1.EXPLAIN MIGRATION MIGRATION AND URBAN SPRAWL SPRAWL BY SHOWCASING THE INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE TWO?
migration is migration is the movement by people from one place to another with the intentions of settling temporarily or permanently in the new location. The movement is often over long distances and f rom one country to another, but internal migration migration is is also possible; indeed, this is the dominant form globally. The The World Bank's Migration and Remittances Factbook of of 2!! lists the following estimates for the year 2!" total number of immigrants" 2!#.$ million or %.2& of world population. n 2!%, the percentage of international migrants worldwide increased by %%& with #(& of migrants targeting developed regions. )ertain laws ofsocial of social science have science have been proposed to describe human migration. The following was a standard list after *avenstein's +!$%-!(!% *avenstein's +!$%-!(!% proposal in the !$$s. The laws are as follows" !. every migration flow generates a return or countermigration. 2. the majority of migrants move a short distance. %. migrants who move longer distances tend to choose big-city destinations. . urban residents are often less migratory than inhabitants of rural areas. #. families are less likely to make international moves than young adults. /. most migrants are adults. 0. large towns grow by migration rather than natural increase. $. migration stage by stage. (. urban rural difference. !. migration and technology. !!.. economic condition. !! 1lmost half of these migrants are women, which is one of the most significant migrant-pattern changes in the last half century. Women Women migrate alone or with their family members and community. ven ven though female migration is largely viewed as associational rather than independent migration, emerging studies argue suggest comple3 and manifold reasons for this. 4ften a distinction is mad between voluntary and involuntary migration, or betweenrefugees between refugees fleeing fleeing political conflict or natural disaster vs. economic or labour migration, migration, but these distinctions are difficult to make and partially sub5ective, as the motivators for migration are of ten correlated. The World Bank's report estimates that, as of 2!, !/.% million or 0./& of migrants 6ualified as refugees. 1t the end of 2!2, appro3imately !#. million people were refugees and persons in refugee-like situations - $0& of them f ound asylum in developing countries Types Types of 7igration nternal 7igration" 7oving to a new home within a state, country, or continent.
3ternal 7igration" 7oving to a new home in a different state, country, or continent. migration" 8eaving one country to move to another +e.g., the 9ilgrims emigrated from ngland. mmigration" 7oving into a new country +e.g., the 9ilgrims immigrated to 1merica. 9opulation Transfer" When a government forces a large group of people out of a region, usually based on ethnicity or religion. This is also known as an involuntary or forced migration. mpelled 7igration +also called :reluctant: or :imposed: migration" ndividuals are not forced out of their country, but leave because of unfavorable situations such as warfare, political problems, or religious persecution. tep 7igration" 1 series of shorter, less e3treme migrations from a person's place of origin to final destinationuide +/-$ 9age 2 of # www.nationalgeographic.com?3peditions @ 2# Aational >eographic ociety. 1ll rights reserved. *eturn 7igration" The voluntary movements of immigrants back to their place of origin. This is also known as circular migration. easonal 7igration" The process of moving for a period of time in response to labor or climate conditions +e.g., f arm workers following crop harvests or working in cities off-season; :snowbirds: moving to the southern and southwestern nited tates during winter. 9eople W ho 7igrate migrant" 1 person who is leaving a country to reside in another. mmigrant" 1 person who is entering a country from another to take up new residence. *efugee" 1 person who is residing outside the country of his or her origin due to fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. nternally Cisplaced 9erson +C9" 1 person who is forced to leave his or her home region because of unfavorable conditions +political, social, environmental, etc. but does not cross any boundaries. 7igration tream" 1 group migration from a particular country, region, or city to a certain destination. Why Co 9eople 7igrateD 9eople move for a variety of reasons. They consider the advantages and disadvantages of staying versus moving, as well as factors such as distance, travel costs, travel time, modes of transportation, terrain, and cultural barriers. 9ush Eactors" *easons for emigrating +leaving a place because of a difficulty +such as a food shortage, war, flood, etc.. 9ull Eactors" *easons for immigrating +moving into a place because of something desirable +such as a nicer climate, better food supply, freedom, etc.. everal types of push and pull factors may influence people in their movements +sometimes at the same time, including" !. nvironmental +e.g., climate, natural disasters 2. 9olitical +e.g., war %. conomic +e.g., work . )ultural +e.g., religious freedom, education What is rban prawlD rban sprawl is basically another word for urbaniFation. t refers to the migration of a population from populated towns and cities to low density residential development over more and more rural land. The end result is the spreading of a city and its suburbs over more and more rural land. n other words, urban sprawl is defined as low density residential and commercial development on undeveloped land. 7ost of the time, people will move from these areas to try to find better areas to live. This has been the way of the world since the beginning. 7igration and urban sprawl isnGt something that is 5ust now becoming popular, as it has been around for 6uite some time. )ities and their suburbs are now becoming overcrowded because of this, but now it is time to look at the causes and the effects of the urban sprawl, so that you can gain a better understanding of it. The study of urbanisation has evinced interest from a wide range of e3perts. The multidisciplinary gamut of the sub5ect invokes the interest from ecologists, to urban planners and civil engineers, to sociologists, to administrators and policy makers, and finally the common man. This is because of the multitude of activities and processes that take place in the urban ecosystems everyday. rban ecosystems are the conse6uence of the intrinsic nature of humans as social beings to live together. Thus when the early humans evolved they settled on the banks of the rivers that dawned the advent of civilisations. 1n inadvertent increase in the population
complimented with creativity, humans were able to invent wheel and light fire, created settlements and started lived in forests too. >radually, with the development of their communication skills by the form of languages through speech and script, the humans effectively utilised this to make enormous progress in their life styles. 1ll this eventually led to the initial human settlements into villages, towns and then into cities. n the process humans now live in comple3 ecosystems called urban ecosystems. 1n unprecedented population growth and migration, an increased urban population and urbanisation are inadvertent. 7ore and more towns and cities bloomed with a change in the land use along the myriad of landscapes and ecosystems found on earth. Today, humans can boast of living under a wide range of climatic and environmental conditions. This has further led to humans contributing the urban centres at almost every corner of the earth. These urban ecosystems are a conse6uence of urbanisation through rapid industrial centres and blooming up of residential colonies, also became hub of economic, social, cultural, and political activities. To understand the various components and processes that play an important role in the ecosystems are necessary to be understood. This re6uires a holistic approach dealing with the various components of the ecosystem. 8ooking back from the formation of the earth, the origin of life and subse6uent evolution of life adds more light into the understanding of the current significance of urban ecosystems. The role of scientific and technological innovations in driving the urban ecosystems is an important aspect that is to be considered in the prevalent conditions. The changing lifestyles coupled with rapid urbanisation has also implicated on the material and energy cycles that have a participation in the urban ecosystems apart from the living organisms. ltimately a clear-cut understanding of the urban ecosystem will enable us to appreciate various life processes and phenomena-taking place. The parado3 of the human civilisation today is the inability to appreciate the enormous amounts of biotic and abiotic interactions that play a role in the survival and normal operation of the various ecosystem functions. n the recent years :sustainable development: is a commonly used terminology among various sections of the society subse6uent to the publication of Brundtland report in !($0. The *io !((2, 1genda 2!, all endorsed this need. The sustainable development is defined as, :development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs: +World )ommission on nvironment and Cevelopment, !($0. n order to sustain development, the supply and 6ualit y of ma5or consumables and inputs to our dail y lives and economic production - such as air, water, energy, food, raw materials, land, and the natural environment needs to be taken care of. 8and is essential because our food and raw materials originate from them and is a habitat for flora and fauna. imilar to other resources it i s a scarce commodity. 1ny disturbance to this resource by way of change in land use e.g. conversion of forestland, agricultural land into built-up, is irreversible. The use of land unsuitable for development may be unsustainable for the natural environment as well as to the humans. !.! rbanisation and rban prawl n ndia, with an unprecedented population growth and migration, an increased urban population and urbanisation is inadvertent. 7ore and more towns and cities are blooming with a change in the land use along the highways and in the immediate vicinity of the city. This dispersed development outside of compact urban and village centres along highways and in rural countryside is defined as sprawl +Theobald, 2!. rbanisation is a form of metropolitan growth that i s a response to often be wildering sets of economic, social, and political forces and to the physical geography of an area. ome of the causes of the sprawl include - population growth, economy, patterns of infrastructure initiatives like the construction of roads and the provision of i nfrastructure using public money encouraging development. The direct implication of such urban sprawl is the change in land use and land cover of the region.
prawl generally infers to some type of development with impacts such as loss of agricultural land, open space, and ecologically sensitive habitats. 1lso, sometimes sprawl is e6uated with growth of town or city +radial spread. n simpler words, as population increases in an area or a city, the boundary of the city e3pands to accommodate the growth; this e3pansion is considered as sprawl. sually sprawls take place on the urban f ringe, at the edge of an urban area or along the highways. 1.1.1. Need for Studying Urban Sprawl n industrialised countries the future gro wth of urban populations will be comparatively modest since their population growth rates are low and over $& of their population already live in urban areas. )onversely, developing countries are in the middle of the transition process, when growth rates are highest. The e3ceptional growth of many urban agglomerations in many developing countries is the result of a threefold structural change process" the transition away from agricultural employment, high overall population growth, and increasing urbanisation rates +>rubler, !((. The biggest challenge for science, engineering and technology in the 2!st century is how to ensure ade6uate housing, sanitation and health, and transportation services in a habitable urban environment in developing countries. prawl is seen as one of the potential threats for such development. Aormally, when rural pockets are connected to a city by a road, in the initial stages, development in the form of service centres such as shops, cafeteria, etc. is seen on the roadside, which eventually become the hub of economic activities leading to sprawl. ventually a significant amount of upsurge could be observed along these roads. This type of upsurge caused by a road network between urban ? semi-urban ? rural centres is very much prevalent and persistent in most places in ndia. These regions are devoid of any infrastructure, since planners are unable to visualise this type of growth patterns. This growth is normally left out in all government surveys +even in national population census, as this cannot be grouped under either urban or rural centre. The investigation of patterns of this kind of growth is very crucial from regional planning point of view to provide basic amenities in these regions. Eurther, with the 9rime 7inister of ndia's pet pro5ect, :>olden Huadrilateral of Aational =ighways Cevelopment 9ro5ect: initiative of linking villages, towns and cities and building -lane roads, this investigation gains importance and significance. 9rior visualising of the trends and patterns of growth enable the planning machineries to plan for appropriate basic infrastructure facilities +water, electricity, sanitation, etc.. The study of this kind reveals the type, e3tent and nature of sprawl taking place in a region and the drivers responsible for the growth. This would help developers and town planners to pro5ect growth patterns and facilitate various infrastructure facilities. n this direction, an attempt is made to identify the sprawl pattern, 6uantify sprawl across roads in terms of hannon's entropy, and estimate the rate of change in built-up area over a period with the help of spatial and statistical data of nearly three decades using >. 1.1.2. Causes of Urban Sprawl The process of urbanisation is fairly contributed by population growth, migration and inf rastructure initiatives resulting in the growth of villages into towns, towns into cities and cities into metros. =owever, in such a phenomenon for ecologically feasible development, planning re6uires an understanding of the growth dynamics. Aevertheless, in most cases there are lot of inade6uacies to ascertain the nature of uncontrolled progression of urban sprawls. prawl is considered to be an unplanned outgrowth of urban centres along the periphery of the cities, along highways, along the road connecting a city, etc. Cue to lack of prior planning these outgrowths are devoid of basic amenities like water, electricity, sanitation, etc. 9rovision of certain infrastructure facilities like new roads and highways, fuel such sprawls that ultimately result in inefficient and drastic change in land use affecting the ecosystem. With respect to the role of technology in urbanisation, Berry +!(( has illustrated a new linkage between transport infrastructure development cycles and spurts in urbanisation.
rban infrastructure development is unlikely to keep pace with urban population growth. Both l ocal environmental impacts, such as deterioration of water 6uality in streams and an increased potential for harbouring disease vectors, and offsite land cover changes, such as the loss of woodland and forest to meet urban fuel wood demands, are likely to occur +Couglas, !((. 1.1.4. Urban sprawl - spatial and temporal changes: pattern assessment 7apping urban sprawl provides a :picture: of where this type of growth is occurring, and helps to identify the environmental and natural resources threatened by such sprawls, and suggests the likely future directions and patterns of sprawling growth. 1nalysing the sprawl over a period of time will help in understanding the nature and growth of this phenomenon. ltimately the po wer to manage a sprawl resides with local municipal governments that vary considerably in terms of will and ability to address sprawl issues. !.% 7odelling 1spects 7athematical models and computational techni6ues merely increase the capabilities of generating information that can be used in the decision making process. 1 model is a simplified representation of the physical system. ome simplified definitions of models are - a representative of the system that attempts to reproduce its significant elements of the system. 1 model is simply the symbolic mathematical form in which a physical principle is e3pressed. 7odels are basically built by consideration of the pertinent physical principles operated on by logic and modified by e3perimental 5udgment and plain intuition. t is important to recognise that modeling is a part of science and part of art. The science part involves identifying the physical principles that affect the system. The artistic part consists of deciding which of these processes are sufficiently important with respect to the goals and ob5ectives of the study to be included in the model and placing the processes in a form that reflects the interaction involved. The artistic part also involves simplification of the system so that model solutions can be achieved with a reasonable effort but without a loss of rationality or accuracy. 7odels synthesise and act as the :glue: between the perception and problem, the observational data from the laboratory and field, and the current state of scientific understanding. =owever, it should always be stressed that modellers and their models do not make management and control decisions but only provide information to the process. The model should and can reflect the dynamic characteristic and evolutionary nature of the environment. ts most important function is to establish a basis for a comprehensive plan of the entire area. >iven a set of criteria, the model would analyse the alternate engineering solutions to achieve this level. >iven the necessary social inputs and constraints, it would be possible to arrive at optimal solutions between the limits of some acceptable minimal treatment and ma3imum technologically practicable treatment. The main ob5ectives of models are" Cescriptive - to integrate observations, information and theories concerning a system; to aid understanding of system behaviour. 9redictive - to predict the response of the system to the future changes. 4ptimised 1llocation - to allocate certain resources in order to optimise certain conditions within the system.
nvironmental modelling as one of the scientific tools for prediction and assessment is well established in the field of environmental research +Eerda I, !((%. nvironmental modelling has a considerable history and development. The analytical approaches applied to biological and ecological problems date back to 8otkaJolterra and the fields like hydrology - water 6uali ty modelling also date back to early twentieth century with treeter-9helps. With the enhanced computational techni6ues using microcomputers, the numerical solutions to these have become feasible. There are a variety of models in environmental studies, which will suit specific situations. Eor urban growth modelling suitable models can be used as effective tools in management of urban growth and population growth leading to land pressures. Cepending on the type of method employed in the construction of e6uations, the models can be classified into four types K i.
1nalytical 7odels - These are the models, which involve construction of solutions of partial differential e6uations, which represent the urban systems and the land use changes considered spatially.
ii.
Aumerical 7odels - These are the models in which an attempt has been made to represent the natural systems and to solve the e6uations, which describe the conventional, numerical methods.
iii.
9hysical 7odels - These models involve construction of physical system at a smaller scale. These types of models are least employed because of the lack of knowledge of scaling relationships, and thus limitations e3perienced in simulating urban growth processes
iv.
)artographic 7odels - 1 cartographic model is a graphical representation of the data and analytical procedures followed methodically in a specific study. The purpose of a cartographic model is to help the analyst organise and structure the necessary procedures as well as identif y all the data re6uired for the analysis.
There are two basic reasons for constructing representations of urban systems through mathematical modeling. Eirst is the need to increase the level of understanding of the cause-effect relationships operative in urban growth dynamics, and secondly, to apply that increased understanding to aid the decision making process for the urban growth management. > serves theoreticians, programmers, and practitioners alike. 1n understanding of > modeling is important for practitioners who will create the models; theoreticians, who develop the concepts of new models; and programmers, who must code to make the models work inside a >. The > automates geographic concepts, assists in decision-making, helps e3plain distributions and can assist in h ypothesis formulation and testing. These tasks can be applied to a wide range of both practitioners and theoreticians by allowing them to manipulate portions of the earth that are stored as map data in the computer. The current popularity of > is in the multitude of domains in which they can be applied and in their ability to automate simple but repetitive map based tasks as well as comple3 ones +Ce7ers, 22. specially these tools enable the user to collate, integrate, anal yse and model a large amount of spatial data along with their attribute information. =arnessing the total potential of the > in environmental modeling rests with the user capable of understanding the concepts of environmental systems and applications of >. The real world cannot solely be represented in two dimensions as is commonly accepted. This certainly is a very limiting view of the reality that we perceive around us. 7ost modelling in > has been two dimensional especially in the conte3t of urban planning. The development in the field of :fuFFy logic: and :artificial neural networks: is providing the option of i ncorporating indeterminate and ambiguous information from the real world into >. This will be particularly useful while considering the cognitive models and individual perception of people and incorporating them for reference into > +1garwal, 9., 2. !.
tudy 4b5ectives"
he main ob!ecti"es of this study are dentify the patterns of urban sprawl K spatially and temporally; 1nalyse the urban sprawl pattern through remote sensing and geographic information system techni6ues; 1nalyse causal factors of urban sprawl, and 7odel urban sprawl
)auses of rban prawl rban sprawl can be caused by a variety of different things. These causes will mainly include" •
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#ower #and $ates: 8ower cost land and houses in the outer suburbs of the cities, because the centers of urban development have really made people want to stop settling in these areas and want to venture further out. %mpro"ed %nfrastructure: There is increased spending on certain types of infrastructures, including roads and electricity. This is something that hasnGt always been available, and there are still some areas that donGt have these lu3uries. That doesnGt mean that they arenGt working on it. $ise in Standard of #i"ing: There are also increases in standards of living and average family incomes, which means that people have the ability to pay more to travel and commute longer distances to work and back home. #ac& of Urban 'lanning: 9eople love to find areas that are less trafficked and more calm, which leads them to sprawl out to other sections of the town. nprecedented development, cutting of trees, loss of green cover, long traffic 5ams, poor infrastructure force people to move out to new areas. #ower (ouse a) $ates: )ities will usually have high property ta3es, and you can usually avoid these ta3es by living in the outer suburbs because the ta3es are usually lower than they would be in other situations. $ise in 'opulation *rowth: 1nother factor that contributes towards urban sprawl isrise in population growth. 1s number of people in a city gro ws beyond capacity, the local communities continues to spread farther and farther from city centers. Consumer 'references: 9eople in high income groups have stronger preferences towards larger homes, more bedrooms, bigger balconies and bigger lawns. This also causes urban sprawl as this option is not available in crowded cities. 9eople generall y look out for low-density residential areas where the y can get home according to their preference.
ffects of rban prawl
Aow, we will take a look at the effects of urban sprawl, now that we have taken a closer look at the causes of it.
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ome of the effects include" %ncrease in 'ublic +)penditure: They can actually play a part in the increases of public costs, because these changes in infrastructures and building must actually be paid for by someone- and it is usually the ta3 payers money that pays for it. %ncreased raffic: 9opulations will begin to use their cars more often, which means that there is more traffic on the roads, and there is also more air pollution and more auto accidents that you have to worry with. (ealth %ssues: When people use their vehicles, even to go to a very short distance, people are going to be more overweight and are also going to have to deal with ailments such as high blood pressure and other diseases that come about with obesity. +n"ironmental %ssues: prawls can also cause certain environmental issues that you may want to be aware of. n fact, when you think about going out to develop these lands you will have to worry about the wildlife that lives in these lands. Lou will be displacing them, and it can really cause a ripple in the environment. %mpact on Social #i"es: When people move further out, they also have an impact on their social lives. They donGt have neighbors that live as close, which means that they wonGt really stay as social as they should. This isnGt always the case, but it is something that should be taken note of. 1s you can see, urban sprawl is something that will continue to occur as long as we live here on earth. t isnGt something that is going to change, but over time the more rural areas are going to become more populated because of development and change. This can be considered a good thing at times, but others view it as a bad thing. Lou also have to consider the fact that it will actually play a part in having to cut down more trees and tear up the environment, and in this aspect it is not a good thing. 4n a positive note, it may lead to less overcrowding- but it wonGt happen overnight. ts clear that urban sprawl is something that people will consider to be a good thing or a bad thing, depending on their own beliefs systems. Lou may find it to be something that is ideal, while others may want to steer clear of it. t is the inevitable, thatGs for sure, but that doesnGt mean that it has to be rushed into, and it should happen naturally. mage credit" vee , scaredpoet
