N
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
of the province under his charge by appointing his
men
251
own
He increased the pay of and thus ensured their co-operation. these reforms were wholly beneficial.
to responsible positions.
his military officers
The
results of all
Agriculture improved, the peasantry prospered and, as " Dr. Ishwari Prasad remarks, the Deccan provinces attained a high level of prosperity."
As mentioned
before,
against Bijapur
operations
"
t
and Golconda were stopped, because both of them had accepted the
.
r
His forward
.
policy against the Decoan.
,
to pay Imperial vassalage and agreed But when Aurangzeb regular tributes to the Emperor. to the was re-appointed governorship cf the Deccan,
were as independent as ever. Their destruction was determined as soon as the new viceroy took over. they
The
causes were
martial appetite ; (2) their wealth
;
(3)
the cupidity of the Prince and his the independence of the Sultanates and
(1)
:
their allegiance to the
and. not to the Emperor of Hindustan (5) their intimacy with Dara (Shia) ;
;
;
Shah
of Persia
(4) their religion
the delay in
(6)
remitting tributes which had fallen in arrears. To the Prince, who was waiting only
for
an
of Golconda opportunity, the kingdom II S hap " offered the first chance '
pened that Mir Jumla, the Persian Prime Minister of Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah, who had then fallen out with his sovereign on account of his ambitious designs, invoked the assistance of Aurangzeb, who accorded him a warm welcome and recommended
him
to his father.
command
of
five
The Emperor appointed him to the thousand horse and made him a
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
252
member
No
of his son's suite.
found than
better pretext could be
to seek redress for the alleged grievances of
Mir Jumla. Early in 1656 A. C. Aurangzeb and Mir Jumla advanced to demand justice from Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah and entered the
city
without any
Once there, they attacked Hyderabad and surprised its king who fled to Golconda, which too was soon attacked. So relentlessly did the Prince
serious opposition.
schemes of conquest that the King of Golconda was compelled to pray for peace. According to the treaty that was concluded, Abdullah promised to
pursue his
pay a crore of rupees and all arrears of tribute to the Emperor, to acknowledge Shah Jahan and not the Shah of Persia as his suzerain, to cease coining
own name, and
to
marry
money
in his
daughter to the eldest son
his
of Aurangzeb.
Golconda humiliated,
War
against Bijapur.
,
,
.
the
turn of
Bijapur
came
Imperial permission was ob-
next.
,,
r
tamed
for
.
the
t
r>--
conquest of Bijapur
through the persuasive eloquence of Mir Jumlu, and preparations were made for the final conquest of that Kingdom. made matters easy for the Sultan
Muhammad
worse confounded.
'Adil
The
Internal
dissensions
iiad
The death of Shah now made confusion invaders.
fort of
Bidar was besieged in
February, 1657 A. C. and after twenty-seven days* investment the city was taken and a large booty obtained. Next an attack was made on KalyanI which
about two months the whole country was being overrun by the Mughal soldiers and the conquest of Bijapur itself was in sight
capitulated.
After a
siege
of
SHAHAB-UD-DIN
when
again orders
for the cessation of
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
were
received
from the Emperor
The
hostilities.
253
additional troops
were recalled and further supplies Thus came a slip between the cup and
supplied to the Prince
were withheld. the
lip.
The terms
of
the
treaty
made
with
the
Sultan were as humiliating as those concluded with Golconda. An indemnity of one crore of rupees was taken
from the Sultan and
he had to cede Bidar,
Kalyani and Parenda to the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb had not yet completed the terms of the treaty when the illness of his father invited his attention to the North
and
attracted
him
there to
make
a bid for
f
he throne.
CHAPTER
SHAHAB-UD-DIN
XIII
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
(CONCLUDED)
The Fratricidal
and
its
years of the glorious reign of Shah Jahan were darkened by a war of
closing
war
gem-Ms.
he did not appear
rumours ran
succession attending his illness. Since in the Jharukha (audience window)
afloat
that
he
was dead.
He
tried to
allay the disquietude by appearing in the Jharukh'i after a week, but the rumours had spread like wild-fire
and there was nothing that could pacify the people and Before describing the events of the
the Princes.
Succession, (1)
it is
Shah Jahan
had
four
its
ITdistinct
possessed
charaeteisketches.
of
genesis.
sons:
Dara,
Aurangzeb and Murad, each
Sons of Shah Jahan and their
him.
necessary to trace
War
r
traits
Shuja', of
whom
*
of character,
which had no mean share
in
deciding rt
^
the scramble in his favour or against All of them had their own claims to the throne.
Dara was endowed with commendable qualities of head and heart. Though he was the heir-designate, his chances for succession were few and far between. By and nature irascible his frivolous habits, vacillating temper he had made many enemies at the Court. was bitterly hated on account of his liberal views. friendship
with
Christians
and
went against
He His
with
the intimacy his inclination towards the Shia faith the
Hindus,
his
his political interests.
Shuja' was a
man
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
SHAHAB-UD-DIN of intelligence
and refined
energy, he was none the
25S
Capable of immense
tastes.
less a slave of his
own
passions,
'and his intellect was impaired much by his addiction to wine. He too is said to have subscribed to the Stua>
and thereby annoyed the Sunni orthodoxy. Murad BakLsh was brave and resolute, but otherwise a
faith
He was frank to an extent and He stood little or no chance of diplomacy.
brainless
booby.
despised
The
succession.
real
was,
danger
South.
further
the
Aurangzeb, Jahan, was the ablest of his brothers
He was
and capacity.
character
however, brewing son of Shah
third
in point of
courage^ the bean-ideal of a
cool to conceive, brave to dare and strong to Skilled in diplomacy and a perfect master of the
soldier
do. art
'
of
dissimilation
experience
in
the
he
',
art
had
of
acquired
he had the greatest advantage of
Sunni of
the
Musalman. Sunni sect
opposition of Dara.
considerable
administration.
being
Besides,,
an
orthodox
He had with
the ungrudged support which to counteract the
It is
evident that the two
most
Aurangzeb and Dara. The former Musalmans, excluding the Shlas, whereas the latter was supported by the Shias, the Hindus and other Zimmls. The remaining two
serious rivals were
had the support
of almost all
brothers, Shuja'
and Murad, had
When
(2)
Division of the Empire.
Shah Jahnn in
fell
ill,
possession
haying
their
own
adherents.
the four Princes were of different provinces,
su ffi cient re5O urces
at
their
Dara was the viceroy of the Punjab and the on the North-West provinces Shuja' was the governor of Bengal and Orissa; Aurangzeb held the command of
disposal
:
;
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
256
Deccan
and Murad was
in charge of the province each Prince had sufficient cash and a of Gujarat. Thus, .pretty large force at his command, with which he could
'the
;
contend against the
power
the
of
division
in the
claims
Empire
of
his
put considerable
hands of the Princes and enabled them to
pursue their plans with unremitting
The
The
brothers.
had, in fact,
efforts.
Mughal tradition of 'kingship
by the Mughal Emperors was and kingship recognises no kinship c j the struggle for succession had to be
recognises no
fought
(3)
rule adopted
'
'
11
, i
i
i
,
out
*
end of taMit or
the
to
,
'
'
takltfa,
crown or
coffin
'.
Babar,
and Shah Jahan had all Humayun, iound themselves compelled to contend against the and a disputed nearest relatives, of their rivalry Akbar,
succession had
Jahangir
become a
tradition in the
Mughal
family.
claimant would callously The rivals and all their collaterals to the ,put his surviving the It sword made disputed succession inevitable. fact that the
successful
goaded the princes
to
fight
even
more
desperately
because they knew only too well that in the event of Motives of selfdefeat their ends would be tragic.
were
they
pointed to the same path, though less actuated by a sense of personal
also
preservation
no
aggrandisement,
On
(4)
was
Jahan S
f
l
Empe ror a ncl 'nomination of Daraashis :Successor
.
1658 A. C. Shah
the 6th of September,
**
there
taken
was
no
seriously hope of
ill
his
At this time, his eldest son, ... , ^ ~ ... was with him at Delhi and was Dara,
recovery.
~
,
faithfully nursing
.
his
father
at
the
SHAHAB-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
When the Imperial Court. health a little, he called his
Emperor
257
improved
confidential
in
courtiers
together and nominated his eldest son as his successor
Such a state of affairs involved the question of life and death for the remaining three Princes, who were carefully nursing in their bosoms the in
their presence.
ambitions of securing the succession
They made was
there
for themselves.
preparations for the impending war and nothing that could prevent them from
carrying out their respective plans. Muslim India, there was no definite law (5) In
Absence of the law of succession.
was
'
the
determining
Muslim
the survival of the
throne. fittest
succession
The '.
to
principle
Though
the
adopted
the
first-
born was often allowed to have the strongest claim, yet his brother, if any, or a provincial governor, or an
was ever ready to contest his claim, time favoured and means were not lacking. Thus, in the absence of a well-defined law, regulating the
influential chief, if
succession to the throne, the illness of Shah Jahan was a signal for the outbreak of a fratricidal war.
The
following measures adopted by Dara during the illness of his father also contri ' Dara's behaviour buted to the War of Succession to a during the illness (6)
of his father.
.
,
,
,
,
considerable
extent
:
x
(*)
He who
f
took
were guarantees from the Vakils of his brothers, at the Imperial Court, to the effect that they would not submit any news to the Princes about the Emperor and his Court,
(ii)
He
and the Deccan, carry any
closed the roads to Bengal, Gujarat
so
information
that to
the
those
travellers
provinces.
might not (Hi)
He
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
258
confiscated the house of 'Alamgir's Vakil stationed at
the officers of the Imperial Court, (iv) He recalled 'Alamgir when the latter was engaged in the conquest of Bijapur and had almost accomplished the task entrusted
Before the Princes in the distant provinces had stirred, he ordered his forces to march against to him.
(v)
them
order
in
to
remove them from
his
way
to the
throne. (7)
The war could be if
prevented, or at least postponed,
Shah
Jahan
had re-asserted after
his
his re-
authority immediately He ought to covery from his illness. for his sons from a scramble have stopped making He ought to have succession while he was alive.
contradicted the rumours of his death and
averted
the
which events had taken. It is quite possible that Dsra kept him uninformed of the consternation caused by the rumour of his alleged death; but even
course
after
the
defeat
of
the
Imperial
forces in the Battle
Dharmat, he did not stir out to oppose Aurangzeb who was advancing towards Agra. Granted that he
of
was too weak
as a result of
his illness,
but
he could
have convened a council of war to deal with the seriousThere were many whose loyalty ness of the situation. for him was yet unshaken, and he ought to have rallied But, unfortunately, he behaved in a most impolitic way. Misjudging the trend of events and miscalculating the strength of the Princes, he shook
them
to his side.
the faith of his other sons
in his
own
sense of justice by
continuously favouring Dara, the eldest son, and out of season.
in
season
SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN (8)
1
'Alamglr,
nple Alliance.
Ara Begum, brothers,
who had kept himself in touch with the events occurring at the Imperial ~ ., ,, L rCapital through his sister, Rau^han ,
had
259
formed an
also
Shuja* and
,
Murad,
in
i
alliance
with
his
November 1552 A.
C.
In the presence of conflicting accounts, it is impossible of the triple alliance with any
to tabulate the terms
One thing is, however, clear the three brothers agreed to take concerted action in the event of danger, and that if anyone of them was attacked by preciseness.
Dara, the other two
Dara
and
intimacy
would rush
Shah Jahan
with
looked
concern.
grave
and to checkmate
to
his
upon
Hip.
their
In order
to
Both
growing frustrate
Shah Jahan sent secret letters to them through the Khwaja Saras (eunuchs), promising his help to 2ach of them against This act of setting one brother against the the other. their efforts
their
plans,
'
'
other by issuing the crisis.*
*The correspondence
also
letters
inflammatory
precipitated
that passed between Shah JahSn and In one of his letters to Shah Jah5n,
his sons is very important.
" Though I have repeatedly made a request Aurangzeb writes that the despatch of inflammatory Jetters should be stopped, no notice has been taken," (Adab-i- Alamgli-i, 366-a). In another "I have repeatedly leiter he wrote to his father as follows asked Your Majesty, that you should stop sending inflammatory letters. Though Your Majesty is all wisdom, yet as you have written to me that I should not expect such a thing from clearly :
:
Khawaja Saras away I am forced to call the mischievous from you". (A dab-i-' Alamglr", 367-a). In a letter to Mahabat " My DarS Shikoh will be approachKhan, Shah Jahan wrote is no dearth of treasure at Lahore and men There Lahore. ing It is proper that the brave and horses are abundant at Kabul. an army, and, siding with with to Lahore general should hasten
you*
:
.
.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
260
Both Shuja* and Murad crowned themselves respective
provinces
Bengal and the coined
latter in
money
Gujarat
their
in
in their
former in
the
;
they
own names
and assumed the Imperial titles. As for Aurangzeb, he was too calm and clever to do anything of the kind. He seized all the ferries on the Narbada and waited for an opportune moment.
Prince Shuja' was the
He
first
to
Bengal on his own behalf, ravaged the districts of Bihar on his way and reached Benares on ihe 24th of January, 1658 A. C. mobilize
.
his
forces.
set out
from
Dara was not idling away his time either. He had made ample for the preparations r r r ,
41 of Battle
Bahadurgarh
for
struggle
:
February, 1658.
which
succession
.
,
as certain as
.,
,
ir
itself.
surety
TT
He
was ,
sent
army undei the command of his eldest son, Sulaiman Shikoh, assisted by Mirza Rajah Jai Singh Kachwahah in order to oppose the advance of Shuja*. The two armies met at Bahadurgarh in February, 1658 In a serious battle which was fought, Shuja A. C. was defeated and driven back to his base in Bengal. In the meantime, Murad ascended the throne under
a
large
1
title of Murawwaj-ud-DIn. The Khutba was read and the coins were
*ke
Battle of
Oharmat
:
April 1558.
a
.
.
struck in his name.
huge army, he sent a contingent of
Having six
collected
thousand horse
Dara Shikoh Baba, range himself against the two wretched sons, punisFPthem for their misdeeds and release me ...... And I have written to my eldest son, that giving himself up entirely to him (Mahabat Khan), he should think that his welfare lies in obedience to that eminent general." (Muntakhib-ul-Lubab, vol. II, pp. 3537). For some other similar letters, see Aurangzeb and His Times,
p.
49
ff.
SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN for plundering the port of
Ara.
Aurangzeb, who was
wrote congratulatory in
sack
the
of
Surat, the appanage of Jahan
playing a waiting game,
Murad on He offered him
letters
Surat,
261
to
now
his success his services
and requested him to join the troops on the other side of the Narbada in order to advance against the Imperial
Murad was won over and the two brothers against the third. Dara was not indifferent to
Capital.
joined
the progress of events. He had already dispatched an the under command of Qasim Khan and Rajah army
Jaswant Singh to oppose the advancing A Aurangzeb and his brother, Murac 1
.
fought at in
Dharmat near Ujjain on
April 15,
troops battle
of
was
1658 A.C.,
which the Imperialists were defeated and the Rajah
was put
The
along with his Rajput followers. victory increased the prestige of Aurangzeb and to
flight
The victorious Princes augmented his resources. pressed on and were able to secure the passage of the Chambal and plain of
take their position in the memorable
to
Samugarh.
Annoyed Samugarh, May, 1058.
at the military inefficiency
of
the
Hindu
Rajah and his Musalman colleague, Dara decided to take the field in He was so impatient that he person.
await the arrival of the flower of Mughal who had taken the pick of chivalry, Sulaiman Shikoh, and had defeated Shuja* at him with force the Mughal could
not
Having collected a large army, whose sympathies were more with Aurangzeb than with him, he marched out from Agra to deal with the Battle of Bahadurgarh.
the combined forces of Aurangzeb and Murad, without
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
262
He
listening to the advice of his father.
of
plain
Samugarh
towards the close of
reached
May
the
with as
many as fifty thousand strong and engaged himself in a brothers. On one side, the death-grapple with his Rajputs fought race
most
on the other
;
doing honour to their
gallantly,
side,
both
Aurangzeb and
Murad
the forefront, risking their lives without any fought fear of death. Both the parties displayed extraordinary valour and charged each other with unparalleled in
impetuosity, of a defeat.
for they
knew
full
the consequences
well
Hitherto, the Imperialists seemed to have the upper hand, but the tables were at once turned against them when, in the thick of fight, Dara's elephant
received horse.
a
serious
wound and he took
This trifling incident
decided the
his seat fate
of
on a the
For those around him, finding the howdah empty, thought that their leader was lost and therefore took to their heels. Aurangzeb achieved a decisive victory. He now congratulated his brother, Murad, and battle.
Dumbfounded by
attributed the cause of success to him.
the defeat, Dara and his son, Sipehr Shikoh, returned to Agra and reached there late in the night. After Fate of Shah ]ahan.
the
of
war, Aurangzeb marched upon Agra and entered it
obtaining
..
spoils
,
.
..
.
without encountering opposition.
encamped himself and from there he wrote an
in
arzdasht
father, seeking his forgiveness for the
He
the Bagh-i-Nur (petition) to his
war which conditions
and circumstances had forced upon him.* *"
TT
He
tried
hard
As long as power was vested in your venerable hands ", " wrote Aurangzeb to his father, Shah Jahan, obedience was my
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
SHAHAB-UD-DIN to conciliate his father,
have preferred to rule it
impossible to
and
in
intimate attachment to his eldest caution,
he sent his
son,
probability he
would found
not
confidence or to shake his
his
gain
all
name had he
in his
263
With
son.
Muhammad
studied
Sultan, to take
The Emperor was walled up and palace kept a close prisoner for full eight He was treated with great respect and indulyears. gence by Aurangzeb, but was never allowed to come possession of the citadel. in
his
out even for a moment, for the clever Prince knew well the consequences of such an impolitic action.
too
To
make
the best of a bad bargain. ShSh Jahan sent a sword, called 'Alamgir, to his son as a present. Bent in age and broken in health, the mos*. magnificent
monarch
of the
Mughal Dynasty passed away
in
1666
A. C. as a captive of his son. passion,
and
Knowing God
I
never went beyond
is
my
witness.
my
limit, for
But owing to the
which the AllYour
illness of
Majesty, the prince, usurping all authority and bent upon propagating the religion of the Hindus and the idolaters and upon suppressing the faith of the Prophet, had brought about chaos and anarchy throughout the Empire, and no one had the courage to sp*ak the truth to Your Majesty. Believing himself to be the rightful ruler, he (D5ra) deposed Your August Majesty, as has been mentioned in my previous letters. Consequently, I started from Burhanpur, lest I should be held responsible in the next world for not providing a remedy for the disorders that were At that time, excepting cropping up throughout the country. that enemy of the true faith (Dara), siding with whom is a real As victory is never gained sin, there was no one between us. without God's help, which is the result of true obedience, please notice how Divine assistance came to my help. God forbid, that with Your Majesty's connivance, the theories of the apostate (Dara)
become
translated into practice,
and the world
get
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
264
between Murad
In a written compact signed *^ Fate off i* Murad. tr '.
as nothing
and
each brother had under-
Aurangzeb, taken to be true to the other as long
was done by
either against
sincerity
and
of purpose. But after the victory at Samuthe former garb, grew jealous of the growing power of the latter. He not only cast the contract to the winds singleness
by by
secretly submitting his apologies to
Shah Jahan and
trying to secure the throne for himself, but also
by
He received a entering into a plot against Aurangzeb. secret letter* from his father, who, while conferring the darkened with
infidelity
!
Under the present circumstances, thanks are due to the All that Master of Fate ror whatever has been brought about I owe to you for my upbringing is far beyond any adequate expression of gratitude on the part of my poor self, and I cannot on any account forget your kindness and my responsibilities, and !
allow myself, for the sake of this short
life, to create any rancour your heart. Whatever happened was due to the will of God, and for the good of the country and the nation." (Addb-i-'Alam-
in
tftrt, 363-6).
another
In
position "
letter
to
Shah Jahan, he thus explains
his
:
1 have repeatedly made it clear that, in marching to Agra, had no intention of ousting the King of Islam, and God is my witness that such a sinful and unholy thought never entered my I
mind.
In the beginning of your illness, features of a
who had no distinguishing
when
the eldest prince,
Musalman, took up the the standard of heresy and
Government and raised took upon myself the religious duty of ousting him. As Your Majesty, on account of prejudice and unmindful of political conditions, wanted the eldest prince to propagate heresy, reins of the infidelity,
I
I
determined to
make a
Jihad against him."
(Adnb-i-Alamgiri,
367-a.)
*The
text of the letter, as reproduced
in his Tarikh-i-Shah Shujai, is as follows " I
by
Muhammad Ma'sum
:
have confened the sovereignty of the whole of India on
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
SHAHAB-UD-DIN
265
sovereignty of the whole of Hindustan on him, assured him of his help and directed him to invite his brother, Aurangzeb, and his son to his camp on the pretext of a
banquet and 'see the
last
The
them'.
of
letter
conveyed through a confidential servant, but of absent-mindedness,
when
of
irony
fate,
Aurangzeb and
to
suggestion of
in a
one of
Aurangzeb.
a state
book, and, it
by a curious
which at him by
in the trap in
son were to be caught
Shah Jahan.
in
his servants,
Thus,
Murad was caught his
it
placed
accidentally discovered by
was handed over
the
Murad
was
He was
invited to a
his brother, Aurangzeb, in the manner suggesthim by Shah Jahan. When he drank himself disgracefully in the feast, he was seized and spoken to by his brother upon his impiety and intemperance and He was declared unfit to occupy the Muslim throne.
feast
ed
by
to
soon bound in chains and sent to the
state
of
prison
Gwalior, where, on a charge of murder, he was executed in
1661 A.C. Entrusting the task of capturing
Dara Shikoh
to
Aurangzeb turned ._ c Shuja who, the Battle of Bahadurgarh, had taken
his trusted officers,
'
FateofShuja'.
,.
his after his defeat in
to flight, but for
the
was again
throne.
,
.
attention
in the field to
After
his
,
towards
make another
coronation, to be
bid
Aurangzeb
most careful and
I enjoin you illustrious son (Murad). patient in this matter and not to divulge this secret to anyone, however intimate. After a few days, invite your brother (Aurangzeb) and his son to your camp on the plea of a banquet and see
my
them and then have the Khutba recited in your name, and assume the Imperial title, which I bestow on you of my own
the last of free will.
;
You
should perform this important task with the Muhammad Ma'sum.)
greatest caution." (Tarihh-i-Shah Shiijai by
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
266
marched against him and inflicted a sharp defeat on him at Khgjwah on January 5, 1659 A. C. The defeated Prince was hotly chased by Mir Jumla. Driven to different places, he ultimately took
where he was
rest
in
ArakSn,
1660 A.C. Maghs Meanwhile, Aurangzeb's officers were busy a
in
in
They were hunting the unfortunate Prince from place to Chased into Kathlawar, he place. pursuing Dara*.
Date's last tJag?c
by the
killed
iS
fate.
was brought to bay near Ajmer, where he took his position and tried to defend himself as strongly as he
He
uch a vigorous defence that for four days Aurangzeb could not dislodge him from his On the fifth day, however, he was defeated position. could.
put up
through the treachery of Daler Khan, who had promised to leave Aurangzeb and to join him. Deserted by all of Firoz Mewati, Dara took the road towards Ahmadabad. He was accompanied by a
one
his
nobles,
few
faithful followers, including his son, Sipehr Shikoh,
except
and some other women. On his way, he enlisted a few fugitives but the inhabitants of the country harassed him by pillaging his baggages, for he still had some jewels and money with him. When he his daughter,
;
reached the city of Ahmadabad, the governor in charge With the of the castle closed the gates against him.
named KanjI Koli, he Zamlndar of that place, who had promised to marry his daughter to his son, now refused him all help. In dire distress, D^ra proceeded towards
help of a notorious reached Cutch. The
robber,
Sind to seek shelter there.
Skirting along Sind, he
deserted by his friend and follower, Firoz Mewati.
was
To
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
SHAHAB-UD-DIN
267
add to his sorrow, the only source of solace and strength him was snatched away from him his most favourite " Mountain wife, Nadir a Begum, who died of dysentery. of after mountain trouble thus pressed upon the heart " of Dara," says KhafI Khan, grief was added to grief and for
sorrow to sorrow, so that his mind no longer retained At last he took refuge with Malik Jiwan equilibrium."
Khan who ists
betrayed him into the hands of the ImperialHe was taken sent by Aurangzeb to pursue him.
prisoner and sent to
Lahore and then
to Delhi.
he was sentenced to death on the charge
There
of apostasy.
Sulaiman Shikoh, the eldest son of Dara, fought Fate of Sulaiman
faithfully
fu S itive in
near
Ajmer.
life >
his
father
stand against Aurangzeb pursued by Shaista Khan, uncle
his
He was
during his but he could not J oin him
for
last
of Aurangzeb, and driven into Garhwal, where he
refuge with
its
Rajah,
He was
officers.
Imperial seated on
an
elephant,
and then thrown he died
who made him then conveyed
paraded through
in the state prison of
1662 A.C.
took
over to the to
Delhi,
the
city
Gwalior, where
Aurangzeb turned
his
attention towards the surviving sons of his brothers.
On
in
Next,
one pretext or the other he put them to the sword or threw them into prison. Only two Princes, viz., Sipehr Shikoh and Azad Bakhsh, were spared and married to the third and
daughters of Aurangzeb, respectively. Aurangzeb imprisoned even his own son who had married a daughter of Shah Shuja* and foi whom he
showed some
fifth
affection.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
268
The m
motives which
.
Motives which actuated Aurang-
actuated Aurangzeb to enter
upon *he Fratricidal
War
have been
Only the more
variously described.
here:** be P (1) Shuja' and Murad had already War of the and their declared independence As usual, it was Succession had become inevitable. would successful the that slaughter his prince expected rival brothers
without feeling remorse or compassion. own safety, Aurangzeb could not
In the interest of his but enter the war.
(2)
There was no love
lost
between
An
rangze*x The former was bent upon the latter in the eyes of the people and the stigmatising Emperor. It will be remembered that while Aurangzeb
Dara and
was
charge of the Deccan, Dara was trying to ruin his reputation. With a hostile brother on the throne, Aurangzeb's position can be better imagined than in
described. his
affairs
All this and Dara's undue interference in must have actuated Aurangzeb to decide
Under the circumstances, when Shah Jahan nominated Dara as his successor, Aurangzeb's anger must have known no The fact that Dara concealed the news about bounds. his father and prevented them from reaching his brothers upon
that course
further
of
action.
(3)
made
easy for the Princes to leave the Emperor out of account and to take his death for granted. (4) Aurangzeb was an orthodox
annoyed Aurangzeb.
Muslim.
Dara's
It
latitudinarianism
it
must
also
have
influenced Aurangzeb in choosing his course. Muhammad Kazim, the author of the 'Alamgirnamah, voiced the
views of
Aurangzeb and
his
partisans
about Dara's
SHAIIAB-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
269
Muslim throne when he wrt>te Dara Shikoh obtained throne and established his power, the foundation of the faith would be in danger and precepts of Islam would be changed for the rant of ambition and (5) Personal Judaism/' infidelity unfitness to occupy the
"
:
If
a prominent part in the chalking
also played his
out of
programme. All that has been said,
excuses Aurangzeb's War, does not excuse his
if
participation in the Fratricidal
it
But
deliberate diplomacy therein.
it
must be pointed
out that without resorting to such diplomatic actions as he did, his fate, and with it the fate of Islam in India,
would have been
different.
Contemporary chroniclers, such as Muhammad Kazim and others, ascribe AurangCauses of his success in the Fratricidal
mind
is
zeb's success in the
War. not
to find other
In
the
first
,
,.
.
7
.,
to his iqbal, or satisfied
with of
explanations place,
,
War of ,
luck.
this
his
Succession
j The modern *i
answer.
It
tries
success than this.
Shah Jahan's own weakness and
contributed
to
the
success
of
Aurangzeb Immediately after his recovery, the old Emperor should have exerted his authority and stopped his sons from snatching away power from his hands. He ought to have contradicted
incapacity
more
than
else.
anything
the news of his death and averted the course of events in his
own
favour.
If
he
had acted with prudence,
he could have helped his favourite son, Dara, to the throne. He was still popular and he would have elicited support from
all
sides.
reins of his office in his
He
should have resumed the
own hands
after his recovery,
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
270
curbed the ambitions
of his other sons and then enthroned Dara, if he so desired. But, unfortunately, he entirely misunderstood the situation and remained
passive. after
;
While Aurangzeb,
Murad and
Shuja* were,
preparations, marching against the
full
Imperial
was dissuading Dara from fighting, telling that no harm could accrue from their coming to the Capital, he
Thus, if the Emperor was deprived of his throne after the defeat of Dara and if Dara could not succeed him, Shah Jahan must share the onus of Capital.
no small measure.
Dara army was of rc.w levies. composed Besides, there was an utter lack of co-operation between the Rajputs and the in
responsibility
was
not
a
great
general
himself.
Secondly,
His
Muslims, who constituted the huge bulk of his army. The former were not wanting in valour, but their heroic attempts were cruelly frustrated by their peculiar notions of precedence and prestige. The latter were
and unfaithful. Their were sympathies more with Aurangzeb, a staunch Sunni, than with Dara. Dara's arrogance of temper and hasty disposition
corrupt
also
produced many SulaimSn Shikoh, was Imperial army.
He
difficulties
in
for
him.
His
son,
Bengal with the pick of the it but advanced
did not wait for
meet Aurangzeb in spite of the advice of his father. This was a blunder of the first magnitude. The error committed by him in dismounting from the elephant to
and
riding
a
horse instead, comoleted
the
disaster.*
*Authors of the 'Alamgirnamah, Zafarnamah and Tdrikh~iShahjahani assert that this fatal exchange of horse for elephant was occasioned by the fact that the elephant had
SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
271
Thirdly, it was not easy to meet a man of Aurangzeb's type, a dexterous diplomat and an excellent general who outdistanced his rivals in the war on account of his superior military
organized,
He
His forces were thoroughly
tactics.
equipped and
efficiently
strictly disciplined.
reserve and put part army kept it in the field when Dara's troops lay exhausted. As a Sunni of the he Orthodoxy, Champion ceaselessly played
a
of
his
in
upon the alleged apostasy of his rival brother, and conHe stantly drew men from his ranks to his own side. openly boasted of having his friends in the ranks of his He fully availed himself of his artillery opponent.
when his foolish brother, Dara, advanced beyond own artillery and thus rendered it useless.
his
"
Thus, it is evident that Aurangzeb's victory in the war of succession was the victory of action over supineness, of intrepidity over tion
and
inertia,
discipline over confusion
and of organiza-
and incoherence."
AH Mardan Khan was
~
a Persian governor of Qandbecause he was not Partly
<*i m* j- r^u 'Ali Mardan Khan.
.
,
satisfied
.,
with
the
treatment of the
and
Shah partly on account of the pressure which 3h&h Jahan brought to bear upon him, coupled of
Persia
with the temptation of gold, he surrendered the fort of Qandhar to the Mughal officers. He was granted one lakh of rupees and enrolled as a grandee of the Mughal
Empire. become a
Later, his
mansab was
raised to six
target for the attacks of the enemy.
thousand
Bernier and
Niccolao Munucci, on the other hand, assert that the change was caused by the treacherous advice of Khalil-uliah Khan, given to Dara when Aurangzeb's defeat was almost in sight.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
272
Zat and
thousand Sawar, and at different times he was appointed governor of Kabul and Kashmir. He six
on the administration of these provinces so well that His Majesty was pleased to raise his rank to seven
carried
thousand Zat and seven thousand Sawar, and conferred
upon him the governorship of the Punjab in addition. In 1644 A. C. he was sent at the head of an expedition to Balkh where he achieved a partial success. He was an experienced general and a skilled engineer. The canal which he brought from the Ravi to the city of
Lahore and the Shalamar Gardens are an imperishable index to his engineering skill. Asaf Khan's original name was Abdul Hasan.
was the son
He
of Itlmad-ud-Daulah
and
Malika Nur Jahan. He entered the Imperial Service under Akbar and rose to a high position during the reign of Jahangir, but he brother of
honours and distinctions at the accession of Shah Jahan to whom he had married his We have seen how he sucdaughter, Mumtaz Mahal.
reaped a rich harvest
of
checkmated the plans and intrigues of his In appresister and helped Shah Jahan to the throne. ciation of his services, he was honoured with the title of cessfully
'
Yamin-ud-Daulah or Right-hand of the State', and a jaglr was granted to him. The Jaglr brought him His rank was raised to nine about fifty lakhs a year. thousand Zat and nine thousand Sawar, and a he became the Prime Minister of the Empire. as the principal agent of the
little later
He
acted
Emperor in his diplomatic was sought in all the serious negotiations and his advice He remained attached to matters of the Government
SHAHAB-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
273
Shah Jahan throughout his life and never betrayed the confidence reposed in him by his Sovereign. The stress and
strain of official duties
his health,
passed
he
away
his will,
retired
vast
the
during his
Lahore
at
having considerably told upon
from
1641
in
A. C.
According to he had accumulated
which
riches,
official
and quietly
his official career
were
career,
confiscated
the
to
S*tate.
Khan was
Sa'ad-ullah
came
a
man
of
humble
1"
His vast
givon him .an unusual
had
reading
He
origin.
of very poor parents.
amount of general knowledge. In the Imperial Service and was entered he 1640 A. Soon a ntansab was granted to paid a monthly salary. C.
him and during the course officer,
enjoying a
mansab
a
of
year he became an
one thousand Zat and two
some time
For
Sawar.
thousand
of
he
worked
as
Darogha (Superintendent) of the Imperial Gbusalfehana (Bath) and was subsequently promoted to the post of Khan-i-Satnan, or Lord High Steward. The Emperor appreciated his ability by making him his Prime Minister and
his
raising
rank to seven thousand Zat and seven
He
served the State most faithfully and is justly regarded as the most upright and straightHe was often forward minister known to India.
thousand Sawar.
employed as a
commander and
military
officer.
He
acquired
immense power and
continued
hjgh conception credit that
he
of
to
his
fell little
rise in
Royal
influence.
duties
short of
and be it.
settlement-
favour
He had it
and
a very
said to his
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
274
Shah Jahan was almost exactly the same as that of his more rather it was predecessors,
The
system of
administrative
efficient
and exhibited a marked im-
provement on the previous system. In fact, what Akbar had aimed was achieved by Shah Jahan in the realm of
was un-
administration.
Peace within
interrupted, the
revenue of the State was ever on
increase
and every department
remittingly
active.
Justice
perous.
the
The
was
people
of
country
were happy and prosadministered
carefully
the
the State was un-
and
pro-
vincial governors were warned to be honest in their All this dealings witli the people under their sway.
bears eloquent testimony to a just, wise and vigorous administration. Foreign travellers, such as Bernier,
Niccolao Manucci and Peter Mundi, speak of the gracious rule of Shah Jahan as that of a father
Tavernier,
the Muslim historian Khafi Khan, him with Akbar and points out that whereas compares the latter was pre-eminent as a conqueror and law-giver, the former was pre-eminent as an administrator and a Hindu contemporary outshines even the Muslim chronicler and the Christian travellers in extolling the efficiency Here again Banthamite demoof his administration. cracy was in its full swing, for every attempt was
over his children
;
;
made
to
secure
'
the greatest
happiness of the greatest
number.'
Shah Jahan was
not
made
for the glories
ne g rrTs und\rh?s
quest
patronage,
and was not a great general
;
he
re S arded
war
as
of con-
inhuman himself,
SHAHAB-UD-DIN though
career
early
His
strides,
during
was
reign
which
won
had
he
literature
and
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
a
essentially
of
period
education
flourished,
his
of
father.
peace
in
made mighty
painting, poetry
architecture,
his
in
victories
splendid the reign
275
and music
bounds. What gave a fillip to progressed by leaps and was Shah Jahan's catholicity of mind, these fine arts
which soured above the snares of sectarian psychology, and appreciated and encouraged true worth from whatever sources
it
was evinced.
Court and the glory of
and
oriental colour,
are
his
a
The
splendour of his with all their dazzle re^gn,
by-word to everyone who
has even a nodding acquaintance with Indian history. Though much has been irreparably destroyed, yet there
remains enough of the Mughal art under Shah Jahan to of that glorious period and the standard give us an idea Is there a soul that will not be civilization. of
Mughal
and grandeur depths at the ethereal beauty and of the Taj or does not recognise the literary elegance a ever historical importance of the Bcid&ahnamah, stirred to its ;
historian ; treasure-house of research for the ambitious into ecstacies over the miniature and or does not
go
of that period; or does not have an ear portrait paintings Das and Mahapattar, the for the melodious voice of
Ram
Philomels
of
the
Mughal
"The
Court?
Imperial no longer the
Prof. K. T. Shah, "was patronage", says but every kind of of the poet or the painter ;
monopoly and encouraged; giving artist was recognised
us,
in
wonderful creations, which, like the consequence, those Palace and the several mosques, must Taj and Delhi the name of *he Imperial patron." for ever immortalize
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
276
The A
.
.
of
reign
Shah Jahan
in
.
Architecture
is
for
history J
rendered memorable
the
excellence
of its
it is
In this hurried survey the canons of this art or
to
public
architecture.
impossible to enter into attempt a description of
under the Imperial patronage. a
volume
platform
trellis-work,
The Taj
virgin
with
a
dome above and
fine
a pair of tombs below,
domed apartment
demands
Standing majestically marble with a beautiful screen of
crowned
consecrated by
alone
erected
on a square
to itself.
of
buildings
of
tv/o storeys
in
surrounded by a each corner and
connected with one another by a number of halls and passages, \uth its main mansion lighted by a double screen of trellis-worked marble, one on the inner and
one on the outer side of the wall, guarded at
its
corners
by four lofty tnlnars of milky marble, rearing its stately head above its jewelled walls and lace-carved windows also of creamy marble, this superb structure, an
ethereal
the
beauty a
dream
Taj
nay
the
Queen
of
marble, designed by Titans and finished by jewellers, placed in a beautiful garden with two masjids on either side, on the brink of the Architecture,
in
Jumna presents a most picturesque view and refreshes the awe-struck eyes of the native as well as foreign '
sight-seers.
Those
critics
who have
objected to the
effiminacy of the
architecture (Taj) unconsciously pay the highest tribute to the genius of the builders. The Taj was meant to be feminine. The whole conception,
and every
line
and
it express the intention of the designers. It is Mumtaz Mahal herself, radiant in her youthful beauty, who still lingers on the banks of
detail of
MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN
SHAHAB-UD-DIN the
midday
sun, or
we should say it
India's
is
womanhood marble
that
in
shadowed
to
tribute
'
the
in
morn,
moonlight.
glowing
Or
rather,
more abstract thought the
Venus de Milo
of
grace the East/
of
;
Indian
The
Mosque within the Agra and loveliest house of
(Pearl
Masjid
the
early silver
conveys a
it
noble the
Moti
the
in
Fort), described as
prayer
at
Jumna,
shining
277
the purest
world
',
with
its
vast
dimensions,
and sanctuary, all dressed in marble Diwan-i-Khas (Court of Private Audience) over-
the
aisles
looking the
;
a
itself
Jumna,
elegance and poetic design Public Audience), with
;
masterpiece of delicacy, the Diw^.n-i-'Ar" (Court of
its
exquisitely
ornamented
ceiling supported by a row of richly jewelled columns, a magnificent niche at the centre and a marble platform, lavishly inlaid with precious stones and once the seat
of
the
Peacock Throne, with
shifting colours
fying
to the
fact
that
a lord of
and emeralds, artists sat on
Rang Mahal with
throne; the gorgeous
blazing in
tail
ite,
of rubies, saphires
its
the testi-
that
garden-court,
containing His Imperial Majesty's recreation chambers; the most wonderful baths, fed by a canal worked out
from the Jumna; and the Jama Masjid at Delhi, constructed on a rocky platform and finished in full six years,
are the finest
Mughal monuments
of that glorious
age of Indian history.
Shah Jahan was an ardent lover of painting. Under him, miniature and portrait r Painting. painting underwent a good deal of It was considered incomplete unless a elaboration. most beautiful border
of
birds
and
butterflies,
flowers
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
278
and
foliage
The
best
was dexterously woven into the main theme. painter at the Court- of Shah Jahan was Muhammad Nadir Sarnarqandl. It may be remarked
here that, like
was
all
other
Mughal Emperors, Shah Jahan
a painter himself and a past-master in the art
also
of illuminating manuscripts. learn it from the
We
Mirat-ul-Alam that Shah Jahan was also a good singer, and Music Dr. N. N. Law says that he was a The two most prominent great patron of music '. singers attached to his Court were Rum Das and Mahapatt?-, whc^e mention has already been made in '
a
previous
They were rewarded Mughal Darbars. the Emperor also spent some
chapter.
services without cavil in the
for
their
Professor
Sarkar says that portion of his time in listening to songs by women '. This shows that there were also female singers at the Imperial Court. *
Shah Jahan had a
G
buildings gardens, or
j
they
extolled
have so
been
much
in
the Shalamar
Almost
all
beautiful
'
'
terrestrial
paradises
The Shalamar Garden Moor's Lala Roolth at Lahore;
styled.
the gardens in the Delhi Fort
at
contained
his
,
as
fine taste for gardens.
;
the Taj Mahal Gardens
;
and Dara Shikoh's Garden Bagh Kashmir were the most voluptuous of their class in at Delhi
Mughal Empire. Even Bernier does not hesitate to admire them. Some of them have survived to our own the
times'andjthey do not fail to attract our attention. We can hardly over-estimate Shah Jahan's literary Shah'lahan's philomathy.
interest.
his
He
always
mental horizon
tried to
widen
by studying the
SHAHAB-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SHAH JAHAN best
authors
of history travel,
and used
lives
He was
of Persian literature.
of
to hear the recitation
very fond * books on
of
and holy men, memoirs and famous in history. sovereigns
prophets of
autobiographies Among these books,
the
of Taimur and
Life
Memoirs of Babar were
his special favourites.
he
learn,
to
retired
bed,
we
curtain
Himself a cultured
and a
king
Shah
the
When
readers sat behind
good which separated them from bed-chamber, and read him to sleep.
a
279
was
Jahan
the
Imperial
refined
a
He
scholar,
distinguished
used to
patron of
letters.
stipends
and scholarships
grant
to literary
plodders and awarded honoraria to the superannuated.
One day Abdul Hakim in silver. The \\eight was written by
own
was
Sialkoti
rewarded
Bad^iahnamah
celebrated
Muhammad Am T n-i-QazwInI
direction.
Some
under
his
the most famous poets and Maulana Muhib All Sayyadl,
of
scholars of his reign were
Mir Abdul Qasim
his
Mirza
Irani,
Zia-ud-Din,
Sayyad
Bukhari Gujrati, Shaikh Bahlol Qadirl, Shaikh Mir Lahorl, Shaikh Nazlrl, KJbwajah Khwand Mahmud and Mullah Muhammad Fazil Badakhshl.
During
the
of
reign
Monarch tions
onearnmg.
and
all
with
created courtiers
this
private
Magnificent Mughal the educational institu-
their
by
vast
the
individuals,
endowments
previous
kings,
continued
in
undiminished prosperity. Besides, we know for certain that His Majesty himself added to the existing number of
schools
and colleges
in his
Empire.
He
repaired
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
280 and
reconstructed a
Eternity entirely
the
or
Dar-ul-Baqa,
Abode
magnificent madrasah which had been In Ib50 A, C. he founded the famous
ruined.
Imperial College at Delhi in the vicinity of the
Jama
to
his
'
all his
With
refinement/
he
rose
Jahanglr,
most
be the
Character and
an
who succeeded
Jahan,
estimate of Shah c
historic
Masjid.
Shah
*
of
all
culture and and splendour,
in
contemporaries
his magnificence
was
never arrogant. According to Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole, no other Mughal Emperor was ever so beloved as Shah Jahan'. He was kind and sympathetic *
and
his benevolence
He was
a
had endeared him to
staunch
Sunni,
deeply
religious as well as secular duties.
his
subjects.
devoted
to
his
The most remarkable
trait of his
Mumtaz
character was, however, his love for his wife, Mahal, the lady in whose memory he never
As a son, he was a great source of trouble and anxiety to his father as a father, he was woefully married.
;
His partiality for his eldest son wanting was greatly responsible for his troublous old age. But his patience was marvellous. For eight years he remained in discipline.
a captive of his son and calmly bore the privations of that life. He was a great administrator, whose good
government has exacted universal praise and admiration.
CHAPTER XIV
MUHl-UD-DlN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGlR
(1658 A. C.
1707 A. C.)
Early Acts, Afghans, Hindus and Rajptus After removing his rivals from his way, Aurangzeb had ascended the throne of his father Accession Of j i r on Jri/ioi/:eoA^ ul y 22, 1658 A. C. and deferred Aurangzeb. the formal coronation to a future i
On the 5th of June, 1659 A. C. he enthroned The Khuiba was read himself with due ceremonials.
date.
and the coins were struck the
pompous
Muhammad
title
of
name, and he assumed Abul-Muzaffar Muhi-ud-Dln
in his
Bahadur 'Alamgir Badshah-iThe bestowal of high honours on the members Gbazi. of the Royal family and the grant of promotions and re wards to the rank and file inaugurated, as usual, the new reign in the right oriental manner. Of the Royal Princesses, Badshah Begum received Rs. 5,00,000 Zeb-un-Nisa, Rs. 4,00,000; Badr-un-Nisa, Rs. 1,60,000; and ZubdatAurangzeb
;
un-Nisa, Rs. 1,50,000. 'Azarn was
granted
Among Rs.
the Princes,
Muhammad
2,00,000 and a mansab of
Muhammad Sultan, Rs. 3,00,000, with jewels and elephants Muhammad Mu'azzam, Rs. 2,00,000, and Muhammad Akbar, Rs. 1,00,000. Among the 10,000;
;
high officials, Amlr-ul-Umara Fazil Khansaman, SaadUllah Khan and Rajah Ragnath were the recipients of
robes
of
honour and
rich rewards.
In short, the
THE
282 coronation was
and
Feasts
MUGHAL EMPIRE
made an
occasion
'
and nothing was spared source of happiness to
of
continued for
festivities
make
to
great
happiness.
two months
full
occasion
the
a
sections of the populace in the
all
Ambassadors came from other Muslim empire*. countries and congratulated Aurangzeb for his success in
They were
securing the throne of India for himself.
with great respect and presented with rich robes and rupees eight thousand each. Besides them, the Dutch and the French Governments also sent their
received
representatives to the
given
a
Mughal Court, and they too were
warm welcome by Aurangzeb and
treated with
due deference. his son,
Thus, by the time Shah Jahan died, Aurangzeb had been recognised as the Emperor
of India
by
all
The War
potentates. of Succession of the
lf His early acts.
Mughal administration out ~
several
and
taxes,
Consequently, the people were
alleviate
their
discontented. legal
of
i
,
,
gear.
distressed
had thrown the machinery
They were
well as
as
sufferings,
illegal.
In
subject order
Aurangzeb abolished
as
as eighty oppressive taxes, including the rahdari and pandarl (a kind of ground or house-tax).
to to
many (toll)
He
duty on corn so that the price of down. should go Among the eighty taxes which he abolished were those collected at the fairs celebrated in honour of Muslim saints and Hindu
also remitted
the
food
pilgrims near their temples,
and those
levied
on alcohol,
In order to bring the gaming-houses and brothels. law into !ine with the tenets of Islam, the new Emperor
dispensed
with
the
solar
system
altogether
and
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAM^IR
283
he
use
introduced the
instead
lunar
Kalima on
of the
the
;
disallowed
an end to the Nauroz
their defilement, put
the
with a view to prevent
coins
which was
custom, repaired and even reconstructed the mosques and monasteries which were in a state of decay
a
Persian
and appointed paid Imams and Mu'azzins to serve The Mohtasibs (censors of public morals) were therein. warned to be very strict in the enforcement of the
Holy Law. In short, Aurangzeb tried his best advance the interests of Islam and his solicitude Sunnisrn won for him the title of the champion of and he
faith,
to for
hi*
recognised as such even to the present
is
day.
Among A
the
.
Appointments and transfers
oi
he had
of
mentioned
the
the
in
pro-
vmcial governors. there.
acts
early
,,
Aurangzeb he changes &
r
c
..
be
effected
governments
provincial
.
may
,
,.
and 4
the transfers of the viceroys stationed Conscious of the consequences of the treatment
meted out
to
father
and
brothers
and
of the possibility of a combination against
apprehensive
him, he began to work as he*thought
the throne.
his
fit,
To
achievement of
all
for their reconciliation or removal,
after
immediately those
his
who had
his accession to
helped him in the
object, he tendered his thanks and
made^valuable presents.
The pay
was increased^and a new
set of
each of them.
Many
were cashiered
''and
number^of nobles robes was bestowed on of a
^
of the old governors
and viceroys
new ones were appointed
at their
Rajah Jai Singh was entrusted with the government of Sambhar in addition to that of Lahore, which he was already governing. Shaista Kban was invested with
places.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
284
the governorship of the
Mahabat Khan was Kabul and sent to take Danishmand Khan Gujarat.
Deccan.
Mir
superseded by Shaikh over the government of
was
made
the
governor
in
of
Delhi.
Khalllullah
of
Mir Baba of Allahabad, Lashkar Kban of Patna, Dianat Khan of Kashmir, and Allahwardi Khan's son who had betrayed Shah Shuja' at Khajwah, was Lahore,
All this was done to appointed governor of Sind. the of a dangerous combination and prevent possibility
the arrangement was quite efficacious.
Mir Jumla, we Career of Mir Jumla.
Kingdom position
learn,
of his
who, character and ability, had
made himsel f
the Chie f Minister of the
by
c^int
of Golconda.
and
Taking advantage of his high he had carved out for himself in influence,
the Karnatic, an independent kingdom or and imperium in the imperio. No wonder if the Sultan of Golconda
regarded this as an encroachment on
his authority
and
therefore intrigued to deprive him of all his power and influence. The Minister saved himself by joining hands
with Aurangzeb and taking service under Shah Jahan. He rendered very valuable services to Aurangzeb in his
Deccan campaigns and in the War of Succession. In view of his indispensable assistance, he was appointed It was probably because he was governor of Bengal. too
ambitious a
was sent
man
to be kept at the Capital that he
to that distant governorship.
Under
their
His expedition against Assan. and his death.
Rajah, the Ahoms of Kuch-Bihar and Ass * m attacked the Mughal territory
and occupied
it.
An
expedition was
Rgjah
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB
MUHI-UD-D1N
ALAMG'lR 285
Jumla at its head. The Mir overran Kuch-Bihar, and Assam and penetrated far into the interior of the country, presumably with the intention of attacking the
But his supplies were cut off when torrential rains and heavy floods set in and prevented his grandiose schemes of conquests to be carried to Chinese
their
territory.
conclusion.
logical
out
broke
his
in
camp,
When
pestilential
disorder
he altogether renounced his
magnificent projects notwithstanding the reinforcements he received from the Emperor, and contented himself with
obtaining
such contributions
and cessions from
the Rajah as might serve a proof against the disgrace of a defeat. Exhausted by toil at a very advanced
age and ruined Khizrpur
in
in
health,
he returned
Kuch-Bihar on March
31,
and died 1663
at
A. C.
His son, Muhammad Amin, before reaching Decca. was immediately raised to a high rank and all honours
and
which the deceased had held, were conferred upon him by Aurangzeb. Mir Jumla succeeded to the Shaista KJran of Bengal and resumed governorship positions,
the forward sor.
P
lic y
of
his
Predeces-
The new governor began by
punishing the pirates of Chittagong and their patron, He inflicted sharp defeats on the Rajah of Arakan.
enemy and captured the Magh outposts by the end of the year 1665 A. C. Chittagong was occupied about the end of January, 1666 A. C. and it was renamed Islamabad. Henceforth it became the seat The island of Sondip in the of a Mughal Faujdar. his
Bay
of
Bengal was also captured and Bengal was saved
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
286
Sbaista Khan pirates. and strengthened the organized Mughal Bengal fleet by constructing a large number of ships for the protection of the Dacca Sub-Division. Aurangzeb was taken seriously ill in 1664 A. C. soon
from the recurring raids of the the
-flotilla
after
the
his
new Rumours regime to its foundations. Khan Mahabat Rajah Jaswant Singh, accession.
ran afloat
anniversary of This shook the
fifth
that
and many others were redoubling their efforts for releasThe partisans of the ing Shah Jahan from his captivity. ex-King renewed their intrigues at the Capital in order to work out his restoration but unfortunately, they were soon divided into two main parties those who wanted to enthrone Mu'azzam, Aurangzeb's second son, and 1
;
those
who wished
to secure the succession for his
son, Akbar.
On
Aurangzeb
raised
the
fifth
day
of his
illness,
third
however,
himself up and received the homage He sent a firman to his sister,
of his principal officers.
Raushan Ara Begum, to return the great-seal, which had been commended to her care, and put it near himself so that no use might be made of it except with his special order. He averted the dangers with his rare presence of
these
occasions
mind and singular he
force
of
will.
On
behaved with studied caution and
the respect and admiration which his conduct inspired As then went a long way in pacifying the people. soon as he recovered a little, he set out for Kashmir to
recoup
his
health.
He was adcompanied by
the
French philosopher, Bernier, who has left us a beautiful account of the charming valley and of the Imperial march.
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIK
The Emperor, however,
287
place and never While he was thus seeking repose in the North, a scene was opening in the North- West Frontier, which soon invited his serious
the
disliked
expressed his desire to revisit
it.
attention.
The North-West
Frontier has all along been a vulnerable point in the Indian Empire and the tribes that have ^habited it
to
trouble
all
have
always
been
Governments.
Indian
Emperors made many attempts
a
source
The
of
Mughal and
to introduce law
order in that quarter but failed to accomplish anything Their success was shortsubstantial or permanent. lived
;
for the turbulent tribes availed
weakness
Government during the War
of the Central
Succession
themselves of the
and carried
their
raids
into
the
of
Mughal
In 1667 the neighbourhood of Peshawar. districts A. C. the Yusafzals, under the leadership of one Bhagu, in
crossed the Indus and attacked the district of Hazara.
they established their authority and exacted heavy contributions from the poor peasants. They also attacked the Mughal outposts and planned to advance even into the interior of the Mughal territory.
There
Aurangzeb would not allow them raids into his
r
Suppression of the Ylisafzais
own
to continue their
country.
He
took
up the gauntlet thrown down by them in response to the requests of
:
1667 A. C.
;
the wardens of the Imperial outposts on the frontier, he issued orders to the Faujdar of Attock and the
Governor
of
Kabul
submission and
sent
for
reducing
the
Muhammad Amin
Yusafzais
to
Kfcan, son of
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
288
Mir Jumla, to take over the supreme command. Amin Kban reached the Kabul Valley in August 1667 A. C.
The
three
Mughal
generals acted in perfect
harmony
and drove the enemy into the river. Kamil Kban and Shamsher Khan engaged the Yusafzals in several battles and inflicted sharp defeats on them. Rajah Jaswant Singh was posted
Afghans kept
The
at
Jamrud
to see that the
quiet.
This time peace restored was again broken. the Afridls raised their heads and
up strife. In 1671 A. C. they declared war upon the Mughals under
stirred
Acmal Khan, who had now assumed the Muhammad Amin Khan marched of King. title against them, but sustained serious losses in men and their leader,
money
of the Imperialists were sent to Central Asia for sale. Amin himself
Many
All Masjid.
at
seized and
His family too was captured and
had a narrow escape.
ransom was paid. The prestige rose of the Afridi Chief high after his victory over the released after a heavy
mighty rallied
Mughals and many an enthusiastic Afghan round his banner in order to obtain money as
well as to achieve military distinction.
A more ,
_.
serious
.
Khattak Rising and arrest of _ an
SHafFak^-
revolt,
with
which the Imperial
Government next concerned themselves, was the one headed by Khushh51
^* n
Chief
Stattak.
was invited
to
The Khattak a Darbar at
Peshawar and arrested by the orders of the Imperial Government. He was detained in prison at Delhi and then
transferred
to
the
prison of
Ranthambhor.
In
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
289
1666 A. C. he was brought out of prison and sent with the Imperial
army
to
fight against the Yusafzals,
who
His son was with
him,,
were his hereditary enemies.
At the
sight
of his
native-land,
freedom-loving spirit revived,
his
and he
adventurous and
offered his services
Acmal Khan, the leader of the confederacy which was organized for the overthrow of the Mughals in the Afghan territory. When the Imperial generals, employed against the Afghans, failed, Aurangzeb took the in field Accompanied by his distinguished person. generals, he reached Hasan Abdal and encamped there His presence in the proximity of in 1674 A. C.
to
Peshawar proved very efficacious. He himself organized his forces and directed vigorous military operations tribes.
against
the
effective
an instrument,
obedience
of
frontier
many
a
Diplomacy proved quite and the Emperor received the
clan
through
offers of jagtrs,
Thus diminishing the force concessions. pensions and of opposition, Aurangzeb recalled Mahabat Khan from Kabul and sent his own son, Akbar, to take over. Aghar Khan was ordered to lead an army through the
Khyber Pass in order to overbear the opposition of the Afghans who numbered not less than forty thousand at After both the sides had suffered heavy losses, that time.
The newly-appointed way. gave reached Jalalabad and captured governor of Kabul At Gandamak of a number Afghan outposts. their positions from Khan ousted the Afghans the
Afghans
Aghar
Aktar proceeded towards Jalalabad when he was pushing westwards, the Afghans could encircled and attacked from all sides. have been
and, had
Prince
easily
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
290
But the Prince allowed the
failed
to
plan and thus In 1675 escape.
follow
the
opportunity an
easy A. C. the Afghans inflicted a crushing defeat on Fidai Khan, an Imperial general, at Jagdalak on his way to Peshawar. His fate would have been sealed if Aghar
Khan had not rescued him by a prompt action from Gandamak. The expedition of Mukarram Khan against Bajaut was a greater failure. The Emperor employed his best generals, but it was extremely difficult to deal with the hardy mountaineers who were thoroughly familiar with the ins and outs of their passes and defiles. In
1675 A.
C.,
towards
the end,
and the Emperor came back sent Prince
whom
were
Mu'azzam still
at
the situation improved to Delhi. Next year he
Afghans, some of
against the large.
With
the
Prince
were
Amir Khan and other distinguished generals. Amir Khan successfully coped with the enemy and
associated
were recognised by the bestowal of the He governed Afghangovernorship of Kabul on him. He granted istan with considerable tact and ability. his
services
large subsidies to the border tribes and won to his side by lucrative concessions.
influence of
Amir Khan's diplomatic
maintained on
the
frontier.
policy,
them over Under the peace was
The Afghan War
cost
Aurangzeb a great deal. While his hands were full with Afghan affairs, the Hindus created disturbance in
the
open.
them.
Empire and defied
the
'Alamgir therefore turned
authorities his
in
the
attention towards
MUHI-UD-DIN
The
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
291
Mughal Emperors was
policy of the previous
extremely conducive to the growth of
Hinda
nation.
made no
discrU
between the rulers and the
ruination
Hindus held the highest
ruled.
It
positions, next only to
the Emperor's, in the civil as well as military depart* ments of the Mughal Government. They enjoyed the
freedom of worship and the
and
liberty of conscience,
preached and propagated their faith without restrictions.
During the reign of Shah Jahan they mosques and made niandirs on their sites
down
pulled ;
they became
so bold that they forcibly carried a'vay Muslim women and kept them in their houses.* Towards the close of his reign,
Central
when Dara Shikoh managed Government,
it
they
atrocities
began committing those with whom household word
took freely
'Alamgir's will
come
the affairs of the
without
bigotry
and
liberties
larger
has
To
fear.
become
a
as a stunning surprise to
even at the height of their power the Musalmans could not offer their Friday prayers in the Cathedral Mosque of one of the biggest cities of the that
learn
Mughal Empire
for full
one year.f
This state of
affairs
As a by leaps and
continued to the twelfth year of 'Alamglr's reign. result, their
power and influence increased
* See Badshahnamah, Vol. 366-b
Tdrikh-i-Ferishta, Vol.
;
li,
ii,
p.
58; Adab-i-Alamgtri
p. 27;
Times,?. 116ff. "
folio
"
*
there so runs a firman of Alamgir, fora the near situated city gate a Cathedral Mosque the Kulis have not allowed the Musalmans to offer their f
is
Ahmadabad
t
and Aurangzeb and His
In
",
year
prayers.
See that
Mirat*i-Ahamdi
t
no one disturbs the Musalmans,
p. 275).
1 '
(Vide
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
292 bounds, and to
now
best
their
endeavoured
they
In
advantage. saw the visions of
to
the
them
put
the
of
rise
a Hindu Empire. Marhattas they and worked for the overthrow They rallied round Shivaji Their risings in the North, of the Mughal Empire. particularly
in the
suburbs
Delhi
of
and Agra, and
their depredations in the South, especially in the territories,
that
roused the Mughal
Emperor
to
Mughal
the danger
was developing so speedily and compelled him
to
reconsider his policy.
In
and
order to
make a
his achievements,
mud
it is
correct estimate of
necessary
first
to
'Alamglr
remove the
thrown upon him by his hostile critics and then to present an accurate account of his reign with the insight and impartiality of an historian. that has
been
Let us begin with the re-imposition of the Jizia by and see if it was the 'Alamgir
5*the
jS
outcome by
of
his bigotry, as
his critics.*
The
Jizia,
is
alleged
it
must
be pointed out at the outset, was not an obnoxious tax and was not meant to be a burden on the Zimmls. It
on the other hand, a blessing for them under Muslim rule, and was collected from them as the price
was, for
the protection of their person and property against It was levied on able-bodied males in
their enemies.
military service ; but they were exempt from it served in the Muslim army. That it was not they * a tax on the free exercise of religion ', is conclusively proved by the fact that the priests and religious heads
lieu
of
if
* For a clear
and
correct
Aurangzeb and His Times, pp 140 ,
account ft
of
the
Jizia,
see
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
MUHI-UD-DIN
Zimmls
of the
were,
a
rule,
exempt from
it.
In
'
inferiority complex', with came to be associated later on, Akbar abolished
order, perhaps, to
which it and it,
as
remove the
293
was not levied
it
1679 A.
till
C.,
i.e.,
some
seventeen years after the accession of 'Alamglr. The fact that it was not imposed for so many years during 'Alamgir's reign shows that the much-maligned
monarch appreciated the current state of affairs and was He would have continued the not inclined to revive it.
same
policy were it not for political as well as financial.
the
idea
It
serious considerations,
must
also be noted that
re-imposing the Jizia originated not with alleged, but with the Muslwn theologians.
of
'Alamgir, as
some
is
Ighwar Das, who was intimately known to the Chief " The learned theologians, looking to QSzi, informs us His Majesty's piety, pointed out the propriety of levying the Jizia, which was necessary according to Islamic :
Law.
His Majesty, therefore, thinking
its
imposition
binding upon him, appointed Enayatullah Khan for its Ishwar Das is supported by the author of regulation."* the Mlrat and there is every reason to rely upon his statement.
One who
ascended the throne as
'
a saviour
and on'e who was hailed as a 'champion could not dare drop down the proposal of the of Islam/ learned Ulama. Apart from this, there were other of his religion/
considerations
:
The
of as
abolition
taxes meant an enormous decrease
many in
the
as
eighty
Imperial
This as well as the heavy expenditure entailed in quelling disturbances and waging wars must have
income.
* Fat&hat-i-AlamgZrt Mirat-i-Ahmadi, 190-a.
by
Ishwar *
Das,
pp.
73-74;
and
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
294 driven
the
to the
Emperor
To him
same conclusion.
the re-imposition of the Jixia meant the adjustment of the Imperial finances and the discharge of a sacred duty.
To
say or to suppose that it was intended to effect forced conversion of the Zimmls in the Mughal Empire is a
grave misrepresentation of facts. The Zimmls in the It was not Service of the State were exempt from it. levied
being
exorbitant,
and above the cost it
was not
of
on the surplus of income over Apart from this,
maintenance.
regularly collected
and was frequently remitted
in the case of the poor.*
The charge
that with one stroke of pen he dismissed all
f
the Hindus from
vice
Hilffic?a ls.
in
a
fit
Government
of fanaticism
is
ser-
false
on
the face of it, for there were numerous Hindus who held highly responsible posts in the civil and military departments of the State during his reign.
them were appointed governors of different provinces and entrusted with the supreme military commands in various campaigns. The fact that he
Many
of
Singh for repeatedly pardoned Rajah Jaswant and treasonable designs, took treacherous conduct
his
him
and acknowledged spite his posthumous son, Ajit Singh, when he grew up in age, as the Rajah of Marwar, shows that 'Alamgir was
into confidence
not at
all
of all that,
in
annoy the Rajputs or on the other hand, he
inclined to
with their services
them
;
to
dispense
tried his best
every possible way, so that they might not join hands with the Marhattas against him. to
please
in
* Fatuhtot-isAlamglri,
Ahmadl,
p. 321
;
by Ishwar D*s, 111-b; Mirat-iand Aurang ,-eb and His Times, pp. 153 if.
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMG1R
While making a dismissal of the
in
Zimmls from
certain posts, 'Alamgir no with secular business has concern Religion matters of this kind bigotry should find no place/ *
retorted
and
a petition, praying for the
to
reply
295
:
'
a verse from the Holy Qur'dn To you your religion and to me my religion,' he declared that * the petitioner's request were to be acceded to, we if
Then quoting
have to destroy all the Rajas and their subjects.' * The mere mole, therefore, of which a huge mountain has been made by his enemies is that in 1082 A. H. a shall
firman was issued to the effect that Hindu clerks, the dlwans and the collectors of land revenue, who were
and Musalmans appointed instead, though this firman was soon modified by another in this way that of the officials in the civil and military departments of the State one should be Hindu and
corrupt, be dismissed
one Muslim, so that one should serve as a check on the underlying the firmans was to prevent corruption and nothing more, t other.
Obviously, therefore,
Another
equally
false
'Alamgir
the idea
charge is
that
levelled
against the
he tormented
Hindas and destroyed their temples, and that in accordance with the tenets
of
his
religion.
To
be
sure,
Islam enjoins
*
Preaching of Islam, by Sir Thomas Arnold, p. 214; and of Aurangzeb, by Sir Jadunath Sarkar, pp. 97100 Aurangzeb and His Times, p, 202. Anecdotes
in
;
t Muntakhib-ul-Lubab, Vol. ii, pp. 249 and 252 ; Studies India, pp. 162-63; and Aurangzeb and His Times,
Mughal
pp. 190
ff.
It
may
be pointed out here that even Ihe PathSns
and Persians were not reasons.
freely employed by 'Alamgir for political (See Aurangzeb and His Times, pp. 191 and 266).
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
296
and
universal toleration
The
rare fidelity.
its
votaries
have practised
it
with
lot of the subjugated has never been
happier than under the ruling races of Islam.
Some time
the Asiatic Society of Bengal published a firman addressed by Emperor Alamgir to Abul Hasan, the
ago
'
Governor of Benares, enjoining tolerance on him and This firman, the genuineness of which
his officials.
cannot
be called
question, gives a
in
lie
direct to the
charge of intolerance laid at the door of the last of our Great Mughals, and reveals his care and concern for the It reads : well-being of his Hindu subjects. " Let Abul Hasajj, worthy of favour and countenance,
our
Firman issued
trust to
to the governor of Benares.
him know
tion
r
y al
b unty,
and
let
that, since in accordance ,. , 4 f with our innate kindness of disposi.
.
.
,
.
and natural
energy and
all
benevolence, the whole of our untiring our upright intentions are engaged in
promoting the public welfare and bettering the condition all classes, high and low, therefore, in accordance with our holy law, we have decided that ancient temples
of
shall not be overthrown, but that
In
new ones
shall not be
these
days of our justice, information has reached our noble and most holy Court that certain persons, actuated by rancour and spite, have harassed built.
the Hindus resident in the town of Benares and other places
Brahman ancient
in
that
a
few
neighbourhood, and also certain
keepers of the temples, in
whose charge these
are, and that they further desire to Brahmans from theif ancient office (and
temples
remove these
this intention of theirs causes distress to that
therefore, our
Royal
Command
is
community),
that, after the arrival
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR 297
of our lustrous order,
you should
no person
direct that
shall in unlawful way Brahmans and the other Hindus
so
as
resident
future,
in
before, remain
that they may, and continue with peace occupation places,
in
interfere or disturb the
mind
of
these*
in their
to offer
up
continuance of our God-given
prayers for the that is destined to last for
all
time.
Empire, Consider this as
an urgent matter. Dated the 15th of Jumada * 1069 (A. D. 1659)."
Two
more firmans issued by
II,
A. H.
'
Alamgir to his* instructions, have come to officers, containing light and they are reproduced verbatim because they are similar
highly significant
"At
this
Firman No.
:
auspicious time an august firman was issued that whereas Maharajdhiraj
R_
1.
.
Rftm gingh faas represente d to the most holy, and exalted Court that a mansion was built by his father in Mohalla Madho Rai, on the bank of the &
Ganges at Benares for the residence of Bhagwant Goshain who is also his religious preceptor, and as certain persons harass the Goshain, therefore, our
Cojnmand the
is
that, after the arrival of
present and
future
officers
Royal
our lustrous order,
should direct that in
no person shall in any way interfere or disturb the Goshain, so that he may continue with peace of mind
future,
tp offer
up prayers
our God-given time. Consider
for the continuance of
Empire, that is destined to this as an urgent matter.
last for all
Dated
17th Rabi
II,
1091
A. H." * /.A. S.B. (1911), p. 689: and Waqai-'Alamglrt, pp. 104 Also see Aurangzeb and His Times, pp. 106 ff.
ff,
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
.298
"
At
this
auspicious time
_
^. XT FzrwawNo.
an august firman was two plots of land mea-
issued that as 2.
_
.
rtrt
_
..
_
.
sunng 588J- aira, situated on the bank of the Ganges at the Beni Mad ho Ghat, in BenSres (one plot is in front of the house of Goshain Ramjivan and on the bank of the Central Mosque, and the other is higher up) are lying vacant without any building and belong to Bait-ul-Mal,
we
have, therefore, granted the his sons as Inatn, so
same to Goshain Ramjivan and
the pious dwelling-houses for the on above-mentioned holy faqlrs plots, he should remain engaged in the contemplation of God and continue to offer up prayers for the conthat
after
building
Brahmans and
tinuance of our last for
all
Empire that is destined to therefore, incumbent on our
God-given
time.
It is,
ministers, noble Umaras, highand officials, daroghas, present and future Kotwals, to exert themselves for the continual and permanent observance of this hallowed ordinance, and to permit the illustrious sons, exalted
remain in the possession of the above-mentioned person and of his descendants from
above-mentioned
generation
from
all
plots
to
and to consider him exempt and not to demand from him a
to generation,
dues and taxes,
new sanad every
year.
(1098 Hijra.)"
*
* This and the preceding firmans have been published by Mr. Za^ir-ud-Dm Faruqi in his valuable work Aurangzeb and His Times with the help of K B. Maqbul Hussain Sahib, Commissioner of Benares Division (See pp. 131-132). For other firmans issued by 'Alamgir to the same effect, vide Mirat-i-Ahmadi, p. 253; and Aurangzeb and His Times, pp. 136 ff. Also see Ch. NabI Ahmad Sandelvi's Waqai 'Alamgir, which contains a number of Aurrangzeb's letters and firirZns with copious notes.
MUHI-UD-DIN
The
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
dates of
the above two firmans are highly^important in that they relate to the
Which temples
period of 'Alamgir's reign
were destroyed
.
^
,
lf
,
in bigotry
in
them
when he
,
alleged to have exceeded
and why ?
mation embodied
299
,.
is ...
every limit
and fanaticism. The
infor-
militates against the theory of
and iconoclasm enunciated against him by modern writers who have little acquaintance with the It is certain teachings of Islam and Islamic history. intolerance
that Islam enjoins toleration and tried to
excel
in
this virtue.
greater liberty to the
the Muslim
its
No
votaries have always
nation has granted
subject races than that granted
whether
by
Spain, or elseIt is equally true that 'Alamgir had a profound where. He always tried to respect for the teachings of Islam. be tolerant towards the Zimmls and was true to the " " Let there be no violence in religion Quranic text " and the sayings of the Prophet Whoever torments the Zimmls torments me " and " Whoever wrongs a Zimml Rulers,
in
India,
:
and
lays a
shall be his
burden
upon him
accuser ".
What
beyond then
is
his strength,
I
responsible for
the popular belief that he was intolerant and the current notions that he persecuted the Hindus and destroyed
temples? The real facts, when boiled down, When the Hindus desresolve themselves into this their
:
troyed mosques and constructed mandirs on their sites, the Muslim Emperor reclaimed them and issued an order to demolish only those temples which had become centres of sedition and political intrigue, and those that had been newly erected without permission.* The * Muntdkhib-ul-Lubab. Vol.
ii.
p. 472.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
300 later
new
Muslim
Accordingly,
temples.
the
disallowed
jurists
of
construction
obedience
in
to
this
injunction, Shah Jahan pulled down a number of new But, curiously enough, no Hindu has so temples.* far dubbed him as intolerant. Why then such a tornado of vindictiveness against 'Alamgir ? The reason
Akbar, the Hindus had found in Dara a hero after their own hearts. They wanted him to be
is
that,
after
their king, but
turned
when
against
he was defeated and the
'Alamgir,
new
king,
killed,
they
who was
a
'Alamglr was tolerant, and to a fairly but not so tolerant as Akbar and Dara,
staunch Sunni. high degree,
who,
order to
in
concealed their
achieve
their
ulterior
religious identities
political aims,
and even subscribed
to the religion of the ruled.
The
isolated
instrnce
recorded in the Ma'asir-i *
'
xiru
Au Whether
TT
schools
were
in the Province of Alamgiri that , , ThattS and MultSn and particularly in
J HmdQ
^,
.
,
f
.
Benares the Brahmans were engaged their in teaching unholy books in -
schools, their
where the
H in d us and Musal mans flocked to learn
wicked sciences
issued to
all
the
*
and that
'
orders were,
governors of Provinces
therefore,
ordering the
destruction of temples and schools and totally prohibiting the teaching and infidel practices of the unbelievers',f is not supported by any other contemporary Persian
chronicle
;
on the other hand, it is contradicted by adduced above. We cannot,
the cumulative evidence * Badshahnamah, Vol.
i,
p. 452.
t Ma'asir-i-'lLlamgirt, p, 81.
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
therefore, but disbelieve
that
some
It
it.
301
must be pointed out here
of the
contemporary chroniclers were unusually fond of unduly exaggerating things which added to their religious vanity, and that it would be wholly unsafe
taken
their effusions are
if
those Muslims,
who
idolatory at
cost
any
seriously.
Like
took delight in the extirpation of whom the destruction of
and with
temples was a theme of
which they were never
Musts'id Khan,
weaving,
too
tired of
the author of the Ma'asir-i-
'Alamglrl, seems to purely political
have given a religious colour to a firman. It is certain that no firman, as
described by Musta'id Khan, was ever sent to the governors for the destruction of temples and schools ; but even if we take the dispatch of such a firman for granted,
underlying it could be no other than to restrain Muslim students from attending Hindu schools the
motive
and learning
'
wicked
though in that case 'Alamglr should have checked the Muslims from going
astray
instead
of
sciences,'
ordering
the destruction
of
Hindu
In consequence, some of the temples. schools (attached to temples) might have been closed with schools
and
a view to prevent the Hindus from admitting Muslim students in their schools, but the wholesale destruction
and temples throughout the Mughal Empire more so when viewed in the light is highly incredible, of the Imperial firmans issued for their protection. of schools
The
policy
Toleration under 'Alamgir. fact
is
testified
of
religious
toleration
adhered
to
b Y the Mughal Emperors was not abandoned by Aurangzeb. This to by Alexander Hamilton who
happened to be present
in
India
during
the
later
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
302
Speaking about the Parsis, he
part of 'Alamglr's reign.
says that they enjoyed the freedom of worship and the The Christians, he continues, liberty of conscience.
were
churches and to preach their religion,
free to build
however, that those
adding,
Christianity
Gentows", religion, and
did
have
not
who became enviable
he concludes, have
converts
morals.
full toleration
"
to
The
for their
keep their fasts and feasts as in formei when the sovereignty was in pagan princes' There are above an hundred different
times,
hands
but they never have hot dis(Surat) their or way of worship. about doctrine Every putes one is free f* serve and worship God in his own way. sects in this city
;
And persecutions for among them ".* With
sake
religion's
are
not
known
must be admitted, 'Alamglr was not so tolerant towards the Hindus as Data who shared their beliefs and supported their religion
all
this,
it
nay even overlooked the occupation of mosques of Muslim women by them. The
and the abduction
)ara dealt a coup d'etat to Hindu domination. Smarting under the loss of a most powerful patron,
death of
they rose
disturbed the peace of the country Must the authority of the Emperor.
in rebellion,
and defied the
Emperor have kept
quiet
of affairs a free scope
?
No government
Five inferences can Inferences drawn from the foregoing discussion.
and allowed the be drawn
discussion
:
(1)
existing state
can tolerate that
from the preceding
The
...
destruction .
of
.
places of worship is neither enjoined nor countenanced by the Islamic Law. (2) The Hindus
M Vol.
i,
New
Account of the East Indies, by Alexander Hamilton,
pp. 159, 162
and
163.
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMG1R
MUHI-UD-DIN were the
first
to destroy the
mosques
of the Muslims.
303
The
by repaying the former in their own coin, but Government issued firmans for the protection of all
latter retaliated
the
sacred places, masjids as well as mandirs, without discrimination. (3) Owing, perhaps, to the narrow interpre^ tation of the Islamic
Law,
so also to the prejudice
which
the Musalmans had against idolatry, the later Muslim jurists allowed the preservation of ancient temples and prohibited the construction of new ones with a view to
The occupation of mosquesdiscourage idol-worship. the it Hindus be remembered, responsible, must by was, and
to a great
enforcement of the
extent, for the rigid
the construction
injunction prohibiting
of
new
temples. resented by the ruled, no amount of toleration is of any avail and the places of worship are apt to become centres of political agitation and (4)
Where
the ruler
is
asylums for the malcontents and miscreants. This must have been so in the case of 'Alamglr, and as a political expedient some of the temples might have been destroyed during the suppression of a rebellion or a revolt in order to effect the early submission of the rebels. (5) It is also possible that
some
of the temples were destroyed with a
view to teach a lesson to the Hindus
mosques and made mandirs on
4
,.
who had
destroyed
their sites.
In short, 'Alamgir would have continued the policy of his predecessors if the conditions .. .
.
'Alamglr justified.
.
,
,
.,
,
,
.
,
,
had not changed if the Hindus had not become aggressive, defiant and even treacherous, ambitious to overthrow the Muslim Empire^ and to ;
establish a
Hindu Empire
instead.
He
rightly
gauged
the strength of the forces that were gathering round
him
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
304
and changed gested. if
Any
his policy according as the
of his predecessors
he had found
changes sug-
would have done the same by so many forces of which beset 'Alamglr.
himself besieged
and must be remembered that it was only after he had was impossible to reconcile the ^discovered that it that rule he refused to rely on them and his to Rajputs rallied round him his own co-religionists, with whose insubordination
intrigue
It
help he succeeded
in crushing his
ing his
as well
authority
as
enemies and enforc-
restoring
law and order.
When he unsheathed his sword for the protection of mosques and' Muslim women, he became the Defender of the Faith, but
when he
carried
the Crescent far and
a wide, he became the Champion of Islam which he is remembered to the present day.
The
Jats of
Jat Rebellion.
title
with
Mathura had received great concessions from Emperor Akbar and his spn, While Akbar himself had j ah ^ ng!r .
Gobind Dev, Jugal Bindraban and Mattiura,
constructed the palacial temples of
Gopi Nath etc., in Jahanglr had permitted Rajah Narsingh Dev Bundela, the murderer of Allama Abul Fazl, to build a beautiful Kighor,
temple in Mathura with Rs. 32,00,000 which he had During the reign of acquired after killing the Allama.
Shah Jahan the Jats resumed in
their
mischievous activities
Distinguished officers, such as 'Azam and Mirza Isa Khan, who were sent to restore law
Mathura*
Khan
and order
in that district, failed to bring
them
to
book
on account of Dara Shikoh, who managed the affairs of the Mughal Government. This state of affairs continu-
ed
to
the time
of
'Alamgir with,
of course,
added
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMG1R
energy, because Dara, their patron,
305
was defeated and
They were touched to t the quick when Sayyad Abdun-NabI, the new Faujdar appointed by Alamglr, killed.
'
built
of the
Jama Mas/id and
a
Hindu
mosque,
into
open
zamlndar
of Gokle, a
Imperial
city.
broke
not a temple in the heart C. they insulted the
In 1669 A.
of
and assassinated the
Tilpat,
Hassan
Faujdar.
under the leadership
rebellion
new Faujdar,
the
All,
the struggle with the Jats and inflicted a The rebellion crushing defeat on them in 1676 A. C. was suppressed and severe repressive measures secured
resumed
peace for about a decade. again in 1681 A. C. when,
absence of Alamglr
The
trouble was renewed
Jats again ran into rebellion under time the centre of sedition was
SansanI,
some
advantage of the
taking
who was away
miles
sixteen
in the
Rajah the
to
Deccan, the Ram. This
stronghold north-west
the
of of
Bharatpur. The leader was killed and the place was taken, but the lawless Jats continued to give trouble to the
Emperor
they
again
to the close of his career.
raised
most acrimonious they committed a
the
In 1691 A. C.
standard of revolt and offered a
effrontery to the Imperial House, nay,
mosjt heinous offence against
humanity
tomb of plundered Emperor Akbar at Sikandara and burnt his bones.* A more serious rebellion was that of the SatnSmls.
when
they
and
desecrated
According
The Satnaims' Insurrection.
the
to
Ishwar
Das, the
temporary J chronicler, r a filthy people were '
,
a con-
Satnamis
who were
mostly agriculturists and traders. Their headquarters * Waqai-'Alamgiri, pp 4995 and Smith's Akbar, p. 328, ;
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
306
They were an armed and organized them arose from an ordinary with trouble The body. One day a foot-soldier, who was keeping incident. were at Narnaul.
watch over a harvest, had
a
dispute
with
Satnami
a
The
dispute developed into a deadlock and As a result, retaliations the former was beaten to death.
cultivator.
followed, lives were lost
and disorder spread, taking a
The Mughal
religious complexion.
officer,
who
tried to,
capture the culprits, was overpowered and the Satnamis In some engagements they gathered in large numbers. defeated the detachments detailed against
R spelling,
Emperor.
advance
the
them by the the
of
Imperial
forces, they came within sixteen kos of Delhi, enlisting support on their way. They plundered Narnaul, demolished mosques and routed the Imperial Faujdar of the district.
Satnamis, some to
of the chaos created
Taking advantage
of the Rajputs also rebelled
by the and refused
pay the revenue due from them.
This aggravated the Emperor to take a
and
compelled the In the short but bloody battle that was fought, the Satnamis were badly defeated, and thereafter they ceased to be a source of trouble to the Mughal situation
serious action.
Emperor. Radandaz Khan, and reduced them to sore the
title
of
The War
Shuja'at
Rajputs,
with
the Rajputs.
defeated the rebels
straits,
was honoured with
Khan*
who had grown strong in the .
,
missed
Muntafaib-ul-Lubab, His Times, p, 210.
pp.
rich in resources
sinews
of
an
opportunity arid
254-55:
war, of
disorder.
and
and
never
-
.
disturbance *
wha
.
creating
Their
Aurangzeb
and
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
anti-government
activities
307
during the Satnami Rebellion wanted to stab the
are a case in point, proving that they
Mughals This
is
back while they were engaged elsewhere. the whole reign of not the only instance in the
;
'Alamgir
is
full of
such instances.
Troubles continued
Rajputana intermittantly, but the situation became serious in 1679 A. C., when Rajah Jaswant Singh in
whom
'Alamgir had posted at Jamrud at the mouth of the Khyber Pass, died at that place, leaving no son
behind to
succeed
him
;
more so when at Lahore the to two sons, ^ne of whom
widowed Rams gave birth died and the other survived to secure the Gaddl of MSrwar and to stir up the sentiments of his co-religionThe family of the late ists against the Muslim Monarch.
Jamrud without the permission of the Emperor and killed an officer at Attock when asked to a sufficient ground for produce a passport.* This was Rajah had
left
incorporating Marwar in the Mughal Empire, or reducing it to a state of dependency under a capable ruler.
But
there
were more serious considerations it
first
was impossible
place, tolerate the existence of
state
on the flanks
for
any an independent and
of the trade-route
:
In the
emperor of India to inimical
through Rajputana
other flourishing cities on the " No the western coasts from Imperial Capital. the in secure himself feel monarch could sovereignty of " until he had obtained Upper India," says Smith, the two possession of Chittor and Ranthambhor, fortresses in the domains of the free Rajput to Surat,
Ahmadabad and
principal
* Muntakhib-ul-Lubab, p, 259
-~
911
and
212.
;
and Aurangzeb and His Times,
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
308 chiefs."
proved
Secondly, the late Rajah Jaswant Singh had himself a traitor not only once or twice but his
throughout
career.
was
It
who
he
plundered
'Alamgir's camp and formed a junction with Dara. It was he who deserted 'Alamgir on the eve of the battle
Khajwah and retired to his home with his Rajput made overtures to Shivaji It was he who contingent.
of
'
himself an implacable foe of the Moghuls), against whom he was sent to act ' and secretly helped him in (like
on Shaista Khan. It was he who made an attempt to remove the Imperial lieutenants,
his daring attack
'
one by assassination the other by open force/ It was he who incited Mu azzam 'whose inexperience he was said 1
to
guide,
to
Jaswant who
revolt tried to
ther-in-law, viz., in the Imperial
against his father.
Again
it
was
tamper with the loyalty of his bro-
Rao Bbao Singh, who was his
colleague
These are some among the many and disloyalty. Accord-
army.*
striking instances of his treachery
ing to Bernier, there
was a
secret understanding
between
him and
Shivajl, and he was supposed to have been accessory to the attempt on Shaista Khan and the attack of
Thirdly, almost
all Rajput Rajahs were smaitunder the Muslim Rule and aimed at the overthrow ing
Surat.f
of the established government.
'Alamgir
should
It
was but natural that
consider
seriously
the
question
of
succession of the posthumous sons
open to grave doubts, t
whose legitimacy was He wanted to confer the Rajship
25 Annals and Antiquities of *Tarikh-i-Dilku$ha, p. Rajasthan, (1894) Vol. ii, pp. 51 ff. and Aurangzeb and His Times, \Bernier's Travels, (2nd edition), p. 188. ;
JSee Aurangzeb and His Times,
p.
214
ff.
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMOIR
on one who would be more
and
loyal
309
treacherous
less
Rajah. Lest the surviving sons of the Rajah should become a centre of Hindu
than the
late
deceased
'Alamgir at once ordered the administration of Marwar to be brought under Muslim officers. A. in 1679 C. he went personally to Ajmer to see Early resistance,
operations in Jodhpur and to overawe Khan Jahan occupied the opposition in that quarter. After the city and carried all that came in his way.
the
through
occupation of Jodhpur, 'Alamgir returned to his Capital on April 2, 1679 A. C. On May 26, 1679 A. C. he
made Indar Singh, a grand-nephew of the late Rajah, the Rajah of Marwar. The following month the family of Rajah Jaswant Singh reached Delhi and pleaded the Ajlt Singh before the Emperor, who proposed the infant to be brought up in the Imperial palace and promised to restore the kingdom to him when he would
of
right
the
attain
age
of
discretion.
that the intention of the
Erroneously
Emperor was
supposing up the
to bring
boy as a Muslim, the Ranis left Delhi in disguise with him. When the Emperor was informed of the flight, it was a little too late. Nevertheless, he sent a force to seize the
A
Ranis and the infant.
headed by
Durga Das, one
of
body
of
Rathors, the immortals in the
annals of Rajputana, fought against the Imperial force and succeeded in safely escorting the Ranis and the
boy to Marwar. Once in their own country, they were free from all external molestation. The Rajputs rallied round their voung chieftain and took up his little
cause.
him
The Emperor, however,
as the real prince
refused to acknowledge
and declared the boy,
whom
the
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
310 Ranis had
Delhi to be the genuine son of Jaswant cannot be definitely asserted whether the
left at
It
Singh.
boy
left at
the
late
Delhi was the
Rajah, but
hand of a princess of became the real son This
not.
fictitious
when
the
or the
Rana
his family to the
of
boy, the
Jaswant Singh even episode
interesting
real
son
of
of Chittor gave the
bitterly
if
latter
he was
disappointed
Aurangzeb. His wrath fell on those of his officers who had been duped by the Rams. Tahir Khan, the Faujdar dismissed and Indar Singh was of Jodhpur, was Whatever the delusion of for dethroned inefficiency. the
Emperor
in
regard
the identity of A jit Singh to the gravity
to
might have been, there was no delusion as
prompt action. Marwar must be incorporated and Rathor opposition must be
of the situation 'hat required a
suppressed.
The Invasion of
Marwar was ordered and the Emperor himself moved down to
Marwar and
Ajmer
invasion
of
from from
Multan
command
of
and
to
in order to direct the operations
Prince Akbar was called
there.
him was entrusted the supreme army, and with him was
the Imperial
Tahawar Khan,
the
Faujdar of Ajmer. The Rathors were defeated and Marwar was occupied. It was parcelled out into districts, each of which was associated
The Rathors placed in charge of a Mughal Faujdar. now invoked the assistance of the Sisodians and their request met with a ready response. Fearing a similar the House of made Mewar common cause with the fate,
House
of
ever-loyal
Mnrwar
against the
Mughal Emperor.
The
Rajah of Jaipur continued to side with the
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
311
The war broke out with great fury in Mughals. November 1679 A. C. and lasted till 1681 A. C. During
this
time Udaipur was overrun and Chittor was Unable to stand against the tremendous
conquered. array of the Mughal arms, the Rajputs retired to their inaccessible retreats in the mountains and resorted to guerilla warfare, for which the natural features of their
were so favourable. They inflicted heavy on the Imperial troops and caused consternation among them, Kumar Bhim Singh, son of the Rana of country losses
Udaipur,
invaded
in
Gujarat
order
to
the
divert
Mughal Emperor from Rajputana. He seized Idar, plundered some towns and destroyed as many as three hundred mosques.* x)Ial Shah, the attention of the
Rajput Finance Minister, made an inroad into Malwa, plundered the mosques, burned the Qur'an and insulted For once,' says Tod, they (Rajputs) the mullahs' 1
*
'
avenged themselves,
the tyrant, even on the kazees were bound
in imitation of
the religion of their enemies and shaved, and the Korans were thrown into wells. 't :
Akbar could make no headway against them. Therefore, he was called back and his place was taken by his who was summoned from Bengal. brother, 'Azam,
Mu'azzam came from the Deccan, and the governor
of
Gujarat was ordered to cut off communications between the Rajputs and the Marhattas, and to deliver an attack * Annals
and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Vol. i, 294; Mirat-i-Ahmadi, Fatuhat-i-'Alamgiri, 80a p. 299. His and Times, p. Aurangzeb "\Annals
and
Antiquities
Fatuhat'i-Alamgirit 80a
;
of
Rdjasthan,
Vol.
i,
p. ;
p.
and Aurangzeb and His Times,
302
;
and 302
;
p. 229.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
312
on Rajputana from the South. The Rajputs were surrounded from different directions and the new princes converged on the hills, which sheltered Rajah Raj Singh of Udaipur. When success was in sight, the news of the rebellion of Prince Muhammad Akbar arrived and Mewar was easily relieved of the pressure at a most psychological
Driven
moment.
to despair, the Rajputs resorted to
means. Rebellion of
They
underhand
approached holding out high
secretly
p rince Mu azzam>
hopes to him and promising to put
him on the
Sternly advised declined the the Prince mother, Bal, by offer.* The Rajputs then turned towards Prince Akbar and won him over to their side.f In January, 1681 he throne.
Nawab
his
broke into rebellion
with
throne
Supported
the hope of acquiring
the
by the Rajputs, he crowned himself emperor and marched towards Ajmer to wrest the Imperial Crown for himself. But he was for
no match
himself.
for the craft of his father.
The
situation
was
extremely grave and required a master-mind to control it. Aurangzeb put Ajmer in a state of defence first and then directed his energies towards the dissolution of the Tahawar Khan, the principal supporter of confederacy. the Prince, was called to the Imperial Camp. Other officers of the army of the Prince were also detached,
and he was not so clever as to control the campaign The defection of against his father unaided and alone. his faithful followers scented treachery to the Rajputs,
*Aurangzeb and His Times, .,
pp. 229
and
230.
p. 229.
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGU*
who
flight
took
to
at
belongings and looting deserted by his
allies,
after
night
collecting
his
camp. Finding he mounted his horse and
313 their
himself fled
to
Deccan, where he took refuge with Sambhajl. From the Deccan he went to Persia and remained
the
there to die in 1704 A. C.
'Alamglr's success was due to a superior stroke of With Akbar as their trump-card, the statesmanship.
Rajputs would have succeeded in their nefarious plans, but the desertion of the Prince by his followers, manipulated by 'Alamglr, turned the trend of events in his favour.*
The war rTTJ
Mewar and Marwar continued March, 1681 A. C. when both the
against till
.
Treaty of Udaipur.
'
parties peace the Rajputs, because they had become tired of war, and the Emperor, because matters had taken a serious turn in the
desired
South and
his
presence was
for
urgently required there. the result was
peace commenced and
Pourparlers the Treaty of Udaipur, according to which: (1) Jai Singh was acknowledged as the Rana and a mansab of five
thousand was conferred
upon him.
(2)
The Rana
stipulated to cede certain tracts (three pargatias) of his territory *
the
to
Mughal Empire and
The detachment
of
two
in
return
or three officers from the Prince
the
was
not sufficient to occasion the flight of his Muslim followers and Rajput allies from the field. The story that 'Alamglr wrote a letter to the Prince, showering praises on him for his pretended revolt' and directing hirr to attack the Rajputs in the rear, and caused it to fall into their hands furnishes a better explanation, but it is not supported by Khafl Khan. (Vide Muntakhib-ul'
Lubab, Vol.
n,
p
269.)
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
314
Jizia was dropped, but the territory returned three years later. (3) The Rana also agreed to pay an indemnity of Rs. 3,00,000 within
demand ceded
two
for the
was
(4)
years.
The Rajput
horsemen was retained. not to be repaired.
(6)
contingent of one thousand
The fortress of Chittor was The rebellious Rathors would
(5)
not be sheltered by the Rana.*
For a period Results of the Rajput Revolt.
elements of
about three decades Rajputana remained in a state of open revolt of
" The against the Mughal Emperor. lawlessness that set moving overflowed
Malwa and endangered the vitally important The Mughal road through Malwa to the Deccan." fitfully into
who had
completely estranged themselves and become the bitterest enemies of the Mughal Empire, were suppressed only for the time being ; they were not Rajputs,
completely crushed. Since the affairs in Rajputatia occupied the attention of the Emperor for a fairly long time, his position was considerably weakened in the
South, where the Marhattas
had
made a monarchy
own.
Evidently he could not completely reduce the Rajputs, though he had won decisive victories
of
their
against them.
he
advisedly
As
his
entered
hands into
a
we're too
treaty
full of affairs,
with
them and
turned his attention to the suppression of the Marhatta menace and the subversion of the Shia Sultanates in the South.
* For a detailed discussion on this treaty and Prince 'AzanVs secret alliance with the Rajputs regarding this treaty, see Aurangzeb and His Times, pp. 231 ff.
CHAPTER XV
MUHl-UD-DlN '
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB
ALAMGlR
(CONTINUED)
Rise of the Marhattas In the neighbourhood of of
634 A. C. a Marhatta
soldier
named Shahjl Bhonsla,
fortune,
Introductory. politics
1
.
to play a prominent part in the
began of Southern India. of
independence
the
He
served and fought for the kingdoms of Ahmadnagar and
Bijapur against the Mughals and left a fairly large band of followers and a modest military fief to his son, Shivaji, the
arch-enemy of Aurangzeb.
Before taking up
the story of this mighty Marhatta, it is necessary to give a brief account of the Marhatta country, its people, and that
the qualities
mark them
of India
off
for these
from the remaining
are
important factors bearing upon Shivaji's career which cannot be treated as an isolated phenomenon. population
Maharashtra, the
;
habitat of
the Marhattas,
is
com-
country lying between prised ,. ^, *" e mountain range which stretches in the
Description of
Maharashtra.
,
.
,
,
,
,
along the south of the river Narbada, parallel to the
Vindhya and Satpura ranges.
The
out-
standing physical feature of the country is the Sahyadri range or the Western Ghat which runs like a long wall
along the parts,
western part ?nd
each remarkable for
divides its
own
the tracts into peculiarities*.
situated, the triangular table-land of the
two
Thus
Deccan enjoyed
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
316
considerable immunity from the invasions to which the North had become a constant prey. The forts on top It of the ranges ensured the security of the country. is
from these important positions that various princes chiefs have, at different times, profited and suc-
and
of
the mighty kings of
to the peculiar nature
of their country, the
cessfully defied the
authority
the North.
Owing
have developed certain moral qualities which and physical dist n g u s h them from the rest of Marhattas
Character and qualities of
the Marhattas.
i
i
their
countrymen. the
rocks,
fortified
The
winding roads up the entrances with a succession of in order to guard the which studded the surface of
towers
gate-ways,
the
approaches
to the
erected
forts
all these gave the inhabitants of that rugged country the country a decided advantage over their opponents.
Their guerilla mode of warfare greatly exasperated their enemy and exhausted their resources in men and money.
Even the Mighty Mughals found them, for
open
they would
The
field.
bracing
climate
never
ing
toil.
some raw and
marches
or
nature
in the
and
the
simple,
and persevering. They
who
never shirked the roughest Mounted on small ponies and carry-
parched
millet,
they
undertook long
on their enemy. They dispersed and easily called together
inflicted
could be easily
of
enemy
country made them
strong, sturdy, daring, enterprising
and hardest
difficult to defeat
fight their
niggardliness
of their
were peasant proprietors
it
losses
of to the season the according Except year. at the time of seeding and harvesting, they were
MUHI-UD-PIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIK
always at leisure to wage war. of
and
Bijapur
Golconda in the
They and of
art
317
joined the armies
soon
acquired
the
Gradually they became first-class fighters, with ample chances of success against the men of the North, dissipated by luxury, indolence and ease. In the Rajput, the Mughals
necessary
training
fighting.
in the Marhad found a most worthy antagonist for the latter would not hatta, a most formidable foe shrink from taking recourse to treachery when it served ;
;
his ends.
We
have already given a
.
Movement
.
Their religion.
centuries
Hindus.
North
account of the Bhaktl
which
appeared
in the fifteenth
and gave a new stamp
in the
and sixteenth
to the religion of the
Spreading throughout the length and breadth
of India, this
made
brief
movement, the Reformation, the humble ranks of the Marhattas
protestant
way into and united them into a common brotherhood wherein there were no distinctions of caste and colour. The its
religious
lower all
leaders
of
the
Marhattas
sprang from the
stratum.
persons
blood.
They, therefore, preached equality of and ruled out the differences of birth and
They
declared a crusade against
all
those grave
was honeycombed, and propagated the monotheistic principle which the Musalmans had introduced in India. They condemned forms and ceremonies and succeeded in stamping out super-
abuses with which Hinduism
stition
from
the
ranks
of
Marhatta
taught their followers tne philosophy of science stirred
of
discipline.
By songs and
up the sentiments
of
society.
action
They and the
speeches, they the people and inculcated
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
318
According to Dr. Ishwari patriotism among them. of the centre new ideas was Pandharpur, a these Prasad, seat of pilgrimage in
and the Pandharpur
the Deccan,
movement was
a powerful factor in unifying the Marhatta country. The principal preachers of the new ideas were Tuka Ram, Ram Das, Vaman Pandit
and Eknath. Under the Shia Sultans of the kingdoms anc^
Their early
Golconda,
the
of Bijapur
Marhattas had
acquired considerable training both in the civil and military administration of the country.
training.
They were employed
in
the
revenue department and
entrusted with important posts in the armies. Some of the unmixed confidence of their rulers them enjoyed
and held even
ministerial
To
portfolios in the State.
Mudar Rao, Madan Pandit and several other prominent members of the Raj Rai family served as ministers and diwans in the State of Gol-
give specific
Narsu and Yasu Pandit were other Marhatta
conda
;
chiefs
who
of Bijapur.
Hindus
instances,
of
themselves in the
Kingdom The Bahmani Kings had employed the the South in the State and entrusted them distinguished
with the most responsible positions. Their policy was followed and kept up by their successors, the rulers of the offshoots,
i.e.,
the
five
small states into which
the Bahmani Kingdom had been military
and
department
Bargirs,
the
split up.
While
in the
Marhattas served as Siledars
Brahman ambassadors missions.
were sent
on
Thus, important diplomatic obvious that Bijapur and Golconda were
virtually
dependent on Marhatta soldiers and statesmen
who had
it
is
quite-
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
MUHI-UD-DIN
power and influence
acquired great these States.
gradually affairs of
At the commencement I he rise of the Bhonsla family Shahji Bhonsla.
319
in
tfte
of the seventeenth century,
when the Kingdom of Ahmadnagar was blotted out of existence
:
and those
of
Bi japur and Golconda were threatened
by the Mughals, the Marhatta found ample scope for the ministers and They took a leaddisplay of their wisdom and valour.
with
a
similar
fate
warriors
ing part in the wars and revolutions that came in quick succession and advanced their own national interests.
One
such persons
of
the
Bhonsla,
of the
service
was
a jagitdar,
father of Shivaji,
Sultan
of
called
who had
Bi japur
in
Shahji joined the
1632 A. C. and
a high position help of Murari JagLater deva, a friend of the Vazir, Khawas Khan. much a he obtained in includon, larger jaglr, Mysore
with the
risen to
ing Sira and Bangalore, when he returned after conducting a successful campaign in the South. Shivaji Bhonsla, son of Shahji Bhonsla by his wife Jijabai,
a
Sivaner
of shivkfi.
A. C,
was born on
On
in the stronghold of
10th of April 1627 the male side he claimed the
descent from the Rajput Rajahs of Udaipur and on the female side he was a descendant of the Yadava rulers of Deogari. ed,
Shivaji
Both might
his parents being so highly connectjustly be
proud of
his noble ancestry.
His mother has been described as a pious and devout Hindu lady, who used to relate to her son the thrilling 'tales
stock
famous Hindu heroes of the past from her memory and stirred up his spirit by narrating
of the of
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
320 to
him the
stories of the
and the Puranas.
there
Thus,
Mahabharata
the
Rawayana,
ample reason to
is
endorse the view that Jljabai had an important share in moulding the character of her son. To say with "
If ever great men owed their greatJustice Ranade : ness to the inspiration of their mothers, the influence
Jljabai was a factor making of Shivaji's career
of
of
prime importance
in the
and the chief source of his after little time to look As had Shahjl strength." the education of his son, he placed him under the Dadaji Kondadev. This aged Brahnan of immense experience was an able tuition of his
administrator of
The
the
From him the much
estates of Shahji.
and
imbibed
Marhatta
young that
called
agent,
assimilated
proved him so useful in his subsequent career. education he received comprised in horsemanship,
hunting
and military
supplemented
exercises.
experience of Dadaji himself. the mind of the young lad by scholars
brought
something
home
to
his
life
Marhatta saints and
him the
cause of
for the
sufficiently
and personal The influence exerted on
from the
lessons
by
was
It
necessity of doing '
country.
Unite
all
are Marathas,' his moral preceptor, Guru Ram Das, used to advise him, and propagate the Dharma of Maharashtra. The Guru convinced him that he had
who
'
1
world on the sacred mission of protect* ing the Brahmans and the cow. Mother and motherland/ he used to tell him, are dearer than heaven itself,
been sent to
this
'
why
live
dead, death
when is
on a barren
religion
has
better than life/ soil.
Shivaji's
perished
The
;
when
seed did
outlook
faith is
not
fall'
brightened,
bts
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGxR
mental horizon widened and he
now
aspired
to
321
become
an independent polygar. The natural scenery oi his native-land, the environments of his early life, the influence of his mother, teacher and other saints fired
him with the ambition
carving out an
of
kingdom for himself. Born and brought up _
made
._
T His robberies.
in
Maharashtra, Shivajl had familiar with every J
himself
nook and corner Mawali associates.
the help of his career at the age of nineteen. of
Bijapur
anarchy
fell
and
ill
indepedent
and
confusion.
his
of that country with
He
began
his public
In 1646 A. C. the Sultan
was followed by advantage of this
illness
Taking
Shivajl seized upon the stronghold of Torna and carried a successful raid into the fort of He rebuilt Raigarh, which was easily occupied.
opportunity,
Raigarh and wrested Supa from his uncle, ShambhujT. Fort after fort yielded to the young adventurer. The stronghold of Chakan and the outposts of Indapur
Baramati passed into
The
forts of
and
his possession in rapid succession.
Kondana, Purandhar and Singhgarh were and the southern frontier of Shivaji's
captured next
The Sultan of Bijapur, who family estate was secured. the aback taken was aggressive activities of Shivaji, by would have reduced the young Marhatta
to submission
;
but the friendly intervention of the ministers convinced the Darbar that the strongholds were captured in the general interest of
his
family
estate.
The ambitious
Marhatta Sardar would not, however, rest on his oars. Soon he sent a body of Marhatta horsemen under the command of Abaji Sonder against the Konkan, and the
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
322
the capture of Kalyan. was Next, Shivajl marched southwards in the district of Kolaba and
result
the
enlisted
of
sympathies
the
common cause of overthrowing The conquest of Kalyan in and his and
Seizure e
the
f
in the
of
country roused
Bijapur
against
About this time Shahji was arrested and imprisoned by the Sultan,
h^s flther
because
either
activities in that
authorities
him
chiefs
local
the Muslim yoke. the Konkan by Shivajl
of
-
his
insubordination to Mustafa, the
Commander-in- Chief of Bijapur, or because of his son's encroachments on the teiritory of Bijapur, or both. of his father's Shivajl was greatly upset at the news imprisonment and the confiscation of his jaglrs. For some time he gave up his depredatory pursuits and to
planned this
aim
in
effect
the release
view, he
appealed his
Mughal Emperor through
who happened his
offered
to
services
of
father.
His
to
son,
With
Majesty the
Murad
Bakhsh,
He
be in the Deccan at that time.
with
the prayer that his father be
released through his intercession. to
his
Shah Jahan acceded
request and enrolled him as a mansabdar of five Under the fear of Imperial intervention, tne
his
thousand. ruler
allow
of Bijapur released
Shahji,
though
he did not
him
to quit Bijapur for four years. There another view as to the release of however, Shahji :
is
said
that
it
was almost
entirely
due
intervention and good offices of Sharza
is,
It
to the friendly
Khan and Ran-
daula Khan, the two influential officers of Bijapur, But it must be noted that the release was conditional for ;
Shivajl remained quiet for about six years (1649
55 A. C.),
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
MUHI-UD-DIN so
of
interests
were
Bijapur
concerned.
period he kept himself busy in consolidatterritory and organizing its newly-acquired
this
During his
ing
the
as
far
323
administration.
No
sooner was Shahjl released and restored to his T jSgir in the Karnatic than his son J
Massacre at
Javli.
.
resumed
his
raids
in
the
tract of
land
in
the
In order to acquire the
South.
made
southern Konkan, Shivaji
Rao,
the
tract
in
of
Rajah the
him against
name the
the
of
Muslim
outwardly for
overtures to
who
Javli,
achieve his object in this Javli,
relentless
that
to
join
of
King
Chandra
administered Bijapur,
State.
failed
Having way, he sent two agents
contracting
alliance with
his
to
to
the
Rajah, but in fact for assassinating him. The Rajah received the agents with great respect, but treacherously enough, the guests put their host to death
daughter of
'
its
a private interview
at
Shivaji
who
from the
fled
',
and joined
fort
had, meanwhile, detailed his troops to the
Ghats and had himself arrived there to conduct the The citadel was stormed and operations in person. The sons of the Rajah '. sudden was the surprise up a vigorous defence, but were eventually taken '
put
and done away with in 1655 A. C. at NimgazS For several days the ladies the south of Poona.
prisoners to of
the
late
Rajah were
kept
in
confinement
at
Purandhar and then released.* *See Bisat-ul-Qhanaim
prakaram-atmak Bakhar, paras. 28 the above crime
t
p. 40
Charitra,
and is
29.
Sir
curious.
;
Shiva-ChhatrapatZ-Chen Sapta
and Kalmi pp, 81-82 Jadunath Sarkar's condonation o
Chitnis,
In his
;
own
words,
,
'his (Shivaji's
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
324 Hostilities e
^
^O s
t
l
were renewed when, towards the close of 1656 A. C., 'Ali 'Adil Shah of
of
Bijapur died and Aurangzeb advanc-
fe s
ed opportune moment.
against
his
Shivaji,
who
dominion
at for
longed
opportunities, was only too glad to seize this one.
that
such
He
negotiated with Aurangzeb and became his ally, but He attacked the Mughal failed to maintain friendship. cities of
Ahmadnagar and Junnar.
But
for the illness
Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb would not have left the Deccan without punishing the Marhatta brigand. The absence of th? MugLal troops from the Deccan left
of
During the Shivaji free to fish in the troubled waters. war of succession among the sons of Shah Jahan he consolidated his power his several
strongholds.
and established
He
his
enlisted in his
disbanded soldiery of Bijapur and renewed
sway over army the
his attacks
on that kingdom.
The
Sultan
Afzal Khan's
meetinTwith
of
Bijapur could
not
tolerate
the
He ordered depredations of Shivaji. his father, Shahji, to stop him from
making encroachments on the terShahji excused himself on the ritory was not son his The subject to his control. plea that Sultan then sent his able and experienced general, of
that
state.
power was then in its infancy, and he could not afford to be scrupulous in the choice of the means of strengthening himself (Shivaji and His Times, p. 53). If the soundness of this new rule of ethics be admitted, then, mutatis mutandis, the alleged misdeeds of 'Alamgir should not be condemned. Sarkar has scrupulously adhered to the above rule in the case of his hero, Shivaji, but has totally deprived 'Alamgir of its benefit. 1
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR^25
Afzal Khan, with a large force against the Marhattas. Shivajl regarded discretion as *he better part of valour.
He
wished to achieve his object by feigning friendship with the foe. With honeyed words and rich presents, he succeeded
in
the help of
throwing Afzal Khan
Brahman
unescorted.
it
Shivaji
guard.
intermediaries, negotiations
With were
A
opened between the two meeting place and
off his
spot was fixed as a parties. was agreed that they would meet
took
precautions for the
ample
He
put on a coat of chain and a steel cap and kept them concealed under his embroidered cloak and turban. On the lingers of his left hand, he fixed a Baghnakha, or the tiger-claw, and protection of his person.
another
carried
native
weapon,
called
Bichhwa, or
'
Besides, scorpion', concealed within his right sleeve. he posted his soldiers behind the trees along the route of Afzal
Afzal advanced towards the appointed attended by a single servant. Shivaji
Khan.
place (Javli),
descended from his stronghold slowly and came to the He was meeting-place with a timid and hesitating air.
accompanied by a single attendant and was unarmed He approached to meet the Kban to all appearances. with all humility and Afzal advanced to embrace the As soon as the Khan stooped to raise Marhatta.
and embrace him, the short-sized Marhatta dispatched him with the deadly weapons he carried Shivajl
with him.
The death Rout
r
AT
,
of Afzal
Khan's Army.
of
Kban was
once
signalled
an d the Marhatta warriors,
who were
Afzal
...
at
,
sprang up and slaughtered their enemies who were lying
in
ambush,
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
326
in their camp. was complete.
reposing
Bijapur
The
A
of the
rout
large booty
of
army into
the
at times,
re-
fell
hands of the Marhattas.
Even
the greatest of
men have
not,
frained from employing f
r
Saining
their
recording
paying
a
tribute
to
mean methods
their ends.
glorious
their talents,
while
Yet,
history
deeds
and
must
also
however damaging, and pronounce its verdict, however painful, on their misdeeds. Whereas Muslim as well as European writers have uniformly condemned the murder of Afzal Khan by Shivaji as a most heinous crime, Marhatta authorities, with the register its findings,
solitary exception of
blame trying killed.
of
Kalml Bhaka^ have
at the door of Afzal
to
laid the entire
Khan, alleging that while
strangle the Marhatta, the
Relying exclusively
Khan
got himself
on the Marhatta sources
which are materially discrepant and and contradictory, discarding totally the testimony of contemporary Muslim as well as European historians, Ranade, Sarkar and Kincaid have made vigorous efforts to whitewash the treachery of their national hero in information,
various ways.
They have
forensic
fully exploited their
eloquence in trying to defend the action of Shivaji on the ground that Afzal Khan had formed a plot against
him and
that the
cage which he had
Khan himself was caught prepared for the
The
his
opponent (Shivaji). alleged a mere presumption, invented either by votaries,
is
impossible
not to
unravelled believe
it.
before It
is
us.
in
the
confinement of 'plot',
based on
Shivaji
or
As such,
stated
that
his it is
when
MUHI-UD-DIN
who
Krishnaji,
was
parties,
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR acted as an intermediary
invited
and
"
appealed
to
327
between the
by Shivaji
in
so far as to hint that the Khan some seemed to harbour plan of mischief," and. further that having learnt so much, he (Shivaji) sent the envoy (Krishnaji) back with his own agent, Gopinath Pant, secrecy,
11
who
he
yielded
by a lavish use of bribes that AfzaPs he had so arranged were convinced that officers at the interview, arrested be would that matters Shivaji learnt
'
"
he was too cunning to be caught by open fight.' There is not a tinge of truth in the above statements. v They are not warranted by Afzal K]]an conduct and as
Even behaviour either before or during the interview. would not venture to the most unimaginative plotter launch his plot against his enemy before chalking out a programme, weighing the chances of his success and as
to
set
Afzal was not so foolish
line of retreat.
marking out a
out on
his
alleged
mission
of entrapping
and making preparaShivaji without taking precautions He was selected and sent tions necessary for a plot. Government the because he Bijapur against Shivaji by
was regarded as a great military commander. The fact If he is that he was honesi in his dealings with Shivaji. have he must taken someone a into had formed plot ', *
and issued necessary instructions to his That he did nothing to this effect and appeared officers. at the interview unarmed and un-escorted leaves room
confidence
the only presumption that he boasted of his superior disdained to take any force with him physical strength, and desired to achieve his object single-handed. But it
for
is
generally
admitted that
he
had
started
on
this
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
328
with 10,000 soldiers, who, however, were behind when objected to by ShivajI's envoy. Like-
expedition left
the wise, presence of Sayyad Banda, a famous swordsman who accompanied the Khan, was objected to and he too was left behind. All this and the fact that after his murder his army was taken by surprise and routed conclusively prove that Afzal had made no preparations which might even remotely suggest that he '
intended
treachery
'.
The
rout of the
attacked unawares shows that '
Afzal's
army
officers
that was
had no
'
and had received no alleged knowledge plot instructions fiDm their commander. Consequently, one is at a loss to understand how Gopinath was able to the
of
from
learn is
his officers that
also stated that Afzal alive
Shivaji
faqlr,
who
he had formed a
'
had publicly boasted
plot
It
'.
of bringing
the Bijapur Darbar, and that before a belonged to the Marhatta Secret Service. to
The
story of Afzal's boasting before a Marhatta spy Professor puts too much strain on our credulity. c
Sarkar says that at the interview Afzal held Shiva's neck in his left arm within iron-grip, while with his right
hand he drew
dagger and Whereas Kincaid avers
his long straight-bladed
struck at the side of Shiva
'.*
* According to Prof. Sarkar, Afzal used a long straight-bladed dagger, whereas Kincaid avers that he tried to stab Shivaji at We learn from the Shiva Bharat his side with a sword. (Ch. XXI) that before Afzal embraced Shivaji, he had discarded
Muslim and European authorities inform us that to meet Shivaji. When the display of force and the presence of Sayyad Banda were his sword.
Afzal
was unarmed when he went
'
'
objected to, there is every reason to believe that either Afzal did not carry any weapon with him, or if he had carried one, it must have been objected to and discarded.
MUHI-UD-DIN was
that there
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
329
an exchange of hot words between
at first
Khan and
the Marhatta and then the former caught hold of the latter by his neck. If the Khan, enraged
the
'
at
the
taunt,
with the
seized
left
arm
Shivaji
by the
neck, forcing his head under his arm pit/ as is averred by Kincaid, then where is the element of the treachery to
alleged
of
tion *
this, can Afzal Khan, who is have attended the interview with the inten-
As apart from
?
alleged
addressed
in
Shivaji
was
Shivaji
him by
killing
'
to be
'
to
attendants ?
Afzal.
him him
arrest
instructions alert,
is
And,
'?
alleged,
him
to
at
have
when did
why
his side
or
dispatch
him,
if
*
his
he so
was
nothing pre-arranged by he had taken precautions and made necesto
his
soldiers
and both he and
fallen so easy a prey to the
he would have issued
and warned them to be on army would not have
his
Marhatta
marauders.
fact that they were taken unawares and
of Afzal
proves the bona-fides there
said
embrace and did not order
Obviously, If
tones
'stao
or
preparations beforehand,
sary
the
insulting
arrested alive/ as
*
Afzal try to sUangle while he was in his
desired
be
treachery,
was no
;
'
plot
Kban and shows
whatsoever.
The
killed conclusively
that
All this exonerates
On the other the Khan and establishes his innocence. hand, it was Shivaji who invited his adversary (Afzal) to
an
interview
at a suitable spot selected
by himself, on the route of Afzal Khan's army, issued necessary instructions to his officers, armed himself with the native weapons, Wagnakha and Bichhwa, donned a steel cap, put on an iron coat,
posted his soldiers
proceeded to the selected spot
*
fully
equipped/ objected
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
330 to
the
'
display
of force
*
and
before the
Banda',
appeared stabbed him while
in his
'
the presence of Sayyad
Khan
embrace
in
all
humility,
at the interview,
made
a signal to his soldiers who lay in ambush, and routed the Muslim army facts which form important links in the chain
the plot contrived and cleverly conducted
of
by Shivajl and not by Afzal Khan. The murder of Afzal Khan and the rout of the emboldened Shivajl who Bijapurls of next carried his arms into the nei & h .
.
bouring
He
territories.
seized
the
stronghold cf Panhcila and a number of other forts and He attacked Rajhpur even threatened Bijapur itself.
Dabhal and extended his dominions further South In all these campaigns along the banks of the Krishna. he obtained immense booty, which he put to its best
and
advantage.
'AH
'Adil Shah, the Sultan of Bijapur, at
Shivaji's
acts
of
aggression.
1660 A. C. he put their
Marhatta
menace.
strengthening attacked
him
last
While
was alarmed
trumps
to
Shivajl
was
In
his generals to
cut short
occupied
the in
the stronghold of Panhala, the Bijapurls
from
three
directions.
Panhala
was
invested by Johar and the siege lasted for four months. Shivajl was reduced to sore straits and he would have been forced to surrender if he had not Sidi
escaped to the stronghold of Vishalgarh in a dark night after he had amused the besiegers with the prospect of
His escape was ascribed in a capitulation. Darbar to the treachery of Sidi Johar, the
the
Bijapur
commander-
MUHI-UD-D1N
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
in-chief of the forces of BijSpur.
the
field
in
At the bead
person.
advanced against
'Adil
331
Shah now took
of a
huge army, he
enemy and captured Panhala, Pavangarh and some other
the
his
forts
places.
of
His
campaign continued till the rainy season, and he would have compelled Shivajl to ask for forgiveness
victorious
if
the
rains
had not
set in
and
if
the Sultan had not
been called to the Karnatic to deal with the rebellion of Sidi Johar. Hostilities ou-
p
and Shahji was
ceased,
negotiate the
.
son on behalf of
Independent
of
result
was acknowledged
appointed to
terms of treaty with his
these
the
Sultan.
As a
negotiations, Shivaji
independent ruler of the territory lying between Kalyan in the north and Ponda in the south and Indapur in the east and Dabhal in the the
as
west
an area more than 150 miles
miles
in
As
breadth.
for Shivaji,
in
length
and
100
he promised to be at
At peace with Bijapur during the lifetime of his father. the instance of his father, he made Rairi his capital and
renamed of
it
as Raigarh.
There he maintained an army
7,000 horse and 60,000 foot. Shivaji
now
himself strong enough to extend his ravages to the dominions of the
felt
Great Mughal. In order to put an end to his aggressions, the Emperor had appointed Sbaista KJban as Viceroy of the Deccan. The Mughal Viceroy drove the Marhattas out of the
and captured the fort of Chakan. Next, he occupied Poona without opposition and took up his abode in the very house in which Shivaji had passed his early field
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
332
The Marhatta was thoroughly
days.
nook and corner of the
city
and
all
familiar with every
the ins and
outs
of
the house. Availing himself of local knowledge, he entered the city along with a marriage party of four hundred men, each of whom was a trained warrior.
The Khan, who had cantoned
his
around him
troops
and had taken necessary precautions for his personal safety, was reposing in his harem when all of a sudden Shivaji entered his former residence and raided the room which the Khan
in
was
fast
asleep.
In the general
melee that followed, Shaista Khan's son, Abul Path, lost his life, ~nd he himself received a blow which cut off
two of
his
own
fingers.
With
great difficulty, he escap-
Aurangabad, whence he was called back by the Emperor and transferred to the governorship of Bengal. The city of Surat was at that time the most opulent and beautiful of its class on the
ed
to
Sack
of Surat.
.
western
Early in the year 1664 A. C. Shivaji deceived his enemies by a number of
feigned
and
movements and swooped down on
defenceless city
horse
and
coast.
with
as
as
many
four
the rich
thousand
away immense booty which he
carried
safely
The lodged in the stronghold of Rairi, or Raigarh. sack of Surat was an exploit far more profitable than the of
Poona escapade. It amply added Shivaji and considerably increased
to
the
resources
his prestige in the
Marhatta country.
About
this
time Shahji died in
the
Doab
of
the
Tungabhadra where he was engaged Shivaji's assump. tion of mdepend-
ent
sovereignty,
suppressing the re bellion of the t nobles of that place. On the death
{n
^
MUHI-UD-DIN of
his
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIK
father,
Shivaji
which the Sultan of
assumed
the
of
title
333
Rajah,
Ahmadnagar had conferred on
He now
father in return for his meritorious services.
began to coin money
in
his
own name
to
his
mark
his
independent authority and undertook plundering expeditions along the coast, which greatly harassed the
Mecca and the merchants engaged trade between India and other countries.
pilgrims going to
In order to put an end to Shivaji,
Ub
^h
e
Emperor.
efficient
Prince
the high-handedness
Aurangzeb dispatched army under the command Mu'azzarr,
with
whom
in
of
an of
were
associated
Sardar Jaswant Singh experienced generals. was appointed as second-in-command. He made a few
useless attempts to bring the
Marhatta but nothing substantial was achieved.
Chief to
book,
Both the Prince
and
his lieutenant were called back and Rajah Jai Singh and Daler Khan were appointed in their place, and with them were associated some experienced generals. The
new commanders
laid siege to Singhgarh and Purandhar, Both the places held out heroically, but respectively. Shivaji seemed to have lost every hope of success and
so
Receiving assurances not only of safety but of a special favour also, he quietly withdrew from his ranks and came to the camp of Rajah
opened negotiations.
Jai Singh.
The
result
of the interview between Shivaji and
Singh was the Treaty of Purandhar, which embodied the following
Jai
Purandhar.
terms
:
(1)
Shi vSJI agreed to surrender
twenty-three of his forts and retain only twelve
as
bis
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
334
He
jagir. (2)
stipulated that he
would pay
to 'Alamgir
forty lakhs of Huns in thirteen instalments yielding an annual revenue of four lakhs of
the Konkan and
lakhs
five
in
lands
if
Huns
in
the Balaghat-Bijapur
were granted to him. (3) The eldest son of Shivaji was promised a rank of five thousand. (4) He himself agreed to assist Aurangzeb in his military expeditions After the conclusion of the treaty, against his enemies.
terms were communicated to the Emperor who duly It took three months to reduce confirmed them.
its
Shivaji
to
submission and to
enlist his
on
his part,
Mughal Emoeror.
Shivaji,
support for the rendered good
Mughals in their wars against Bijapur. the six months that followed the Treaty During
services to the
turned
of his
Purandhar, Jai Singh towards the Kingdom of Bijapur. Shivaji took a conspicuous
Attention
part in this expedition
and contributed
much
to
the
success of the Mughal arms in the Deccan. Joining thousand horse and seven the Mughals with two thousand infantry, he reduced Phaltan and Thatwada
and
an attack
directed
on
Panhala
in
the
Konkan.
camhim a jewelled-sword and a paign, the Emperor robe of honour. The siege of Panhala was not a in success, but Shivaji's support was indispensable Pleased
with his success
in the early part of the
sent
seizing
he
some
received
strongholds.
an
invitation
was about this time that from the Emperor to the
It
Mughal Court. Receiving assurances of safety, the Marhatta Sardar accepted the invitation. Putting the administration
of his
territory
into
the hands
of his
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB
mother and a council
of three
competent
ALAMGIPv 335 he
officers,
set
out towards Agra about the third week of March 1066 A. C. with his son, Sambhuji At the Imperial Capital,
he was
received
by two Imperial
officers,
viz.,
Ram
son of Jai Singh, and Amir Mukhlis Khan. he reached the Imperial Court, the Emperor was celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of his birthday. Singh,
When
Ram
ushered
Singh
him
into
the
Darbar, and he
presented 1,500 gold pieces as a nazat to the Emperor, and a pesbkasb of rupees 6,000. After the formal reception, he was enrolled as a mansabdar of 5,000
The
horse.*
treatment meted out to him,
it is
alleged,
short of the expectations he had formed and the His pride was promises held out to him by Jai Singh. touched to the quick when he found himself seated fell far
In a fit of anger he lost the third grade nobles. ' and used bold words of reproach for Alamgir. conduct at the Court was insulting and insolent,
among
his balance
His
he was not granted any robes of honour. following day he found himself a political prisoner
and as a
The in
result,
his house.
Petitions
sent to
the
Emperor
for
his
In vain he protested his loyalty rejected. He offered his services in conto the Mughal throne.
release
were
quering the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda, but In the Emperor would not listen to his remonstrances. spite of his
repeated
requests,
he was
not granted
a
private interview. * The mansab of 5,000 was not an inferior one. Those who held a mansab of 1,000 were called Umara-i-Kibar or great nobles. For a long list of the dignitaries enjoying a mansab of 5,000 each, see Aurangzeb and His Times, pp. 360 ff.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
336
who
Critics,
Was
the honour conferred upon
him below dignity
?
Karan
of
say that 'Alamgir could have gained the good-will of Shivaji and ended the .. .. Marhatta menace by meting out r. i
i
his
more generous treatment to him, are, that Rajah Rai perhaps, unaware Udaipur, than whom there was no more res-
was granted a mansab of 5,000 by Jahanglr when he became subordinate to the Central Government and that Rana Raj Singh too was enlisted as a mansabdar of 5,000 by 'Alamgir when he acknowledged him as his suzerain. Shivajl, it will be admitted, was not a greater personality than the Ranas of Udaipur. Apart from this, when ShivajI's father Rajah,
pectable
entered
he was given a As a matter of fact, none except the
the
service
of
Shah Jahan,
mansab of 5,000. members of the Imperial family was granted a greater mansab than this in th^ beginning. It must be remembered that Shivajl came to the Mughal Court in the capacity of a conquered and that his conqueror, Mirza Rajah Jai Singh, also held the same mansab, i. e., 5,000, which was afterwards raised to 7,000 in recognition of his meritorious services against the Marhattas. is
It
Rajah gave him assurances of becoming but nowhere does he appear to have
true that the
treatment,
promised to secure for him a greater mansab than that he himself enjoyed, and even if he did hold out too high hopes to him on his own account in order to succeed
in
his
mission, the
fault
does not
lie
with
must as well be pointed out here that Prime Minister, was at that time no more than a mansabdar of 5,000* Do the critics 'Alamgir.
Fazil
It
Khan, the
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMG1R
MUHI-UD-D1N mean
would have acted wisely
that 'Alamglr
granted Sh.ivajl
a greater
mansab than
if
33/
he had
that held by the
mansabdars mentioned above t Obviously enough, a him not greater mansab than grant 'Alamgir could that of the Ranas of Udaipur, the Prime Minister and Rajah Jai Singh.
The
career and character of Shivajl
guarantee of the fact that a mansab of 7,000, or even more, would not have satisfied him. A word might well be said about 'Alamglr's attitude
are a sufficient
towards the sons and relatives of Shivajl. In spite of their hostilities, they were treated with great kindness
and his sonby the Emperor: ShivajI's son, SambhujT, in-law, NathujT, were granted a mansab of 5,000 each at the recommendation of Mirza Rajah Jai Singh, who
had reduced the Marhattas to sore straits. SahujI was honoured with the title of Rajah and a mansab of This is how 'Alamgir 7,000 was conferred upon him. and how they repaid treated the relatives of Shivaji ;
this
kind
treatment,
will
be seen in
the
subsequent
account. After his In the middle of August Shivaji fell ill. rich sent he presents to the recovery, from His escape In two of baskets. Brahmans in big
captivity.
these
baskets,
he
and his son, At a distance of
made good escapes. from Agra some horses were waiting for him son. Disguising himself as an ascetic, he soon their
Sambhuji, six miles
and his found his way
Avoiding the vigilant eye of the Imperial Police, he hastened to his home in the Deccan, passing through eastern Bengal, Orissa and
Gondwana.
to Mathura.
He
reached his
capital in
the
month
of
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
338
December
after
an absence of nine months.
be said
was
Sambhuji,
Mathura and was on. later back was Aurangzeb brought greatly annoyed at the escape of Shivaji which was arranged with the it
may
connivance of
here,
Ram
at
left
Singh who was therefore deprived
of his pay and rank.*
The conquest
Kingdom of Bijapur was by no means an eas y affair J ai Sin g h -
Recall of Jai
Singh and death
of the
had succeeded in detaching from that kingdom and the treaty of
his
*
was a
master-stroke of diplomacy. Free from further troubles from the Marhattas, he organized
Purandhar
a punitive expedition against 'All
40,000 troopers at Shivaji, along with
his
disposal.
his
He was
by More-
joined
officers.
experienced by Daler Khan,
he was assisted
over,
He had
'Adil Shah.
Daud Khan,
Rajah Rai Singh Sesodia, Netoji Palkar and other disBut the Imperialists did not meet tinguished generals. with any great
success
well protected by
from
an army
the
;
for the
capital of Bijapur
Bijapurls,
Golconda.
who were his
was
assisted
by
face to
Finding army Singh decided upon a retreat on the 5th of January 1666 A.C. The retreat was disasface with starvation,
trous.
and
The
Bijapurls
Jai
now
attacked the
Mughal
forces
on them
in men and heavy At once the Rajah was called back and the viceroyalty of the Deccan was entrusted to Prince Mu'azzam and Rajah Jaswant Singh was appointed as
inflicted
losses
material.
his adjutant.
Jai Singh died soon after his recall.
* SeeStoriado Mogor, Vol.
and 'Alamgirnamah,
p. 917.
ii,
p.
139; FatuKdt-i-'Alamgiri
;
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB
The change
of officers
was not
ALAMCilR 339
at all for the better.
Rajah Jaswant Singh was no loyal se rvant of the Emperor. He was favourably disposed towards Shiva j! and was interested Daler Khan was not liked in the rise of the Marhattas.
ShivSji styles himself Rajah.
by the Prince and was, therefore, sent away to Bidar. The Prince could do nothing alone. Moreover, a Persian invasion threatened the Punjab and an army was dispatched there to ward off the Persians. About this time, the Yusafzals also revolted
Peshawar and
in
All these facts harassed the Mughals for full one year. combined to contribute to the chances of success of the f
Marhatta Chief who found an open
field
for
himself.
But knowing too well the consequences *of provoking the Mughal authorities, ShivajT remained quiet between 1668 and 1669 A. C. and utilized his time in the
Through the interorganization of his administrption cession of Rajah Jaswant Singh, who was very friendly 'Alarngir agreed to negotiate a disposed towards him, treaty with ShivajT, whereby the latter was acknowledged
as the independent ruler of Maharashtra and the title of Rajah was conferred upon him. A jagir was also
granted to him in Berar and his son, SambhujI, was confirmed in his mansab. With the exception of Puran-
dhar and
A. C. lasted
Soon
He
till
The
Emperor promised to restore treaty concluded in March 1668
1670 A. C.
after the
exacts Chauth
and Surdeshmukhi from Bnapur and Golconda.
the
Singhgarh,
all forts to Shivajl.
conclusion
Sh iv
^
treaty
The
of
'fjng&r
treaty with agreed to a peaceSutlan of Bijapur.
the
with the Sultan promised to cede the an d a territory
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
340
yielding 1,80,000 pagodas as revenue. Shivajl pressed his claims for the exaction of Chauth and Surdeshmukht
from Bijapur and Golconda. not
of
the king
kings agreed to pay the king of Bijapur, 3 J lakhs and Golconda, 5 lakhs. This extraordinary
recognized,
fully
some annual
tribute
was paid
tribute
the claims were
Though
the two
;
to Shivaji in order to maintain peace
with the Marhattas. Hostilities
_
,
Renewal
,
of
between Shivajl and the Great Mughal were renewed in 1670 A. C. when the former launched
hostilitiesjind
sack of Surat.
Q{ conquests>
of his forts from
the
upon a
He
Mughals and
fresh career
recO nquered
many
his soldiers carried
with great caution the capture of Singhgarh, Purandhar, Mahuli, Karnalla and Lohgarh. Lack of discipline in the
Mughal Camp and enabled
quarrels
among
the Imperial
officers
Shivajl to carry his raids into the
neighbouring exacted promises of collecting Chauth and Surdesfamukhi, for the first time, from the
His
countries.
officers
immediately under the Mughal Government. For a second time he sacked the city of Surat and He was now at the acquired an enormous booty. districts
height of his power and was regarded as the restorer of their freedom.
By
the
Coronation of
year
1674 A. C. Maharashtra
ghivaji:l674.
of
by the Hindus
Shivaji's mastery
over
was
Dis-
complete.
from
all
victory patches sides, continued success in all quarters and prosperity within his
kingdom persuaded him Raigarh.
monies,
to
This he did with
crown himself at his capital, full Vedic rights and cere-
and henceforth he was acknowledged as the
1
1
Shivajl's
To
fact tap
34 1
I
I
Kingdom
I
In 1680
A.C
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
341
independent ruler of the Marhatta country. Following the example of the Hindu Kings of old, he established
a new
which commenced from the date of
era
his
enthronement. Finding that 'Alamgir was entangled in with the Afghan tribes
hostilities
on
the
North-West Frontier, Shivaji extended his
1676 A. C.
campaign
to
1680
in the
From conquests further South. A. C. he conducted a successful
South.
He
annexed
Jinji,
Vellore
and
other important places to his Kingdom. He conquered a considerable portion of the Vijayanagar
many
Empire and was making preparations
for the final strug-
gle with
launched
'Alamgir
;
but
before
he
scheme, he was carried away by death the age of fifty-three.
The Kingdom Extent of his
Kingdom.
his
new
in
1680 A. C. at
of Shivaji comprised
a long narrow
strip of land, consisting of the
Western
Ghatg and the Konkan between Kalyan The extreme breadth of this Kingdom from
and Goa.
was about 100 miles. In the south the which had been conquered towards the close of provinces, Shivaji's career, comprised the western Karnatic and the
east to west
territories
river
extending from
Tungabhadra,
Later on,
also added to the Marhatta Shivaji
to the
Jinji
bank of the
and Vellore were
Kingdom.
was a good administrator and a great Both in the civil and organizer.
His civil administration.
considerable
Belgaum
mi iit a r y tact
and
he displayed Practically illiterate, he
departments
ability.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
342
an excellent system of administration for his Kingdom, It was based on the ancient Hindu system and was conducted in accordance with the principles
devised
down
laid
the codes
in
There was a
Council
of
Sukracharya and
known
of State,
as
Kautilya. the Asfata
Pradhan, or Mukhya Pradhan. It consisted of eight members, each in charge of a separate department. The Prime Minister was known as Pesfawa, the Commander-in-Chief was called Sarainaiibat, or Senapati, and the Finance Minister was named Mojmu'adar, or Amatya. Home and foreign affairs were controlled and conducted by Sharutii+vis, or Sachiv. The Minister of War bore the name of Dabir, or Sumant. Justice was and the Minister of administered by Nayayadish
was given the name of Danadhyaksha. This was the Central Government of Shivaji. There were Religion
as
many
as
under him
eighteen departments of public service and the portfolio of each department was
held by a separate minister.
For purposes Administrative divisions of his
was
tion
S^J
Kingdom
of
three
m
districts,
having a distinct
Each district was organized on the the Central Government and every district
officials.
model of officer had eight subordinate
work
administra-
divided the whole of his
into .
province was sub-divided into staff
1
efficient
provinces an<* r stationed a viceroy each of them. administrative system followed in these provinces a replica of the Central Government. Each
Kingdom.
The
and
of effective
officials to
of correspondence, accounts,
important matters.
deal with the
treasury
and
other'
MUHI-UD-D1N As
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
mentioned before,
is
justice
was
dealt out
343
by the
who was
Nayayadisfa, guided in his laid down in the work by principles r J the r
Administration of
justice.
codes of
There was also a Hindu
Sukracharya and Kautilya. appointed especially for dealing with
Sfaastri,
expounding Hindu law and
the purpose of religious, criminal and astronomical matters.
honoured and immemorial
institution of
The
time-
Panchayat was
It was an important instrument of dealing vogue. out justice. Almost all civil disputes were decided
in
by
it.
re-organized the entire system of the land revenue and based it on that of
also
Shivajl
hi *
Svenufsystcm.
<*rly
The
tutor,
land
in
Kandadev. province was
Dadajl every
and an estimate was made of the expected produce of each blgha. Three parts of this produce were left to the peasant and two parts were appropriated by measured
the State as
its
own
share.
The revenue settlements
were made annually. The revenue officials were appointed directly by the Central Government. They were mostly
Brahmans.
and remit
The
it
Their duty was to collect the land revenue to the State Treasury along with the accounts.
existing practice of farming
hereditary henceforth
landlords
the
dues
by the officers of cultivation,
liberal
out
(mirasdars)
land
revenue to
was abandoned and
of the State were to be collected
the
State.
advances
In order
were
to
made
encourage to
the
from the State Treasury to enable them to purchase seeds, bullocks, ploughs and otheri agricultural,
cultivators
implements,
etc.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
344 ShivSJI
was a great military genius, endowed with
He organizing capacity. united the Marhatta chiefs and tribes
uncommon in a
He
own
common cause,
the cause of their
wielded the scattered Marhattas into
country. a nation, thus giving
rise to a third party in the Deccan. His army consisted of both infantry and cavalry, having
a sensible gradation of officers. In the infantry there was a Naik over every nine privates, a Havildar over every five Naiks and forty-five privates, ajamaldar over every three Havildars and one hundred and thirtyfive
privates,
and
G\rer
Hazan, having as many and
fifty
as
privates under
was a one thousand, three hundred
ten
his
Jamaldars
there
command.
It
may be
noted at this place that the Sarainaubat, or Commanderin-Chief, in the infantry was quite a different man from the officer of his rank in the cavalry.
In the
latter,
the
by twenty-five troopers. Over twentywas a Havildar, over five Havildars or one hundred and twenty-five troopers was a Jamaldar and over ten Jamaldars there was a Hazart, having as many as one thousand, two hundred and twenty-five
unit was formed five troopers
cavaliers
command. Still higher ranks the Supreme Commander or Sarainaubat,
under
were those of
his
and the Panj-hazarls or those having command over five thousand soldiers. Every squadron of twenty-five troopers was provided with a water-carrier and a ferrier.
whose horses were supplied by the State were Bargls and those who supplied their own horses were called liledars. The troops in the main consisted of spearsmen, mounted on light but strong and hardy Soldiers
called
MUHI-UD-DIN ponies.
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
They were the peasant
345
proprietors of Southern
India, who could be easily called together and dispersed. Except at seed-time and harvest, they were always
Their equippage was of the simplest kind and no elaborate commissariat arrangements were An ordinary blanket and a bag of grams were required.
available for war.
sufficient to
military his
paid
meet
their wants.
department soldiers
a high state of efficiency. He of himself the part plunder,
in
by
maintained his
Shivajl
a
He introduced the system receiving the lion's share. of horses and branding keeping descriptive rolls. Under him the
post of a military officer 'vas not herefree from the curse of female ditary. followers. He ordered that " no man was to take with him his wife, mistress or prostitute to the battle-field "
His army was
Since forts played a conspicuous part in Maharashtra, they were properly provided with arms and ammunitions
and placed
in
charge of responsible
and trustworthy
officers.
Shivaji
added to
his military strength
a considerable
-,,.., n 's fleet.
number
Shivaji
stationed
his fleet
by building
He
of ships. r
Two
at Kolaba.
advantages accrued to him from this: (1) it checked the growing power and influence of the Abyssinian pirates of Janjlra, and (2) it plundered the rich cargoes of the
Mughal
ships sailing for
Mecca.
The
was a
fleet
constant source of trouble to the Hajls sailing for Mecca.
mainly on his personal achievements, both military and admi_ _ nistrative. To rise from the position of
Shivaji's place in history rests _.
.
.
,
.
Shivaji s estimate.
a petty Jagirdar
'
.
.
to that of the
.
,
.
.
Maharajah of Maharashtra
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
345
and to carve out an independent kingdom for himself was no mean achievement, though it must be acknowledged that Shivajl had grown fat at ill-gotten gains. To
and prowess in battle he added caution and cleverness in commensurate proportions. His success was due as much to bravery as to cunning and fraud. He never refrained from taking recourse to his
reckless courage
served his purpose. The murder of Chandra Rao of Javli and of Afzal Khan of Bijapur was each an act of treachery treachery that does not disappear in the multitude of his good He was indeed the
treachery if
it
*
qualities'.
Machiavali o f India, with whom the ends justified the means. He has been called the father of fraud,' not None of his enemies surpassed or even unreasonably. '
him in guile and deceit. In private life he was simple, straightforward and even Although pious. an orthodox Hindu, he never persecuted the Musalmans
equalled
for
their
that
faith,
in
an age when his co-religionists
never missed an opportunity of destroying mosques and defiling the Qur'an. Khafi Khan, a contemporary informs us that chronicler, whenever his soldiers went
on plundering expeditions, they were ordered not to do harm to the mosques,* the Book ox God or the woman of anyone. With him women's honour was safe. He never
allowed
his
He was
of war.
followers
to
enslave
the prisoners
and resourceful, and no other Hindu displayed such courage and capacity as he in *But
bold, active
one instance of demolishing mosques and that by Afzal Khan in his message to Shivajl, I have not come across any evidence to show that Shivajl ever destroyed' for
referred to
mosques.
mosques by
For the passage relating to the destruction Shivajl, vide Shiva Bharat, Chapter XVIII.
of
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
MUHI-UD-DIN Muslim Pratap,
and
with
India,
the
solitary
exception
of
347
Rana
who was doubtless his superior in personal character
nobility
of
purpose.
Though
saviour by the Hindus, he was not at flarne
of
his
liberating rule.
personal
patriotism,
He
much
co-religionists
fought
less
from
all fired
with
the
with desire
the of
the yoke of Muslim
Hindus and Muslims
aggrandisement.
as their
regarded
Whatever
alike
for his
his shortcomings,
He was greatness. impossible challenge indeed the last constructive genius that Hindu India has produced. it is
to
his
CHAPTER XVI
MUHl-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB 'ALAMGIR
(CONCLUDED) Conquest of Bijapur and Golconda End of Marhatta Menace Suppression of the Sikhs Anglo-Mughal
War
Administration under 'Alamgir.
Aurangzeb had in
Introductory.
almost
tried
all his
trusted officers
the conquest of the Deccan J
when
all
he
;
but
was
they convinced that the only course open to him was to conduct the campaign against the Deccan in person. failed,
making peace with the Rajputs, he gathered together his grand army at Ahmadnagar and continuad the annexation of the as emperor that forward policy so had he which Deccan brilliantly commenced as his Of the five off-shoots of the father's lieutenant.
After
Bahmani Kingdom, to
fallen
his
Bidar,
Ahmadnagar and Berar had
arms as a prince
in
command
Shahjahani forces during the reign of his father.
of the
The
remaining two, i.e., Bijapur and Golconda, struggled and but the Emperor survived longer, as we have noticed ;
was bent upon destroying them root and branch. The main cause of their conquest was evidently the ambition of the
may
Mughal Emperor
;
the faults found with
them These Sultanates (1) Their tributes had fallen in
be summarised as follows
were Shia arrears.
m (3)
faith.
They
(2)
:
incurred the wrath of the
Emperor
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
MUHI-UD-DIN
by supplying resources black-mail. of
Persia
to the Marhattas in the
also rich in resources
the
in
form bf
They sought protection with the Shah rather than with the Emperor of India.* (4)
They were not only independent
(5)
349
Mughal
;
in spirit
but were
they might profitably be included
Empire.
(6)
Finally,
their
internal
dissensions also stimulated 'Alamglr in no less degree to
carry out his designs.
Dividing
^
1f
f
n
Fall of Bijapur.
his
grand
into
army
two main
parts,
'Alamgir ordered Prince Mu'azzam to march against the Marhattas at the ,
head of one division and Prince 'Azam against Bijapur at the head of another. The former penetrated far into the interior of the Konkan, but was
heavy
losses.
The
latter
driven
succeeded
back with
in
capturing Sholapur, but he too was forced to beat a retreat when he attacked Bijapur itself. In 1684 A. C. Prince
Mu'azzam was next entrusted with
the conquest of but his he father Bijapar, annoyed by making peace with the Sultan. in 1685 A.C. 'Alamgir sent a Early
firman to the Sultan (Sikandar to
dismiss
his
statesman
;
him known as
'Adil Shah), asking
Khan
Wazir, Sayyad Makhdum), who was an Sharza
(also
excellent soldier
to supply provisions to the
and
Mughal army
;
to send a contingent of 5 or 6 thousand cavalry to fight for the
Mughals against
their
passage to the Imperial armies
enemies
through
;
to
allow free
his country
;
to
*They were justified in looking to the Shah of Persia for protection because the Mughal Emperors had definitei / decided to destroy their independence and to incorporate them in the Mughal Empire.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
,350
boycott the Marhattas and to help the Mughal Emperor The Sultan not only declined in the time of need.
demanded the
to obey the Imperial firman, but .of
return
the tribute and the territory already taken from him by the Mughals or by the Marhattas, and pressed
either
for stopping the Thanabandi (formation of outposts or block-houses by the Mughals) within his dominions.
Then he made an
alliance with the Sultan of
and invited the Marhattas
to his aid.
Golconda
When,
feeling
strong and secure, he attacked the Mughal outposts, the Emperor himself marched against him at the head of a In April, 1686 A.C. he laid siege to huge army. After
Bijapur.
a short but stout resistance, the
short of
falling
1686 A.C. surrender,
capitulated in
provisions,
was
enlisted
kingdom was annexed
safety
Mansabdar and
a
as
September,
who saw
Sikandar 'Adil Shah,
r
~
Fall of Golconda.
found with _ Kingdom of Bijapur, Golconda (1) It had a number of Hindu
more
furnished
three
ministers,
two
who were
at the
of
,
,
t
the :
whom, helm
viz.,
(2)
king
'Alamgir.
*
(3)
For the
had It
'.
_
the
Muslim population.*
to
given help Sambhuji had sided with Bijapur in
cruelties
.
of administrative affairs in
against its
war
committed by Madanna and Akann'a,. ff. Speaking about these was insolent, mean and
vide Aura,igzeb and His Times, pp. 305 two Hindus, Orme says, their 'rule
avaricious
.
Madanna and Akanna,
State, were extremely cruel to the Its
next.
In addition to the faults
3
,
in
his
to the
Mughal Empire. Bijapur annexed, the turn of Golconda came
^
city,
(Fragments,
p. 147.)
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
against the Mughals.* Sultan (Abul Hasan),
'Alamgir found his
it
reputation,
his pleasures
difficult to
which was
with
such
conquer at
life.
When
his object
by
'Alamgir found
courage that In defending
it.
stake, the
it
easy
and pastimes,
Sultan
nobly served by his general, Abdur Razzaq, firm and faithful to his master to the last his
The
Golconda was besieged. hitherto led an
who had
and luxurious life, gave up and defended his capital
351
was
who stood moment of
impossible to achieve
force, the treachery of
one of the
officers
him to gain admittance into the Hasan was taken prisoiter and his
of the garrison enabled
Abul
fortress.
kingdom was incorporated in the Mughal Empire. Historians have rightly spun a halo of heroism r
Abdur Razzaq.
Und
Abdur
RaZZ ^>
the
Valiant
hero of the State, whose noble presence was highly prized in the hla army. No amount of money could induce him to surrender to the
Mughal
anus. at
His
last
He
fought bravely in a hand to hand fight till he fell down, covered with seventy wounds.
sterling qualities of
from friends and foes impressed by
head and heart exacted praises alike.
'Alamgir was so much he put him under the
his character that
*"When Aurangzeb tried conclusions Golkonda, the crimes he alleged were these oppression, permitting public dnnking-shops,
:
with the King of high-handedness,
women
of evil
life,
and gambling houses, appointing Hindu Governors, maintaining temples and not allowing to Muhammadans that free liberty which they were entitled to. Therefore, God had made him (Aurangzeb) King for the suppression of all thv se disorders allowed by Abul Hasan." (See Storia do Mogor by V. Manucci, 4
Vol.
III.
pp. 131-32.)
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
352
own private physician and got him Had Abul Hasan had but two such servants, "
treatment "
healed. said
his
of
" 'Alamgir,
taken."
What
The
the
of
Impolicy
Southern
could never
fortress
a virtue
greatest
Deccan Conquest.
his
is
chivalry even in a foe
blunder recorded
political
annals
have been
of
Indian
history
is
!
in
the
alleged
have been the conquest of the
to
The reasons by 'Alamglr. be enumerated as follows (1) Conse-
Sultanates
advanced
may
:
quent upon the conquest of Bijapur and Gloconda, the armies of thes^ States were disbanded and the discharged soldiery took service under the Marhattas and swelled their ranks. (2) The Sultanates exercised a
healthy check on the growing power influence of the Marhattas in Indian destruction
removed
this
check
Marhatta marauders from
them a
all
for
and increasing Their
politics.
good and freed the and
fear of local rivalry
the Mughal Emperor. and (3) The protracted expensive war against the Deccan exhausted the Mughal resources in men and material. offered
free field against
As a result, the Mughal soldiers murmured for and were allowed to quit the Imperial Army so desired.
Marhattas.
(5)
of
the
Finally,
if
they
Again, the unemployed soldiers joined the continued absence of 'Alamgir (4) The
from the North resulted part
arrears
in the
administration
of that
country growing slack and corrupt. the annexation of the Deccan Kingdoms
immensely increased the extent of the Mughal Empire and madeAt " too big to be ruled by one man from the centre."
It is
argued by the
critics of
'Alamglr that he
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMG1R
MUHI-UD-DIN
353
would have acted wisely if he had left the Sultanates of the Deccan alone until he had completely crushed that he should have buried the old the Marhattas enmity between the Shias and the Sunnis and united the arms of Islam against the Hindu confederacy which had assumed most threatening dimensions or that he should have allowed the Marhattas and the Shias to ;
;
use up their strength in mutual warfare because there existed a fierce rivalry between them ; and that time,
men and money profitably
that he wasted there could
have been
employed elsewhere. While admitting the the Deccan conquest, the apologists of
of
impolicy
the
that
assert
idea
of
the conquering Sultanates of the South originated not with 'Alamgir but with Akbar the Great who first launched a campaign 'Alamgir
against to
his
them and
left their
successors; that
conquest as a family legacy
what
was
commenced by successors was finally
Akbar and continued by his completed by 'Alamgir and that, therefore, if the conquest of the Deccan was a blunder, 'Alamgir alone ;
should
not
be held
responsible
responsibility, they aver,
The
decessors as well.
for
it
;
the
must be shared by
onus of his
pre-
'Alamgir, not satisfied this with answer, retort that times had changed since critics of
Akbar and conditions had become different in the reign of 'Alamgir that Akbar had the support of the Sikhs and the Rajputs, and with their help he could ;
easily
conquer
Indian
history
;
the
the Marhattas on the stage of appearance that 'Alamgir had to figtt against
had not yet made
Deccan,
for
their
the Hindus, the Rajputs, the
Marhattas and the Sikhs
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
354
unaided and alone
and
;
that,
he ought
therefore,
to
have made common cause with the Sultans of Bijapur and Golconda and defeated his enemies. But it must " " forward policy be remembered that the of the previous
Mughal Emperors against the Deccan had made avowed enemies of the Mughal Empire
the Sultans the
and
doubted
is
it
if
could
'Alamgir
enlist
their
Moreover, when he could do without their help and achieve his object without their support, he thought, there was no need to resort to
sympathy
or support.
Had
that step.
he
had the conquest defeats
be dubbed the
certain that
were
of
reduced
Deccan as
defeated and the
resulted
in
his
Conquest may then but we know for
impolitic
were
Sikhs to
Sultanates
its
the
elsewhere,
justifiably
conquer the Deccan and
failed to
;
the Rajputs Marhattas were
subverted,
the
submission,
Deccan was conquered.
It
rnay
as
well be pointed out that if 'Alamgir had allowed the Marhattas and the Sultanates to continue their fight,
the latter would have, in
to
He
he could
do
Marhattas
until
:
could help the Sultans against the they had completely crushed them.
At any
This he would not do.
Deccan did not
in
any way
Mughal Empire. servants
succumbed
former
their resources.
and
probability,
and added immeasurably to There was, however, one thing which
the arms of the
survive long
all
the
If
after
were
him,
it
the conquest of the contribute to the fall of the rate,
Mughal Empire did not was mostly because his sons
treacherous
but one more
India
bar.
had a
different history.
and
'Alamgir,
corrupt.
she would
Had have
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
MUHI-UD-DIN 'Alamgir's
expeditions
.
Maharashtra
Renewal ,
of
After
the
attention
and
seen,
nothing substantial
conquest of Golconda, towards the Marhattas.
succeeded his father, Shivajl, lacked his talented father.
A
1682-83
ended, as 'we have
activities against the Marhattas.
against
dispatched in
he
C.
in
smoke
was achieved. diverted
Sambhuji, all
had
his
who
the qualities of
While Aurangzeb was occupied
in
the Deccan campaign, Sambhuji should have mobilized against the Mughals and thereby saved But he remained himself as well as the Sultanates. his
forces
inactive during
all this
time and failed
tct embrace the he wasted away sensualist, drunkenness and debauchery.
As an indolent
opportunity. his time and treasure in
His favourite minister, Kavi Kulesh (famous as Kalusha), to whom he had entrusted all the affairs of his government, Marhattas.
was
He
'
the unpopular with extremely was totally devoid of that organizing
which had
capacity
characterised
his
father.
As a
natural consequence, his soldiers reverted to their usual
habit of plunder.
They
lost their unity
and became
availed of himself this Aurangzeb the dis-united soon and conquered country. opportunity In 1689 A. C. Sambhuji was taken prisoner by a Mughal general, Taqarrab Khan, in hte pleasure-house at Sangameshwara, whither he had retired with his Scattered.
and make merry. The loose assembly was overpowered and their leader was executed. This happened in March, 1689 A. C. Sambhuji's son, Sahu, was nicely treated by 'Alamgir and \tas given the
women
title
to bathe, drink
of honest.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
356
These repeated Rajah recent
as as
P^sence
terror
struck
reputation,
of
Aurangzeb near Poona, surrounded by a halo of grandeur combined with his personal
Ram and
weakened the Marhattas.
disasters
The
into
their
Their
hearts.
weakness became the more conspicuous
when he
sent
an army to besiege Raigarh, their capital. It was there that, after the death of Sambhuji, the leading Marhatta nobles gathered together and acknowledged bis son, Shivaji II, a
Rajah
boy of about
Ram
as
his
Rajah and appointed
as
five,
The Mughals captured
regent.
Raigarh and took possession of the forts of Mirlch and Panhala. They also made Shivaji prisoner. Rajah
Ram
escaped to JinjT and there he assumed the title of Rajah, because his nephew, the minor Rajah, was in captivity.
Aurangzeb sent
his general, Zulfiqar
R *J ah
Expedition against Rajah
Rtlm
failed to take
applied
Emperor was not in a the grand army was split up and
provinces
kingdoms from
Mughal
forts
the
general could
prolonged Marhattas,
the in
siege
the their
of
officers
therefore,
reinforcements to
position into small
detailed to different parts of the
the
He,
Jinji.
for
the
Khan, against
but the Mughal general
supply,
for
portions
and
to take over
Empire newly
the of
those
conquered
places.
make no headway and for
full
meantime,
which
seven
The
therefore
years.
recuperated
The and
strengthened position. They fully availed themselves cf the opportunity presented to them by the lack of harmony among the Mughal generals. Prince
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMG1R
MUHI-UD-DIN
357
Kam
Bakhsh was suspected of traitorous correspondence with the Marhattas and was, therefore, sent to the
Emperor
as a prisoner.
Zulfiqar
Khan was
also recalled
C.). During 1694-97 A. C. several other were tried, but no better luck was in store for generals them, for the victories they won were short-lived. The Emperor himself encamped at Brahamapuri on the
A.
(1694
Bhima and from the
there directed the operations against
The
Marhattas.
generals enabled the
Marhattas
rivalry
Mughals
between
Marhatta
on the
to inflict defeats
some engagements.
in
the
When
Rajah Ram,
who had made fall
of Jinji,
Satara his seat of government after the heard of Aurangzeb's intention of attacking
that place, he escaped to Khelana along with his family. The Mughals occupied a series of outposts and linked
them
in
such a way as to form a blockade.
The next
item on the war programme was to lay siege to the stronghold of Satara, which stood at the summit of a
The
hill.
garrison
besiegers rolled
suffered
down
heavy
huge
losses
from
stones
when
the
the
top.
Notwithstanding the great disaster which befell Mughal forces, the Marhattas could not hold their
ran short of their provisions and would not now connive at their underhand
for a long time.
Prince 'Azam transactions.
the
own
They
Rajah
Ram,
exhausted
by
a
long
expedition, retired to Singhgarh only to expire there the 2nd of March, 1700 A. C.
Rajah
Ram
was succeeded by
_
Kama, who
s'
few days.
_ T5ra Bai as regent of her son 1
HI-
'
his
on
young son,
after a died of small-pox r .
TarS
Bfti,
th^
dowager-
queen> raised her son| skivaji HI, to
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
358
and
throne
the
remarkable
became
herself
his
regent.
lady rose to the height of the occasion
This
and
continued a vigorous defence against the Mughals wha had, by this time, sufficiently extended their sway in
Under
Maharashtra. received a
new
lease of
her life
the
Marhattas
and enthusiasm.
They now
influence,
fought with greater vigour, with the
result
that
the
Mughal-Marhatta War dragged on till the grand Imperial army was completely disorganized and its resources were exhausted. Troubles, in the meantime, thickened on
all
sides
and the valiant old man of eighty* End of 'Alamgir. f Ine seven raced them heroically. their over the had established Sikhs sway Punjab and had become a power to be reckoned with. The Jats of .
,
\
Burhanpur were in open rebellion against the Empire and never obeyed the Mughal Emperor. Amidst thebe disappointments the hero of the field, Aurangzeb, passed away in 1707 A. C. leaving the Peacock Throne as a
bone of contention among the Mughals, the Marhattas the Sikhs and the Rajputs. As long as Emperor 'Alamgir was alive, all went .,
.
.
Mugnal
_ Empire
well
;
but
his
death
after the death of
schemes and
Emperor
The Marhattas now
'Alamgir.
defeated
spoiled r his
his
purpose.
rose everywhere,
plundered the Mughal convoys and recovered almost all what they had lost. The Hindus had already alienated themselves and the Sikhs were endeavouring to carve
out an
independent
kingdom
for
themselves.
The
English had established their factories in many places and had started siding with the native powers in their
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGiR
Such was the
wars.
expired.
the
of
gravity
state of
now be
It will
when 'Alamglr
easy, perhaps, to appeciate the
which the
situation
found themselves face to
The appearance
affairs
later
Mughals
on the stage
of Indian
face.
of the Sikhs
may
history
be said to have dated
from the close of the tury
359
when Baba Nanak,
fifteenth
the
cen *
founder
Sikhism.was busy in preaching the unity of God, the As a purity of thought and the nobility of action. religious reformer, he condemned caste and colour, and of
the
inculcated
equality
of
all
men
in the eyes of the
His followers came to be known as Sikhs. Almighty. The word Sikh means a disciple and he was the disciple of the Guru who was the head of the new Church.
In
there were ten Gurus, including Nanak,
all,
whose short account has already been
given.
A summary
sketch of the remaining nine follows. Little
is
recorded of the ministry of the next Guru, who succeeded the first Guru as
An S ad Dev ^cept that he committed to writing much of what the Great
1
iS^-fssz^^C
Guru had performed and preached and some devotional observances of
own, which were subsequently inGranth Sahib> the Bible of the Sikhs*
his
corporated in the
He
was true to the principles of his great teacher and, finding that none of his sons was worthy of apostolic succession,
he
nominated
Amar Das, an assiduous The crowning achieve-
disciple of his, as his successor*
ment
of
Guru Angad was
alphabet.
the invention of t\e
Gurmukhl
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
360
Amar
Das, the third Guru, was a zealous preacher.
He was r
1552^574
:!
successful in winning several
conv erts, many of whom were drawn from the Jats. He divided his spiri-
tual jurisdiction into a
number
of dioceses, over each of
which he placed a pious Sikh. This extended the authority Guru and increased the popularity of the new
of the
In a pious and humane spirit, Satl and pronounced that
religion over the country.
he denounced the black
rite of
was she whom grief and not flame and advised that the afflicted should seek consumed, He died in 1574 A. C. and was consolation with God. the
true
Sati
succeeded by his son-in-law,
Ram
The name of Guru Ram Das a
?57?l-5^A
c!
Das. is
intimately associated
with the foundation of Amritsar, the From Emperor centre of Sikhism.
Akbar he received a piece
of land
and
he dug a reservoir, since known as Amritsar, or the Pool of immortality '. He is reckoned among the most revered of the Sikh Gurus, though no precepts of wide in
it
1
'
application,
buted to him slow in his in
great practical value are attri-
of
or
rules
'.
Moreover,
'
ministration
1581 A.
the progress of Sikhism was
of seven
years/
He
passed
C., leaving his son to succeed
away his Gaddl as Arjan Dev. Guru Arjan was a
great
organizer.
him
He made
Amritsar the proper seat of his ci P les
to
carr y
as
on best
their
as
to
dis-
religious
they could. The result was that the obscure village, with its small pool, gradually grew up to be a populous city and the
propaganda
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
361
He edjted place of pilgrimage of the Sikhs. the Granth Sahib and converted the customary offer-
greatest
He encouraged
ings of his adherents into a regular tax. trade
among
'economic
wrath
of
who was
condition.
tried
Unfortunately,
to ameliorate their
he
incurred
the
Jahangir by offering help to Prince Khusrau He was then in rebellion against his father
and thrown
fined
and
Sikhs
the
in prison
where he died owing to the
severity of confinement in 1606.*
Guru
Arjan's successor
under D ?606
a
G
^645
was
whom
Har Govind,
his son,
the Sikhs formed them-
'
n
:
A c
selves
in to
a
wiHtary
organization. united in his person saint andf a sportsman.
The new Guru the
qualities of
a
soldier,
a
He went
out for hunting and ate meat. During his Sikhs the made marvellous ministry progress and in large numbers. The author of the multiplied
Dabistan informs us that he was employed by Jahangir, -but; was imprisoned at Gwalior for a period of twelve years
when he
appropriated refused to pay
to himself the
his
the
his
pay of imposed on
soldiers
and
father.f
he took service under Shah Subsequently, but soon separated himself by raising a petty
Jahan,
*Vide Dabistan-ul-Mazahib,
p.
234.
fine
According to Malcolm,
Guru was imprisoned by the Governor of Lahore at the instigation of his enemy, Danlchand, whose writings he had refused to incorporate in the Adi Granth. (See Malcolm's History of the Sikhs). A Muslim writer, on the other hand, informs us that the cause of the Guru's imprisonment was his refusal to marry his son to the daughter of Danlchand (T'J^lkh-i-Punjab the
.p. 87).
t Ibid.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
362
When
revolt.
defeated and driven to despair, he took He died at Kartarpur in 1645 A. C.*
refuge in the hills.
The
?65-mi
Guru was Har Rai, the grandson of the late Guru Har Govind. He remained
next
R A. C.
i
n
P eace at Kartarpur
succession broke out
till
the war of
among
the sons
Guru became a partisan of Dara. When Dara was defeated, the Guru surrendered his elder son to the Emperor as a hostage. The youth of Shah Jahan and the
was
treated
the
leaving son,
due deference and
with
his
father
was
Har Rai
excused.
died at Kartarpur in 1661 A. C., pontifical office to be filled by his second
Har Kishan. Guru Har Kishan remained three years.
in
office
for
His ministry was
about abso-
uneventf ul except that he had to contend against the rivalry of bis The latter was born of a Rai. lutel y
brother,
'
Ram
hand-maiden' and 'not of a wife of equal degree'; the former, therefore, had a stronger claim to the Gaddl. When the struggle for succession reached a high pitch, the case
Sikhs
to
was
their
own
elected, f
but
elect
accordingly,
who allowed the Har Kishan was,
referred to 'Alamgir,
Guru.
he was not destined to
live
* The learned author of the Tarlkh-i-Punjab informs us that Damchand, the persecutor of Guru Arjan Dev, was handed over by Shah Jahan to Har Govind who put the tormentor of '
his father to death.' (Tarikh-i-Punjab). t According to the District Gazetteers of Dehradun, the election of Har Kishan was disputed by Har Rai and the matter
was referred
to 'Alamgir
and His Times, pp.
who confirmed the election.
248-49.)
(Aurangzeb
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMG1R
MUHI-UD-DIN
1664 A. C. Before his death,
Har Kishan had nominated Har Tegh Bahadur as Tegh Bahadur had
Guru Teeh
Govind's son,
BahadurT
successor.
1664-1675 A. C.
his
Ram
in
Court,
life
was executed
at
was Not
and leadership were
Ram
Rai as well as
Summoned
proceedings'.
he
his
who
Rai,
at last the former
machinations of
suspicious
Imperial
both his
however,
after,
endangered by the *
foe till
as the spiritual leader of the Sikhs.
acknowledged long
formidable
to assert his claims
continued
by
:
Attacked by small-pox, he passed away at Delhi
long. in
363
'
the
to
'
as a rebel
in
1675
A. C.*
Guru Tegh Bahadur was succeeded by his son, Govind Singh, at the age of fifteen. ^_ GuruGovmd j j The execution of his father had made Singh .
.,,.,,
.
i
:
1675 -1708 A.C.
the young the death
& d(?ep
Guru and he now made his
of
on
impression
For
father.
a
the
vow
full
m nd i
to
of
avenge
twenty
years
A.C.) he made preparations for the struggle the supremacy of Islam in India. He waged against wars against the Rajahs of Jammu, Garhwal and
(167595
other
places
independent fortresses in
in
order
to
principality,
the
hills,
carve out for or
at
least
to
himself sieze
which might serve as a
an
a few
base
of
*See Siyar-ul-Muta akhkhirin (Brigg's ed.) pp. 74-5; Later Mughals, Vol. I, p. 79 and Aurangzeb and His Times, pp. 253 ff. It has been alleged that the Guru (Tegh Bahadur) was executed l
;
for refusing to accept Islam. This is incorrect. The fact is that when sentenced to death 'for his crimes againsti the State,' he
was asked to save his life by accepting Islam. offer and was executed for the offence charged
He* declined the
with.
:
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
364
jniHtary operations against the Mughal Emperor and to which he might retire in the event of danger. Having
matured
vow
to
he emerged out of the hills with a his mission and an oath to avenge the
his plans, fulfil
death of his father.
Guru Govind
was
a
great
He
reformer.
His Reforms.
_
^,
,
and
religious
social
enjoined the worship _
,
_
f
of Shaktt, the goddess
,
f
of force,
and
compulsory for the Sikhs to wear steel on their He denominated his person in one form or the other. them disciples the Khalsa (elect of God) and taught
made
it
He gave them conquer. outward signs of their religion in the five Kakkas, or K's Kara (iron bangle), Kachha (short drawers), Kanga that
were
they
born
to
(comb), Kes (uncut hair) and Kirpan (dagger).
introduced a
Khalsa
srl
new form
of salutation,
wah guru
use of tobacco,
jl kl fateh.' liquor and other
He
also
'wah guru fi ka
He
prohibited the
intoxicants.
God
He
emphasised the equality of all men of caste preached monotheism. He made a clean sweep distinctions and declared that the lowest in Sikh society before
a^nd
In all this the influence were equal with the highest. of Islam is obvious. According to him, salvation could be attained only by the Khalsa. He emphasised the importance of military training and diverted the attention of the Sikhs, each of
whom '
he called Singh, The Turks must be
from the plough to the sword, of those called saints destroyed he said, 'and the graves '
must be neglected.' Suchwise, the ways of the Hindus must be deserted and the Brahmans' thread must be He ruled out superstition and social ceremonies. broken.
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
MUHI-UD-DIN
From what
has been said,
it
will
be evident that fhe
religious aspect of the e
movement was
gradually transformed into a military
of the |f
and aims and
definite
365*
with organization of the later times
political
The Gurus
ideals.
were not the prototypes of the first four Gurus, In were exclusively devoted to their religion. there cannot be
greater
than
contrast
that
who fact,
between
the unostentatious, inoffensive and peace-making Nanak and his subsequent successors who entirely changed
mode
and began to live like princes royal amidst regal pomp and splendour,- organizing armies, building forts and fighting for the achievement of
their
of
life
supremacy. career extended over
Guru Govind
political
fifteen
he successfully fought
years,
Singh's military during which period
the
against
chieftains
hill
and
His conqfuests roused the Mughal provincial governors. Government to another danger which might become a menace
Rajahs
if
allowed
applied
to
to persist.
'Alamgir
for
When
the distressed
aid
their against against the Guru in
oppression, he dispatched an army The Guru was defeated order to bring him to book. From this it is amply and two of his sons were slain. clear that 'Alamglr
Sikh Gurus
in
launched his campaign against the
response to the repeated requests of the
HindQ Rajahs who had
suffered great
injuries
at the
hands of the Sikhs, and yet by a curious irony of fate the Mughal Emperor is blamed for unjustly provoking
The Imperialists then laid siege to the fort Guru at Anandapur and reduced hipi to such that he was compelled to make his Way to the
the Sikhs. of the straits
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
366
deserts of the district of Firozpur.
Hotly pursued by he betook himself to a place which
the Imperialists,
subsequently became famous as Damdatna, where he compiled the Granth of the tenth Guru. After a stormy
he
settled
at
Anandapur, where, in response to his request, he received an invitation from the He proceeded to the Mughal Court Mughal Emperor. in compliance, but before he reached it, 'Alamgir had career,
The Guru espoused
passed away (1707 A.C.).
the cause
Bahadur Shah and accompanied him to the Deccan at Nander he was killed by a Pathan whose father he had slain. of
where
Ever since the ,
Mug h a
i
.
with
the
Government for the As has already in English had succeeded
Mughal
their trade interests.
mentioned,
Emperor
grant of
Empire, the English had endeavoured to maintain friendly
the
furtherance of
in
for
at the
_
m
1616 A. C,
Thomas Rao
the Imperial firman to the English, allowing them some trade facilities in
:
been
of Sir
Court of Jahanglr and the
,.
'Alamgir and the English Early English settlements India relations
arrival
the
permission from the
receiving
building a
factory at
1639 A.C. they had Rajah of Chanderi on
lease
factory with
defend
Mughal
In MasulTpatam. from the
obtained a piece of land
a
fort to
and
built
at
Madras a
themselves against the
The fort was Dutch who had been hostile to them. afterwards named as Fort St. George. Shah Jahan, who was more favourably disposed towards the English than his predecessors, apart from allowing them fresh trade concessions, permitted them to build factories at
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
Hugli and Kasimbazar afterwards,
in
1650-51 A. C.
all their factories
367
Eight years
were put under Surat.
In
'Alamgir rewarded them for their heroic resistance in the sack of Surat by Shivaji by reducing Their position on the the import duty on their goods.
1666 A.C.
improved in 1668 A. C. when for an 10 Charles II made over the annual quit rent of islands of Bombay and Salsette, which he had received western
coast
as part of the
dowry
East
India
to
the
of his wife, Catherine of Braganza,
Company.
Now
they had a feared the Marhattas as
harbour of their own, they little and the Dutch, The hostilities between the Dutch and the Marhattas further
they
fortified
self defence.
new
charter,
their
their ambition and on the western coast in possessions
stimulated
Not long afterwards, Charles II granted a which conferred some privileges on the
East India Company, making
it
an important power
in
the land. Shaista Khan, the Governor of Bengal, imposed
some
duties on English trade in 1685 A.C.
Anglo-Mughal
Mughal power.
The
factors fefused to
the
local authorities
TMs
led
to a sort
pay them to and defied the
of semi-official
war
The English between the English and the Mugjials. were assisted by King James II of England with ten or twelve ships for the capture of Chittagong. When they attacked the Mughal ships under Sir John Child, 'Alamgir ordered their arrest and the annihilation of
Masullpatam and Hugli. The " audacious were seized and trade with the
their factories at Surat, factories
foreigners" was forbidden.
But the Emperor was not
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
368
keen to prolong the war the
instructed
he forgave the English and
;
new governor
Ibrahim, them with leniency.
of Bengal,
to
Ibrahim arranged terms with them and invited Job Charnock to return to his former settlement at Hugli early in the month of treat
October, 1690 A. C. and allowed him to plant a small which took its name 'Calcutta'
station below the Hugll,
from an adjoining village, called Kalikata. This small an important city and station soon developed into
became the
Government
seat of British
in
India.
Sir
John Child, the President of Surat, who had declared war against the Mu^hals with a view to establish a strong and well-founded English dominion in India, compelled to sue for peace. The Emperor extended his pardon to the English without grudge and allowed them to trade as before on payment of Rs. 1,50,000.
was
at last
Henceforth, the English East India Company returned its former methods of peaceful trade till the middle
to
of the 18th
followed
the
century fall
activities of the
when
of the
French
the
political
Mughal
chaos, which
Empire,
and
the
in India eventually forced
upon in fish and to th$ policy, they began troubled waters. From this time onwards their progress was less showy but more sure and steady.
them a new
By
the year 1690-91
height hlS
A. of
C. his
'Alamglr was at the power. Nearly the
swa yachieving what
whole of India was under
He had
succeeded in
his
he had been^ struggling for. The SbJa Sultanates of the Deccan were conquered and annexed to the Mughal Empire.
Most of the Marhatta
forts
were captured
Alamgir's Empire in 1700
Aurangated*
Reference*: I
The
thick line
(
-)
rodicttet the
extent of Afangir't Empire 2.
Tbe
undertint* art
lowfi
5
A.C
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
369
and Sahu, the principal claimant to the Marhatta A glance throne, was a captive in the Imperial Camp. at the map will show tha't 'Alamgir was the Lord Paramount of the whole of India, extending from Kashmir in the north to Cape Comorin in the south and from Kabul in the west to Chittagong in the east.
The main framework
of the machinery
of govern-
ment under 'Alamgir was the same , ,. T1tT as under his predecessors. We may,
Administration under 'Alamgir.
,
however, note the following changes in 4
and improvements on the
Alamgir to
The
convenience
suit his
extent of the
W
^nh eS^bahs
eighteen in the
the South.
The
:
territorial
boundaries of the
provinces were re-arranged.
number fifteen to
made by
*
Mughal Empire had increased
and the en
T
existing system
of
Svbahs was raised from
North and from three to
six in
Bengal, Multan and efficiently administered by a
provinces
Kabul were too big to be
The
of
\ new arrangement was, thereOrissa and a part of Gondwana were taken from the jurisdiction of the viceroy of Bengal and
single governor each. fore, essential.
Likewise, the whole placed under a separate governor. of Southern Sind was detached from tjie province of
Multan and formed with a governor of
into a its
own.
distinct province of
So
also were
Thatta,
Kashmir and
a part of Hazara extracted from the province of Kabul and made into a separate province and placed under a separate governor. The reconstitution of the different provinces of the Mughal Empire was quite satisfactory from the Imperial point of view.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
370 Although
draw
to
'Alamgir tried demarcation
between
politics,* yet in practice
administration
the strictly
the
in
The
Qur'an.
the
and
religion
he
carried
of his
rules
of
line
on
kingdom
down
laid
character
theocratic
of
the
Muslim lunar calendar
the
that
Government implied
This was done and the llahl era
should be restored. of
with
accordance
in
a
Akbar was discontinued.
Likewise,
taxation
was
prescribed by the Muslim abolished all those taxes for which
brought down to the limits
The Emperor
Law.
obtained from
sanction could not be
many
away
with.
were
but
the
Hindu revived,
pilgrims
though
The
it
Islamic
removed,
was not State
also
to
enforce
forbidden
the laws
and
the
of Islam.
use
was
concerned with
the
morals of the Muslim
The
were ordered
to
of
Drinking was other
strictly
intoxicants
was
was
discouraged and proleave the cities and to remove
Prostitution
prohibited. stitutes
Jizla
Emperor, therefore, appointed censors whose duty it look after the conduct of the people and
community.
to
As
Taxes on
strictly collected.
is
manners and
was
the Qur'an.
as eighty taxes were done
however, allowed to take up their residence outside and were ordered to wear red clothes so that they might be distinguished from the their brothels.
rest of the *
'
What
They
were,
women-folk, and hence the
name
'
lal
bibl
'.
connections have earthly affairs with religion ? right have administrative works to meddle with bigotry ? 'For you your religion and for me is mine. Religion has n(fr concern with secular business/ etc. (See Anecdotes, p. 99.)
What
'
'
MUHI-UD-DIN
The
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMG1R
practice of
followed by
by Akbar and was regarded as agzrinst pwt an end to.
Darsfaan,
his
introduced
successors,
Is^am and was, therefore, The King was the custodian of public money. effected economies everywhere. Bait-ui-MaL
371
L
,
expenses or the
He The
~ , , Court were reduced to
He
maintained a well-organized department, called the Bait-ul-Mal, or God's Treasury, where the property of the heirless deceased was kept in a considerable extent.
safe custody. Moreover, the property escheated
from the
noblemen was also deposited there. 'Alamgir always endeavoured to increase the property of the Bait-ul-Mal and the money accumulated there was spent for the promotion of Islamic culture and civilization.
The
policy of centralization, introduced
Pohcy of overcentralization. result
and
continued
his
by Akbar successors,
The Aurangzeb. could not find provincial governors
culminated
was that the
by
.
with
scope for the development of their natural abilities, so much so that when the Emperor died the machinery of collapsed all of a sudden and was no one who could administer such a centralized
Mughal administration there
government.
was rigorously administered and the Emperor himself sat at the Dlwan-i-Khas , ... JJustice. from 8 A.M. till noon on every Wednesday and dispensed even-handed justice to In his work he was assisted all and sundry. Justice
J
by
a
set
of
his patronage a
law
officers
syndicate of
famous Fatawa-i-'Alamgiri
of
great
renown.
Under
theologians compiled at the
cost o*
two
th.e
lakhti
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
372
under the supervision of one Shaikh Nizam. Referring to
He is the main Ocean him from all small rivulets of and of justice and equity, wealth flow, and to him they all pay tribute, and '
'Alamgir's justice, Ovington says
:
He
generally determines with exact for there is no pleading of peeridge justice and equity , the before or privilege Emperor, but the meanest man is Omrah. soon heard by Aurangzebe as the chief
return
again.
Which makes
Omrahs
the
of
very circumspect
their
because all actions, and punctual in their payments are them readily adjusted, and they complaints against ;
never want jealous rivals at Court who are willing to bring them into disgrace with their King for any fault.'*
'Alamgir
was an eminent widespread
f
educationist.
For the
diffusion of education he
established universities in almost
TduSion
cities of his
the important in smaller
Empire and erected schools his reign,
we
learn, Delhi,
(in Sind) were important
far-flung
towns.
Jaunpur, Sialkot and centres of
During Thatta '
education.
famous
'is
all
The
for
Thatta/ says Hamilton, learning and and have politicks, above they theology, philology, 400 colleges for training up youth in those parts of His interest in education, it may be pointed learning.'t this out at place, took after his general policy which city of
aimed
at bringing the
Islam.
his
law into
reign During and Islamic
mighty
strides
dantly
under
his
line
literature flourished
patronage.
He
theory of what the education of the * A Voyage to Surat in 1689, p. 120. |A
New Account
of the
with the tenets of
Muslim education made enunciated
abuna
new
Royal Princes should
East Indies, Vol.
i,
p. 78,
MUHI-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
373
This theory of imperial education emphasised^ in brief, the importance of general knowledge, such as a familiarity with the languages of the surrounding be.
nations
an acquaintance with the distinguishing
;
tures of
every
strength
;
its
nation of the earth
mode
warfare
of
;
form of government, and wherein
manners,
its its
resources and
its
:
fea-
religion,
interests principally
with the origin of states their progress and the or decline, events, accidents, errors, owing to which such great changes and mighty revolutions have been consist
;
;
with the reciprocal duties between the sovehis subjects, the art fcf war, of besieging a reign town or drawing up an army.* effected
;
and
'Alamgir's political A
little
..
Architecture.
left
pre-occupations
leisure to indulge in ^T
fancy.
him
his
but
artistic
,
Nevertheless, he made some
important additions to the existing architecture.
Among
the most remarkable buildings erected by him may be mentioned the Marble Mosque in the Fort of Delhi
and the Badshahi Masjid
at Lahore.
The
latter is
specimen of the Mughal style of architecture. Quite unlike his ancestors, 'Alamglr did
the
latest
d
'
PaiSing
music,' practical performance.
delighted
in
the
he
was deadly against
own
pictorial records of
*
creed and
its
Likewise, in painting, though he his
own grand-
doings, he sought to discriminate between the his
not
actively patronize music and painting, Himself well-versed in the science of
those of
others
For a detailed discussion on the Muslim India, pp. 175 ff.
artists of
and therefore did
subject, vide Education
iti
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
374 to
nothing
A
it.
popularize
number
of
pictures,
and sieges, have come down to which show that he did not discourage this art
illustrating his battles us,
wholesale. All the same, the fine arts did not die at once
the death the frivolities as
Emperor
is
have desired to such
said to
dancing. The musician and flourished and continued to ply their
music and
the painter still respective vocations
notwithstanding the
not positively hostile,
lukewarm, if attitude of the Emperor towards
them.
The _
of
reign
glorious
tatious
this
king
Gardens.
simple and unostenwas not without its
Among
beautiful gardens.
be mentioned the Badshahi
may
attractive of their class
the most
Masjid and Garden at Lahore, the Garden of Raushan Ara Begam at Delhi, the ChauburjT Bagh, the Nawan Kal Bagh at Lahore and the Pinjor Garden. It
is
under-rate the character and
to
impossible
achievements the
glr
last
described fjurple
and
his
in
unassuming peformance of his
'
'Alam-
Aurangzeb
of our Great
the
puritan
Mughals, in
the
in his
Magnificent
'.
as
of
public appearance, simple private life, exact in the
religious observances,
prompt
in the
dispatch of his daily business, an eminent educationist,
a remarkable religious enthusiast, a patron of the poor and the learned, a great literary genius, an elegant letter'
writer,
a
fountain
master of pen as
of
of
sword'
triumph of character.
honour/ and a 'Alamgir was indeed a left no faculty of his active
justice
He
as
of
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB
MUHI-UD-DIN mind even
and allowed no spring of his frame to relax His ideal of kingahip evening of his life.
to rust in the
'
was very high for others
I
:
dence,' he said,
own
ALAMG*IR 375
*
that
;
happiness,
connected with
to it
was sent into the world by Provilive and labour, not for myself, but is
my
not to think of
duty
so
far
except the happiness of
as
my
my
is
it
inseparably It is the people.
repose and prosperity of my subjects that it behoves me to consult nor are those to be sacrificed to anything besides the demands of justice, the maintenance of the ;
royal authority, and the security of the State.' indeed to his credit that he lived up to this lofty
It is
ideal.
With him governing was a duty, seriously undertaken and honestly performed. He felt disgusted at the idea of
making
religion
a
(Islam)
of
plaything
mental
gymnastics and a sport of royal whims and moods. deplored the debasement of the noble ideals
religious
of
Islam
identities
He
his
tried to
perfection. it was
voice
the
against
restore
He
for political reasons.
tolerate religion being overriden
raised
and
and was exasperated at the aberrathose who lacked courage and concealed their
traditions
tions of
He
by
Islam to
'
danger its
Thus did he play the
in this capacity that
politics
'
could not
and therefore
that lay ahead.
pristine
purity
role of a reformer
and
he commanded the confidence
of his co-religionists during
his
lifetime
and again
capacity that he enjoys the reverence He ruled India as a co-religionists even now.
is in this
and
of
it
his
Muslim
King and was therefore hated by the Hindus then as much as now. But the fact cannot escape recognition that Alamgir was a little too rigid in his methods and '
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
376
zeal.
reforming
man
narrowness of vision
a
betrayed of
As a man
iron-will,
in
displaying
of imperial instinct
he disdained to
to
yield
his
and a
popular
agitation and never changed his attitude even when exegencies of the hour demanded lenity and liberal
did yield to the demands of the Ulama. Justified from the standpoint of the Emperor, some of his acts were undoubtedly calculated to create
though
treatment,
for
difficulties
he
him.
Tba
he
that
allegation
was
and suspicious by nature is not justified. treachery of his sons and officers, who secretly joined his enemies against him, put him on his alert and constrained him to take necessary safeguards against
distrusful
The
them.
If,
the
by
watched
therefore, their acts were vigilantly
Emperor,
it
was because they had
proved
To sum up, 'Alamgir was treacherous time and again. indeed a great king, doubly so from the standpoint of his co-religionists. No other emperor has been subjected such
to
severe
scrutiny
as he,
and yet he has exacted
the admiration of friends and foes alike.
who was
Bernier,
Bermer's view.
the
Great
admit that
of 'Alamglr's reign, quarter ^
means
Mughal. '
present in India during
Even *
Alamgir)
versatile
Hamilton,
who the
Hamilton
s
view.
visited India
is
is
endowed with consummate
a
towards the close of
the century, pays r ; well-deserved tribute to the
seventeenth .
following * Bernier' s Travels in the
was by no
* A disposed towards he had no hesitation to
and rare genius, that he Statesman, and a great King'.* a
first
j
favourably
this Prince (viz.,
the
Mogul Empire,
p. 199.
MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB ALAMGIR
MUHI-UD-DIN
monarch
much-maligned Prince in every
politics
distributive
justice
He
better
he
than
was a
(Aurangzeb)
None
qualified for governing.
way
understood
* :
The
he.
377
ever
balance of
He
held in exact equilibrium.
was brave and cunning in and merciful war, and magnanimous in peace, temperate in his diet and recreations, and modest and grave in his apparel, courteous
behaviour to his subjects and affable encouraged the laws of humanity
his
in
He
in his discourse.
and observed them
Writing .,
.,
.
Manucci
s
view
as well as those of religion/*
about the reign 1701 A,C.,
of*Emperor 'Alamgir in Niccolaa ^ Manucci, the
.
Italian
traveller
who was
in
India-
during the second half of the seventeenth century, " The great age of the Emperor and the says: ambition to gain the throne continuously displayed by his sons and grandsons, give rise to the apprehension of
some catastrophe
at
the
the close ablest
saying the
who
inseparable
always obeyed every
man
*A New Vol.
II,
good from his
spite of this,
that
of
government
it,
this
be
Prince-
age and the
knows how
former vigour,
infir-
to get himself
and to
hold
to his allegiance".! Account
o/ the
East Indies, by Alexander Hamilton,
p. 103.
t Storia
will
all
aged monarch is still in this they rely on the admirable
in spite of his great
with
In
reign.
assert
the
this,
and
(Aurangzeb), mities
as
long
In
conduct
Shahjahan's
politicians
peaceful so
world.
of
quite as tragic as that supervening
Do Mogor by Niccolao Manucci,
!
Vol.
hi,
pp. 249=50,
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
378 "
The
abilities of
Shah Jahan's son and "
1
Keen
s
Keen, AlamgTr," says J
view,
successor,
rendered him .
the most
famous house.
Intrepid
war, his political sagacity
member
famous
of
his
and enterprising as he was in and statecraft were equally
unparalleled in Eastern annals.
He
abolished
capital
and encouraged agriculture, punishment, founded numberless schools and colleges, systematically understood
constructed roads and bridges house of Tirnur attained its zenith.
In
The
his
reign the
wild Pathans
Kabul were temporarily tamed, the Shah of Persia sought his friendship, the ancient Muslim powers of Bijapur and Golconda were subverted and their terriof
rendered subordinate to the sway of the empire
tories
;
hitherto indomitable Rajputs were subdued and made subject to taxation and if the strength of
the
;
the
Marhattas
lay
upon the Western Ghats, of such anticipate that a band
gathered
was not possible to marauders would long
it
resist
might of the great
the
Mughal/'*
Orme, the famous
historian,
4
^ Orme s
achievements
,
view.
__ f
says
:
of
sums up the Alamgir when ho
only ...
'The condition
r
.
of the
,,
,
Moghul
Empire, began to lose its vigour immediately after the death of Aurangzeb, the ablest monarch that ever 9
reigned over Indostan. ^ * The Fall of the
in
Mughal Empire, by H. G. Keen.
History of the Military Transactions of the British t Jndostanfro.n the year 1715, by Orme.
A
Nation
CHAPTER XVII
RETROSPECT "
Mughal Culture and
Civilization
No
presentation of history can be adequate which the & neglects & growths of the religious * ... Introductory. conspicuousness, of literature, of the .
,
moral and physical science, of
ot scholarship, of art, into these inquiry aspects of life during
An
social life."
Mughal Period of Indian History forms the subjectmatter of the present chapter. Though these aspects
the
have been treated at some length in tfie preceding account at their proper places, it is proposed to sum up For the sake of the subject in the RETROSPECT. convenience,
it
is
best
to
classify
them
as
Political,
and Economic.
Social, Religious
Political Features
The
hardest 01
sJccSn
nut
crack
to
any sovereignty is that of succession. This must have been ver y much so in Isl * m if it had not cut
unlimited
the
the
latitude to
based on the
in
law
gordian knot by giving of succession which it
A
earliest traditions of its rule.
reference
to a typical one of such traditions appears apropos of the subject. a divine
The Prophet
of Islam
commissioner.
governed his people as
After his death, the Caliphate
(succession) became a cause of contention between the several claimants and the solution of the tangle involved
three
principles
:
first,
the ruler's
relative in the absence of a son
appointed
by him or
his
;
heir
his son, or a
secondly, the
nominee
;
and
person
thirdly, the
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
380 person on
whom
agreed.
Thus,
Musalmans were apparent that there was no well-
the majority of is
it
the
defined law regulating the succession to the throne. Sometimes the law of primogeniture applied, in which case the claims of the first-born were recognised often nominee succeeded ; and not infrequently the the ;
succession was effected by a plebiscite conducted by the and the sovereign-elect was
chief officers of the State,
not necessarily a direct descendant of the late king. Owing to the absence of a fixed law of succession ta
came into conflict and But underlying this absence was an advantage in the civil war that followed the death of a king, only the fittest survived and ruled with great
the throne, rival interests often resulted in bloodshed. :
In
efficiency.
nor
geniture,
Mughal the
India, neither the of
principle
nomination was adhered
to.
law of primo-
plebiscite,
Except
in
nor even of case of
the
who
enthroned himself unopposed at the death Akbar, of his father, the sword decided the struggle for succes-
and
sion
the
successful prince cut short the
rival collaterals lest
re-assert their
bance
in
Our
at
life
of his
future
date,
they should, claims to the throne and create
distu*--
the kingdom, Mediaeval
Mughal Monarchy was
Mughal Monarchy and its nature.
se , dom
State.
power
not
Persian traditions.
from
a secular
The
was Sharlyat, a ,j owed tQ interfere with the
institution.
his
some
The Mughal Emperor the
He was
Muslim
Law
derived
but from
virtually the State and
his
was absolute. From the very nature of the case, the Mughal Government was an absolute monarchy, which
will
RETROSPECT knew nothing element
in
it
was
policy
once
at
elective
so
it
that
-acquiescence of
and
rights
had much of democratic was based not on force but on the the people and its general administrative
but
assemblies,
constitutional
of
381
it
in
and the sentiments
accord with the of
its
of
spirit
the age
The Mughal
subjects.
Emperor took care to carry out the wishes of his people and tried his best to secure the greatest happiness of Perfect religious freedomand the greatest number '. '
unconditional liberty of conscience are the sine qua non of the stability and success of every State. The Mughal
Emperors understood
this
and Jherefor^ shaped
their
They adopted a Sulh-i-Kul policy policy accordingly. and carried it to its logical conclusion. Reconciliation and universal
toleration were their
of
testimony
contemporary
watch-words.
chroniclers
The
and European
travellers eloquently testifies to this fact.
The Mughal Government undertook
to
guard the
country against external invasions, to
or./
Functions of
regulate foreign
the Mughal
policy,
to
maintain
law and order, to suppress crime and
Government.
encourage public morality, to provide and property, to disseminate
for the protection of life justice
these
and
enforce
to
constituent
private contracts.
functions, the
Mughal
Apart from
Government
performed some ministrant
duties, such as the fixing of coinage, regulation of trade and industry, maintenance
of roads and highways, establishment of hospitals, resthouses and other works of public welfare, administration of famine
ment
relief,
of arts
promotion of education and encourage*
and
literature.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
382
The methods Methods
of
of
administration
the
early
Sultans of Delhi were rough and rude indeed;* .but the later sovereigns of
of
administration.
t
Islam, especially the
Mughal Emperors, were great statesmen and they have left many fruitful ideas and useful institutions behind them. The Mughal Empire manifested a higher degree tion
than
Humayun, were
all
had previously
existed
of polical organizain
India.
Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan,
sovereigns of
uncommon
political
Babar,
and 'Alamgir acumen and
marked administrative talents. The last three retained intact the vast and wonderful Empire which the conshad brought into being, tructive genius of Akbar
Where they
received their talent for administration
not hard to say
it
was
is
intuitive, inborn, self-taught
not acquired.
For purposes of efficient administration the Empire was divided into a number of pro* Administrative v inces, at each of which was stationed divisions
or Subedar, viceroy who was Each assisted by a revenue officer, called Diwan. or into sub-divided Sarkars, each districts, province was of which was placed in charge of a local governor, or into Faujdar. Each Sarkar was further sub-divided a
The into villages. and each Pargana was called Qanungo and charge of a Pargana
Parganas officer in
that of a village
In
the
Administration of justice,
his
*
Muqaddam.
modern sense
of
the word, there was
hierarchy of courts
of
King was the fountain
was the highest
court
of
appeal.
no
justice.
The
of justice
and
The
justice
RETROSPECT out was rough
dealt of
the
were that
383
courts
that
was
it
it
and ready and the procedure was simple and summary. Its morits was quick and cheap. Its danger was to
apt
miscarry.
The Qazis
settled the
the Musalmans according to their whereas civil disputes among the Hindus religious code, were decided by Hindu judges and those between
between
cases
Hindus and Musalmans by Muslim Judges set of
Brahman
scholars competent to
customs and Shastras.
assisted
expound
The Emperors and
by a
Hindu
the Provin-
cial Governors also heard appeals and often revised and even modified the decisions of the lower courts. Punishments were, of course, severe, l?ut they had
deterring effects.*
f
In theory, taxes were levied in accordance with the
...
by the Muslim Law; practice, they were imposed,
limits prescribed
Taxation.
but
and remitted
in
by the Emperors as well as by the Provincial Governors. Taxes on Crown-lands, the land revenue, customs duties, tributes from depenrelaxed
dencies, escheats of income.
The
arbitrarily
and presents were the
principal sources or abolished Jizia, poll-tax, by Akbar,
was re-imposed by 'Alamglr, though
it
was not
strictly
collected.
On the authority of European travellers who visited India during the Mughal Period, some modern writers have frequently referred to the vanity of the Qazls and the corruption of other Government officials. 1 do not for a moment deny the charge altogether, but I cannot help pointing out that the picture *
painted by them is rather exaggerated. Corruption there was, but it was not condoned or connived at by the Government. On the other hand,
it
was
strongly suppressed
and severely dealt
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
384
For the maintenance of law and
and the
order
even-handed distribution of
The
essential.
maintained one
in
a
state
high
a
is
absolutely
Mughal
Emperors
highly organized police
Organization.
justice,
of
The
efficiency.
was Kotwal, the custodian of principal police officer duties have been public peace and security, whose He was detailed at some length in a previous chapter. assisted
by a
set of subordinate officers in the discharge
of his multifarious duties.
'Government
that '
It is
a tribute to the Mughal efficient an police
to
owing
order and security prevailed in the
organization business was safe,
and
merchants
foreign
cities,
were well
.protected.'
Espionage has indeed a bad odour about it and yet it has been found indispensable
Secret service. .civilized
need In -or
even
governments.
,
,
,
,
most
by the
In a despotic
j
advanced
j and
government the
sound spying system can be well imagined. Mughal India, there were the Waqai Navis, for
Recorders
of
Events,
and
the
Khufia
Navis,
with. No government, however advanced, can claim to be free from corrupt officials, and the Mughal Government was no Notwithstanding the efficient systems of exception to the rule. administration evolved by different nations and the deterrants
.devised by them, there
is
corruption,
and corruption
in plenty,
every country and in almost every department, at least among the ministerial staff. In Mughal India, we gather from the original sources of information, every effort was made to remove it and, in consequence, there was in those days a good in
^balance of justice and fair-dealing, certainly better than any other country could claim.
.
RETROSPECT or Writers
of
Secret
provincial
capital
informing
the
385 stationed
Intelligence,
and
with
entrusted of* all
Emperor
that
at
the
each
task
occurred
of
the
in
his Empire. There was a close the Secret Service and the Postal between connection Service so that no secret should leak out. different -parts
of
There was a regular postal system ,
in
vogue
in
India.
,
Postal Service.
Mughal Along every *J Imperial * road there was, at a distance of six
Chowki, where the runner (Harkara) brought the Imperial dispatches and whence the runner, appointed to go to the next Chowki, set off At night the runners were at full speed with the mail. trees of standing- on either side guided by the avenues miles, a post office, called
of the road.
were
set
and
up
kept
Where
there were no trees, heaps of stones
at a distance of every five
white-washed
neighbouring villages.
hundred paces
the
residents of the by Horses were also kept in all the
serais along the Imperial mail-service.
highways to provide a regular But the runner was sometimes swifter
than the horseman, because at night in the dark the former ran undeterred by darkness or storm, whilst the
was compelled to ride slowly. On the whole, the system worked so well that it secured the stability of the
latter
Empire by keeping the Emperor
with what
touch
in
occurred in the provincial governments.
The
beneficent
character
of
the
Government comes out archftecture.
advantage
in
architecture. skill
to
Mughal its
best
and There was none whose relation
to
arts
and ingenuity were not appreciated and rewarded.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
386
The
Imperial patronage raised the fine arts to a high water-mark, and as a result, we have those master-
which, like the Taj, will always elicit our " " After all says an English spontaneous admiration. " of the the scholar, splendour Mughal dynasty is unsurpassed in the annals of the world, and that pieces,
splendour has always found architecture.
The
its
technical skill to "
In
those
beautiful
ideas,
in
lovely
and the
these ideas in stone."
embody
days no Government
department
Education.
made
craftsmen
Mughal
buildings because they had
supreme expression
of
had a regular instruction."
public v
J
The
Mughal
Emperors,
however,
opened schools and colleges in the various parts of their
Empire and sought
to
supplement
achievements
their
extensive patronage of literary worth.
During the education was diffused the threefold by Mughal period, means of (1) schools and colleges, (2) mosques and monasteries and (3) private houses, typifying three forms
by
of education, viz., university,
The
curriculum embraced
arithmetic,
algebra,
the
geometry,
primary art
of
and
domestic.
administration,
accounts,
agriculture,
economics, history, ethics, astronomy, medicine, physics, law and ritual. It may be mentioned here philosophy, that in the schools and colleges founded by the Mughal Emperors and others, Hindu students studied side by side with their Muslim class-fellows and there was no restriction in this or
instruction
madrasahs but
own
any other respect. For the were separate tnaktabs and
usually they received their education in houses or in the houses of their chosen Ustads t
their
in
of girls there
RETROSPECT
387
(teachers) living in the neighbourhood.*
The
impression
Was Muslim
seems
to
be
Q uarters that the
Rule
in India a rule of foreigners?
wa? that .
current
of foreigners.
It is
in
India
necessary .
.
^
,
.,
some
in
Muslim Rule
f
/
to strike at once at the root of this
erroneous notion.
To
be sure, the Muslim Kings from
the establishment of the Slave Dynasty down to the decline of the Mughal Empire were foreigners only in the sense in which the sovereigns of England have been foreigners to the
Mother Country since the time of
William the Conqueror. It cannot be disputed that William was a foreigner, but because he mkde England his home, he is as much English as all his successors
down
to the present king
foreigners only
of the
have been.
in the sense in
which
Again, they were the Presidents
all
United States of America have been owing to
their foreign extraction.
Aibak,
the
first
the
of
king
Sultanate of Delhi, and Babar, the first king of the Mughal Empire, came from foreign lands, no doubt, but
they
settled
down
in
this
country,
made
it
their
permanent home, identified themselves with the interests ci the country and ruled it rather as Indians than as Their successors were born in India, lived foreigners. in
India and died in India.
every inch. the Aryans,
They came
who
Thus, they
were Indian
as foreigners indeed, but like
too were foreigners,
themselves on the Indian
soil,
they engrafted sucked into their veins
the Indian sap, nurtured themselves under the
*For the contributions made by
warmth
the Muslim Kings
others to the sacred cause of education, vide Education in India.
and Muslim
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
388 of
Indian
the
sun
and
conditioned
their
growth,
multiplication and expansion under the Indian climates.
the march of time they became, with each The succeeding generation, 'of the earth earthy'. So,
with
metamorphosis, which was proceeding apace, was rendered complete by the intermingling of the children they retained a distinctive stamp, it was largely of religion, but that too was evanescent, because the converts to the faith from the natives were of the
If
soil.
indistinguishably absorbed into their ranks.
those
who
still
retained
their
old
faith
Many
of
completely
identified themselves with the patriotic spirit so natural
to the sons of Islam
and were
occupy from the
called to
lowest position to the highest, next only to the king's. Again, it was the Muslims who first put a barrage Pass and other Eastern Passes and against the Khyber
thus kept India in immunity from foreign invasions. Finally, all the material resources of the State were spent in the country to
lands.
foreign
Muslim
rule
with the old
itself
and nothing was drained away
Another important feature of the
was that the institutions
ruling class did not interfere
of
the
natives.
system of corporate village
honoured
The
time-
government and
was not disturbed in the least taken to establish law and order was and within the country and to maintain a peaceful policy district
administration
every care
outside.
Some have gone even Are Muslims ?
Musalmans
so far
as
to
as foreigners.
declare
all
With
the
exception of a few Semitic races, such as the Sayyp.ds, the Qureshls and others, the forefathers
foreigners
RETROSPECT
389
of a vast majority (9/1 Oth) of Muslims were Hindus and hence Indian. They embraced Islam and left behind generations of Muslims
the time rolled on.
who
Change
multiplied in
numbers as
of religion does not imply
and an Indian Hindu who becomes change Muslim does not become an Arab, an Afghan a to-day or a Persian, but continues to be Indian as long as he of nationality
As regards the Sayyads
does not change his nationality.
and others who came from country and
made
it
their
outside,
home,
it
is
settled
in
never too
this
much
to say that they were Indian quite as much as the Aryans who preceded them. Just as the Aryans came
from outside, took up their permanent abode in India and became Indian in course of time, similarly they (i.e. Sayyads and others) came as foreigners no doubt but, ;
like their predecessors (Aryans
home and became
1
,
naturalised jn
they made
India their
it.
Social Features
The
cultural unity of India was another enduring achievement of the Muslim Rule.
Cultural unity of India during the Muslim Rule.
Hindu-Muslim social intercourse Hindus and Muslims studying side bv side in the same schools without ;
any restrictions compulsory education in Persian mutual exchange of words, thoughts, and ideas both in arts and literature adoption and incorporation ;
;
;
these forces combined and cumulatively contributed to the cultural unity of India during the Muslim Rule, all
particularly during the
Mughal Period under the
tolerant
There were *nany Muslim scholars who studied Hindu arts and sciences, wrote rule of the Great Mughals.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
390 and
poetry
prose and encouraged their cultivation, there were several Hindus who cultivated
Lil'ewise,
Muslim
and sciences and made
arts
Persian literature.
the
and ennobling devised
Either
its
enriching
outlook on
common medium
a
in
community contributed
of the other,
literature
mark
their
and
life
of
its
to
vocabulary
letters.
They
Urdu, and
expression,
All these forces, developed it into a literary language. while acting and reacting on each other, brought the two communities nearer to each other, merging them into
a
homogeneous whole.
result in
the
evolution
All
a
of
them and bridged the them on account of religious united
It is
a
its
who
not
its
because
which existed between
is
.
core ot their religion. a
nationalist,
a true follower of
his faith
which
differences.
nationalism
r
natural
culture
have alw ays been great
strength. is
gulf
had
of history that the
commonplace
Muslim Soc.ety and the sources of
this
common
is
Musalmans nationalists,
the
at
very
A Musalman,
not, strictly
inasmuch as
speaking,
he
is
not
"
Let there be in you a obeying the Divine Order nation summoning unto the good." In India, as elsewhere in the Muslim World, the Musalmans :
formed one
solid nation, ready to
at the shrine of religion,
immolate themselves
honour and
love.
Their
life
of
action moderated their fear of death and they achieved
uncommon
triumphs in almost every sphere of human endeavour. Their religion was a great source of strength to them. first
The wars
of the Crescent were won,
place by science, in the second
the third
by
discipline.
The
in
the
by patience, and
five daily prayers
in
portended
391
RETROSPECT active
fasting in
life,
the
month
Ramzan
of
implied
a test of endurance, the niggardliness of nature and*the rigours of climate, in which (hey lived, meant an excellent of becoming discipline for them ; while the vision
a foremost nation of the world fired their
spirit.
proverbial pomp and magnificence of the Mughal Court will always remain a byword of those who have even a
The
acquaintance with Indian were surprised at the
nodding
The
history.
foreign travellers
splendour that surrounded the Sovereign and his Court.
On
Fridays, after public prayer, piusicians, story-tellers, athletes and wrestlers assembled at the Royal Court and
amused
the
performances.
King
and
with
courtters
his
The Court
presented a scene
joyous activities and there was nothing wanting to the show a splendid success.
Dress
in
Mughal India
is
their
of most
make
another instance of the
vanished glory upon which the mind
Male Dress
delights
to
dwell.
Hailing
from
different climates, the warlords of Islam
naturally paid great attention to the requirements of their dress. Wool
was preferred
to cotton
like stuffs in fashion
and
silk
with the
to
the
flimsy gauzenative aristocracy. The of India during the pre-
worn by the people Islamic period made room for the Pajama more which and came to be known close-fitting, stylish trousers
as
halwar, or Izar, tied by a string with tussles at the
waist
;
dress.
the high-heeled slippers gave place to the heel-
The
less. :
so-called
Knee-long
Jamah became
in the beginning,
it
usual, court reached up to the thfe
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
392
the later Mughal days. The Nadrl wear, invented by Jahangir, was a robe of honour reserved for the favoured few of his courtiers. One of the
ankles in
noblest contributions dress
the
is
popular
made by Musalmans
to
Indian
head-wear called Pagrl,
which
.became universal after the establishment of the Mughal Empire in India. The dress of the Emperor was often
made
of thin material, interwoven with gold thread
with
decorated foliage.
His
jems and
jewels.
It is
^
embroidered
patterns
flowers
of
head-wear was embellished
and and
with pearls,
extremely difficult to determine at this distant date the minutice of female dress
Female Dre^s.
among
because of the observance of privacy the ladies of the Harems. The paintings of
eminent
court
are
ladies
apocryphal to be described
or
non-existent,
A
in detail.
are
too
reputed portrait
shows her
of
in closeEmpress Nurjahan distinctly and bodice trousers down to the end coming fitting of the Shalwar and a slight Sari to serve for setting
The
rather than for clothing.
themselves in
full skirts of
female-dancers dressed
the flimsiest material with a
jaugy Sari and a tight-fitting bodice with long This was, perhaps, necessitated by the very nature of their profession.
light
sleeves.
Profuse
jewellery
was
used
ornamentation.
band,
decoration.
or
universal
for
The
the
among
extra-personal
use of
Kamar-
waist-band,
both
the
was sexes.
mentioned that almost every which some ornament or other part of the body, on
For the
rest,
it
may
be
RETROSPECT uld possibly be fixed or
Anklets,
and
collars
and
bracelets
hung, armlets
former
the
girdles
393
was not without* rivalled
it.
necklaces,
ornamental
adding
splendour to feminine grace and the latter adding form to masculine vigour. The nose-ring is a Muslim
woman's face ornaments. The Musalmans made ear-rings much lighter but more brilliant and valuable than before. Of personal
contribution to Indian
ornaments, the use of well as
to
betel, or
sweeten breath,
and
pdn, of
to
colour
henna
to
lips as
colour
palms, nails and finger-tips of hands and nails and soles of feet of females as well as gra^ bearcft, moustaches and heads was in vogue in those times as it is now.
amusement
In
Am
se
t
and
recreation
the
Musalmans
maintained throughout their ascendancy those illustrious traditions of boundless
magnificence which have com'e still
down
to posterity
and
astound the foreigners. Of outdoor games, Chaitsar
and
(chess)
Chaupar
(a
game played with
dice
or
cowries on a piece of cloth gr board) seem to have been favourite with the commonalty as well as aristocracy.
Akbar
is
credited with the repute of having invented a
number of new games on the principle of Chaupar and playing-cards. Gentler arts, such as music and were painting, among other indoor amusements. Hunting,
chariot-racing,
pigeon-flying,
gladiatorial
combats, elephant-fights, swimming and Chaugan (polo) may also be mentioned among the popular outdoor sports.
"
"In many
of these sports" says Professor
women joined Shah, abandon."
their men-folk in a
K. T.
most perfect
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
394
The
of
lot
ordained
as
P
Muslim
the frame-work of
misunderstood
absolutely
much
by an
ludicrously untenable
say the
Holy
society, is
missionary as widespread, not to
alien
The
by a native visionary.
as
the
by
Qur'an, the real place they occupy in
women.
Status of
women,
women
notion, that
in
Islam have no souls, that they are too much the servants of their husbands' passions or the toys of their has by this time been fully exploded, and it certain that it was nothing more than what a
idle hours, is
now
jaundiced eye could see.* The honour of women has always been jealously safeguarded by the followers of
The
Islam.
sacred and
very word Harem signifies something shows that women were held in honour
on veneration.
verging
testimony of
native
This
historians
is
borne
as
well
out as
by the
by
foreign
travellers.
c,.
Slavery was a recognised institution in Mughal India as it was everywhere else in the J
Slavery
world.
bered here that in Islam the
condition
of
It little
slaves.
their sons could rise to the in the State
towards
is
credited
the
whereby
Besides,
we know
with
prisoners
the
.,
attached to
of
for certain that the
practice of
introduction
manumission. of
a
reform^
war were forbidden to be
enslaved. *See Spirit
is
a glowing tribute to the attitude of Islam
slaves.")
is
degradation
The fact that slaves and most distinguished positions
State always encouraged the
Akbar
must, however, be remem-
of Islam, pp. 222-57. pp. 258-67.
RETROSPECT
395
Religious Features
Unlike their predecessors
Muslim
the very
causes.
were
large
of rule
conversions
in
by
The country. India during the in the least surprised at this
growth when we penetrate problem and discover some inevitable * towards this end. the
the
in
their rapid
In matters of faith,
others
absorbed
ever-expanding the other hand, they
On
Islam multiplied and we are not
not
the
and
elastic
Hinduism.
followers
Muslim
Hunas and
Musalmans
population,
made
the Indo-Bactrians,
the
Sakas,
Extraordinary 01 "
.
deep forces
into
the
working
*
human mind
is
prone to
work in certain paradoxical ways While the Darned seek for their satisfaction the remote and the abstruse, :
the crude, on the other hand, are always in quest of the simplest and the most direct to which they cling tenaciously.
Customs, ceremonies,
pictures
and
idols are
various ways of impressing an idea on the rude mind. The transcendant philosophy of Hinduism was the
monopoly its
of the favoured
few who so jealously guarded
treasures partly frbm motives of
and
partly because they thought
it
self-aggrandisement
would not answer ta
they thought it was sufficient if the curiosity of the vulgar was dazzled by an array of picturesque ceremonials and the splendour
cast
of
pearls
images
before
and
inestimable costs.
swine that
idols
The
preserved
ignorant
ceptibly at the time, a great gulf preceptors.
They saw
in
the
in
shrines
raised
at
felt, howpver imperbetween them and t*heir
advent of Islam
the
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
396
visions of liberation
from
intellectual
The
thraldom.
Muslim missionaries had an untold advantage of a clear-cut cosmogony and a definite set of dogmas about heaven and hell, how to attain the former and avoid the latter, in contrast with the vague and poetical version of The popular superstitions presented by Hinduism. doctrinal simplicity of Islam, which was like an open book to all, from the highest to the meanest, heralded the dawn of the day of the down-trodden. For the slaves of
Islam,
numerous gods and
the
simple
democratic principle doctrines, like fasting irresistible.
monotheistic of equality
and
the brotherhood of
rituals,
idea
and
had a
prayers,
of
the
the
God,
rationalistic
lure that
Voluntary conversions were the
was
inevitable
-results.
The Spirit of
spirit of
freedom
freedom has always had a fascination for all races under all climes and
to say that this spirit
moulded the
is
destinies
It is
inherent of
1-1
.
,
conditions.
in
nations.
no mere platitude mankind. It has Self-realisation
is
It has been the nothing but a discovery of this spirit. corner-stone of the greatest of our empires. It is in the .fitness of
things that the classes
position had been assigned
in
to
Hindu
which a degrading society, leading to
invidious distinctions between the natural rights of
man
and man, should shake off their lethargy, and thus, giving a rude shock to the Pharisaism of the Brahmans, raise up such a tornado of vindictiveness against the the only course open to was to seek shelter in the fold of Islam. To the
helpless visionaries that
.caste Hindi", the
new
faith
meant a
perfect
them low-
democracy
RETROSPECT wherein
the
and
blood
of
stains
397 were
occupation '
1 exorcised by the pronouncement of the open sesame of the simple Islamic creed There is no God but '
:
Allah, and the
human
back of
its
Muhammad
His Prophet/
Thus, it was Muslim faith which was at the propagation and proselytising capabilities. is
aspect of the
Too much cannot be
about
said
a
Muslim
the
religion
as
intrinsic
worth has been a magnet for
spiritual
seekers after
all
force.
truth.
was
It
Its
this
that occasioned conversions during that period and it is this that is winning converts even*iow, George Bernard
Shaw
does not over-estimate
the value of
when
Islam
'
nd the rest of he says that England in particular Western Europe in general are sure to embrace Islam within a century/
This
Musalmans,
and
converts
poor the
of
a fact,
is
as
powerless
calibre
Lord
of
how can
otherwise
they
are,
win
Kbalid
Headley,
Sheldrake, David Upson, K. L. Gauba, etc.,- not from the ignorant classes of the lowest strata, but from the
most cultured feels that
classes of the
the laws
of
Islam
highest order. are the laws
Everyone Nature
of
which must ultimately prevail. The spirit of Islam dominates the world and the tendency of Islamisation is patent to the naked eye. The noble examples set by the votaries of Islam their chaste lives, their sincere devo'ion, their
spread of contributed to
The
career
the
unselfish their
same end
and character
of
in
motives for the
religion
must
have
no small measurer
such
men
as
Kb
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
398
Muin-ud-Din Chishti, Sayyad Ali Hajveri (also called Data Sahib), Bandanawaz Sayyad Muhammad Gesudaraz
and Shaikh Sallm Chishti
The
lies
embedded
in
The the very conception of freedom. forces that should underly such a
advantages
desire
estimated.
are cases in point.
material prosperity
desire for
Social uplift
can
by
was a
no
means be overfactor that accele-
vital
rated conversions into mass movements.
The
following
ends can be easily comprehended to have been in view side by side with spiritual cravings a lucrative post, or position in the State, escape from the payment of the :
Jizia and other cesses levied on the Zimmis, daily contact with the ruling class which centred in itself all the graces of good breeding and culture, the personal favours of the Emperor, which in itself meant so much in those times.
Recent census reports towards Muslim
races.
accounts
have directed our attention another
possibility
which
preponderance of Muslim numbers over those of others for
the
some parts of this country. This is the virility oi Muslim races which, on account of the heritages of food and mode of living, has immense capacity for the pro-
in
pagation of species. All this furnishes an explanation for the rapid spread of Islam so often viewed with amazement.
11
In the light of the circumstances presented above, the slanderous Islam No compulsion theory that
in religion."
of
wag propagate(j j n i n(ji a a t the point the sword does not hold, especially in view of the
Quranic teaching
' :
Let there be no compulsion in
RETROSPECT Forcible
religion.'
war-times,
may
if any during the most be acknowledged to* be
conversions,
the
at
399
only a temporary phase, for the permanent acquiescence in the faith thus imposed upon is highly incredible. Had Islam been propagated under compulsion, verily
would have been no Zimmls in India and where, where Islam was once so supreme.
there
In passing,
it
not be without
will
that there were Forces that brought about
a modus
silently fora
for a
Islam
of a
to
castes,
may
moans Vivendi,
if
\ not
complete ^conciliation, between arid Hinduism. Among the
be
danger.
who had
common bond
political, social
mentioned
thse
that led the
hands with the Mu^almans
join
common
many
.
and
an7A"nd\usm.
Hindus
note
interest to
forces operating an(j religious " secretly b *
vivendi
political forces
else-
suffered
Men
as
much,
well felt
as
in the
women
event of all
drawn together
in
a
sympathy. The policy of opening careers to talents contributed much to mutual love. Socially, the presence of Hindu women in Muslim Harems
went
of
enough towards* welding the two elements The schools, where Hindus and Muslims together. received their education together, too had a great unifyThe policy of religious toleration and the ing influence. influence of the Muslim Sufi, who came to deride the far
ritualistic side of his faith
and believed that salvation was
a concern for all, that all were equal in the eyes of God, and that there was no difference between the high-born and the low, between a Hindu and a Musalman, were among the religious force which had no mean share in bringing about a reconciliation between Islam and Hinduism.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
400
The
forces
Bhaktl
Mo'vemeS
modus
were
working for the vivendi were also responsible
that
Bhakn Movement
the
rise of
the
for
analo-
gous and contemporary to the Reformwhich recognized ation Movement of Mediaeval Europe and Ram between no difference Rahim, Ka'ba and
and
Qur'an
Kailash,
Karma
Dharma.
is
Ramananda,
Kabir,
and
Puran,
The
inculcated of
preachers
that
creed
this
Dadu, Ramdas, Surdas, Nanak and
who
flourished Chaitanya and preached the principle
India
of
different parts
in
God, were Unity Islam. Sikhism is only a of
of
immensely influenced by phase of the same movement.
The
influence
of
on Indian
Islam
life
religious
and thought has continued to our ... ,. ., t' mes an " W1 *I continue into the
Tnflurnrp of Islam on Indian
own
religious hfe
future which
.
and thought.
.
,
.
before us.
is still
The .
.
systems of belief in vogue among the Indians at the advent of the Musalmans in India had drifted
very
largely
from
away
fundamental
the
1
and practices embodied in their earliest religious and numerous forms of idolatry had beep
principles
texts
1 substituted for divine worship. Things have changed so much since the advent of Islam that though the
orthodox
still
towards them
have is
Islam appeared
idols in their
are
are,
not
employed
thought and that those in fact,
The
in India.
assert that the idols are
that they
temples, their
not the same as
worshipping
as
who
Him
it
used
intelligentsia
worshipped aids
to
appear to
attitude
to be before
among them
as
gods,
concentration to
Whom
but of
worship them alone worship is
RETROSPECT The
due.
influence of Islam attitude of
401
can be clearly so
the
traced in
also
in the Hindus, changed movements which have sprung up within the fold of Hinduism itself for combating idol-worship and reviving the ancient Vedic faith. Though the Sikhs and the
this
ArySsamajists sometimes Islam in order, against influence, they
owe a
adopt
a
perhaps,
militant to
attitude
counteract
its
lasting debt of gratitude to Islam,
to which they owe the
origin
and existence of
their
religions which, under the influence of Islam, denounce the unity of God, condemn idol-worship, preach
priest-hood, deprecate caste restrictions, adfait others into
and recommend widow-marriage. what Islam has contributed to Indian religious
the fold of their faiths
This
is
thought and
spiritual ideals.
In India, Islam was represented by its two famous *^ e *^ as anc* 4 ^ e Sunnis. sects f he two Royal of Islam Houses Geographically, the former were Perin Mughal India. VT tl sian. Numerically the latter were :
.
stronger.
.
The Sunnis
in
, ,
.
the North and the
Shias in
the South formed the two India.
Royal Houses of Islam in As almost everywhere in the Muslim World, these *
IsUm were
at daggers drawn with each other and a fierce rivalry existed between them.
two
sects
of
Economic Features
The early Emperors of India were occupied too much with the work of conquest and consolidation. Consequently, in a relatively unsettled state of affairs economic development could not take place quite so
more peaceful times. But gradually the Mughal power struck its root deep into the Indian
effectively as in the
as
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
402 the
soi 1 ,
Mughal Emperors began
to
devote
their
attention to the material well-being of their subjects.
most important industry of India, was properly understood and encour-
Agriculture, the
gn U
'
aged by the Mughal Kings. They multifarious reforms: waste lands were
introduced
reclaimed, canals were opened, tanks
and wells were
dug
for
interests of the peasants,
of Indian
The purposes.* constituted the back-bone
irrigation
who
social structure,
were properly
and every impetus was given i
The
beneficeni. results
agriculturists
were
flourished,
were constructed
looked after
to agricultural
that agriculture
peasants
prospered
land revenue increased abundantly. Closely connected with agriculture
is
pursuits.
improved,
and the
the
land
revenue system which next demands a word of comment. To Sher Shah
Land Revenue System and its wor ing.
introducing an elaborate system of revenue settlement based on the actual measurement of land, which was
by Akbar the Great. The justly regarded as one of the crowning achievesystem ments of Mughal Rule in India. It is in fact an subsequently
improved
is
enduring contribution to Indian agriculture. It has survived in India under the British Rule with all its essential features
under the Raiyatwarl Settlement.
The
share of the State was sometimes one-third and often * It may be
appropriately pointed out here that it was the for the first time, introduced the Persian- wheel and dug canals in India for purposes of irrigation. This viras decidedly a great improvement on the means of irrigation then known ID India.
Muslims who,
RETROSPECT
403
one-fourth of the aggregate produce, which was paid in cash or kind according to the convenience of the cultivator.
At present the land revenue represents about onethe aggregate produce of the whole land under cultivation. There of
fifth
Was the land revenue exorbitant?
.
.
.,.
-
.
,_
..
.,
no instance of any Hindu or Muslim could be satisfied with such a low rate of is
ruler
who
How
land revenue.
land revenue to be
is
an enormous rate of
then such
The
accounted for?
reason
is
not
In the past, the land revenue constituted the main source of State income ; whereas the sources
far to seek
:
1
of revenue, such as the income-tax
and customs *
the land days are so important that revenue/ has ceased to be a source of Imperial
in these
Professor Brij Narain,
&
e
while
of Akbar's
kbar
f
'
^y.
s
nd ht
^
.
He
c j ags ^ an(j
points
out
comes
instructions to the
were couched
status
of
a
to an interesting
Akbar's
that
was more prosperous than the best
The
brother of
his
tbe
to
Lyallpur farmer, the most opulent of
brother of to-day cojnpare
conclusion.
comparing a farmer
time with
refers
duties,
revenue
in
collectors of
extremely
peasant these days.
of
the land revenue
humanitarian terms and
were worked with great lenity unless we postulate that Rebates and remissions they were not strictly enforced.
were never grudged. According to Mr. Moreland, the land was cultivated in small holdings in the seventeenth century, but we are left in the dark as to the average size of a holding. That it was larger than the average ,
holding of to-day population
is
is
now
true because a
supported
larger
proportion of
by land thaa
in
those
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
404
the average yield per acre in those been greater than at present because of have times must the depreciation in the quality of land caused by more Finally,
days.
intensive cultivation
in order
Even
increase in population.
ment's
sake that the
keep pace
we suppose
if
with for
the
argu-
of the land then under
fertility
diminished during the past three cannot but admit that extensive
cultivation has not
we
hundred years,
to
cultivation, necessitated
by growing population, embrac-
must
result in the decrease of average
ing inferior lands,
To avoid further controversy, suffice it to produce. statistics are now available to prove reliable say that that an average workman in those days was better off than at present.*
estimated that the rupee in terms
It is
of important food-grains, such as wheat, gram, barley, jowar and ghee t was, three centuries ago, worth thirteen
times as
much
the rupee
as
of
The
average an workman was 2'7d. If ordinary daily wage Coryat, an English traveller, could maintain himself to-day.
of
'
1
very competently
and a
'
in his
travels,
we can
clothes' for 2d. a day,
common
labourer and a
with meate, drinke safely
assume that
native of the
country could maintain himself as competently, if not more, with the same. Smith says that a man could live on Id. to '
2d. a day.'
We
The
inference
F -mime Relief
obvious.
country depending on without agriculture facing failures of
crops,
deaths.
is
cannot presuppose a
Famine-relief,
resulting if
in
starvation
rendered properly,
te the stability of a State
and
*Sce Indian Economic
by
Life,
its
Brij
is
and
a tribute
economic well-being. Narain.
RETROSPECT
405
a part of our review to state how famines were dealt with in those days. During the Mughal Rule
So
it is
whenever a famine broke out, State assistance was given to the famine-stricken and grain was supplied State hospitals and from the Imperial granaries. aim-houses were established in important quarters for free
the sick and the poor.
Large Khanqahs, or charitable the State in the helped and the testimony of foreign
establishments,
further
administration of
relief,
travellers
men were
shows that fed
gratis.
Khanqahs hundreds
at these
With
the solicitude
all
of
of the
famine were great and alarming because of the imperfect means of communication and The fact, however, remains that the transportation.
State, the horrors of
Mughal Government was
alive to
its
duty of combating
this calamity, or at least mitigating its horrors.
The _
.
Among
State encouraged other industries also. .
f
Textile Industries.
local manufactures,' _
.
have counted
foreign travellers .
.
six fine cotton
_
.
fabrics
silk handkerchiefs and caps embroidered with gold, painted ware, basins, cups, steel guns, knives and scissors were all manufactured at
and have recorded that
different places in this country.
It is also said that
kind of white paper was also manufactured from bark of a tree which was very smooth and glossy. Trade was carried on with foreign countries.
-
.
Foreign Trade.
been
textile
most important item trade
supplied
India
manufactures of
Varthema, two European 'all
;
of
all
be
may
The
the foreign
in
sorts.
a
the
srfid
to have
Borbose and
writers, inform us that India
Persia, Tartary,
Turkey,
Syria,
Barbary,
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
406
Arabia, Ethiopia,
.
.
.with silk and cotton
stuffs.'
Other
articles of export were the beautiful shawls of Kashmir, made of pure wool and silk mixture, the carpets of
Lahore and Agra, and the cotton cloth of Dacca, called the Dacca muslin, fittingly styled 'Ab-i-Rawan,' or the moving water, famous in the world for its fine texture. In the middle of the seventeenth century India supplied
Europe with diamonds,
pearls, chintzes, large quantities
drugs, such as horax, opium, etc., tobacco and saltpetre. Even the steel used in the manufacture
of spices,
famous Damascus blades was exported from the Kingdom of Golconda. Opium and indigo, with dye stuffs, were practically Indian monopolies and formed of the
the bulk of India's international trade. Skins and hides were also exported. Among the articles of import may be mentioned woollen fabrics, scarlet cloth, metal works,
raw
silk,
porcelain, glass-ware,
paper and such other
Animals, specially horses, were imported from Of other animals, such as Arabia, Persia and Turkey. things.
apes, peacocks, parrots and other pretty birds, figuring either as exports or as imports, there is no specific
evidence
.
The
trade
in
these
animals,
must have been very insignificant. Ship-building was also an important industry of India in those days. ..... Certainly, Jf wood
therefore,
ot
recorded. if
any,
/
Ship-building.
products, occurring so
commonly
in
Indian trade, must have been Indian ships constructed to serve as ocean-carriers. Mr. Moreland informs us " that apart from the Portuguese trade to Europe, the great bulk of the commerce in the Indian seas was carried in ships built in India,
and that most
of these
407
RETROSPECT and
certainly all the large ones,
were constructed on the
west coast, not at any one centre, but at various pojnts It is inlets within easy reach of the forests. also built all the small practically certain that India
or
boats required for the coasting trade from BengSl as far as Sind, and the aggregate volume of shipping was therefore very great when measured by contemporary
standards/
We know
1
and the
that both the English
Dutch had some of their ships constructed in India. This could not be so unless those ships were cheap and durable.
A
1668 A. C. by the English Company in reply to some objections with regard to the starting of letter
of
President and Council to the
anticipated ship-building in Bombay states: "...these carpenters are grown so expert and masters of their art that there are many Indian vessels that in shape exceed those
that
come either out of England or Holland." The industrial condition *of India during the Mughal
Period and before has been admirably summed up by the industrial Commission in the following passage : " At a time when the west of Europe, the birthplace of modern industrial system, was inhabited by uncivilized tribes, India was famous for the wealth of
her
rulers
craftsmen.
and
And
for
the
even at a
high
artistic
much
later period,
merchant adventurers from the west
skill
made
of
when their
her the first
in India, the industrial
development of the appearance country was, at any rate, not inferior to that of more
advanced European nations.
1
'*
* This view is shared and supported by n&ny an eminent " The skill of the Indians jn authority on the subject e. g. ;
t
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
408
Turning next to the mineral wealth of the country, we find that gold was found in ,
,
.
,
Mineral Wealth.
and
rivers
Kamaon
;
TT
Kamaon and
silver
;
in
Agra
iron in Bengal
and Kheora
;
tin in
;
Jammu
;
.
, ,
Punjab mountains copper in Narnaul and in the
saltpetre in Thatta, Gujarat ;
sweet-lime in Kheora
;
and
abundance at Agra and PatnS, whereas diamonds were extracted from the mines of Harpal (in
saltpetre
was
in
;
Bengal) and Golconda. Coming next to the currency of the country during the Muslim rule, Currency System. circulation
in
Q{
various
India.
In
we
notice that coins
denominations the
main,
the
were
in
currency
mohars, silver tankas and copper dams. There were also fractional parts of these three used standards. Villagers and citizens of small towns
consisted of gold
shells (cowries) in the ordinary bargains of their daily
between gold and silver coins varied from time to time, though both were coined freely by It was 8 1 in the early the Mughal Emperors.
life.
The
ratio
:
Muslim period and had fallen to 7 1 after the conquest of the Deccan by Ala-ud-DIn Khilji, had now become :
the production of delicate woven fabrics, in the mixing of colours, the working of metals and precious stones and in all manners of technical arts has from very early times enjoyed ct
world-wide celebrity." Professor Weber. Industry not only supplied all local wants but also enabled India to export its " It was this finished products to foreign countries," Ranade. trade and prosperity that attracted the European traders to India. Thei- rivalry to secure a footing in India at that time
was occasioned not by the raw materials of the country but by value and variety of her manufactures and crafts." Professors Jathar and Beri. (Also see Education in Muslim India,
the
PD. 200
ff.)
RETROSPECT 9'4
:
Gold was
1.
409
the chief currency of the country
Ordinary calculations were made in rupees and gold w#s used for making presents and paying tributes. The silver tankas, first coined by Altmash, became the legal tender of Northern India transactions.
for all big
and acquired its present weight (180 grains) and the name of rupee in the reign of Sher Shah Sun (1542 A. C.) The fact that the currency of
for all subsequent years
India underwent considerable improvement in purity, weight and artistic execution during the Mughal period can never be called in question. Akbar deserves very
high credit for the excellence of his extremely varied coinage, both as regards the purity *of metal, the fulness
of
Akbar,
nor
weight, his
and
ever
successors,
Neither
execution.
artistic
yielded
to
the
temptation of debasing coinage either in weight or in purity, so that
the
Smith
is
fully justified in
pronouncing
coinage as far superior to that of
Mughal
Queen
Elizabeth or other contemporary sovereigns of Europe. Many a magnificent Muslim monarch, like Balban,
Firoz Shah Tughluq, Sikandar Lodhi, Sher Shah Sun, and all the Great Mughals almost paid ' 'Ala-ud-Dln,
*
Communication and .
transportation.
.
,
specific attention to the construction
of roads
and highways
in their
kingdom.
Several roads
were laid so expeditiously that they linked together all the strategic frontier cities of the Empire. Sher Shah Sun's name is intimately associated with the 'opening of the Grand Calcutta.
Trunk Road, running from Peshawar Riding
horses,
camels, and palanquins were
to
bullock-carts,
elephants,
the
means
principal
of
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
410
conveyance and baggage transportation. Great care was taken to secure the person and property of the travellers. Many caravanserais were built along the chief routes with fruit-gardens and separate arrangements for the comfort of Hindus and Muslims of
The splendour
alike.
the
Imperial Musalmans, as displayed in their extensive paraphernalia of travel and encampment, reached its climax during the Mughal Period of Indian
So says Professor K. T. Shah
history.
"
of
:
Muhammadan times, there is hardly a prince any importance who is not in some ways connected In
with road-making. Great arterial highways, planted with an arcade of trees all along their length, linked the principal centres of the Empire over hundreds and hundreds of miles.
The comfort and convenience
duly secured by the public
of the travellers
was
walled enclosures,
hostels
with ample lodging and stabling, water tanks, and provision-shops, to supply all the needs of the travellers at convenient stages ; while the distance travelled was indicated by mile-stones easily noticeable even at night. Where the nature of the country would not permit of
proper road making, or where transport by water was more convenient, the rivers were utilized for popular as well as Imperial voyages, attended by all pomp and
ceremony
The
of
people
Condition of the people.
a most luxurious court." in
we gather
general,
contemporary .,
,
.
chronicles,
from were,
the
on
,
,
t" 6 whole, happy and prosperous. Their houses were kachcha as well
as
pakka, though those of the former kind (kachcha) were more numerous. They were airy, and pleasant, '
RETROSPECT
411
most of them having courts and gardens, being commodious inside and containing good furniture. Every modest house was well-furnished, and had a called room, garden, a reservoir and an audience DlwanWiana, the floor of which was covered with costly carpets. Every important city had schools and colleges, libraries and literary societies, hostels and hospitals, and baths and wells for the convenience of the public 1
;
we
the streets, learn, were daily cleaned by sweepers. Barring out a few instances of intolerance and
some
Relations between
Hindus and Muslims.
"
social
'
uniformity
and
by good- will
Matrimonial
toleration.
were
of
of
law and
usagp
all ',
the
the
i
the
of
alliances
equality
fanaticism,
Hindus and j j cordial and were mrtual love and
between
Muslims
characterised
House,
outbursts of
relations \M r
Imperial
of
classes
people, indiscriminate distribu-
tion of posts and powers among all classes of people,* regardless of their rank, race or religion, and social * Even 'Alamgir, who was so much harassed by the Hindus, did not refuse to employ them, in his service. " In an interesting collection of Aurangzeb's orders and despatches as yet " we find him laying says Sir Thomas Arnold, .termed the supreme law of toleration for the ruler of people of another faith. .....Government posts ought
unpublished
",
down what may be
to be bestowed according to ability and from no other consideration." That 'Alamgir was true to (Preaching of Islam, p. 214). *
this
says
supreme law of toleration
',
is testified
to
by Hamilton
who
:
"The
religion of
Bengal by law established
is
Mahometan,
yet for one Mahometan there are above an hundred pagans, and the publick offices and posts of trust are filled with men of both persuations." (A New Account of the East Indies, Vol., ii, P. 14.)
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
412
some of the dominant factors which communal harmony and national solidarity.
intercourse were
contributed to
As
this
_ Conclusion. ,
.
comes
to a close,
it
is
that the preceding account hoped r
is
interesting study
,
;
,
sufficient to enable the reader to gauge
the prosperity of those times.
The Mughals have come
and gone, but they have left a lasting impress not only on the history of their times but also on the hearts of of Hindus as well as Hindustan, Their civilizing influence, as seen in their Sulh-i-kul policy, enjoining the freedom of worship and the liberty of conscience, in the protection of the poor,
the
inhabitants
Musalmans.
works of public welfare, in the encouragement of and sciences, poetry and philosophy, in the promotion
in the
arts
and
of education
and commerce,
in
in the abundance of industry the rich efflorescence of fine arts, can be
literature
;
traced not only in the huge mass of historical literature that has come down to us, but also in the beneficial institutions
which have survived
to
our
own
times.
The revenue and
the judicial departments of the present Indian administration teem with terminologies of their invention and in almost every part of
entire
language
of
Modern India the of
administration,
navigation, of is of Muslim
in many an art and craft and bears the stamp of Mughal Rule. Mountains were not yet tunnelled and space was not yet conquered science, in short, had not yet achieved
technique creation
;
The wonder, therefore, is not that the maintained Mughals peace and established law and order througnout the length and breadth of their its
victories.
far-flung Empire, but that they did
it
so admirably.
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t
Ancient Indian Education, Rev. F. E. Keay. Anecdotes of Aurangzeb and Historical Essays, Jadunath Sarkar. Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Lieut.-Col. James Tod. Arabic History of Gujarat, edited by E. D. Ross. Archaeological Survey of Eastern India, Burgess. Archceological Survey of India, Fuhrer. A rchceology of Delhi, Carr Stephen. Architecture at Bijapur, J. Furgusson.
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Commentary
W.
Pathan Kings
of Monserrat, Fr.
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THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
414 Fall of the Fall of the
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Hindustan in Miniature, Shoberl. Historical Fragments, Robert Orme. History of Aryan Rule in India, The, E. B. Havell. History of Aurangzeb, (five volumes), Jadunath Sark
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Bengal, Stewart. History of the Deccan, Jonathan Scott. History of India, A,E. W. Thomson. History of India, Meadows Taylor. History
o1
History of India, The, M. Elphinstone. History of India, Prothero. History of India, H. G. Keen.
History of India as told by Elliot
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its
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J.
Fergusson.
History of the Great Mughals, E. Kennedy. History of the Punjab, Latif .
History of the
Maratha
People,
A Kincaid and ,
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History of theMarathas, Grand Duff. History of Mediaeval India, Ishwari Prasad. History of the Military Transactions of the British Nation in Indostan from the year 1745, A, Robert Orme. History of the Rise of the Muhammadan Power in India, J. Bnggs.
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Cunnigham
Shah Jahan
(edited
of Delhi, B. P,
Indian Antiquary. Indian Architecture, E. B. Havell. Indian Economic Life, Brij Narain. Indian Economics, Jathar and Beri. Indian Painting under the Mughals, Brown.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
415
Indian Year Book, edited by Sir S Keed. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (London). Journal of the Royal Society of Arts. Land of the Five Rivers and Sindh, David Ross. Later Mughals, Irvine. Letters of Aurangzeb, Bilimona.
Life and Exploits of Shivaji, J.
K. A. Sabhasad, translated by
Mankar.
India, The, Abdullah Yusuf Ali. Mediaeval India, S. M. Jaffar. Mediaeval India under Muhammadan Rule, Stanley-Lane-Poole. Memoirs of Babar (translation), Erskine.
Making of
Miniature Painting and Painters of Persia, India and Turkey, Martin.
Jadunath Sarkar. Mughal Kingship and Nobility, Ram Prasad Khosla. Mughal Rule in India, Edwards and Garratt. Muhammadanism. D. S. Margoliouth (H. U. L. S.). Muslim University Journal, Aligarh. New Account of the East Indies, A, Alexandar Hamilton. Aluffhal Administration,
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of East India and Persia, A, Fryer, Oriental Biographical Dictionary, An, T. W. Beaie, edited by .
H. G. Keen.
Oxford History of India, Vincent A. Smith. Peoples and Problems of India. J. W. Holderness (H. U. L. S.). Preachings of Islam, Thomas Arnold. Promotion of Learning in India during Mohammadan Rule, N. N. Law. Report of Industrial Commission (1918). Revenue Resources of the Mughal Empire in India (1593-1707), The,
Edward Thomas. Rise of the Maratha Power, Ranade. Seven Cities of Delhi, Hearn. Shivaji and His Times, Jadunath Sarkar. Short History of India, A, E. B. Ha veil.
Short History of the Saracens, A, Amir Ali. Sikh Religion, its Gurus, Sacred Writings and M. A. Macauliffe. Sketch of the Sikhs, Malcolm.
Authors,
The,
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
416
Some Cultural Aspects of Muslim Rule in India, S. M. Jaffar. Spirit of Islam, The, Amir Ali. Splendour that was 7nd, The, K. T. Shah. Storia Do Mogor, Niccolao Manucci, translated by W. Irvine. Studies in Mughal India, Jadunath Sarkar. Travels in the Mogul Empire (1656-68), Bernier's, translated by Constable. Ouldinburgh ;
,
Travels in India, Tavernier.
Voyage Voyage
to
to
East India. Edward Terry. Sural in 16S9. A, Ovington.
Persian Adab-i-'Alamgin, (a collection of 'Alamgir's letters) written by his secretary Qabil Khan and collected by Muhammad Sadiq of Ambala. Ahkdm-i-'Alamgiri (letters of 'Alamgir) Hamid-ud-Dm Khan Nimchah, translated by Jadunath Sarkar as Anecdotes of
Aurangzeb. Ain-i-Akbari, Abul Fazl, translated
Blochmann and
by Gladwin and then by
first
Jarret.
Akbarnamah, Abul Fazl (N. K. 7'.), translated by H. Bevendge. 'Alamgirnamah, Maulvi Munshi Muhammad Kazini Shirazi (B.J.S.).
Muhammad
Amal-i-Saleh or Shjih Jahan Namah, (B.
Badshandmah, Abdul Hamld Lahorl Badshahnamah, Muhammad Wans.
Kamboh
I. S.).
(B.
Bisat-ul-Ghanaim (Haqiqathai Hindustan), Dabistan-ul-Mazdhib, Mohsin Fani. Dabistan-ul-Mazahib, QSzl Ibrahim. Fatuhdt-i-'Alamgin, Ishwar Das.
Humayun-Ndmah,
Gulbadan
Beveridge. Farhat-ul-NZzirin,
Muhammad
Iqbalndmah, Mo'tamid
Khan
(B.
Banu
Lachmi Naram
Begum,
Aslam. /. S.).
Khulasat-ul-Taivarikh, Sujan Rai (Subhan Rai).
Jama-vt'Tawarikh, Faqir I
Saleh
/. S.).
Muhammad.
.ub-ut-Tawdrikh-i'Hind Brindaban. t
Maasir-i-'Alan'gifi, Mustaid
Khan
Saqi.
Shafiq,
translated
by
BIBLIOGRAPHY
417
Maasir-i-Rahimi, Mullah Abdul Baqi (B. I, S.). Maasir-ul-Umara, Shah Nawaz Khan (B. I. S.). Malfuzat-i-Taimurl, translated by Stewart. Mirat-i-Ahmadi, All Muhammad Khan. Muntakhib-ul-Lubdb, Muhammad Hashim Khafi Khan (B. I. S.). Muntakhib-ut-Taivankh, Abdul Qadir Badaoni, translated by
Ranking
,
;
Rowe.
Odnun-i-lsldm, Jaafar Shard. Styar-ul-Muta'dkhkhtrin, Sayyad
Ghulam
Husain, translated by
Col. Briggs.
Nizam-ud-Din Ahmad.
7 abaqdt-i-Akbari,
Takmil-i-Akbarnamah, Inayatullah. Tdrikh-i'Ferishta,
Muhammad Qasim
Fenshta,
translated by
Briggs.
Tarikh-i-Dakan, Khafi Khan (B. I. S.). Tarikh-i-Rashidi, Mirza Muhammad Waldar l^ughlat, translated
by Ross and
Elias.
Tankh-i-Salatin-t'Afaghana, Ahmad Yadgam Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi, Abbas Khan Sherwanl. Tarikh-i'Shdh Shujai,
Muhammad
Tazkara-i-Ulama-i-Hind Maulvi t
Ma'sum.
Rahman
All.
Tazkarat-ul-Ulama, translated by Sanaullah Khan. Tuzkarat-ul'Saldtin-i'Chaghtaia,
Kamwar
Khan.
Tazkarat-ul-Ulama, Kewal Ram. Tuzk-i-Babari, Zahir-ud-Dm
Muhammad Babar. Muhammad Jahangir.
Tuzk-i~Jahanglri Nur-ud-Din t
1
Waqiyat'i-'Alamgin (Zafarrftmah-i- Alamgin), Aqil Khan Razi. Waqiyat-i-Jahnngiri, translated by Major David Price.
Wiqdyd or Hdldt-i-Asad Beg, Asad Beg. Zubdat-ut-Tawdrikh ShaiKii Nur-ul-Haq. t
Urdu
Muhammad Husain Azad. Alamgir Maulvi Abdul Rahman. Asdr-us-Sanadid, Sir Sayyad Ahmad Khan. Aurangzeb 'Alamgir, Maulana Shibll No'mani. Darbdr-i-Akban Maulana Muhammad Husain Azad. Ab-i-Haydt Maulana t
l
t
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Jamia (Journal
Madans
of
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u>a Ddr-ul-Ulum,
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418
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
Maarif, (Journal of Dar-ul-Musannifm, Azamgarh.) Makctib-i-'Alamgiri, Sayyad Najib Ashraf Nadvi. Salatin-i-Bahmani, Maulana Shibll No'manl. Shir-ul-Ajam. Maulana Shibll No'mani Torikh-i- Hindustan (ten volumes), Maulvi Zakaullah Khan. Tazkara-i-Uldma, Maulana Muhammad Husam Azad. Umara-i-Hunud, Said Ahmad Marahrl. Waqai-'Alamgiri, Chaudhri Nabl Ahmad Sandelvl. Wdqiyvt-i-Dar-ul-Hukumat Dehli, Maulvi Bashir-ud-Din Ahmad.
Waqiyat-i-Mumlihat-i-BijapuY, Maulvi Bashir-ud-Din
Ahmad.
Periodicals
Calcutta Review, The, Calcutta. Hindustan Review, The, Patna.
Indian Antiquary The, Bombay. Hyderabad (Deccan). Journal of Indian History, Allahabad. Jamia (Urdu monthly), Delhi. Journal of the Punjab Historical Society, Lahore. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, London. Journal of the Royal Historical Society, London. Journal of the Royal Society of A rts London. Ma'arif (Urdu monthly), Azamgarh. Modern Review, The, Calcutta. Islamic Culture,
t
Muslim University Journal,
Aligarh.
Twentieth Century, The, Allahabad.
ADDENDUM ON
BABAR'3 DEATH The accuracy
of the story of Babar's
'
'
miraculous death as
told by Allama Abul Fazl and reproduced on pages 21-22 of this book has been called in question by some modern research-
The
authenticity was Professor left the question undecided Dr. Bannerji, the latest biographer o f Humayun. has repeated the story, making a few halting suggestions here and there. Professor Sri Ram Sharma has written an interesting article on the subject and tried to close the controversy for good.* Here I cannot do more than to summarise the results of what I have been able to gather on the subject from various sources. When Humayun fell ill and his illness took a ~enous turn some time in the month of April, 1530, A.C., so much so that the Court physicians failed to cure him, Babar expressed his desire to have recourse to methods other than medicinal. Mir Abul Baqa, the leading living saint of the day attached to the Imperial Court, suggested that the Emperor, in order to save the life of his son, should give away in sacrifice something that was very dear to scholars.
first
to challenge
its
Rushbrook-Wilhams, who, however,
Babar decided to
hi.n.
beloved son.
Some
sacrifice his
own
of his associates
life to save that of his dissuaded him from this
and suggested that the precious Koh-i-Noor, worth '
step
half the
might be given away in sacrifice. But quite in keeping with his romantic nature, Babar argued that 'a life for a life was a better means of persuading fates to change their course of action. Thinking that death might spare Humayun if he resorted to that step, he walked round the bed of his son and prayed that his son's illness might be transferred to O God,' he said, if a life can be exchanged for another him.
daily expenses of the world
',
'
'
'
Babar, give away my life and remaining years to Humayun. His incessant prayers proved too much for him and it may well be said that the fates took him at his word, for he fell ill while his son began to recover till at last he was perfectly well. So far 1
life, I f
the story of sacrifice, popularized by Abul Fazl, is correct and there is nothing in it that can be questioned. But the miracle
*For Review,
Professor Sri
Ram
September, 1936.
Sharma's
article,
see Calcutta
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
420
did not proceed further, for after some time Babar too recovered from his illness and became so well that there was absolutely no cause for anxiety, so much so that Humayun was sent away to
Sambhal because his presence was no longer considered necessaAfter some time Babar was taken ill again and Humayun ry. was called back from Sambhal. On his arrival, Humayun was ill again. He is reported to have him well. Wtmt has happened all at once ? Later, Babar seems to have recovered somewhat, for he is said to have ordered the betrothal of two royal princesses. But again there was a relapse and again his condition became precarious. In order to relieve him of his increasing distress, Humayun held a meeting of the Imperial physicians, who, after due consideration and consultation, unar'rnously came to the conclusion that BS bar's disease was due to the poison administered to him by the mother of Ib rahim Lodhi. They admitted their inability and declared that the disease was incurable. Babar then nominated Humayun as his successor and after three days he expired on Monday, the 25th December, 1530. The foregoing facts, pure and simple, clearly show that there was no connection whatsoever between Babar's death a^id his son's illness. The Imperial physicians would have been, from
horrified to see his father
exclaimed
*
:
I
'
left
the very nature of the case, quite as willing to connect Babar's last illness and death with the miracle (act of God) performed by him at the illness of his sen as Babar himself but the tact ;
that they declared that Babar's last illness was due to the eftects of a poison leaves no room for the miracle to continue and shows that Humayun's illness had nothing to do with his death.
The contemporaries too did not see any connection between the two and the silence of such writers as Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, Abdul Qadir Badaom, Nizam-ud-Din Ahmad and Ferishta on the subject seems to suggest that Babar did not die as a result of the sacrifice he performed for the life of his son.
The
last part of the
death was due to the
sacrifice)
'
saving miraculous story (that Babar's
is,
'
therefore, incorrect.*
* The above piece of information, throwing some fresh light on the subject, ought to have been inserted at its proper place in Chapter II, but it escaped my notice when that part of the book was being printed and hence it finds its place here.
INDEX [Abbreviations.
d/o=daughter of f/ofather of ; Kh=Khawajah ; ;
M.Maulana; m/o=mother ;
A
Prince ;R.
of ; P.
S.^Sayyad Sh.=-Shaikh
;
and s/o* son
Abul Path,
ruler;
of.]
s/o Shaista
Khan,
332
Abul Path, Hakim, 105 Abul Path, Masih-ud-Din,
Abajl Sonder, 321-22 Abbas, Shah of Persia, 185 Abba^ides,
115, 134
164,
169
Abdul Hakim Slalkoti, 279 Abdul Hamid Lahori, 1,224,229 Abdul Haq Dehlawi, 215 Abdullah, Governor of Gujarat,
Abul
Fazl, Allama,
1,106,
110,
113,116,121,132-33,139,162-64.
166-68,225
Abul Hasan, Sultan of Bijapur,
189
351-52
Abdullah Khan Uzbeg.84-5,104,
Adul Hasan, Governor of Bena-
106, 108
Abdullah
res,
296-97
Abul Hasan, Painter, 218 Abul Qasim, s/o Kamran, 85
Makhdum-ul-Mulk,
118, 119, 123
Abdullah, Mir, 175
Achibal Bagh at Kashmir, 219
HumSyun's Court^bdul scholar, 46 AJxlul Mali, Governor of the
Acmal Khan,
Latif,
Adah,
Punjab, 72
Muhammad Shah
Adham Khan,
,
brother, 83-4
129,131-
33,136-37,164-66,170 Irani, Mir, 279
Shah,
'Adil
Akbar's foster-
82; His
rebellion,
All, 190-91, 236, 238,
324, 330-31, 338
Abdun-Nabi.Sh., 118-19,123,170 Abdun-Nabi, Sayyad, 305
Shah, Sikandar, 349-50 Administration under Babar, 22-24 Humayun, 42 ft.;
'Adil
Abdur Rahlm, Diwan of Lahore, 183
,
;
Salim Sher Shah, 56 ff.; Shah, 68-9;-, Akbar, 141-
Abdur Rahim, Khan-i-Khanan.
,
107,109-10,164.169,189-90
Abdur Razzaq, 351-52 Abdus Samad, 151 Abdus Samad, Kh., 173 Abui Faiz
see
'Adil.
Abdul Malik, Kh 42 Abdul Qadir Badaoni, Abdul Qasim
288-89
Acquaviva, Father Rudolf, 90
(Faizi). 121,165,168
61 '
;
,
Jahangir,
213-14
;
,
Shah Jahan, 274;, Shivaj 341-42;-, 'Alamgir, 369-72; the Great Mughals, 379 ff. ,
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
422 Afghans, 289-90 AfrHIs, 160 Afzal Kh5n, 324-25
Careers opened to Rajputs and other Hindus, 87Freedom of worship 8; and liberty of conscience 87
;
His mur-
der, 326
Aghar Khan,
289-90
;
Agriculture, 402
Social reenjoined, 88; 88-9 forms, Rajputs recon-
A had is,
ciled 89;
;
160
Akbar and the
Ahl-i-Bait, 48
Portuguese,
89
Ahl-i-Daulat, 44-5
Portuguese
Mission,
Ahl-i-Murad, 44-5
Second
Ahl-i-Sa'adat. 44-5 AM-i'Tardb, 44-5
Akbar's
Early object, 91 of Akbar, 92; conquests
'Ain-i-Akbari. 139, 163 Ahmad Mirza, 10 Ahmad Mullah, 164
93
A jit
Singh, s/o jaswant Singh,
Akhar, s/o Aurangzeb, see Muhammad Akbar. Akhar the Great, 6 His birth, 39; His early life, 71-2; His ;
Political accession, 72-3 ; condition of India in 1556 A. 73-4
;
Second Battle of
Panipat, 75-6; the Battle, 76; of Sur claimants
Results of
Submission and end of
Third,
90; 91
;
;
Conquest
294309-10 Akanna, 350
C,
,90;
First
ff;
Gondwana,
of
93-8 Mew5r, Gujarat, 98-100;, Bengal, 100-101 Qaqshal rebellion, 101-102; Conquest of Kabul, 102-4: North- West Frontier, 104 Roshanite Movement, 105-106: Conquest of Kashmir, 106-108:, Sind and ;
;
,
,
;
;
Balochistan, 107; 107-108;
,Qandhar,
The Deccan Cam-
paign, 108-109; Conquest of
Ahmadnagar,
109-110
;
-,
Khandesh, 110-11 Extent of Akbar's Empire, 111-12; His ;
last days, 112-13
;
Dm-i-Ilahi, to th<>
Baithe Sur Dynasty, 76-7 ram Khan, 77-8; His fall, Petticoat Govern78-81; ment', 81-2; Akbar's posi-
history of the Saracens, 11415 To the history of Muslim rule in India, 115-16;
Re-
Akbar's orthodoxy, 116-18;
83
Change
;
*
tion in 1564 A. C., 82 bellion of ,
:
Khan Zaman,
Adham Khan, 83
dullah Knan, 84-5,
4
;
,
;
Ab-
,Uzbegs,
Monstrous act of Mu'azzam, 86 Khwajah Akbar and the Rajputs, 86 Matrimonial alliances, ff.;
85-6;
;
114 ff;
;
29
Reference
,
;
The
into liberalism, 118-
Ibadat Khanah, 120-21 ; Document or infallible
Decree, 121-23; Its importance, 123-24; Its effect, 12425 Preliminaries to the ;
promulgation of the Divine
INDEX
423
Faith, 125-26; Its promulga126-27; Its principles,
Branding of horses keeping descriptive
Its philosophic 127-128; review, 127-31 ; Anti-Islamic Their 131-32 ordinances, 132-33 ; Noer's criticism,
161
tion,
;
and
sun-worship, 134-35 Why were boars kept in the 135 Palace ? Imperial Women in the Imperial ;
135-36
sions, 164-65 ; Hindu literature, 165-66 Illustrated Ver;
sions,
an
apostate?
ministration,
Was Akbar
;
138-40; Ad141 ff ; Central
Government, 142-44 vincial Government,
Pro-
;
144-45
;
District administration, 146-
47
Imperial Service, 147-48; Secret Service, 148; Adand ministration of law justice, 148-49 Promotion of education, 149-50;, Postal ;
;
Means of communication and transportaService, 150
tion,
151
;
151
;
Imperial Mints, Police Force, 152 Land
Revenue
;
;
System,
153-57; Military reforms, 157-61 ; In-
fantry, 157;
Artillery,
157-
Cavalry, 158 Navy, 1581 59 ; Elephant- Corps, Mansabdari System, 159 60 System* of payment, 161;
58 9
;
;
;
;
166
;
Muslim CourtHindu
167-70
Scholars,
;
170-72
Court-Scholars, 172-74; Painting,
;
Music, 174-76; Calligraphy, 176; Architecture, 176-78; GarEstimate of dens, 178; Akbar's achievements, 178 79
;
thoughts, 137-38
;
;
the slaughter of cows forbidden ? 136; Why were Mullahs and Shaikhs exiled ? 136 Criticism of Smith's
views on Akbar's religious
ff;
;
Why was
;
162
162-63 Aln-i-Akbarl, 163-64 164 Other Tarikh-t-AJ/i, books, 164 ; Translated Ver-
;
Harem,
and fine Akbarnamah,
Literature
;
arts,
;
appraisal of Badaoni, 13334 Sijdah, 134; Fire-worship
and rolls,
Akbarnamah.
1,
139, 162-3
;
166
Alai.Sh. ,58 'Alamgir, see Aurangzeb
Ala-ud-Dm Khilji, 62,104,161 Ala-ud-Dm Lodhi, 9, 13. 34 All,
All All
Cousin of Babar,
11
Akbar Jam!, Sh., 38 Mardan Khan, 239-40,
243,
271-72 Ali Quli Istajlu
(Sher Afgan),
Marriage with Mehr-un-Nisa, 195 His murder, 195-97 Amar Das, Sikh Guiu, 359-60 ;
Amar
Singh, s/o RanS. PratSp,
98, 186-88
Amatya, 342 'Amil, his duties, 145
Amin-i-Qazwini, Mirza, 228-29
Amir Fath-ullah ShirazJ, 166 Amir Hamzah, Story of, 166 Amir Khan, 2GO Amir-ul-Bahr, 158 Amritsar, Foundation
of,
360
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
424
career, 246-47 ; His resignation and renunciation of the
Amusements, 394
Angad Dev, Sikh Guru,
359
Anti-Islamic ordinances, 131
Archian, Battle
world, 247; His appointment to the governorships of different provinces, 248 : His
ff.
139
Antony Botelho,
of, 11
Architecture, under Babar, 27
second
;
176-78
His achievements, 248-51 forward policy against the Daccan, 251; War against
;-, Jahangir, 218;-,
Sh5h
'Alamgir, 373
;
276-77;-,
Jahan, ;
,
Great Mughals, 395-6 Arghuns, 13 Arjan Singh, Sikh Guru,
the
Golconda, 251-2 Bijapur, 252-53 His charactersketch, 255; His alliance with MuradandShuja', 259 His policy during the War of Succession, 260-67 Motives that actuated him to enter it, 268-69; Causes of his success, 269-71; His accession, 28182 His early acts, 282-83 :
,
;
183-4,
360-61
;
Arjumand Banu Begum (Mumtaz Mahal) 228 Her career, 231-32 Her character, 233 ;
;
;
;
276-7
under Babar,
Arts,
of the
viceroyalty
Deccan and administrative
Sher Shah, 63-4; -, Akbar,
,
HumSyun,
42.
27-30;
47
,
;
,
Sher
Shah, 63-64 ;-, Akbar 172 ;
78;
Jahangir 212, 216-19;-, 27478; Jahan, 'Alamgir, 373; -, The Great ,
Shah
,
Mughals
in general, 385-6
Asaf Khan, Governor of Kara-
Manikpur 93 Asaf Khan, Uzbeg rebel, 85 Asaf Khan, f/o Mumtaz Mahal, 151, 192, 204, 206, 225-28. 231,
;
;
Appointments and
transfers
of Provincial Governors, 283-
84
;
Expedition
against
Assam, 284-5; Conquest of Chittagongr, 285-86; Illness of the Emperor, 286-87 Suppression of the Yusafzais, 287-88; Afridi Rising and ;
Imperial losses, 288 Khattak Close of the Rising, 288-90 ;
;
'
237, 272-3
Asaf Khan, Akbar's general, 97 Astha Pradhan, 342 Askari, Mirza, 20, 33-34,37,39,40 Astronomical Astronomy, 41 ;
Tables of Ulugh Beg, 166
Atka
Khan,
Shams-ud-Din,
228,
239,
'Alamgir, 203, 224, 241-4
;
;
imposition of the Jizia, 29294 Dismissal of Hindu offiDestruction of cials, 294-5 ;
;
temples, 295-6
;
The Benares
Firman, 296-97; Two more 297-98 Firmans, Which temples were dessimilar
Vakil of Akbar, 82
Aurangzeb
Afghan War, 290; Alamgir and the Hindus, 291 ff Re-
His early
troyed and why.'
;
299-300;
INDEX Whether Hindu schools were ? If so, which and
destroyed
why ?
300-301
Toleration
;
under
'Alamgir, 301-302;* 'Alamgir justified, 303-4; Jat Rebellion, 304-5; Satnamis' Insurrection, 305 6; War with the Rajputs, 306-10; Invasion of
Marwar and Mewar, Rebellion
12;
of
310-
Prince
Muhammad
Akbar, 312-13; Treaty of Udaipur, 313-14 Results of the Rajput 314 Revolt, 'Alamgir and the Marhattas. 324; ;
;
Shaista
Khan
sent against
Shivaji, 331-32 of Shivaji, 333; ;
Submission
425 tion under him, 369-71 Re-arrangement of Subahs, 369; Theocratic character, 370 Suppression of immora;
;
370-71
Bait-ul-Mal, Policy of over-centra-
lity,
371
;
;
lization, 371; Justice, 371-72;
of
Progress
education,
Architecture, 373 ; Music and Painting, 373-74 Gardens, 374 ; Character of 372-73
;
;
Alamgir, 374-76; Views of
some
on
Europeans
his
character and achievements, 370-78.
Atharvaveda, 166 Ayarddnish, 166
Commentary on,
Treaty of Purandhar, 333-4; Reception
Ayat-ul-Kursi,
of Shivaji at the
Aivarajah'Nawis, 144 Azad Bakhsh, s/o Dara Shikoh,
Imperial
Capital. 335; His imprison-
ment and
escape, 336-38 ; Recall of Jai Singh and his Renewal of death, 338; the between hostilities the and Marhattas, Mughals 340 Conquest of Bijapur ;
and Golconda, Razzaq, 351-2
349-51; ;
Abdur
Impolicy of
the Deccan Conquest, 352-54; Suppression of the Marhattas, 355 ; Expedition against
Rajah Ram, 357-58; End of Mughal Em'Alamgir, 358 ;
164
267
'Azam,
See
Aurangzeb,
s/o
Muhammad 'Azam 'Azam, Khan, 304 Azan, 131
Azim Humayun, Governor the Punjab, 67 Aziz Koka, Khan-i-'Azam,
of
99,
102, 119, 182-83
B Babar,
Muham-
Zahir-ud-Din
mad, 10-11;
6,
9
ff;
Early of
Conquest
career,
Kabul
pire after his death, 358-59 Suppression of the Sikhs, 365-66 ; 'Alamgir and the
11-12; Political condition of India on the eve of his
English, 366-68; Extent of the Mughal Empire under Alamgir7368-69; Administra-
of Panlpat t 13-14
;
4
1
invasion 12-13
;
First Battle ;
War
with
the Rajputs, 15-16; Battle of Khanwah, 16-17 ; Babar's
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
426
address to his noble-men and soldiers, 17-18; Defeat of
Bakhshi, His duties, 143, 145 Balban, Sultan of Delhi, 104
Rana Sangha and
Bapa Rawal
rout
of
18 Rajput Confederacy, Importance of the Battle of
;
Khanwah, 18-19; Battle of Chanderi, 19-20; Battle of the Gogra, 20-21 ; Extent of Babar's Indian Empire, 21 ;
Story of his death, 21-22; His policy and administra-
Batai System, 230 (s) of Bahadurgarh, 260 Chan,Bairowal, 183-4; deri, 19-20 .Chausa, 37, 53 Dharmat, 260-1;-. the
Gogra, 97
;
Babar's His
estimate, 32
Baba
Khan, leader Qaqshais 102.
of
the
Badr-un-Nisa, 281
Badshah Begum, 281 Badshahnamah, 275-79 Badshahi Masjid, at Lahore, 373
Bahadur Shah, R.
minor R. of 109
,
A. C.),
6-9,
13-14;-,
41
;
,
Surajgarh, 52
Baz Bahadur of Malwa, 83-84, 94 Bernier, 286, 376
Bhagu, 287 Bhagvatagita, 166 Bhagvatapurana, 170 Bhagwant Goshain, 297 Bhagwan Das, Rajah, 87,88,106 Bhakti Movement, 5, 317
Bhao
Singh, Rao, 308
Bnarmal Kachchwaha, Rajah, 87
Bariam Khan (Khan Baba), 72 His
to
the
cause, 77-78; 78-81; 117, 170
His
services
Mughal
BMt-ul-Mal, 371
Singh, Kumar, 311 Bhoja, s/o Rajah Surjana Q6
Ham,
Bihari Lai, Rajah, 171
Bahlol Qadiri, Sh., 279 Bahrain Quli of Gujarat, Instrumental performer, 175
fall,
;
Bhim
Bahadur Shah, Ahmadnagar, Bahar Khan, 51
;
53
38,
18-19 ;-, Panipat
PSnipat (1556 A. C ), 75-6;, Samugarh, 261-2;-, Sarhind,
of Gujarat,
34-37
ff
20-21 ;-Haldig:hat,
Kanauj,
,
(1526
,
31-32;
;
Khanwah,
;
;
;
;
,
;
achievements,
;
,
;
29 Gardens, 29-30
93
Battle
;
Architecture, 77 ; Poetr, 28 ; Music, 29; Painting, 29 The art of illustn ting books,
Me war,
Barwan, painter, 173
His Wasiyat to His account his son, 23-24 of India, 25 His Memoirs, Fine Arts, 27-30; 26-27; tion, 22-24
of
Bargis, 344
Bihzad, 174
Khan, musician, 174
Bilas
Bir Bal, Rajah, 103, His house, 177
Bir
Mandal Khan,
105, 171;
of Gwalior,
175
Bir Narayan, s/o Durgavati, 93 Bir
Singh
Bundela,
112-13;
INDEX His rebellion, 225-26 Bishan Das, painter, 218 Bitikcht, His duties, 146-47
427 under Sher
Currency 62-63
;, Akbar,
Shah,
151 ;-, the
Great Mughals, 408-9
Buland Darwaza, 177 Bundelas, Their rebellion, 225-26 Dabir, 342
Daler Khan, 266. 333, 338 Caliphate, 114-15
Calligraphy, under Akbar, 176 Chahar-taslim, 224 of Chand Bibi (Sultana)
Ahmadnagar, Chanderi, Battle
Chandra Rao
109-10 19-20
of,
of Javli, Rajah,
;
viour during the illness of His defeat
his father. ,257-58
323-346
Chandu Shah,
Dharmat, 261-62;-, at Samug^rh, 261-62 His last stand and tragic end, 266-67 ;
;
268-69
'
Chausar, 393 Chauth, 339-40
300, 302, 304
Dar~ul-Baqa (college), 280 Darya Khan, Lohani, 51 Dastan i-Awir Hamzah, 166, 173
Daswant, painter, 173 D5ud, s/o Sulaiman Kararani of Bengal, 100-101
Daud Dhari, Daud Khan,
Chira, 161
Circumcision, 131
Madrasahs
Daulat
Communication and transporMeans of, under tation,
Dawan
Sher Shah, 60-61 -, Akbar, under the Great 151
Khan
Lodhi, 9, 13-14 Dhari, Sh., 175
Da war Bakhsh, Khusrau,
;
,
musician, 174 'Alamgir's general,
338
of Islam, 114-15
;
;
Dastur-ul-Amal, 181-82, 213
Child, Sir John, 367-68 Chingiz Khan, 10, 32
Commonwealth
De
P., s/o
Laet, 197
Desai, Amir, 45 Dharmat, Battle
Crori, 156-57
Dhrupad, 176 Dial Shah, 311 Dlanat Khan, 284
and
Mughal, 379
civilization, ff.
Prince
205, 223
Mughals, 409-10 Coryat, 404 Culture
;
at
184
Charnock, Job, 368 Chatar Khan, musician, 219 Chaubuni Bagh at Lahore, 374 Chaudhan, 150 Chaugan ,polo), 393 Chansa, Battle of, 37, 53
Colleges, see
39,
Danadhyaksha. 342 Danishmancl Khan, 284 Daniyal, P., s/o Akbar, 110-112 Dara Shikoh, P., s/o Shah Jahan, 203, 228 His character-sketch, 254; His beha-
of, 260-61
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
428
Khan, Governor
Diiawar
Lahore, 183 Garden Dilkusha
of
Nur
of
Jahan, 205, 219 to
ries
its
Espionage, under Sher Shah, 59.60 -, Akbar, 148 other ;
114-40;
Din-i-7/a/it,
English in India, 208-13, 367-68 Escheat, Law of, 213
Prelimina-
promulgation, promulgation,
;
Mughal Emperors.
,
384-5
F
philosophic review, 128-
Abul Faiz Farid, see Sher Shah Famine, of 1630-3*2 A.C., 228-30;
administration, under Akbar. 146-47 under other
Fath, Khan s/o Malik Ambar, 235
Mughal Emperors, 382
Fatawa-i-'Alawgiri, 371 Fatwa*, 120-21
125-26
;
126-27
;
Its
Its
Its principles, 127-28
;
Faizi. see
31
,
District
;
Divine
Din-i-Uahi
see
Faith,
Diwan. His duties, 142-43,144-45 niw
Diwan
i Khas, 277, 371 Dost, of Mashed, Us'vd, 175 Dross in Mughal India, 391-2
Dnda,
s/o
Durga
Das, of
Surjana
Ham,
%
Mowar, 309
Durgavati, Rani, 93
E
relief,~404-5
Faujdvr, His duties, 146 Fazil Khan, Prime Minister of 'Alamgir, 336
Khan i Saman, Amir-ulVmara, 281 Fidai Khan, cfficer under
Fazil
Jahanglr, 204 Fidai Khan, 'Alamgir's general, 290
Economic condition of India Firoz Khan, s/o Salim Shah. 69 Firoz MewatI, 266 during the Mughal Rule, 401
G
ff.
Education, Progress of, under Babar, 22 ; Humayun, 47 :-, Sher Shah, 63;-, Akbar, 149-50;-, Jahanglr,215.16;-, .
Shah
Jahan,
'Alamgir, education,
Gangadhar, Hindu author. 266 Gardens, of Babar, 2930;, Akbar, 174-76;, Jahangir, 216-18 ;-, Shah Jahan, 278 ;
'Alamgir, 374 27980;-, Female Gentows, 302 ,
372-3
Technical Ghallabakhsha, System, 155 System of, 386; Ghazi Malik, 104 Ghias Beg, Mirza, f/o Nur Theory of Royal-, 372-3 Edwardes, William, 209 Jahan, 194-95 215,218 Ghias-ud Din Muhammad Eknath, 318 30 Elephant, Corps under Akbar, Khudamir, 159 Ghias-ud- Din Tughluq, 161 Ghulam Hussain, S., 2 Knayat ullah Khan, 293 ,
149-50
149
;
;
;
INDEX and execution Bairam Khan, 75-76
Gogra, Battle of the, 20-21 Gokle, Jat, 305
Hijra, 224 Hmdal, Mirza, 33, ;
Its functions, 381
64
or,
Granth Sahib,
40
39,
Hindu Beg, Amir, 44 Nasir-ud-Din H u rn a y u n Muhammad, Mughal Emper,
Govind Singh, Sikh GUI u, 363-
Grand Trunk Road,
by
(1556),
Gopinath Pant, 327-28 Gopinath, His temple, 177 Government, Mughal, 380
429
22,
409
183, 359, 361, 366
Gurmukhi alphabet, 359
H
22-23,
16,
marriage
Banu Begum, of the
34
with 38
His Harnida
ff
;
Division
;
Empire among
his
Habib-us-Siyar, 30, 46
brothers, 33 ; Political condition of India and his posi-
Haibat Khan of Samna, 215 Haidar Mirza, of Kashmir, 54
tion at his accession, 33-34; Kamran'f occupation of the
Haldighat, Battle of, 97 Hafiz Tashqandi, 170
Punjab acquiesced in by him, H-35; His war with
Hamfda BSnu Begum, Akbar's
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, 35-37; His war with Sher
mother,
38, 72
Hamilton, Alexander, 301-302
Khan Afghan,
Hamzah, musician, 219
days
Haribansa, 166 Han Das, musician, 175 Haii Nath, 171 Har Govind, Sikh Guru, 361 HarKishan. Sikh Guru, 362-163 Har Rai, Sikh Guru, 361
39-49 ; Persia, Conquest of Kabul and Qandhar from
genious works, 42
Hasan AH, Faujdar,
ministration,
305
m exile,
Kamran, 40; tion,
40-41
lishments,
;
His
37-38; 38-39
,
;
in
His restoraHis accomp-
His inHis adHis 42-44;
41-42;
;
Sher Shah, 50 Hasan Khan Mewati, 18 Hasan, Kh., 43
Drum of Justice, 43 ; Classification of the people, 43 ;
Havildar, 344
43
Hasan,
f/o
Hawkins, 209
;
Captain William, His account of Jahan-
gir's reign, 213
14
Hayat-ul-Haiwan, 165 Hazari, 344 Pan; -, 344 Hemu, 69 His assumption of independence, 74 ; His defeat ;
at the Battle
of
Panipat
Fixture for giving audience, ^Twelve sub-divisions, ; Court-Scholars, 46;
43-44;
His love of libraries, 46-47; Progress of education under His gardens, 47 him, 47 His religious beliefs, 48 His ;
;
;
character and estimate, 4849
Hussain Beg BadakhshanJ, 183
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
430
under Christian
Hussain, Sh., professor, 46
education
Hussdin Shah, R. of Ahmad-
missionaries, 91 ; His views about Akbar, 138 ; His ac-
nagar, 235
Hussam Shah
R. of
Sharqi,
Jaunpur, 176
Hussain Waiz, M., 166 Ibadat Khanah, 89, 120-21 Ibrahim Khan Sur, 69
Lodhi,
Sultan,
10,
Imad-ud-Din, Hussain, Kh. 151 Imad-ul-Mulk, 36-37 Indar Singh, 309-10 Industries, Textile, 405
186-88
;
Deccan Campaign, 188-91 Malik Ambar, 189 Almiad-
Decree,
121-23; 123-24
194, 215,
;
Its
Its
218
Khan, 304
Usman's rebellion in Bengal Bubonic plague, 194 Murder of Sher Afgan, 195-
98
;
;
marriage Mehr-un-Nisa, 198 Nur Jahan's accomplishtier valour, ments, 199 Tower behind the, 199; Jahanjjlr's
;
;
;
gal. 193
Her influence, Her character, of Shah 201 Rebellion of Maha201-203, Jahan, bat Khan, 203-205; Shah Jahan's subsequent move-
throne'. 200
200 201
Islam Khan, Shah Jahan's general, 225 Itimad Khan, Minister of Muzaffar Shah IJ of Gujarat, 99 Itimad Khan, Akbar's minister, 152
;
;
;
;
War of ments, 204-205; The Succession, 205-206 ;
see
Ghias
Beg
Portuguese, 207-208 English, 208 William ;
;
J Jahan Ara Begum, d/o
kins
Shah
Jahan, 228, 247
Jahangir, Nu
(
nagar, 1 K)-01 ; Subsequent career of P. Khusrau, 190 His character, 192; 92;
with
Ishaq Dhari, Mullah, 174 Islam Khan, Governor of Ben-
Itimad-ud-Daulah,
;
193
effects, 124-25
Isa
;
;
Ibrahim, Governor of Bengal, 368
Iqbalnamah,
:
jugation of Mewar,
Ibrahim, Mir. 30
importance,
P.
;
182-84
;
6,
13-14, 16. 19
Infallible
Khusrau's Execution of Guru Arjan, 184; Loss of Qandhar, 184-86 Conof 186 Subquest Kangra,
Nauroz, 182
revolt,
I
Ibrahim
cession, 180; Dastur-ul-Amal Celebration of first
181-82;
The Haw-
and William Edwardes,
209; Sir Thomas Roe, 20910 Foreign accounts of ;
r-ud-D
I
n
Jahangir's
reign
Muhammad, Mughal Emper-
veracity,
210-11
or; His marriage, 87, 98, His
description of
and ;
their
Roe's t
Mughal Court
INDEX and
its customs, 212-13 His description of Jahangir's
Jaswant Singh, Rajah, 'Alam-
;
212
character,
personal
294 10
;
;
;
333
338-39
;
Their rebellion 304-5
Jats,
Jauhar,
Humayun's
Literary of his Court 215 Pro-
Jauhar,
rite
Jananglr's
;
214-15
letters.
;
of education, 215
Fine Arts, 216-19 216-17
;
;
Painters.
chitecture, 218
Gardens,
219
Painting, 217 ; Ar-
Music, 219;
;
;
character, 219 20
Jahangir's His love
;
Nurjahan and other
latives,
220-21
tastes, 221 beliefs,
;
;
re-
His refined His religious ;
,
Jijabai,
Shivaji, 319-20 292-94 ; 314, 383
Jiwan Khan, Malik, 267 Jodhabai, Her palace, 177
Johar f Smgh Bundcla, 275-26 Jugal Kishor, rtis temple 177 Justice. Administration of,
under Hmnajun. 43
Shah Ba bar's younger bro-
Suri, 58-59.
Sher
;
;
Akbar,
148-49 Jahangir. 180 81,; Shah Jahan, 274, ShivaiJ, 343,. 'Alamgir, 371-2 under the Mughal Emperors in ;
ther, 11
;
Jahangir Dad, musician, 219 Mahal, 177, 218 ,
;
218
general,
Jai Mai, 94-5
382-3;
justice, 180
Jai Singh, Rajah, 260,
Cham
Drum
;
of
of-, 43
K
283, 333-
38 Jai Singh.
m/o
Jizia, 4, 65, as
222
Jahangir,
servant, 46 the RajpQts,
Jesuit Missions to Akbar, 89-91; To Jahangir, 207-208
His estimate,
221;
among
20-95
;
motion
for
His treachery, 308 309
;
love of
213-14
gems
general, 261, 286, 288,
gir's
;
Hawkins* account, 213 Administration under Jahangir,
431
Kablr, religious leader, 400
Rana of Udaipur,
jalal, leader of the
313
Kalilddamnah, 166
Roshanites,
Kalmi Bhakar, 326
Kam
105
Khan, s/o Bahar Khn, 52 Jalal Khan, s/o Sher Shah, see Salim Shah Sun Jalal
Jalal-ud-DIn Mirza Beg, Kh., 43 Jamaldar. 344
Jamal Khan, 50-51
Jama
Bakhsh, s/o 'Alamgir, 357
Kamil Khan. 288 Kamran, M'rza,
33-35,
39-40,
Kanauj, Battle of, 38, 53 Karan, Rai, s/o Rajah
Amar
53,72
Kamwar KhSn,
Masjid, 277 Jama-i-Rashidi, 164
Kama,
Jam
Karkuns, 147
Beg, Mirza of Thatta, 107 Janb, 153 ;-; System, 250 .
.
2
Singh, 187 s/o
Rajah Ram, 357
Kautilya, 342-43
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
432
Kavi Kulesh (Ka 10 shah), 355 Khali Khan, historian, 274 Khair-ud-Dm Rumi, M 170
Lala Beg (Baz Bahadur),
Khali ullah
Khan
Khan Jahan,
'Alamgir's general,
I
284
309
La il a- Ma] nun, lf>8 Land Revenue System, under Sher Shah, 57-58 -, Akbar, 152-57;, Shivaji, 343;-, the Great Mughals, 402 3 Lashkar Khan, 284 ;
Khan Jahan
Loclhi,
general, 189
Khan
libra-
rian, 47
,
;
Akbar's
His revolt, 226
Shah
Jahan,
Jahan's
general, 238
Khansaman,
Libraries, 46, 166, 168 Litvan, 177
143
Khan Zaman, His
rebellion, 83,
Lub-ut-Tawankh, 46 Lutf-ullah, Kh., 42
85-86
M
Khan Zamari, Shah Jahan's general, 238 Khanwah, Battle of, 16
Madan Mohan, His ft
;
Its
importance. Khattaks, Their rising, 288-90
Madan Pandit, 318 Madhu Singh Hada,
Khawan Saldr, 144 Khawas Khan, 316 Khirdafzdndmah, 165 Khtyal, 176
Khudamir, Muhammad,
44,
"
ral,
187,
199,
20fl03
rebellion, 203-4
90
Khusrau, P. s/o Jahangir, 113; His His rebellion, 182-84 ;
subsequent career, 191-92 His character, 192, 200-201 Roe on his His death, 202 ;
;
;
Khusrau
Kh., 279
Kishu Joshi, 166 t
21,
;
-,
Mahabat Khan, Mughal gene-
Khush-hal Khan Khattak, 288-
219-20
Kotwal, His duties, Krishna j I, 327
279-80
Jahan, Alamgir, 372-3
46
Khulasat-ul-Akbar, 30
Koh-i-Noor
of
Shah
Khizvnddr, His duties, 147
Khwand Mahmud,
241-42
Babar, 22 ;-, Humayun, 46-47;, Akbar, 149 ;, Jahangir, 215-16;-,
Madrasahs,
character, 212, 221; Bagh, 192
temple, 177
Madanna, Minister ot Qutb Shah of Golconda, 350
146, 152
;
His
205,226,284,
;
286, 289
Mahabharata, 165-66
Maham
Ankah, 81-82
Mahapattar, musician, 275, 278 Maharashtra, 5, 7, 315-16
Maheshmahananda, 166
Mahmud II, R. of Bengal, 54 Mahmud Lodhi, 20-21 Mahmud Shah of Bengal, 52 Majnun Khan Kakshak, 96 Makhu, musician, 219 Maldeva of Mewar, 38, 55 Malfuzat-i-Taimu?i
t
1.
INDEX Malik Anibar, 189-91,202 Mahka-i-Zaman, see Arjumand
Banu Begum
aj;aiiiht Assam, 281-85 Mir Masum, Mughal general,
107
.
Malik Jiwan Khan, 207 Malik Masaud, 194-95 Mallu Khan of Bengal, 54 Mansabdars, 158-80 Man Singh, Rajah, 88,97;
433
MJrTaqiShaiili, Amir, 170, Mohtasibs (censors of public morals), 59; Their duties, 143, 283 103,
Mojmii'adar, 342
113,159,171, 180,182-83, 193 Mansiir, Imperial Du&an, 101 Mansur, Us tad, 217-18
Monserrat,
Manucci, Niccolao. 274 Memoirs of Babar, 26 27 Memoirs of Jahangir, 194 Marhattas, 5, 7, 236 Their cha-
Moll Masjid, 277
qualities,
316-
17; Their religion, 317-18; Their early training, 318-19 Their rise and growth under ;
Shivaji, 319
Masum
90
291,293, 306, 311
;
and
racter
Fr.. 2.
Mosques, destroyed by Hindus,
ff.
Farankliudi of Jaunpur,
102
Ma'ajjam-ul-Hulddn, 104 Mu*azzam, Kh., 86
Pt s/o Aurangzeb, Muhammad Mu'azzam
Mu'fl^zam, see
Mubarak,
119-21, 168-69
fc
Mubanz Khan,
see
Muhammad
Shah 'Adil MudSr Rao, 318 Muflis, Mir/a, 170 Muflis, 148-9
Ulawahs, 321 Mazi, Sh. 30
Mughal Court,
Muhammad
f
Medni Rao of Chanderi, 19-20 Mehr un-Nias, see Nur Jahan Mian Chand. musician, 174 Mian Lai musician, 174 flints, Imperial, 150 Miran Bahadur, R. of
Khandesh,
R. of
Bijapur, 236-37, 252-53
Muhammad A
k b a
r
,
P. s/o
'Alamgir, 311; His rebellion, 312-13
281, 286, 289, 310,
la, 285,
s/o
Mir Jum-
287-88
Muhammad Amin, Ustad. 175 Muhammad Amin Oazwini, 276 Muhammad 'A/cam, P. s/o
110
4
Mir-i-Adl, 149
Alamgir, 281 ,31 1,349, 357
Muhammad Fargha.ll, M., 44 Muhammad Fazil BadafcLsha-
Mir-i-Arz, 144 Mir-i-Atash, 157 Aftr-t-Bofcri, 144
nl,
Mir-i-Barr, 144 Mir Jumla, 251-52, ;
splendour, 391
Muhammad Amin,
Mir Lahon, Sh., 279 Miran Sadr Jahan, 139-40
career, 284
Its
'Adil Shah,
266;
His
His expedition
Mullah, 279
Muhammad Hadi, 214 Muhammad Hakim, Mirza, 74,85,102-103,124-25
73>
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
434
Muhammad Hussam,
Uslad,
l/j
Muhammad Khan Dhan, muMu'axzam,
P., s/o
Alamgir, 281, 286, 308, 31112, 333, 338, 349
Muhammad Nadir Samarqandi,
Musir. under Babar, 29; Akbar, - Jahangir, 219 ;~, 174-76 ;
Shah Jahan.178; -'Alamgir, 373-4
Mustafa.
painter, 278
Muhammad Shahabadi.Sh., 160 Muhammad Shah Adil, 09, 70, *
Commander
Muhammad
Sultan,
P.,
s/o
Alamglr, 203, 281 Muhammad Yazdi, Mullah, 124
Muhammad Xaman,
34
Musta'id K^an, 301
Mu'tamid
Khan,
Mukhlis Khan, Amii, 335 Mukhya Pradhan, 342 Mullahs, 116; exiled by Akbar, insulted by Rajputs, 131
Mu/affar Hussam, King of Oan-
;
Muzaffar Khan, Mint Odirer,150 Muzaffar KhanTurbati, 101, 152, 155
Muzaffai Shah 99
11,
U. of Gujarat
:
N
311
Mumtaz Mahal, see Arjumand Banu Begum Munawwar, Sh., 105 Munim Khan, Governor ol of
Abul Path, 104
Muqaddams, 147 Murad, P., s/o Akbar,
I
Jaru, musician, 174
100, 109-
Narsu, 318
Nasim Bagh,
P. s/o
241
Najabat Khau, 2A Nail and Damyanli, 165 Nanak, Baba, Sikh Guru, 359
Naqib Khan, 165, 215 Narsingh Dev Bundela, 304
112
Murad,
Xaik, 344
Nanak
Bengal, 101
Munshiat
228,
historian,
214-15
dhar, 108
Ali Sayyadi, M., 279
10,
in-Chief
of Bijapur, 322
Muslaufi, 144
73, 77
Muhib
Ahmad-
of
nagar, 235-37 Mushaeras, 28
Mushnf, 144
sician, 174
Muhammad
Murtaxa Nizam, R.
;
Shah Jahan, His
203,
character-
sketch, 255-56 ; His coronation, 260 : His part in the War of Succession, 261-62 ;
His execution, 264-65, 322
Muran Jogdeva,
319
Murshid Quli Khan, 249-50 Murtaza Khan, 182, 186
178
Nasq, system, 155 Nasrullah Mustafa, 106 Nathuji, 337
Nauroz, celebrated by Jahangir, 182;-, Shah Jahan, 227-28; discontinued by 'Alamgir, ,
283
Navy, under Akbar, 158-59 '
Shivajl, 345
;
,
INDEX Nawan Kal Bagh
at Lahore, 374
435 10, 13-14;
Panchanlantra, 166
Nazirl, Sh., 279
Panj-hazaris, 165
Nazir-i Buyutat, 144
75-76
Second-,
NayayMish, 342-43
Parshotam, 165
Nazr Muhammad, King
of Bo-
Parvez,
s/o Jahanglr,
P.,
Patwari, 147
Ni'mat-ullah, 215 Nishat Bagh, at Kashmir, 210
Patta, Chittor's hero, 94 Peacock Throne, 277
Ni/am, water
Peshwa, 342
203
carrier, 53
;
187,
His death, 205
khara, 240-42 Notoji Polkar, 338
Peter Mundi, 229, 274 Nizam Sh., 372 Nizam ud-Din Ahmad, 164 Pinjor Garden, 374 Nur Jahan, Empress, 185-86, 192; Pir Muhammad, 84, 170 Her birth, 194 Her access Pirzada, musician, 174 to the Imperial Palace, 195 Pbgue, 73. 194 Her marriage with Sher Police under Sher Shah, ;
;
Murder of her Afgan, 195 husband, 195 97 Her marriage with Jahangfr, 198 Her ;
;
;
accomplishments, 199; Her valour, 199; 'Power behind the throne,' 200; Her influence on the State, 200-201 ;
Her character,
201
presence of mind sourcefulness, 204
;
Her
;
and
re-
Close of
her career, 206, 218, 220-21, 223
Nusrat Shah, R. of Bengal, 21
under Babar,
59; other Mughal ,
Emperors, 384 Political
condition of
India,
379-89
Their relations Portuguese with Akbar, 89-91 with with Jahangir, 207-208 ;
;
Shah Jahan, 230
,
,
;
31
Babar 22;-, Sher Shah, 61 ;-, other Mughal Akbar. 150 Emperors, 385
Postal Service, under
;
,
Singh, 97-98
;
186, 346
Purandhrfr, Treaty
P Painting,
,
Pratap Singh, Rana, s/o Udai
114-15, 128
392-93
Ornaments,
;
Potdar, see Khizandar
O Ommayads,
Akbar. 152
Purbm Khan,
29;,
Akbar, 172-74;-, Jahanglr, Shah Jahan, 278216-18; ,
'Alamgir, 373-74 Panchdyat system, 59, 343
79;,
333-34
Q Qanungos, 147 Oaqshals, a Chaghtai tribe Their rebellion, 101-102
Qasim Beg, 164 Qasim Khan <>f Bengal,
Pandari, a tax, 282 Piinipat, First Battle of-,
of,
175
fi,
0,
;
?3l,
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
436
Ofisim Khan, Akbar's general, !'*>
Oasim, instrumental performer, 175
Qans, 58, 148;, bound and shaved by KajpDls, 311
Ram
Singh, Rajah, 207, 338
Rana Prasad, 38 39 Rana Sangha His ;
invitation
to Babar, 13; His defeat, Hid; HIS death, 20, 03 Rand a ula Khan, 322
Oart ul Quzat, 148
Ranilt Singh, Rajah, u
OuHrh Khan, 150 Qulich Muhammad,
Rang Mahal, 277 Rang Sen, musician,
182
Onr'an, thrown into
>vells
by
RajpOts, 311
Our Bcgi, 1 \4 Outh nd Din Koka,
Itayyaiiwm system,
Kazmndmah.
100
R Rndandax Khan,
Rahmat
51, 58
l()5-uo
Religious features, 305-401 206
Ragnath. Raiah. *81
Knhdan. a
171
Raushan /Vra Begum. 228, 286; Her garden at Delhi, 374
lax, 282
ullnh, rnusii ian, \1\
Rai Karan, Rana, 336 Rai Singh, Raidh, 338 Raia Ah, R. of Khandesh, 110 Rajah Rain s/o Shiva ji, 35f>-57
Raiah Ram, leader
ol the
Jats
305
Roe, Sir Thomas, 2; His view* on Akbar's religion. 130; He concessions secures trade from Jahangir, 200-10; His description of Mughal Court and its customs, 211-12 His ;
of
description
Jahanglr's
character, 202; His account of fine arts in Mughal India, 212-16.
Rajputs, defeated by Babar, 15 Rudolf Acquaviva. Fr. 00 ff. reconciled by Akbar 86-80; Rustarn Khan, 243-44 f
;
135-36; reduced to submission by Alamgir, 306-14 '
S Sa'adullah Khan,
Shah Jahan,
UajtaKingvni, 160
Minister ol
241-44,273, 281
Kamachant ananas, 171 Sarhivo, 342 Sadiq Halwl, Mullah, Kamayana< 165-171 Ram Chandra, Rainh of Kalm- Sadr, 145 ]ar,
Ram
%
Rajah,
Das,
Akbar's
Das,
Shiva ji's
H8
t
spiritual
teacher, 318. 320
Ram Ram
Sartr-i-Sudur. His duties, 143, Sahm-ud-Daulah, 44
Sdhm-ul-\furad 45
general, 182
Ram
170
Sahm-us-Sa'adat, 44 Sahuji, s/o Sambhuji, 337
Das, Sikh Guru, 360
Said Khan, Jahanglr's general,
Das, musician, 174-75, 278 Kdmjiwan, Goshain, 208 Ram Rai, Sikh Guru, 362 63
Said KhanjGovernor'of Kabul,
183 230-40
INDEX Salabat Khan, 226 Salim P., s/o
Akbar,
see
Jahangir SalimS Sultana, 196-97 Salim Chishti, Sh., of Ajmer, 117
Salim Shah Sun, 40. 44, 66 ff Reducti on of Malwa and the Punjab, 67 Execution ;
;
of Sh. Alai, 68 Sambhaji, 313
Samugrah, Battle
of, 261-62
185-88, 190-9~i, 200-201
or, 7,
His
rebellion,
114-15, 128, 130
225-26;
Jahan Lodhi,
227-28
;
The Por-
;
;
rite among the Rajputs, prohibited by Akbar, 88 t
ter,
Satnamis' rebellion, 305-06
Shah
233;
;
operations in the War with 236;
Sawar, 160
Deccan,
Sayurgkals, 145
Bijapur, 236-37
Mashed,
Mir,
175
Jahan's
policy, 233-34; War Ahmadnagar, 234-36
Deccan
with Further
Satlburj, 177
;
of Golconda, 237
Subjugation Bijapur,
,
;
Shah Jahan's Central Asian Policy and his attempts 237-39;
Sayyad All Tabrez, 173 Sayyad Banda, 328, 330 Sayyad Bukhara of Gujarat, 279 Sayyad Khan, 182 Secret Service, see Serais, 60, 61, 150
ShSdman,
226-27; Cele-
Nauroz.
War with tuguese 230-31 them, 231 Career of Mumtaz Mahal, 231-32; Her charac-
SarOd Khan, musician, 174
Ali of
;
His
of Johar Singh, Revolt of Khan
Bamine, 228-30;
Saracens, Sarhind, Battle of, 41 Sarainaubat, 342-44
Sayyad
201-3;
subsequent movements, 2046; His coronation, 206; His character as described by Roe, 212, 215; His accession, 223; His early acts, 225;
bration of
Sanapati, 342
Sati
Shah Ismail II of Persia, 195 Shah Jahan, Shahab-ud-DinMuhammad, Mughal Emper-
Rebellion
335, 337-39, 355-56
SambhQjl,
437
general
Espionage of
Mirza 103
ShahSb-ud-Din Khafi, 46 Shahab-ud-Din, M., 30 Shahbaz Khan, Akbar's gener~~~
Shah Beg Khan, Shah Lara, 219
185
acquire
Central
his
Asian
possessions, 239-46 Recovery of Qandhar, 239;
40; Conquest of Balkh
Badakh*shan, 240-43
Muhammad Hakim,
"~al, 102
to
and
Qandhar recover
it,
;
failure
243-45;
and
Loss of to
Failure
of Central Asiun Policy and Fratriciits results, 245-46 ;
dal War 255 59;
and
its
genesis Jahan's behaviour during the War,
258 59
;
Shah
His captivity, 262-63
;
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
438
H i s administration, 274 Progress of fine arts under his patronage, 174-78; His philomathy, 278 79 Literary ;
Sher Afgan,
see All Qull Istajlu Sheri, Mullah, 165 Sher Shah Sun, 33 34, 38, 46, 49,
jems of his Court, 279; Promotion of learning, 279His character and 80;
His early life, 50-51 ff. His early activities, 51-52; Occupation of Bengal, 52; of Bengal Recovery by
estimate, 280
Humayun,
;
Sh5hji Bhonsla,
f/o Shivaji, 235,
237-38; 247, 31924, 331-32
Shah Muhammad, Ustad, Shah Mansur, Kh., 150
Battle
;
Conquest of
53,
165,
192, 200, 203, 205-6
136 '
against
His
Shivaji,
dealings ;
with
367
ff.
Adminis-
;
Division
;
Organization
;
59;
Force,
of
Secret
Service, 59-60; Tariff System, 60; Means of communication 61
and transportation,
:
60-
Postal
61 Service, 61-62 reforms,
Military
; :
62-63
; reforms, of public welfare, 63 ; 63-64 ; Sher Architecture,
Currency
Shakti (goddess), 364
Works
Shambhuji, Shivaji's uncle, 321 Shalamar Bagh, at Delhi, 278 ; at Kashmir, 219;, at
65
Lahore, 272, 278 Shamsher Khan, 288
of
Empire, 56-57; Land 57-58 ; Revenue System, Administration of justice,
the
Police
Shaista Khan, Alamgir's uncle, His conquest of 267, 283; Chittagong, 285-6; His ex-
the
Punjab and Gakhar land, 54;-, MSlwa, 5455;-. in
58-59
Shaikh Mir, 284
of
Kan-
Battle of
;
Rajputana, 55 56
Shaikhs, exiled by Akbar, 131,
the English
52
Chausa, 53
tration, 56
106, 159
Shahryar, P. s/o Tahangir,
pedition
;
;
auj,
176
Shdhndmah, 165
Shah Rukh, Mirza,
331-32;
50
Shah's ideal of kingship, His estimate, 65-66, 152, ;
161, 169
Sher Shah
Shams-ud-Dm Muhauimad At-
Shah
II,
s/o
Muhammad
Adali, 83
ka Khan, Akbar's Minister, 82; Stabbed to death by
Shihab
Adham Kban,
Ship-building, industry, under the Mughals, 406-7
Law),
84
(Muslim
Shariyat
Personal
116-17, 224, 370, 380
instrumental
Khan,
performer, 175
His early His robberies,
Shivaji Marhatta, 5
;
Sharunavis, 342
life,
Sharza Khan,
321-22; Seizure and release of 322-24 ; his father,
322, 349
319-21;
'
Shastri, 343
INDEX Massacre at Javli, 323 His with Alamgir ;
439 345-47
*
alliance
against Bijapur and perfidy* 323-24; His meeting with Afzal Khan, 324-25 ; Murder
Shivaji
356
II,
Shivaji III, 357-58 Shuhrat-i(Public l
Am
Works
Department), 22
Khan and
rout of Shuja', P., s/o Shah Jahan, 228, 241 His character- sketch, Treachery of His 354-55, 260 His fate, 265-66 326-30; Shivaji, conquests, 330; Sultan of Shuja'at Khan, Governor of Malwa, 67 Bijapur's attack on him, His declaration of Shuja'at 330-31 Khan, Alamglr's His atindependence, 331 general, see Radandaz Khan tack on Shaista Khan at Sidl Johar, 330-31 of Afzal his
army, 325-26
;
;
;
'
;
;
night, 331-32; Sack of Surat, 332 Assumption of indeHis subpendence, 332-33 ;
;
mission
to
'
Alamgir, 333
;
Sijdah, 127, 131, 134, 224 Sikaildar Lodfci, SultSn, 13 Sikandar Sur, 40, 41, 69-70, 76-77
73,
Sikhs, 6, 7 Their Gurus, 359-64 ; Treaty of Purandhar, 333-34 Their religion, 359-64 Their His visit to the Imperial His recepsuppression Capital, 334-35; by Alamgir, 365-66 tion, 336 His misbehaviour, 335 His imprisonment and Siledars. 344 escape, 335-38 His assump- Sinan, architect, 27 tion of the title of Rajah, Sipahsalar, 144 339 Exaction of Chauth and Sipahr Shikoh, P., s/o Dara Surdeshmukhi from Bijaptir Shikoh, 266-67 andGolconda, 339-40; Re- Slavery, 394 ;
;
;
'
;
;
;
;
newal
of
and
hostilities
Social
condition
of
India,
389-94 sack of Surat for the second time, 340; Coronation of Sri Gian Khan, 174 His further Subahs, 144 Subahdars, 144 Shivaji, 340-41 Extent of Subhan Khan, musician, 174 conquests, 341 his Kingdom, 341 ; His civil Succession, Law of, 379-80 ;
;
;
Adadministration, 341-42 ministrative divisions of his Kingdom, 342 Administra;
;
tion of justice, 343; Revenue System, 343 ;
Sukracharya, 342-43
Sulaiman KararSiti of Bengal, 100
Land Sulaiman, Mill-
tary Organization, 344-45 ; His fleet, 345 ; His estimate,
Mirza, Humayun's cousin, 33, 74, 104
Sulaiman Shikoh,
P., s/o
Shikoh, 260-61; His
Data tragic
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
440
yun, 46
fr*e,267
Sultan Haji, Thaneswari, 165 Sultan Hashim of Mashed, 175
Sumant, 342 Surajgarh, Battle of, 52 Surat, Sack of, 332, 340 Sur Das, blind bard, 171
Surjana Hara, Rajah, Svrdeshmukhi, 339-40
;
(?),
%
300
Todar Mai, Rajah,
(Drum
Tahir Khan, Faujdar of Jodhpur, 310
105,
102,
88,
151-53,
99 100,
155,
159,
170-71
Toleration
under
the Great
Mughals, 381, 411 , Tomb(s), of Sher Shah, 63 Humayun, 177;, Akbar, 177 desecrated by Jats, 218 ;-, Sh. Sallm 203. ;
10-12, 24, 239
Tahmasp, Shah Taj Mahal,
destroyed by 'Alamgir 295 ;-> by Shah Jahan,
Terry, 192
of Justice), 43 Tabqat-i-Akbari, 164 Tahawar Khan, 310, 312
TaimQr,
;
,
T Tabl'i-Adl
Tegh Bahadur, Sikh Guru, 363 of Gobind Dev, Vemple(s) Gopi Nath, Jugal Kishor and Madan Mohan, 177, 304
of Persia, 39
232-33, 237, 275-77
Takht-i-Taus
t
see
Peacock
Throne
,
Sen, Akbar's musician, 174
Khan.
Court-
Muhammad
Chishtl, 177;-,
Ghaus, 177
Tan
Tantarang
;
;,
Mirza Ghias,
218
Trade, Foreign, 405-61 Akbar's
Court musician, 174 Taqarrab Khan, 355
Tuka Ram,
318
Tulsi Das, Hindu poet, 171 Tuzk i-Jahangiri, 139, 214 15
U
Taqqavi loans, 156
TSra Bai, w/o Rajah Ram,
357-
of, 313-14
Udaipur, Treaty
Udai Singh, Rawal, 18 Udai Singh, s/o Rana Sangha,
58
Tardi Beg, 75
93, 96-97
Tarikh-i-Badaoni, 164
Ulugh Beg, 166
Tankh-i-Alfi, 164 Tarikh-i-Ferishta, 2 Tariff system, under Sher Shah,
60
;
His Astronomi-
cal Tables, 166
Umar Shaikh,
Mirza, f/o Babar,
10
Tash Beg of Xipchak, 175 Tatar Khan, 34
Umar Naqshbandi, Usman,
Kh., 204
193
Tauhid-i Ilahi, soe Din-i-llahi Taxation, 383
Uzbegs, 11-12,85.86,104
Tavernier; 274
Vakil, His duties, 142. Vaman Pandit, 318
Tazkirat'UW-Waqiyat'i
-
Huma-
V
INDEX Verinag Bagh at Kashmir, 210 Von Noer, on Akbar and Ba-
W Wah Baghat Hasan
Abdal, 210
}Va
7,
2S7 88, 330
Z
W,
ZabtZ system, 155
147
bar's, 23-24
of Succession
;
tho sons of Bahar,
,
among 34-35
;
Akbar, 182-3;-, Jahangir, 205-6;-, Shah Jahan, 254 ,
Zafarnamah. 166
Xam Xam
Khafi, 30
Khan, Akbnr's
status of,
30-1
X Xavier, Fr Jerome, 2
Y Yaqfib s/o Yusaf Shah of Kash-
general,
106
Zannnbos, 224 ^a/, 160 Zrl) un-Nisa,
2W
if.
Woman,
Yusaf/ais, 103, 105
115
Waqlyat i Rohan. 1()4, 160, 214 Wasiyyal Hawaii Makhfi, Bfi-
War
mir, 107
YasD Pandit, 318 Yusaf of Herat, llstad, 175 Yusaf Shah, R. of Kashmir, 106
claom, 133 34
Wahdl,
441
Zia-ud
Dm,
Ximmis, 29^
Aurangzeb,
d/o
t Mir/a, 270 ff
Xubdcit-un-Nisa, 281 Zulliqar
Khan,
general, 356 57
Aurang/eb's
BY THE SAME AUTHOR
EDUCATION IN MUSLIM INDIA Being an Inquiry into the State of Education During the Muslim Period of Indian History 10001800 A C.)
WITH A FOREWORD BY PROF.
HAROON
M.A. (Oxon
Head
),
K.
SHERWANI
K.R.Hist.8., F.R.S.A., etc.
of the Department of History
Osmania University Hyderabad, Dn. (Cloth bound.
Pp. 280. Price 5/8 net)
Available only from S. Muhammad Sadiq Khan, Kis^a Kham, Peshawar City
FOREWORD was Fronde who once said something to the one should not raise one's pen to write unless one can add to human knowledge, and there is no doubt that Mr. S M. Jaffar has done a great service to the cause of education in general and Indian Culture in particular by writing this book on Education in Muslim India arid thus made a distinctive contribution to the field of Indian I
RELIEVE
it
effect that
historical literature.
Time was when a student of Indian history had to be content with knowing something about warring dynastic^ court intrigues, internecine feuds and other matters which went to make the history of this country a subject of useless, if not actually harmful, study. Happily we have now come to feel the necessity of the whole of Indian history being re-written not so much from the point of view of occurrences at the capitals of various states as in order to delineate the spread of culture and to demonstrate the value of its present composite form, so that our people may not be Jed away by the false notion that whatever paraphernalia of civilization we possess does not go back to more than a century and a half. Indian civilization, wi f h its real and inherent unity in the midst of its out ward diversity, is age-long and not a mere graft, and this is one of the great and abiding results of the events which go to '
form the history of India.
'
