Michael Talbot Vivaldi

THE CHAMBER CANTATAS OF ANTO AN TONI NIO O VI VIVA VALD LDII

for Lowell Lindgren

THE CHAMBER CANTATAS OF ANTONI NIO O VI VIVA VAL LDI

Michael Talbot

THE BOYDELL PRESS

© Mi Mich chael ael Ta Talb lbot ot 20 2006 06 All rights reserved. Except as permitted under current legislation no part of this work may be photocopied, p hotocopied, stored in a retrieval system, published, performed in public, adapted, broadcast, transmitted, recorded or reproduced in any form or by any means, without the prior permission of the copyright owner The right of Michael Talbot to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988

First published 2006 The Boydell Press, Woodbridge with the support of Fondazione Giorgio Cini Istituto Italiano Antonio Vivaldi Venezia

ISBN IS BN 1 843 84383 83 20 201 11

The Boydell Press is an imprint of Boydell & Brewer Ltd PO Bo Box x 9 Wo Wood odbr brid idge ge Su Suff ffol olk k IP1 IP12 2 3DF 3DF UK and of Boydell & Brewer Inc. 668 66 8 Mt Mt Hop Hopee Ave Avenu nuee Roc oche hesste terr NY 146 14620 20 USA website: www.boydellandbrewer.com

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

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Contents List of music examples examples

vii

List of tables

ix

Preface

xi

Conventions and abbreviations

1

Thee Red Th Redis isco cove very ry of Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss Can Canta tata tass How contemporaries saw them How modern commentators have seen them Their modern revival

2

The Cantata Genre Its historical development Its literary nature Its musical nature

3

Vivaldi and the Voice The composer and the text Vivaldi as literary bricoleur The composer and the singer The composer and the accompaniment

4

The Mantuan Cantatas Vivaldi’s Mantuan episode The Mantuan court A mirror of court life Individual works

5

Can anta tata tass of th thee Mi Midd ddle le Yea ears rs Vivaldi’s Blütezeit Cantatas for all occasions Individual works

6

The Dresden Cantatas Vivaldi and Dresden The cantatas of the Dresden compilation Individual works Postscript: The spurious works

xiv

1 1 11 20 25 32 33 44 61 61 66 75 84 89 89 91 94 102 120 120 124 137 164 164 170 173 182

7

Viva Vi vald ldi’ i’ss Ca Cant ntat atas as in Pe Pers rspe pect ctiv ivee The cantata within Vivaldi’s oeuvre Approaches to performance

188 188 192

Glossary

201

List of Vivaldi’s cantatas published published in the New Critical Critical Edition

206

Spurious works

208

Bibliography Bibliograp hy

209

Index to musical musical works works

217

General index

223

List of Music Examples Ex. 2.1 Ex.. 2.2 Ex 2.2 Ex. 2.3 Ex.. 3.1 Ex 3.1aa Ex.. 3.1 Ex 3.1b Ex. 3.2 Ex. 3.3 Ex. 3.4 Ex. 3.5 Ex. 3.6 Ex. 4.1 Ex. 4.2 Ex. 4.3 Ex. 4.4 Ex. 4.5 Ex. 4.6 Ex. 4.7 Ex. 4.8 Ex. 4.9 Ex. 4.1 Ex. 4.10 Ex.. 4.1 Ex 4.11 Ex. 5.1

Vivaldi, Perfidissimo cor! Iniquo fato!, RV 674: opening. Viva Vi vald ldi, i, Vi Viol olin in So Sona nata ta in E min minor or,, Op. Op. 2 no. no. 9 (RV (RV 16 16): ): op open enin ing. g. Pistocchi, Dolorosa partenza, oh Dio, che l’alma: ‘Vedo Zeffiro con l’aura’, bars 11–16. Viva valldi di,, All’ombra d’un bel faggio, RV 649: ‘Vorrei, mio ben, da te’, vocal periods 1–2. Viva valldi di,, Par che tardo oltre il costume , RV 662: ‘Allor che in cielo’, vocal periods 1–2. Vivaldi, Geme l’onda che parte dal fonte , RV 657: recitative, bars 12–16. Vivaldi, Par che tardo oltre il costume , RV 677: recitative, bars 1–8. Vivaldi, All’ombra d’un bel faggio, RV 649: ‘Senti che ti risponde’, opening. Vivaldi, Perfidissimo cor! Iniquo fato!, RV 674: ‘Nel torbido mio petto’, bars 5–8 (bass). G. B. Pescetti, Di sì bel faggio all’ombra: ‘Come va l’ape nel prato’, opening. Vivaldi, Aure, voi più non siete, RV 652: ‘Ti confido il pianto mio’, opening. Vivaldi, Del suo natio rigore, RV 653: ‘Quei begl’occhi io pianger vidi’, opening. Vivaldi, Del suo natio rigor, RV 653: ‘Sempre invano il Dio d’amore’, bars 57–73. Vivaldi, Elvira, anima mia, RV 654: 654: ‘Parti ‘Partirò, rò, ma ma vedrai vedrai quanto’ quanto’,, extracts. Vivaldi, Elvira, anima mia, RV RV 654 654:: ‘Pa ‘Pass sso o al al rog rogo o fat fatal al,, e so son n già cinto’, bars 7–10. Vivaldi, Nel partir da te, mio caro: opening ritornello. Vivaldi, Si levi dal pensier, RV RV 665 665:: ‘Va ‘Vanne nne sul sull’A l’Adri dria, a, inf infido ido’, ’, bars 10–35. Vivaldi, Lungi dal vago volto, RV 680: opening. Vivaldi, Lungi dal vago volto, RV 680: ‘Mi stringerai, sì, sì’, bars 81–7. Viva valldi di,, O mie porpore più belle , RV 685: opening. Viva valldi di,, Tremori al braccio e lagrime sul ciglio , RV 799: opening. Vivaldi, Scherza di fronda in fronda , RV 663: first vocal period.

48 51 53 78 80 83 83 85 85 87 105 108 109 109 110 11 0 112 113 114 115 117 119 130

viii

Ex. 5.2 Ex. 5.3 Ex. 5.4 Ex. 5.5 Ex. 5.6 Ex. 5.7 Ex. 5.8 Ex. 5.9 Ex.. 5. Ex 5.10 10 Ex.. 5. Ex 5.11 11 Ex.. 5. Ex 5.12 12 Ex.. 5. Ex 5.13 13 Ex. 6.1 Ex. 6.2 Ex. 6.3 Ex. 6.4 Ex. 6.5 Ex. 6.6 Ex. 6.7 Ex. 6.8 Ex. 7.1 Ex. 7.2 Ex. 7.3

THE CHAMBER CANTATAS OF ANTONIO VIVALDI

Vivaldi, Amor, hai vinto, hai vinto: ecco il mio seno, RV 651: ‘Passo di pena in pena’, bars 19–22. Vivaldi, Fonti del pianto, RV 656: bars 37–48. Vivaldi, Geme l’onda che parte dal fonte , RV 657: bars 7–21. Vivaldi, Sorge vermiglia in ciel la bella Aurora , RV 667: opening (Turin version). Vivaldi, T’intendo, sì, mio cor, bars 5–7. Compar Com pariso ison n of of sett setting ingss of of the the sec second ond ari ariaa of of T’intendo, sì, mio cor by Vivaldi and Porpora. Vivaldi, Che giova il sospirar, povero core , RV 679: bars 26–34. Vivaldi, Perché son molli, RV 681: ‘Dunque, già ch’il mio duolo’, opening. Viva Vi vald ldi, i, Vengo a voi, luci adorate , RV 682: ‘Sempre penare’, bars 32–41. Viva Vi vald ldi, i, Amor, hai vinto, hai vinto: ecco il mio seno, RV 683: ‘Passo di pena in pena’, opening. Viva Vi vald ldi, i, Cessate omai cessate, RV RV 68 684: ‘N ‘Nell’orrido al albergo’, bars 22–102, vocal line. Viva Vi vald ldi, i, Usignoletto bello, RV 796: ‘Com ‘Comee te canta cantando ndo anch’ anch’io’, io’, opening. Vivaldi, Geme l’onda che parte dal fonte , RV 657: ‘Deh non partir sì presto’, bars 49–51. Vivaldi, Perfidissimo cor! Iniquo fato!, RV 674: ‘Più am amar non spero’, bars 38–50. Vivaldi, Pianti, sospiri e dimandar mercede, RV 676: ‘Lusinga è del nocchier’, bars 24–9. Vivaldi, Qual per ignoto calle, RV 677: ‘Qual dopo lampi e turbini’, bars 10–18. Car arllo Arr rrig igon onii (? (?), ), Qual per ignoto calle: ‘Qual dopo lampi e folgori’, opening. Vivaldi, All’ombra di sospetto, RV 678: ‘Avvezzo non è il core’, bars 13–20. Filli, di gioia vuoi farmi morir, RV 672: opening. Piango, gemo, sospiro e peno, RV 675: bars 9–16. [Albinoni], Allor che il mondo in letargo profondo: ‘Vaghe stelle, deh venite’, opening. Vivaldi, Usignoletto bello, RV 796: opening with realized continuo. Vivaldi, Tremori al braccio e lagrime sul ciglio , RV 799: ‘Quello che senti, o bella’, bars 5–8.

139 140 141 145 146 147 152 155 157 159 162 163 173 174 175 177 179 181 185 187 190 194 199

List of Tables Table 1.1

Statistics for works in four genres by Vivaldi and five contemporaries. Table 1.2 Published cantatas, 1659–1735: listed by year of publication (col (c ol.. 1) 1).. Table 1.3 Published cantatas, 1659–1735: listed by place of publication (col (c ol.. 5) 5).. Tab ablle 2. 2.1 Can anta tata ta str truc uctu ture ress em emplo loy yed by Ant Anto oni nio o Ott Ottob obon onii and and Pi Piet etrro Metastasio. Tabl Ta blee 2. 2.2 2 Tr Trea eatm tmen entt of th thee os osti tina nato to ba bass ss th them emee in Be Bene nede dett tto o Vi Vina nacc cces esi’ i’ss aria ‘Che pena è il vivere’ from Belve, se mai provaste. Table 3 3.1a .1a Stru Structur cturee of the first first and and second second vocal vocal periods periods in in ‘Vorrei, ‘Vorrei, mio mio ben, da te’, from All’ombra d’un bel faggio, RV 649 (c.1720). Table 3.1b 3.1b Stru Structur cturee of the first first and and second second vocal vocal periods periods in in ‘Allor ‘Allor che in in cielo’, from Par che tardo oltre il costume , RV 662 (c.1731). Table 4.1 Vivaldi’s Mantuan cantatas. Table 4. 4.2 Structure of of th the fi first ar aria, ‘A ‘Augelletti, voi col canto’, from Lungi dal vago volto, RV 680. Tabl Ta blee 5. 5.1 1 Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss ca cant ntat atas as ou outs tsid idee th thee Ma Mant ntua uan n an and d Dr Dres esde den n gr grou oups ps.. Table 5.2 The cantatas contained in Meiningen, Max-Reger-Archiv, Ed 82b. Tabl Ta blee 6.1 6.1 Th Thee cant cantat atas as of of the the ‘Dre ‘Dresd sden en com compi pila lati tion on’’ of c.17 c.1733 33 con conta tain ined ed in SLUB, Mus. 1-J-7, pp. 4–12. Table 7.1 Tempo markings in the arias of Vivaldi’s cantatas.

1 3 5 32 58

78 82 95 115 125 125 132 171 17 1 197

Preface Withou With outt any do dou ubt bt,, Viva vald ldi’ i’ss can anta tata tass for sol olo o vo voic icee rem emaain the le leas astt exp xpllor ored ed corner of his music. Least researched, least discussed, least performed, least fami fa mili liar ar.. Ma Many ny ob obvi viou ouss re reas ason onss fo forr th this is co comp mpar arat ativ ivee ne negl glec ectt sp spri ring ng to mi mind nd.. Th Thee genr ge nree it itse self lf is no nott es espe peci cial ally ly fa favo vour ured ed by mu musi sico colo logi gist stss co conc ncer erne ned d wi with th th thee re repe perrtory to ry of th thee Ba Baro roqu quee pe peri riod od,, wh who o ar aree mo more re li like kely ly to wi win n th thei eirr la laur urel elss wi with th st stud udie iess of sonatas, concertos, sacred vocal music or – increasingly – opera. Except for specialists, singers tend to avoid them: they are hard to ‘sell’ to a modern audience, presupposing, as they do, not merely a knowledge of Italian but also a con co nno noiiss sseu eurs rshi hip p of It Ital aliian po poet etry ry in al alll it itss asp speect cts. s. Th Thee mus usic ic can be dif ifffic icul ultt to find fi nd an and d de deci ciph pher er,, an and d te tech chni nica call lly y ve very ry ch chal alle leng ngin ing. g. In an any y ca case se,, th this is is a re repe pert rtor ory y from fr om whi hicch th thee mal alee si sing ngeer, ex exccep eptt fo forr th thee fo forrtun unaate cou oun nte terr-tten eno or, is vi virt rtua uall lly y excluded. But perhaps the most potent reason for the marginalization of the chamber cantata – and this is as true for composers specializing in the genre, such as Ales Al essa sand ndro ro Sc Scar arla latt ttii an and d Be Bene nede dett tto o Ma Marc rcel ello lo,, as it is fo forr Viv ival aldi di – is th that at,, hi hist stor oriically speaking, the Baroque cantata is a dead end. Unlike most other genres, whic wh ich h na navi viga gate ted d th thee pa pass ssag agee fr from om Ba Baro roqu quee to Cl Clas assi sica call (a (and nd be beyo yond nd)) sm smoo ooth thly ly,, desp de spit itee un unde derg rgoi oing ng mu much ch ch chan ange ge on th thee wa way, y, th thee si sing ngle le-v -voi oice ce ca cant ntat ataa (w (wee ar aree no nott speeak sp akin ing g he herre of th thee dr dram amaati ticc can anttat ata, a, or se serren enat ata, a, whi hich ch pro rov ved lon onge gerr-li live ved d) simply petered out in the course of the second half of the eighteenth century: it wass re wa repl plac aced ed by ar aria iass an and d so song ngss of va vari riou ouss de desc scri ript ptio ions ns th that at re reje ject cted ed,, ra rath ther er th than an transplanted, its musical substance. Itss la It lack ck of hi hist stor oric ical al pr prog ogen eny y sh shou ould ld no not, t, of co cour urse se,, pu push sh th thee ca cant ntat ataa in into to in insi siggniffica ni canc ncee. Th Thee be beaaut uty y of a co com mpo possit itiion as exp xpeerie ienc nceed by the li list sten ener er is di dim min in-ishe is hed d no nott a whi hitt by th thee kn know owle ledg dgee th that at it ‘l ‘lea eads ds’’ no nowh wher eree in pa part rtic icul ular ar.. Ho Howe weve ver, r, we are nowadays so strongly conditioned to view music through the prism of music history, so influenced by the ‘babble’ around music as opposed to the music itself, that, knowingly or unknowingly, we have allowed the Baroque cantata to recede somewhat from our consciousness. It is hard to conceive that durrin du ing g wha hatt the fi firs rstt his isto tori rian an of the ca cant ntaata ta,, Eu Euge gen n Sc Schm hmit itzz, cal alle led d its ‘s ‘spr priing ng-time’ ( Blütezeit ), in the second half of the seventeenth century, probably more works of this kind than of any other were written in Italy. Far from being a genre ‘on the way out’, this was for its contemporaries the last word in novelty, topicality, intellectual sophistication and artistic finesse. Viva Vi vald ldii is ri righ ghtl tly y se seen en by ex expe pert rtss an and d th thee la lay y pu publ blic ic al alik ikee as a pi pion onee eerr – in inde deed ed,, the first great pioneer – in the history of the concerto. It is possible to make him out to be a significant innovator in the worlds of opera and sacred vocal music, and an d ev even en (i (in n a fe few w re resp spec ects ts)) th thee so sona nata ta.. Fo Forr hi hiss ca cant ntat atas as,, no su such ch gr gran and d cl clai aims ms ca can n be made. Vivaldi was too much of an individualist in musical style for these

xii


com ompo posi siti tion onss no nott to be di dist stiinc ncttive ve,, an and d too ski kill lled ed a wor orkm kman an for th them em no nott to be effective. On occasion, they reach high levels of inspiration. But they remain high hi ghly ly co conv nven enti tion onal al in co conc ncep eptt an and d st stru ruct ctur ure. e. Fo Forr on once ce,, ou ourr co comp mpos oser er do does es no nott se sett para pa rame mete ters rs:: he co conf nfor orms ms to th them em.. Ac Acco cord rdin ingl gly, y, a di disc scus ussi sion on of th thee ge gene nera rall ba back ck-gro roun und d to th thee ca cant ntat ataa is no nott a pr prel elim imiina nary ry to be des esp pat atch ched ed du duti tifu full lly y at th thee st star artt of the book and subsequently ignored. It has to be woven into the narrative all the way wa y th thro roug ugh. h. To st stat atee th thin ings gs si simp mply ly:: th thee st stud udy y of Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss ca cant ntat atas as ha hass no op opti tion on but to go hand in hand with that of the late Baroque cantata tout court . My interest in the Baroque cantata dates back almost forty years to the time when, in the course of my doctoral research into the instrumental music of Viva Vi vald ldi’ i’ss Ve Vene neti tian an co cont ntem empo pora rary ry To Toma maso so Al Albi bino noni ni (1 (167 671– 1–17 1751 51), ), I st stum umbl bled ed on a los ostt pu pub bli lish shed ed co colllec ecttion of ca cant ntat atas as (Op. 4) by thi hiss co com mpo posser er.. I su sub bse sequ queent ntly ly gav avee con onsi side derrab able le cov oveera rage ge to the can anta tata ta,, in incl clud udiing its his isto tori rica call an and d lite tera rary ry background, in life-and-works studies of Albinoni and of a slightly older comp co mpos oser er,, Be Bene nede dett tto o Vi Vina nacc cces esii (1 (166 666– 6–17 1719 19). ). In ad addi diti tion on,, I ha have ve wr writ itte ten n va vari riou ouss art rtiicl cles es and pap apeers on sel elec ecte ted d as aspe peccts of th thee ca cant ntat atas as of Albi bino non ni an and, d, la latt tter erly ly,, Viva vald ldi. i. How oweeve verr, wha hatt on onee is ab able le to sa say y in a ch chap aptter or an art rtiicl clee is far le less ss tha han n the subject merits – whether that subject is the Baroque cantata in general or Vival Vi valdi’ di’ss can cantat tatas as in par partic ticula ular. r. Wri Writin ting g a boo book-l k-leng ength th stu study dy of Vi Vival valdi’ di’ss can cantat tatas as has now given me a chance to kill two birds with one stone: to fill a void (indeed, the last great void) in the literature on that composer’s music, and to present a well ll--ro roun unde ded d pi pict ctur uree of th thee Baro roqu quee can anttat ataa in its las astt ph phaase (a pha hasse id iden enttifi fied ed rather unkindly by Schmitz as a ‘time of decay’, Zeit des Verfalls). Pref Pr efac aces es cu cust stom omar aril ily y en end d wi with th ac ackn know owle ledg dgem emen ents ts an and d ex expr pres essi sion onss of th than anks ks.. The difficulty in the present case is that this book has matured for so long that I har ardl dly y kno now w whe here re to st star art. t. I ow owee a sp spec ecia iall de deb bt of gra rati titu tude de to Coli lin n Ti Timm mmss, no nott only for his friendship over several decades but also for having been the first Brit Br itis ish h sc scho hola larr to ha have ve ap appl plie ied d a ge gene nera rall ex expe pert rtis isee in th thee Ba Baro roqu quee ca cant ntat ataa (i (its tsel elff an unco un comm mmon on th thin ing) g) to th thee Vi Viva vald ldia ian n ca cano non. n. I am gr grat atef eful ul to hi him m fo forr hi hiss wi will llin ingn gnes esss to read through, and comment on, the text of this book. Of his insights and findings in gs mu much ch wi will ll be wr writ itte ten n in su subs bseq eque uent nt pa page ges. s. Ot Othe herr fr frie iend ndss an and d co coll llea eagu gues es wh who o hav avee hel elpe ped d me in va vari riou ouss way ayss and at va vari riou ouss times to pr prep epar aree th this is bo book ok in incl clud udee Marc Ma rco o Bi Bizz zzar arin ini, i, th thee la late te Ma Malc lcol olm m Bo Boyd yd,, Cl Clem emen enss Br Bren enne neis is,, En Enri rico co Ca Care reri ri,, Lu Luig igii Cata talldi di,, Kar arll Gec eck, k, Eli liza zabe betth Gibs bson on,, Kar arll Hel elle ler, r, Lo Low well Li Lind ndg gre ren, n, Ber erth thol old d Over Ov er,, Ra Rash shid id-S -Sas asch chaa Pe Pega gah, h, Br Bria ian n Pr Prit itch char ard, d, Pa Paul ul Ra Rasp spé, é, Pe Pete terr Ry Ryom om,, Fe Fede deri rico co Mari Ma riaa Sa Sard rdel elli li,, Re Rein inha hard rd St Stro rohm hm,, Ca Caro role le Ta Tayl ylor or,, Ro Roge gerr-Cl Clau aude de Tr Trav aver ers, s, Ca Carl rlo o Vitali, and John Whenham. I am indebted in quite a special way to the Istituto Italiano Antonio Vivaldi, whic ich h si sinc ncee 197 978 8 ha hass be beeen on onee of the ins nsti titu tute tess su sup ppo porrted by by,, and ho hous useed at at,, th thee Fon ond daz aziion onee Gio iorg rgiio Cin inii in Veni nice ce.. It Itss di dire rect ctor ors, s, Anto toni nio o Fan ann na an and d (lat atte terl rly) y) Fran Fr ance cesc sco o Fa Fann nna, a, ha have ve be been en ge gene nero rous us in su supp ppor orti ting ng my re rese sear arch ch an and d pu publ blic icat atio ion n both morally and materially – and the fact that I have assisted, as translator and chec ch ecke ker, r, in th thee pu publ blic icat atio ion n of al alll th thir irty ty-s -sev even en Vi Viva vald ldii ca cant ntat atas as is issu sued ed in indi divi vidu dual ally ly by th thee II IIA AV in col olllabo borrat atio ion n wit ith h Ric icor ordi di has onl nly y inc ncre reas ased ed my ap appe peti tite te for th thee sub ubjject ct.. I am lik ikeewise gra rate tefu full to Fr Fran ance cessco Deg egrrad ada, a, th thee pr prin inci cipa pall edi dittor of th thee can anta tata ta vo volu lum mes es,, fo forr th thee rep epea eate ted d opp ppo ort rtun uniitie iess to tra rade de in info form rmaati tion on an and d ide deas as.. Finally, this book would have been impossible in its present shape without the

PREFACE

xiii

advic adv ice, e, ove verr man any y yea ears rs,, of Pa Pau ul Ev Eveere rett tt,, many of who hosse fi find ndin ings gs reg egaard rdin ing g th thee phys ph ysiica call cha harrac acte teri rist stiics of Viv ivaald ldi’ i’ss manu nusscr criipt ptss, of oftten with pro rofo foun und d co con nse se-quences for dating, remain unpublished. And how can I end without thanking my wife Shirley yet again for her love, encouragement, and (when required) tolerant forbearance?

Conventions and Abbreviations Notess of sp Note spec ecif ifie ied d pi pitc tch h ar aree id iden enti tifi fied ed by th thee ol old d Ge Germ rman an sy syst stem em (o (oft ften en ca call lled ed th thee ‘Hel ‘H elmh mhol olz’ z’ sy syst stem em), ), wh wher eree Mi Midd ddle le C is c', it ital alic iciz ized ed.. No Note tess of un unsp spec ecif ifie ied d pi pitc tch h (as in the description of keys) use capital letters in roman font. In the music examples, the notation, including the choice of clefs, has been moder mo derniz nized, ed, and the und underl erlaid aid tex textt nor norma maliz lized ed acc accord ording ing to mod modern ern con conven ventio tions. ns. It ca can n be as assu sume med d th that at th thee or orig igin inal al cl clef ef fo forr th thee vo voca call pa part rt of a so sopr pran ano o ca cant ntat ataa is th thee C clef on the lowest stave line; that for an alto cantata is the C clef on the middle line ne.. Th Thee ori rigi gina nall bas asss par arts ts fo forr th thee con onttin inuo uo in inst stru rum ment ntss use th thee bas asss cle leff as th thee ‘default’ option but move freely to the tenor clef for passages in a high register. The abbreviation ‘B.c.’ in the music examples stands for ‘Basso continuo’.

CHAPTER ONE

The Rediscovery of Vivaldi’s Cantatas

How Contemporaries Contemporaries saw them In his own day Vivaldi’s cantatas went almost unnoticed. The thirty-seven that survive today, which probably represent a high proportion of the original total, may ma y se seem em a re resp spec ecta tabl blee en enou ough gh nu numb mber er,, bu butt vi view ewed ed as a se segm gmen entt of hi hiss oe oeuv uvre re,, or in co comp mpar aris ison on wi with th th thee ca cant ntat ataa ou outp tput ut of th thee ‘b ‘big ig pr prod oduc ucer ers’ s’ of hi hiss ti time me,, th they ey ma make ke little impression. This rather negative statistical assessment is based on a general impression, but the thrust of the argument receives support from Table 1.1, in which the output of six major composers of Vivaldi’s time in four genres (opera, cantata, concerto, sonata) is compared.1 Vivaldi’s cantatas represent represent only about 6 per cent (the bracketed figure) of his works in the four categories, and this percentage would reduce further if his sacred works of all kinds and his serenatas were thrown into the balance. The composer among the five others whose profile rese re semb mble less hi hiss mo most st cl clos osel ely y is Al Albi bino noni ni,, wh who, o, as a fe fell llow ow Ve Vene neti tian an,, en enjo joye yed d si simi mila larr opportunities as a composer. But even here, the difference between 19 and 6 per cent ce nt is no nott ne negl glig igib ible le.. Sc Scar arla latt tti, i, Ma Marc rcel ello lo,, an and d Bo Bono nonc ncin inii em emer erge ge fr from om th thee ta tabl blee as thee sp th spec ecia iali list stss in th thee ge genr nre, e, an and d on onee is no nott su surp rpri rise sed d to fi find nd th thei eirr na name mess si sing ngle led d ou outt frequently in this connection in the literature contemporary contemporary with Vivaldi. Table 1.1 Statistics for works works in four genres by Vivaldi and five contemporaries Composer

Operas

Cantatas

Concertos

Sonatas So

Total To

T. Albinoni (1671–1751) G. Bononcini (1670–1747) F. Gasparini (1668–1727) B. Marcello (1686–1739) A. Scarlatti (1660–1725) A. Vivaldi (1678–1741)

53 (20) 31 (7) 63 (44) 0 (0) 65 (9) 48 (7)

48 (19) 295 (70) 71 (50) 378 (81) 620 (87) 37 (6)

59 (23) 0 (0) 0 (0) 18 (4) 12 (2) 475 (74)

99 (38) 95 (23) 9 (6) 68 (15) 18 (2) 82 (13)

259 (100) 421 (100) 143 (100) 464 (100) 715 (100) 642 (100)

Note: figures in parentheses are rounded percentages percentages . 1

The quoted figures, which apply only to compositions whose existence is confirmed, should be taken merely as working approximations based on the best available evidence. The table makes no attempt to show the general profile of the music by the six composers, since it includes no sacred vocal genres (e.g., oratorio, motet) and omits some important secular vocal genres (e.g., serenata, chamber duet).

2


Of co cour urse se,, gr gros osss nu numb mber erss ar aree no nott ev ever eryt ythi hing ng.. Pe Perg rgol oles esii ac achi hiev eved ed st star ardo dom m in th thee domain of sacred vocal music with a single work, his Stabat Mater (1736), which circulated everywhere in Europe, not excluding Protestant regions. By the time Vivaldi started to compose chamber cantatas, which may have been as late as the second half of the 1710s, virtually the only way in which cantatas could circulate was via manuscript transmission. In Italy the copyists were predominantly professional scribes working in copying shops ( copisterie). On the one hand, they fulfilled commissions from composers or the latter’s patrons, making copies as instructed. On the other hand, they operated as independent retailers, retailers, supplying music to an open market that in Italy included many foreign visitors. In northern Euro Eu rope pe mu musi sicc co copy pyin ing g wa wass ca carr rrie ied d ou outt mo most st of ofte ten n by me memb mber erss of th thee mu musi sica call pr proofess fe ssio ion n it itse self lf,, si sinc ncee th ther eree we were re fe few w pe pers rson onss fu full lly y de dedi dica cate ted d to it (t (the he fa famo mous us ho hous usee of J. G. I. Br Brei eitk tkop opff in Le Leip ipzi zig g fu furn rnis ishe hess th thee so sole le no nota tabl blee ex exce cept ptio ion n to th this is pi pict ctur ure) e).. The dom domina inance nce of man manusc uscrip riptt tra transm nsmiss ission ion had not alw always ays bee been n unc unchal hallen lenged ged.. In the heyday of the cantata (its Blütezeit , as Eugen Schmitz described it) in the seco se cond nd ha half lf of th thee se seve vent ntee eent nth h ce cent ntur ury, y, It Ital alia ian n ca cant ntat atas as we were re fr freq eque uent ntly ly published, usually in sets of twelve. Indeed, composers often made a set of cantatas their first essay in the medium of published music. The centres that domi do mina nate ted d th thee pu publ blic icat atio ion n of ca cant ntat atas as we were re,, no nott su surp rpri risi sing ngly ly,, th thos osee th that at we were re mo most st active in music publication generally. Before 1700 Bologna (Monti, Silvani, Micheletti) led the field, although Venice (Sala, Bortoli) ran it close after 1690. At various times Lucca (Gregori), Rome (Mascardi), Modena (Rosati), and Florence briefly participated. Outside Italy, the Amsterdam firm of Estienne Roger flirted, in the years immediately surrounding 1700, with the publication of cant ca ntat atas as (f (fro rom m mo mova vabl blee ty type pe ra rath ther er th than an vi viaa th thee pr proc oces esss of en engr grav avin ing, g, fr from om wh whic ich h Roger was later to draw his fame), and in the 1720s and 1730s the publication of cantatas (this time employing engraving) enjoyed an Indian summer in London, fuelled by the ambition of Italian émigrés. The general picture is shown in Table 1.2, which lists in chronological order all the identified publications containing Ital It alia ian n ca cant ntat atas as (s (som omet etim imes es ap appe pear arin ing g al alon ongs gsid idee ot othe herr ge genr nres es)) fr from om 16 1659 59 to 17 1735 35,, and an d Ta Tabl blee 1. 1.3, 3, wh whic ich h or orde ders rs th thee sa same me it item emss ac acco cord rdin ing g to th thee pl plac acee of pu publ blic icat atio ion. n. The two questions to which an answer is particularly urgent are these: why did the publication of cantatas collapse so spectacularly in Italy after 1708, and why did it not take root in Amsterdam subsequently? One’s reply to the first question, which applies in equal measure to instrumental music (sonatas, concertos, etc.), has to be that towards 1710 adverse economic conditions evidently reduced the competitiveness of printed music vis-à-vis manuscript music to a point where it was no longer sustainable. Even under the pressure from their competitors in Amsterdam, and before long also in London and Paris, Italian publishers failed to establish effective retail outlets north of the Alps, where, even for vocal genres, a large part of the international mark ma rket et fo forr It Ital alia ian n mu musi sicc la lay. y. So th thee re reme medy dy fo forr lo loca call un unco comp mpet etit itiv iven enes esss co coul uld d no nott be sought via export.2 2

It has to be said that Roger seems to have made little effort to penetrate the Italian market. One factor in the decline of Italian instrumental music in the course of the eighteenth century must have been its failure (relatively speaking) to re-enter its homeland after publication abroad.

3

THE REDISCOVERY OF VIVALDI’S CANTATAS

Table 1.2 Published cantatas, 1659–1735: listed by year of publication (col. 1) Year 1659 1666 1668 16 68 1673 16 73 1673 1673 1675 16 75 1676 16 76

Composer

Short description

Cazzati, M. Cantate morali e spirituali, Op. 20 Cazzati, M. Arie e cantate a voce sola, Op. 41 Mazz Ma zzaf afer erra rata ta,, G. B. Ca Cant ntat atee e ca canz nzon onet ette te a 2 vo voci ci,, Op Op.. 3 Gros Gr ossi si,, C. La cetra d’Apollo, Op. 6 Mazzaferrata, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 4 Petrobelli, F. Cantate a 2, 3, e 4 voci, Op. 9 Gros Gr ossi si,, C. L’Anfione, Op. 7 Legr Le gren enzi zi,, G. Can anta tate te e ca canz nzon onet ette te a vo voce ce sol ola, a, Op. 12 1677 Bononcini, G. M. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 10 1678 Bononcini, G. M. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 13 1678 Legrenzi, G. Can anttate e ca can nzoni a voce sola, Op. 14 1679 16 79* * Co Coya ya,, S. L’amante impazzito , Op. 1 1680 Bassani, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 2 1680 16 80 Ma Mazz zzaf afer erra rata ta,, G. B. Ca Cant ntat atee mo mora rali li e sp spir irit itua uali li,, Op Op.. 7 1681 16 81 Gr Gros ossi si,, C. Il divertimento de grandi , Op. l9 1682 Bassani, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 3 1683 16 83 Ba Bass ssan ani, i, G. B. Madr Ma drig igal alii e ca cant ntat atee sp spir irit itua uali li a 2 e 3 voci, Op.4 1684 Bassani, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 6 1685 16 85 Al Albe berg rgat ati, i, P. Can anta tate te mor oral alii a vo voce ce so sola la,, Op. 3 1685 Amodei, C. Cantate a voce sola 1685 var ariious Melpomene , cantate a voce sola 1686 Del Ricco, A. Cantate a voce sola 1687 Albergati, P. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 6 1687 Alveri, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 1 1688 Bassani, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 7 1688 Perti, G. A. Cantate morali a 1 e 2 voci, Op. 1 1688 Tosi, G. F. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 2 1688 16 88 Vi Vina nacc cces esi, i, B. Il consiglio degli amanti , Op. 3 1689 Paulato, A. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 1 1689 Viviani, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 1 1690 Degli Antonii, P. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 6 1690 16 90 Vi Vivi vian ani, i, G. B. Veglie armoniche , Op. 7 1691 Brevi, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 1 1691 16 91 Ga Gabr brie iell lli, i, D. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 2 1692 16 92 Po Porf rfir irii ii,, P. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 1 1693 Bassani, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 14 1694* Alghisi, P. Cantate 1694 Bassani, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 15 1695 Bassani, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 16 1695 16 95 Br Brev evi, i, G. B. I deliri d’amor divino , Op. 5 1695 16 95 Ga Gasp spar arin ini, i, F. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 1 1695 Marino, C. A. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 4 1695 Zanata, D. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 2 1696 Brevi, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 7 1696 Predieri, G. C. Can anttate morali a 2 e 3 voci, Op. 1

Publisher City Monti — Mont Mo ntii Gardano Monti Monti Gardano Monti

Bologna Bologna Bolo Bo logn gnaa Venice Bologna Bologna Venice Bologna

Monti Monti Monti Camagni Monti Mont Mo ntii Sala Monti Monti

Bologna Bologna Bologna Milan Bologna Bolo Bo logn gnaa Venice Bologna Bologna

Monti Mont Mo ntii De Bonis Monti — Monti Micheletti Monti Monti Micheletti Sala? Sala Monti Monti — Monti Monti Monti Sala Monti? Sala Monti Rosati Mascardi Sala Sala Rosati Silvani

Bologna Bolo Bo logn gnaa Naples Bologna Florence Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna Venice Venice Bologna Bologna Florence Bologna Bologna Bologna Venice Bologna Venice Bologna Modena Rome Venice Venice Modena Bologna

4 Year 1696 1697 1698 1698 1698 16 98 1698 16 98 1698 1698 16 98 1698 1699* 169 9* 1699 1699 1699 1699 1700 1701 1701 1701 1701 1702


Composer

Short description

Zanata, D. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 4 Bassani, P. A. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 1 Bassani, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 19 Cherici, S. Ariete o cantate, Op. 5 Le Gran and, d, N. F. Cant Ca ntat atee e ar arie iett ttee a vo voce ce so sola la,, li lib. b. 1 Le Gran and, d, N. F. Cant Ca ntat atee e ar arie iett ttee a vo voce ce so sola la,, li lib. b. 2 Pistocchi, F. A. Cantate, Op. 1 Pist Pi stoc occh chi, i, F. A. Sche Sc herz rzii mu musi sica cali li . . . ca cant ntat ate, e, Op Op.. [2 [2]] Zanata, D. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 6 Badia, Bad ia, C. A. Tributi armonici Bassani, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 17 Caldara, A. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 3 Coletti, A. B. Cantate a voce sola Gregori, G. L. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 3 Gaffi, B. Cantate da camera a voce sola Aldrovandini, G. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 2 Bassani, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 28 Della Ciaia, A. B. Cantate da camer eraa a voce sola Scarlatti, A. Cantate a 1 e 2 voci, Op. 1 various Cantate a 1 e 2 voci con tromba e flauto 1702 various Cantate e ariette a voce sola sensa violini 1702 various Cantate e ariette a voce sola con violini 1702 Albergati, P. Cantate spirituali, Op. 9 1702 Albinoni, T. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 4 1703 17 03 Ba Bass ssan ani, i, G. B. Cantate a voce sola con violini unisoni, Op. 31 1703 Braibanzi, F. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 2 1704 Canuti, G. A. Cantate da camera a voce sola 1704 Motta, A. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 2 1705* Altogiri, Abate Cantate a voce sola 1706 Ruggieri, G. M. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 5 1707 17 07 Si Sillva vani ni,, G. A. Cant Ca ntat atee mor oral alii a 1, 2, e 3 vo voci ci,, Op. 5 1708 17 08 Ma Marc rcel ello lo,, A. Cantate da camera a voce sola 1713 Keiser, R. Divertimenti serenissimi 1714 17 14 Alb lber erga gati ti,, P. Cant Ca ntat atee e or orat ator orii ii a 1, 2, e 3 vo voci ci,, Op. 10 1715 Stricker, A. R. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 1 1717 17 17 Al Albe berg rgat ati, i, P. Corona de preggi di M.V ., Op. 13 1720 17 20 Mo Mont ntuol uoli, i, C. et etc. c. Ca Cant ntat atee a vo voce ce so sola la e ba bass sso o co cont ntin inuo uo 1721 Bononcini, G. Cantate e duetti 1726 D’ D’Astorga, E. Cantate a voce sola 1727 Kelleri, F. Cantate e arie con stromenti 1727 17 27* * Sa Sand ndon oni, i, P. G. Cant Ca ntat atee da ca came mera ra . . . 1728 Ariosti, A. [Six cantatas and six lessons] 1728 D’Alay, M. Cantate e suonate 1732 17 32 Ar Arri rigo goni ni,, C. Cantate da camera

Publisher City Sala Silvani Silvani Silvani Rog oger er Rog oger er Silvani Roge Ro gerr Sala — Sala Sala Gregori Gregori Mascardi Silvani Sala Gregori Roger Roger

Venice Bologna Bologna Bologna Amst ster erda dam m Amst ster erda dam m Bologna Amst Am ster erda dam m Venice Nuremberg Venice Venice Lucca Lucca Rome Bologna Venice Lucca Amsterdam Amsterdam

Roger

Amsterdam

Roger

Amsterdam

Rosati? Sala Silvani

Modena Venice Bologn gnaa

Silvani Gregori Silvani Sala Sala Silv Si lvan anii Bortoli Greflinger Silvani

Bologna Lucca Bologna Venice Venice Bol olog ogna na Venice Hamburg Bologn gnaa

— Silvani Mont Mo ntuol uolii — — Smith — — — Atkins

Köthen Bologna Bolo Bo logna gna London Lisbon London London London London London

5


Year

Composer

1735* Duni, A. 1735 Porpora, N. 1735* Roseingrave T.

Short description

Publisher City

Cantate da camera Cantate, Op. 1 VI Italian cantatas

Smith — Cooke

London London London

Note: starred years are approximate. approximate.

Table 1.3 Published cantatas, 1659–1735: listed by place of publication (col. 5) Year

Composer

1698 1698 1698 16 98 1698 16 98 1701 1702

Le Gra rand nd,, N. F. Le Gra rand nd,, N. F. Pist Pi stoc occh chi, i, F. A. Scarlatti, A. various

1702 1702 1659 1666 1668 16 68 1673 1673 1676 16 76 1677 1678 1678 1680 1680 16 80 1682 1683 16 83 1684 1685 1685 1687 1687 1688 1688 1688 1689 1690 1691 1691 1692

Short description

Can anta tate te e ar arie iett ttee a vo voce ce sol ola, a, li lib. b. 1 Can anta tate te e ar arie iett ttee a vo voce ce sol ola, a, li lib. b. 2 Sche Sc herz rzii mu musi sica cali li . . . ca cant ntat ate, e, Op Op.. [2 [2]] Cantate a 1 e 2 voci, Op. 1 Cantate a 1 e 2 voci con tromba e flauto various Cantate e ariette a voce sola sensa violini various Cantate e ariette a voce sola con violini Cazzati, M. Cantate morali e spirituali, Op. 20 Cazzati, M. Arie e cantate a voce sola, Op. 41 Mazz Ma zzaf afer erra rata ta,, G. B. Ca Cant ntat atee e ca canz nzon onet ette te a 2 vo voci ci,, Op Op.. 3 Mazzaferrata, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 4 Petrobelli, F. Cantate a 2, 3, e 4 voci, Op. 9 Legr Le gren enzi zi,, G. Can anta tate te e ca canz nzon onet ette te a vo voce ce sol ola, a, Op. 12 Bononcini, G. M. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 10 Bononcini, G. M. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 13 Legrenzi, G. Can anttate e ca can nzoni a voce sola, Op. 14 Bassani, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 2 Mazz Ma zzaf afer erra rata ta,, G. B. Ca Cant ntat atee mo mora rali li e sp spir irit itua uali li,, Op Op.. 7 Bassani, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 3 Bass Ba ssan ani, i, G. B. Madr Ma drig igal alii e ca cant ntat atee sp spir irit itua uali li a 2 e 3 voci, Op.4 Bassani, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 6 Albergati, P. Cantate morali a voce sola, Op. 3 var ariious Melpomene , cantate a voce sola Albergati, P. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 6 Alveri, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 1 Bassani, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 7 Perti, G. A. Cantate morali a 1 e 2 voci, Op. 1 Tosi, G. F. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 2 Viviani, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 1 Degli Antonii, P. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 6 Brevi, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 1 Gabrielli, D. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 2 Porfirii, P. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 1

Publisher City Rogerr Roge Roge Ro gerr Roge Ro gerr Roger Roger

Amste Ams terd rdam am Amsste Am terd rdam am Amst Am ster erda dam m Amsterdam Amsterdam

Roger

Amsterdam

Roger

Amsterdam

Monti — Mont Mo ntii Monti Monti Monti

Bologna Bologna Bolo Bo logn gnaa Bologna Bologna Bologna

Monti Monti Monti Monti Mont Mo ntii Monti Monti

Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna Bolo Bo logn gnaa Bologna Bologna

Monti Monti Monti Monti Micheletti Monti Monti Micheletti Monti Monti Monti Monti Monti

Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna

6


Year

Composer

1694* 1695 1696 1697 1698 1698 1698 1701 1703 17 03

Alghisi, P. Bassani, G. B. Predieri, G. C. Bassani, P. A. Bassani, G. B. Cherici, S. Pistocchi, F. A. Aldrovandini, G. Bass Ba ssan ani, i, G. B.

1703 1704 1707 17 07 1714 17 14 1717 1717 1720 17 20 1686 1690 16 90 1713 17 13 1715 1726 1721 1727 1727 17 27* * 1728 1728 1732 1735 1735* 1735* 1699 1699 1701 1704 1679 16 79* * 1695 16 95 1696 1702 1685 1699* 169 9* 1695 1700 1673 16 73 1675 16 75 1681 16 81 1688 16 88 1689 1693

Short description

Cantate Cantate a voce sola, Op. 16 Can anttate morali a 2 e 3 voci, Op. 1 Cantate a voce sola, Op. 1 Cantate a voce sola, Op. 19 Ariete o cantate, Op. 5 Cantate, Op. 1 Cantate a voce sola, Op. 2 Cant Ca ntat atee a vo voce ce so sola la co con n vi viol olin inii unisoni, Op. 31 Braibanzi, F. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 2 Motta, A. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 2 Silv Si lvan ani, i, G. A. Can anta tate te mor oral alii a 1, 2, e 3 vo voci ci,, Op. 5 Alb lber erga gati ti,, P. Can anta tate te e or orat ator orii ii a 1, 2, e 3 vo voci ci,, Op. 10 Albe Al berg rgat ati, i, P. Corona de preggi di M.V ., Op. 13 Mont Mo ntuo uoli li,, C. et etc. c. Ca Cant ntat atee a voc vocee so sola la e bas basso so co cont ntin inuo uo Del Ricco, A. Cantate a voce sola Vivi Vi vian ani, i, G. B. Veglie armoniche , Op. 7 Kei eisser er,, R. Divertimentii serenissimi Divertiment Stricker, A. R. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 1 D’Astorga, E. D’ Cantate a voce sola Bononcini, G. Cantate e duetti Kelleri, F. Cantate e arie con strumenti Sand Sa ndon oni, i, P. G. Cant Ca ntat atee da ca came mera ra . . . Ariosti, A. [Six cantatas and six lessons] D’Alay, M. Cantate e suonate Arrigoni, C. Cantate da camera Porpora, N. Cantate, Op. 1 Duni, A. Cantate da camera Roseingrave T. VI Italian cantatas Coletti, A. B. Cantate a voce sola Gregori, G. L. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 3 Del ellla Ciai aiaa, A. B. Can anttate da camera a voce sola Canuti, G. A. Cantate da camera a voce sola Coya Co ya,, S. L’amante impazzito , Op. 1 Brev Br evi, i, G. B. I deliri d’amor divino , Op. 5 Brevi, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 7 Albergati, P. Cantate spirituali, Op. 9 Amodei, C. Cantate a voce sola Badia, Bad ia, C. A. Tributi armonici Gasparini, F. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 1 Gaffi, B. Cantate da camera a voce sola Gros Gr ossi si,, C. La cetra d’Apollo, Op. 6 Gros Gr ossi si,, C. L’Anfione, Op. 7 Gros Gr ossi si,, C. Il divertimento de grandi , Op. l9 Vina Vi nacc cces esi, i, B. Il consiglio degli amanti , Op. 3 Paulato, A. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 1 Bassani, G. B. Cantate a voce sola, Op. 14

Publisher City Monti? Monti Silvani Silvani Silvani Silvani Silvani Silvani Silvani

Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna Bologna

Silvani Silvani Silv Si lvan anii Silvani

Bologna Bologna Bolo Bo logn gnaa Bologna

Silvani Mont Mo ntuo uoli li — — Greflinger Grefl inger — — — Smith — — — Atkins — Smith Cooke Gregori Gregori Grego gorri Gregori Camagni Rosati Rosati Rosati? De Bonis — Mascardi Mascardi Gardano Gardano Sala Sala? Sala Sala

Bologna Bolo Bo logn gnaa Florence Florence Hamburg Hambu rg Köthen Lisbon London London London London London London London London London Lucca Lucca Lucca Lucca Milan Modena Modena Modena Naples Nuremberg Rome Rome Venice Venice Venice Venice Venice Venice

7


Year

Composer

Short description

Publisher City

1694 1695 1695 1696 1698 1699 1699 1701 1702 1705* 1706 1708

Bassani, G. B. Marino, C. A. Zanata, D. Zanata, D. Zanata, D. Bassani, G. B. Caldara, A. Bassani, G. B. Albinoni, T. Altogiri, Abate Ruggieri, G. M. Marcello, A.

Cantate a voce sola, Op. 15 Cantate a voce sola, Op. 4 Cantate a voce sola, Op. 2 Cantate a voce sola, Op. 4 Cantate a voce sola, Op. 6 Cantate a voce sola, Op. 17 Cantate a voce sola, Op. 3 Cantate a voce sola, Op. 28 Cantate a voce sola, Op. 4 Cantate a voce sola Cantate a voce sola, Op. 5 Cantate da camera a voce sola

Sala Sala Sala Sala Sala Sala Sala Sala Sala Sala Sala Bortoli

Venice Venice Venice Venice Venice Venice Venice Venice Venice Venice Venice Venice

Note: starred years are approximate. approximate.

Italian composers of instrumental music addressed the crisis by sending their new works directly to Roger, as Corelli did with his reissued Op. 5 (the version with the ornamented Adagios) and Op. 6, Albinoni with his Op. 6, and Vivaldi with wi th hi hiss Op Op.. 3. In Inde deed ed,, th thee po poss ssib ible le ri risk skss an and d dr draw awba back ckss of de deal alin ing g di dire rect ctly ly wi with th a foreign publisher were offset by the quality of the result: the engraving process was tailor-made for a musical style that increasingly privileged long series of short notes and employed sophisticated slurring (contemporary (contemporary typography was unable to beam notes together, and the fixed sizes and shapes of slurs in typeset music coped very badly with the varied needs). But why, then, did these composers not do the same with their cantatas? Here, thee an th answ swer er is mo more re el elus usiv ive. e. It co coul uld d we well ll be th that at Ro Roge ger’ r’ss ex expe peri rime ment nt wi with th th thee is issu suee of Italian cantatas around 1700 – at a time when his catalogue consisted, in its Ital It alia ian n de depa part rtme ment nt,, ma main inly ly of wo work rkss ‘p ‘pir irat ated ed’’ fr from om th thei eirr or orig igin inal al pu publ blis ishe hers rs – wa wass deemed by him a failure in commercial terms. It is significant that between 1702 and an d th thee on onse sett of th thee cr cris isis is in It Ital alia ian n mu musi sicc pu publ blis ishi hing ng no nott a si sing ngle le ca cant ntat ataa ap appe pear ared ed from Roger. Whatever the reason for Roger’s reluctance to publish Italian cantatas precisely in the years leading up to 1710, the window of opportunity soon narrowed drastically: cantatas in other languages (French and English) began to provide competition to their Italian models, and the general swing away from fro m can cantat tatas as to fr freeee-sta standi nding ng ari arias, as, whi which ch wi will ll be dis discus cussed sed lat later, er, set in gradually. Of the composers represented in Table 1.1, Gasparini (1695), Scarlatti (1701), and Albinoni (1702) were just in time to ‘catch the boat’, while Bononcini won his chance under very different conditions later in London (1721). 3 Unlike his elder el der bro brothe therr Al Aless essand andro ro (16 (1669– 69–174 1747), 7), Be Bened nedett etto o Mar Marcel cello lo pub publi lishe shed d no cantatas, although a collection of secular vocal music of different type, his Canzoni madrigalesche , Op. 4, appeared in Bologna in 1717. Vivaldi arrived on the scene a few years too late to profit from the opportunity. 3

Some arias from cantatas in Albinoni’s Op. 4 gained even wider currency by being issued in London in the form of song-sheets with translated (more accurately: paraphrased) words.

8


However, the absence of printed cantatas was not the decisive issue for a composer’s reputation reputation within the genre. Had it been so, Marcello, for one, would not have earned his fame. More significant was the number of times the cantatas were re-copied after their initial use. The persons who desired to obtain copies were various. They included patrons who wished to acquire them for singers in their service, collectors of music both domestic and foreign, performers themselves, and tourists seeking souvenirs of a visit. It is pr prec ecis isel ely y fr from om th this is se seco cond ndar ary y co copy pyin ing g ac acti tivi vity ty th that at Vi Viva vald ldii ap appe pear arss to ha have ve benefited very little. Most of his surviving cantatas exist only in the form of an autograph score (or one by a member of his entourage made under his supervision) preserved among the Turin manuscripts – the composer’s personal archive toda to day y ho hous used ed at Tu Turi rin n in th thee Bi Bibl blio iote teca ca Na Nazi zion onal alee Un Univ iver ersi sita tari ria. a.4 Ea Each ch of th thee th thir ir-teen authenticated cantatas preserved outside Turin (eleven in Dresden, one in Meiningen, and one in Oxford) can be linked directly to the Turin manuscripts eith ei ther er pu puta tati tive vely ly – as a pr prim imar ary y co copy py of a wo work rk or orig igin inal ally ly pr pres esen entt am amon ong g th them em bu butt today missing – or, as in five cases, through textual comparison. 5 In the single instance where two sources of the same cantata exist outside Turin ( Usignoletto bello, RV 796), each can be related independently to Vivaldi’s workshop in Venice. We have yet to discover an unequivocal instance where a contemporary copi co pied ed a Vi Viva vald ldii ca cant ntat ataa fr from om a ma manu nusc scri ript pt no nott in th thee co comp mpos oser er’s ’s po poss sses essi sion on.. Th Thee inference is that, once delivered to their first destination, Vivaldi’s cantatas were performed only once, or, if repeated, remained within the same locality. This factor alone would account for the lack of contemporary mention. The contrast with Vivaldi’s concertos, which fanned out into all corners of Europe, could hardly be greater. The nearest thing to a critical discussion of Vivaldi’s cantatas by a contemporvollko lkomme mmene ne ary ar y th that at I ha have ve fo foun und d oc occu curs rs in Jo Joha hann nn Ma Matt tthe heso son’ n’ss Der vol Capellmeister of 1739.6 Mattheson’s comment refers to Vivaldi’s writing for the voice in generic terms: that tha t is, it applies just as much to his operas or motets as to his cantatas. The German critic praises Vivaldi, an instrumentalist by background, for his ability to adapt his style when writing vocal music: Vivaldi, albeit no singer, has had the sense to keep violin v iolin leaps out of his vocal compositions so completely that his arias have become bec ome a real thorn in the flesh to many a practised vocal composer.

An assumption underlying this evaluation deserves comment. In Vivaldi’s day there the re was no pre pressu ssure re on com compos posers ers to dem demons onstr trate ate ver versat satili ility. ty. Qui Quite te the

4 5

6

The twe The twenty nty-ei -eigh ghtt can cantat tatas as ar aree bo bound und in the vo volum lumes es Foà 27 (el (eleve even n wo works rks)) an and d Fo Foàà 28 (se (seve vente nteen en works). The four cantatas with RV numbers that today are considered spurious are the three in Florence (Filli, di gioia vuoi farmi morir , RV 672; Ingrata Lidia, ha vinto il tuo rigor , RV 673; Piango, gemo, sospiro e peno , RV 675), and Prendea con man di latte , RV 753, in Oxford. Johann Mattheson, Der vollkommene Capellmeister , Hamburg: Herold, 1739, p. 205. Original text: ‘Vivaldi, ob er gleich kein Sänger ist, hat doch aus seinen Sing-Sachen die Geigen-Sprünge so weit zu verbannen gewust, daß seine Arietten manchem geübten Vocal-Componisten ein rechter Stachel in den Augen geworden sind’.


9

contrary: the musician as performer was expected to reflect the musician as composer, and vice versa. This corresponded perfectly to the manner in which most music was placed in circulation, the composer himself giving the première. In an age when the guild mentality still held sway, specialization was the rule, universality the exception. 7 One respect in which Vivaldi shared the high ambition of J. S. Bach and Handel was his evident desire to be an all-round artist for whom no genre was in principle out of bounds. Only his failure to produce independent keyboard music betrays any hint of a limitation. According to a report by the French traveller Charles de Brosses, who met Vivaldi in 1739 and provided a vivid pen-portrait of him, Tartini – motivated, perhaps, by envy – reasserted the traditional view that composers of instrumental music should stick to their last and not venture into the vocal domain, citing Vivaldi as a composer applauded in the first category but hissed in the second. 8 This judgement is inaccurate, at least as a record of Vivaldi’s experience during his career, since his operas held the stage between 1713 and (posthumously!) 1742 and achieved a peak of success in the 1720s. Thee ea Th earl rlie iest st cr crit itic ical al me ment ntio ion n of ca cant ntat atas as by Vi Viva vald ldii oc occu curs rs in th thee fo four urth th vo volu lume me (1789) of Charles Burney’s General History of Music, in the course of a section wher wh eree th thee au auth thor or re revi view ewss th thee hi hist stor ory y of th thee ca cant ntat ataa ge genr nree fr from om Ca Cari riss ssim imii on onwa ward rds. s. To be ac acco cord rded ed th thee ho hono nour ur of a se sepa para rate te pa para ragr grap aph, h, Vi Viva vald ldii ha hass al alre read ady y do done ne we well ll,, since Burney treats only a handful of composers similarly. He writes: D. ANTONIO VIVALDI VIVALDI merits a place among the candidates for fame in this species of composition: several are inserted in the collection mentioned above [that of Henry Aldrich at Christ Church, Oxford, mentioned in connection with Cald Ca ldar ara’ a’ss Op Op.. 3] 3];; bu butt th thes ese, e, an and d al alll th that at I ha have ve se seen en el else sewh wher ere, e, ar aree ve very ry co comm mmon on and quiet, notwithstanding he was so riotous in composing for violins. But he had been too long used to write for the voice, to treat it as an instrument.9

Thesee fe Thes few w li line ness ar aree pr preg egna nant nt wi with th va valu luab able le in info form rmat atio ion. n. We no note te,, fi firs rst, t, th thee re rema mark rk on Vivaldi’s skill and experience at writing for the voice, which echoes, and very likely was prompted by, Mattheson’s evaluation. Burney’s observation that in relation to Vivaldi’s other compositions his cantatas are ‘common and quiet’ – which we should read as ‘conventional and sober’ – hits the nail on the head. In form they reveal none of the innovatory spirit and zest for experimentation that characterizes his concertos and sacred vocal music, and even to some extent his sonatas, and their musical language, though never staid, shows a sense of rest re stra rain int. t. Ho Howe weve ver, r, su such ch re rema mark rkss sh shou ould ld be pl plac aced ed in a wi wide derr co cont ntex ext. t. As a ge genr nre, e, thee la th late te Ba Baro roqu quee ca cant ntat ataa te tend nded ed to towa ward rdss co conf nfor ormi mity ty to sh shar ared ed no norm rmss an and d ex expe pect ctaation ti ons. s. Th This is co conv nver erge genc ncee be bega gan n wi with th th thee po poet ets, s, an and d th thee co comp mpos oser erss me mere rely ly mi mirr rror ored ed it at the next stage of the creative process. The consistency was, in a way, a boon

7 8 9

The absence of vocal music from Corelli’s oeuvre, or of instrumental music (with trivial exceptions) from Lotti’s, demonstrates the point. Charles de Brosses, Lettres historiques et critiques sur l’Italie , 3 vols, Paris: Ponthieu, 1799, 2, p. 316. This is the work published in later editions under the description of Lettres familières . Charles Char les Burn Burney, ey, A General History of Music from the Earliest Ages to the Present Period , 4 vols ls,, London: Becket and others, 1776–89, 4, p. 178.

10


for singers, since it enabled them, via their art of improvised embellishment, to personalize a musical performance performance in a way that would have been harder, had the ‘product’ on which they worked been less stable. So Vivaldi’s cantatas would have been expected under any circumstances to be less adventurous than his concertos. Most interesting of all is Burney’s reference to Vivaldi cantatas examined in Aldrich’s collection. Dr Henry Aldrich (1648–1710), who was made Dean of Christ Church in 1689, was an assiduous collector of music and included much recently composed Italian music in his library, which passed after his death to the college. If his collection once held cantatas by Vivaldi, as Burney asserts, these must have been acquired before his death in 1710 (no trace of them survives today). This would make them older by several years than any known cantatas by Vivaldi, the earliest of which appear to date from his Mantuan period (1718–20) or not long before. Such an early date is not in itself implausible, implausible, since Vivaldi’s earliest known vocal work, the lost serenata Le gare del dovere , RV 688, dates from 1708. However, one cannot help feeling that there is some inaccuracy in Burn Bu rney ey’s ’s re repo port rt.. Pe Perh rhap apss th thee ca cant ntat atas as we were re in inde deed ed in th thee Ch Chri rist st Ch Chur urch ch li libr brar ary y bu butt postdated Aldrich’s time. Perhaps they were attributed to Vivaldi by mistake – a kind ki nd of er erro rorr mo more re pr prev eval alen entt in th thee ca cant ntat ataa re repe pert rtor ory y th than an in an any y ot othe her. r. If an and d wh when en these cantatas turn up, we will be able to form a view of their period and authenticity. Until then, caution is advisable. Burney may have been able to gain knowledge of Vivaldi’s cantatas from a sepa se para rate te so sour urce ce:: a ma manu nusc scri ript pt in hi hiss po poss sses essi sion on co cont ntai aini ning ng ‘C ‘Can anta tate te an and d Ar Arie ie &c &c.’ .’ by ‘Porpora, A. Scarlatti, Bononcini, Gasparini, Orlandini, d’Astorga, Vivaldi, Fio iorre, &c. c.’’ sol old d as lot 61 615 5 at the auc ucti tion on of hi hiss col olle lect ctio ion n of musi sicc he held ld in the ye year ar of his death, 1814.10 No volume in a public collection conforming to that description appears to exist today. Seeing that cantata volumes of this kind, containing music by several authors, are very often ‘binder’s collections’, collections’, which means that ther th eree is no ne nece cess ssar ary y co conn nnec ecti tion on be betw twee een n th thee se seve vera rall it item ems, s, it wo woul uld d be ha haza zard rdou ouss to estimate the date of the Vivaldi cantatas (if they were indeed cantatas rather than operatic arias), but the presence, within the group, of younger composers, in particular Porpora and Orlandini, makes it on balance more likely that these works belonged to Vivaldi’s maturity. When Burney published the fourth fourt h volume of his history, Vivaldi’s music was about to reach the nadir of its fortunes. Performers of his music had died off or moved on to newer things. Unlike Corelli or Marcello, he had failed to achieve in any genre the status of a ‘classic’ whose music was known and respected, even if it rarely graced the concert platform. For the final decades of the eighteenth century and most of the nineteenth Vivaldi was of interest only to biographers, who made the most of his eccentriciti eccentricities es and foibles, not to musicians. It is quite possible that between his death in 1741 and the 1940s no one sang a note of his chamber cantatas.

10

A facsimile of the sale catalogue is reproduced in Alec Hyatt King, Catalogue of the Music Library of Charles Burney, Burney, sold in London, 8 August August 1814 , Amsterdam: Frits Knuf, 1973.


11

How Modern Commentators Commentators have have seen them Although Althou gh Viv Vivald aldi’s i’s ins instr trume umenta ntall mu music sic bec became ame a fre freque quent nt ite item m on con concer certt programmes or in publishers’ catalogues only after the First World War, a tiny sliver survived more or less continuously from the eighteenth century into the nineteenth in the shape of his once famous but today rather neglected ‘Cuckoo’ (or ‘Cuckow’) Concerto (RV 355), which was first published in 1717 by the London dealer Daniel Wright. It was a favourite ‘party piece’ of the Hereford innkeeper and violinist Thomas Woodcock (brother of the flautist-composer Robert Woodcock). In Burney’s memoirs, preserved only in autograph fragments, the historian recalled c.1742: [Vivaldi’s] Cuckoo Concerto , during my youth, was the wonder and delight of all frequenters of country concerts; and Woodcock , one of the Hereford waits, was sent far and near to perform it.11

Within a few years the publisher John Walsh was advertising it, and new editions continued to come out at intervals in England up to at least 1896, when Henry Farm Fa rmer er ar arra rang nged ed it fo forr vi viol olin in an and d pi pian ano o fo forr th thee Lo Lond ndon on pu publ blis ishe herr Jo Jose seph ph Williams. 12 But this was a sideshow, a freak of nature. The main story is that Vivaldi’s concertos and (to a minimal extent) his sonatas re-entered the consciousness of musicians and critics very slowly, and initially only as a by-product of the Bach revival. Already in Forkel’s ground-breaking biography of J. S. Bach (1802) Vivaldi had received a slightly grudging credit for his influence on Bach, especially in matters of form, and attention had been drawn to the transcriptions for keyboard that Bach had made of Vivaldi concertos. Bach scholars were thereby stimulated to track down the originals and compare them (usually to their detriment) with Bach’s arrangements. It was in fact within the covers of the collected edition of the Bach-Gesellschaft that the first ‘modern’ editions of Vivaldi’s music with a claim to completeness and accuracy came out. 13 Towards the end of the nineteenth century, and into the first years of the twentieth, a thin stream of instrumental works, always issued individually, emerged. These were drawn almost alm ost exc exclus lusive ively ly fro from m the pub publi lishe shed d col collec lectio tions ns (ch (chief iefly ly Op. 3, L’estro armonico), and the main criterion for selection seems to have been either their hist hi stor oric ical al va valu luee (a (ass in th thee ed edit itio ions ns by Al Alfr fred ed Ei Eins nste tein in an and d Pa Paul ul Gr Graf af Wa Wald lder erse see) e) or their pedagogical utility combined with novelty value (as in the editions by Sam Fran Fr anko ko,, Al Alfr fred ed Mo Moff ffat at,, Em Emil ilio io Pe Pent nte, e, Ti Tiva vada darr Na Nach chez ez,, an and d Gu Gust stav av Je Jens nsen en); ); in th thee latter case, the accompaniment was invariably arranged for piano. 11

12

13

Transcribed in Slava Klima, Garry Bowers, and Kerry S. Grant (eds), Memoirs of Dr Charles Burney, 1726–176 1726–1769 9 , Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1988, p. 32. The report resurfaced almost verbatim in Burney’s General History (3, p. 561). ‘Arranged’ is perhaps a misnomer. In the intervening period the piece had been so maimed and disfigured by accretions (including a minuet pastiche) that virtually nothing survived of the original beyond a few simple figurations. Thes Th esee we were re th thee te tent nth h co conc ncer erto to of Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss Op Op.. 3 (R (RV V 58 580) 0) an and d th thee se seco cond nd co conc ncer erto to of th thee se seco cond nd volume of his Op. 7 (RV 299).

12


Rather surprisingly, although the large collection of manuscript works by Vivaldi in Dresden was known to exist – Moritz Fürstenau mentioned it in his history of music at the Saxon court (1861–2), and Julius Rühlmann made a preliminary evaluation in an article of 1867 – nothing of it was seemingly published until well into the twentieth century, when Arnold Schering raided it for a Largo movement from a violin sonata. 14 This same collection in Dresden, which has been inherited by the present-day Sächsische Landesbibliothek Landesbibliothek – Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Universitätsbibliothek (to be referred to hereafter as ‘the SLUB’), is home to the only group of Vivaldi cantatas preserved outside Turin, and perforce, until the 1920s, the sole known repository of Vivaldi’s cantatas. 15 The contents of the part of the musical collection originating from the former Hofkapelle have in the past been hard for those not on the spot sp ot to as asce cert rtai ain, n, al alth thou ough gh th thee re rece cent nt on on-l -lin inee pu publ blic icat atio ion n of th thee ca card rd ca cata talo logu guee ha hass grea gr eatl tly y im impr prov oved ed th thee si situ tuat atio ion. n. Al Alre read ady y at th thee st star artt of th thee tw twen enti tiet eth h ce cent ntur ury y Ro Robe bert rt Eitner’s Quellenlexikon mentioned the presence of eleven Vivaldi cantatas in the then Royal Library in Dresden, opening the door to scholarly investigation. 16 This did not take long to materialize. In 1905 the Leipzig publisher Breitkopf & Härtel inaugurated, under the general editorship of Hermann Kretzschmar, a Kleine ine Han Handbü dbüche cherr der seri se ries es of ‘S ‘Sho hort rt Ha Hand ndbo book okss of Mu Musi sicc Hi Hist stor ory y by Ge Genr nres es’’ (Kle Musikgeschichte nach Gattungen). There was nothing short about the first volume, Arnold Schering’s magisterial history of the concerto, which contains the first thorough (and the first appreciative) evaluation of Vivaldi’s contribution contribution to the genre.17 Subsequent volumes maintained the serious tone and high scholarly standard. Fifth among them was Eugen Schmitz’s Geschichte der weltlichen Solokantate (the first, and in the event only, part of a wider project that would have embraced also the concerto sacro under the general banner of Geschichte der Kantate und des geistlichen Konzerts ), which came out in 1914. 18 Strangely, this extraordinary achievement is the only general survey in book form of the Baroque cantata as a whole to have hav e appeared up to the present day. da y. It is a child of its time and place in that it adopts what a recent author describes, not in a spirit of approval, as the ‘organism model of history, complete with its periods of flowering, maturity, and decline’. 19 For Schmitz, the period of Verfall (decline) began

14

15 16

17 18 19

Moritz Fürstenau, Zur Geschichte der Musik und des Theaters am Hofe zu Dresden , 2 vols, Dresd Dr esden: en: Ku Kuntz ntze, e, 186 1861–2 1–2,, 1, p. 86; Jul Juliu iuss Rü Rühlm hlmann ann,, ‘A ‘Anto ntoni nio o Vi Vival valdi di un und d sei sein n Ein Einflu fluss ss auf Jo Joh. h. Seb. Bach’, Neue Zeitschrift für Musik , lxiii (1867), 392–7, 401–5, and 413–16. Schering’s edition was published c.1925 by C. F. Kahnt, Leipzig. Not counting the isolated works in Meiningen, Oxford (formerly Tenbury), and Vienna. Robert Eitner, Biographisch-bibliographisches Quellenlexikon der Musiker und Musikgelehrten der christlichen Zeitrechnung bis zur Mitte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts , 10 vols, Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1899–1904, 10, p. 113. As if presciently, Eitner included among the cantatas Usignoletto to bello, RV 79 attrib att ributa utable ble to Viv Vivald aldii the ca canta ntata ta Usignolet 796, 6, wh whic ich h in th thee Dr Dres esde den n so sour urce ce kn know own n to him (more recently, the library has acquired a second manuscript) lacks a composer’s name. Geschich hichte te des Inst Instrum rumenta entalkon lkonzert zertss bis auf die Gege Gegenwar nwart t , Leip Arnold Schering, Gesc Leipzig: zig: Brei Breitkop tkopf f & Härtel, 1905. Eugen Schmitz, Geschichte der weltlichen Solokantate , Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1914. W. Dean Sutcliffe, The Keyboard Sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti and Eighteenth-Century Musical Style Style, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 223.


13

at exactly the same time that the ‘grand’ da capo aria form (the expanded version of the form in which the ‘A’ text is sung through twice on each occasion) established its hegemony, thus close to the end of the seventeenth century. It will be useful at this point to clarify, and to justify, the transition from Blütezeit to Verfall identified by Schmitz. He does not mean that the average musical quality of cantatas begins to sink at this point. 20 Clearly, it does not; and Schmitz pays due tribute to the artistic achievements achievements of Scarlatti in his late years, Handel, Marcello, Marcello, and many others. What he means – and this is objectively verifiab fi able le – is th that at th thee fo form rm in wh whic ich h ca cant ntat atas as ar aree ca cast st be beco come mess pr prog ogre ress ssiv ivel ely y os ossi sifi fied ed:: the options tend to narrow as the decades pass, and at the same time the cantata’s generic distinctiveness distinctiveness vis-à-vis the operatic aria and scena weakens. 21 This loss of a strong generic identity proved fatal for the solo cantata, since as a literary form it was always more restricted in appeal than as a musical experience. One could express almost the same thought by saying that for the public, if not for the poet, arias enjoyed more popularity than recitatives. 22 The fall from favour of plain continuo accompaniment for cantata arias, following in the footsteps of operatic arias, from which accompaniment by continuo alone tends to disappear rapidly after c.1710, is a symptom of the same convergence. Inexorably, Inexorably, from the 1730s onwards, operatic arias, performed and sometimes even conceived from the start as concert pieces, began to displace the cantata genre from its last redoubts. It is no accident that, after a brief final efflorescence in London, the published solo cantata comes to such an absolute full stop around 1735, even though the market for published vocal music in general remains buoyant. Late exam ex ampl ples es of th thee ge genr nre, e, su such ch as Ha Hayd ydn’ n’ss Arianna a Naxos (17 (1790) 90),, sho show w the can cantat tataa imprisoned within the conventions of the dramatic scena.23 So, in this rather technical sense, Schmitz’s perception of ‘decline’ seems justified. We could use a similar description for the madrigal after 1625 or the symphonic poem after 1918. Naturally, a ‘technical’ decline is apt to produce, in time, an artistic decline, as front-rank figures, with the approval of their patrons, redirect their efforts elsewhere. However, However, this did not happen quickly in the case of the Italian solo cantata, which during almost the whole length of Vivaldi’s career retained its high status. Schmit Sch mitzz dis discus cusses ses Vi Vival valdi di tog togeth ether er wi with th Al Albin binoni oni and Mar Marcel cello lo in a sub subsec sectio tion n devoted to Venetian composers within a chapter on the solo cantatas of the

20

21

22

23

In this connection, it is interesting to note that Burney ( General History , 4, p. 164), unshakeable in his fundamental belief in the continuous improvement of music, locates what he terms ‘the golden age of cantatas in Italy’ in the years around 1700 – the start of the decline, according to Schmitz. A partial exception could be made for Marcello’s Sujetkantaten , which are unusually extended extended cantatas on ‘heroic’ themes taken from antiquity. But these are few in number and evoked little response from other composers. This Th is po poin intt wa wass co conc nced eded ed by th thee Ge Germ rman an li libr bret etti tist st Ca Carl rl Wi Wilh lhel elm m Ra Raml mler er wh when en he wr wrot ote, e, in a le lett tter er of 29 June 1754 to J. W. L. Gleim, that arias were ‘for the composer alone’, whereas recitatives were ‘for the poet’ (‘die Arien nur für den Musikus, die Recitatife aber für den Poeten sind’). The dramatic cantata (serenata) for two or more singers proved more robust, since it had an organic connection with the ceremonial side of public life.

14


‘Neapolitan’ school.24 By ‘Nea ‘Neapolitan’ ‘Neapolit politan’ an’ he mean meanss simp simply ly ‘pos ‘post-Sc t-Scarla arlattia ttian’. n’. Modern musicology is shy of using this label with too broad a meaning, especially when the composers in question have no obvious connection with Naples. However, a good case can be made for identifying as genuinely ‘Neapolitan’ the galant style in its early phase (the second half of the 1720s and the 1730s), when three masters trained in that city, Leo, Vinci, and Porpora, almost overnight achieved dominance over the Italian stage and by so doing imparted a new stylistic inflection inflection to vocal music of all kinds, including the cantata. According to that criterion, Vivaldi’s cantatas written before c.1725 may be regarded as ‘pre-Neapolitan’, ‘pre-Neapol itan’, and his later cantatas as ‘Neapolitan ‘Neapolitan’. ’. But this is to quibble over mere terminology. Although Schmitz did not have access to a broad cross-section of Vivaldi’s cantatas, which reduces the usefulness ne ss of hi hiss ge gene nera rali liza zati tion on,, he ma made de se seve vera rall pe perc rcep epti tive ve an and d va vali lid d po poin ints ts,, wh whic ich h wi will ll be di disc scus usse sed d at th thee ap appr prop opri riat atee pl plac acee la late terr in th this is bo book ok.. It is in inte tere rest stin ing g th that at,, ju just st as Arthur Hutchings was to do in his survey of the Baroque concerto, Schmitz ‘twins’ Vivaldi with Albinoni and structures his discussion of each around a direct comparison of their cantatas. 25 The honours are fairly evenly distributed. If Albinoni is judged the better melodist, Vivaldi receives credit for his inventive and expressive recitative. The quantity and variety of Vivaldi cantatas available for inspection was naturally transformed by the recovery, during the 1920s, of Vivaldi’s personal archive of musical manuscripts in a state that, while doubtless not complete (it is suspiciously deficient in sonatas), gives us a fairly accurate conspectus of his work as a composer from about 1712 onwards. The incredible story of its preservati va tion on an and d ac acqu quis isit itio ion n fo forr th thee Bi Bibl blio iote teca ca Na Nazi zion onal alee Un Univ iver ersi sita tari ria, a, Tu Turi rin, n, ha hass be been en told many times and need only be summarized here. 26 At some time between 27/28 July 1741, when the composer died in Vienna, and 1745 this hoard of manuscripts, perhaps purchased from Vivaldi’s heirs, entered the library of the Venetian bibliophile Jacopo Soranzo. Under Soranzo’s ownership it was bound into twenty-seven volumes, organized according to content and/or format. Later in th thee ce cent ntur ury y it pa pass ssed ed to Co Coun untt Gi Giac acom omo o Du Dura razz zzo, o, pr pres esum umab ably ly du duri ring ng th thee pe peri riod od when wh en th this is fa famo mous us fi figu gure re,, be best st kn know own n fo forr hi hiss pa patr tron onag agee of Gl Gluc uck, k, se serv rved ed as im impe peri ri-al am amba bass ssad ador or to Ve Veni nice ce be betw twee een n 17 1764 64 an and d 17 1794 94.. In Inhe heri rite ted d by su succ cces essi sive ve ge gene nera ra-tions of the Durazzo family, the volumes were at one point divided into two almost equal portions, comprising respectively fourteen and thirteen volumes, each becoming the property of a different son. The larger portion, which was to become the major component of the Foà donation, was located in 1926 and acquired for the library in 1927. The complementary volumes making up the Giordano donation arrived in 1930. The main credit for the discovery and purchase of the reunited collection must go to the perspicacity and tenacity of Alberto Gentili, who lectured in the history 24 25

26

Schmitz, Geschichte , pp. 150–1. Baroque que Conc Concerto erto, Lon Arthur Hutchings Hutchings,, The Baro London don:: Fa Faber ber,, 196 1961. 1. Sc Schm hmitz itz’s ’s ma main in so sourc urcee of ref refererence for Albinoni’s cantatas was a volume containing eighteen of them that is preserved today in Berlin, Staatsbibliothek ‘Preußischer Kulturbesitz’, Mus. ms. 447. For an account in English, see Michael Talbot, The Sacred Vocal Music of Antonio Vivaldi , FlorFlorence: Olschki, 1995, pp. 11–14.


15

of music at the University of Turin. Soon after the library received the Foà volumes, Gentili wrote an article in which he summarized and evaluated their contents.27 He mentioned that two of them were headed ‘Cantate’ (being respectively Tomo I and Tomo II) and together contained twenty-four cantatas (he miscounted: there are twenty-eight), both with and without instruments in addition to continuo. His pronouncement on their value is worth quoting: The cantatas are of very variable quality. However, they include some that tend to co conf nfir irm m wh what at we ha have ve sa said id wi with th re rega gard rd to th thee or orat ator orio io Iuditha [r [ref efer erri ring ng to hi hiss earlier plaudits for this work]. Indeed, certain of them contain passages so compelling that they take us back to the golden age of the cantata in the previous century [Gentili shares Schmitz’s concept of a Blütezeit ] and elevate Vivaldi above composers of cantatas of his own time such as Ariosti and Bononcini. Especially notable for their departure from the norm are a few cantatas containing arioso passages, accompanied recitatives and obbligato writing for violin.28

It is disappointing that between 1927 and 1938 (when Mussolini’s so-called Racial Laws removed Gentili, who was Jewish, from public life) the writer of those lines did not follow them up with a more extended discussion. Although Gentili did not impede access to the Turin manuscripts by other scholars, he did not actively further further it, and sinc sincee his own invol involveme vement nt with the coll collecti ection on was limited, so far as the outside world was concerned, to the edition of a few heavily arranged concertos, momentum was inevitably lost. In 1938 leadership of the Viva Vi vald ldia ian n ca caus usee pa pass ssed ed to a ci circ rcle le of mu musi sici cian anss (p (plu luss th thee po poet et Ez Ezra ra Po Poun und) d) as asso soci ci-ated with the Accademia Musicale Chigiana in Siena. The ‘Vivaldi Week’ promoted by this circle in Siena in September 1939 is recognized as the decisive historical breakthrough in the campaign to present the composer as a major musica mus icall fig figure ure.. Yet tra tradit dition ional al bia biases ses rem remain ained. ed. The con concer certt pro progra gramm mmes es incl in clud uded ed op oper erat atic ic mu musi sic, c, sa sacr cred ed mu musi sic, c, a se sere rena nata ta,, a si sinf nfon onia ia an and d co conc ncer erto toss ga galo lore re – but not a single chamber cantata. This pattern continued in the Accademia Accademia’s ’s later programmes of Vivaldi’s music. When the first generation of studies of Vivaldi’s life and works appeared shortly afterwards, this marginalization persisted. Mario Rinaldi’s pioneering Antonio io Vivald Vivaldii (19 book Anton (1943) 43) har hardly dly men mentio tions ns the them, m, and Mar Marcc Pin Pinche cherle rle’s ’s massively influential Antonio Vivaldi et la musique instrumentale (1948) maintains a similar silence, albeit more legitimately in view of its declared emphasis on the instrumental music. 29 The disadvantage suffered by the cantatas was in 27 28

29

Alberto Albert o Ge Genti ntili, li, ‘L ‘Laa ra racco ccolta lta di rar rarità ità mu music sicali ali “Ma “Mauro uro Foà Foà”” all allaa Bib Biblio liote teca ca Na Nazio zional nalee di To Torin rino’, o’, Accademie e Biblioteche Biblioteche d’Italia, i (1927–8), 36–50. Ibid., p. 48. Original text: ‘Le Cantate sono di valore molto vario; non mancano però quelle che portan por tano o a co confe nferma rmare re qua quanto nto abb abbiam iamo o as asser serito ito a pro propos posito ito de dell’ ll’Or Orato atorio rio Iuditha; ino inoltr ltree qu qualc alcuna una ha delle pagine così intense da riportarci all’epoca aurea della Cantata, nel secolo antecedente, e di porre il Vivaldi al di sopra degli autori di Cantate suoi contemporanei, siano essi pure un Ariost Ari ostii o un Bon Bonon oncin cini. i. No Notev tevol oli, i, pe perr la for forma ma che esc escee dai qua quadri dri div divenu enuti ti usu usuali ali,, alc alcun unee Ca Canta ntate te comprendenti Ariosi, Recitativi accompagnati, Violino obbligato’. Mario Rinaldi, Antonio Vivaldi , Milan: Istituto Alto Cultura, 1943; Marc Pincherle, Antonio Vivaldi et la musique instrumentale , 2 vols, Paris: Floury, 1948.

16


essence the same as that of the sonatas (likewise neglected by Pincherle), only writ wr it la larg rge. e. Th They ey we were re sh shor ort, t, la lack cked ed pe perc rcei eive ved d hi hist stor oric ical al si sign gnif ific ican ance ce an and d – eq equa uall lly y important – could not be linked to events in Vivaldi’s life. Pincherle’s later, later , more compact study entitled simply Vivaldi (1955) manages to find space for the oper op eras as an and d sa sacr cred ed vo voca call mu musi sicc bu butt co cont ntin inue uess to le leav avee th thee ca cant ntat atas as ou outt in th thee co cold ld.. 30 The situation improves very slightly in Walter Kolneder’s Antonio Vivaldi: Leben und Werk Werk (1965), where one page of text is allotted to the cantatas and one such work, Cessate, omai cessate (RV 684), is mentioned by name. 31 Ironically, Kolneder overstates the number of cantatas surviving from Vivaldi’s pen, giving their number as fifty-nine when their true total (ignoring more recent discoveries and counting as genuine certain works today regarded as spurious) ought to have been thirty-nine.32 His mistake arose simply from an uncritical reading of the catalogues and inventories then available. A major step forward was achieved by Meneve Dunham’s doctoral dissertation ti on on th thee Vi Viva vald ldii ca cant ntat atas as in th thee Fo Foàà co coll llec ecti tion on (1 (196 969) 9)..33 Th This is st stud udy y to toda day y sh show owss itss ag it agee in ma many ny wa ways ys,, no nott le leas astt in it itss ex exce cess ssiv ivee re reli lian ance ce on qu quan anti tita tati tive ve an anal alys ysis is of a kind familiar to readers of William S. Newman’s history of the sonata idea and in its insufficient attention to the cantata as a literary genre. Against this may be set its methodical approach and attention to detail. At last, Vivaldi’s cantatas had emerged as an object worthy of sustained consideration. It should be pointed out, however, that Dunham’s research was driven as much by the rehabilitation of the Baro Ba roqu quee ca cant ntat ataa in ge gene nera ral, l, wh whic ich h du duri ring ng th thee 19 1960 60ss wa wass in fu full ll sw swin ing g in Am Amer eric ican an universities, as by a wish to fill a particular void within Vivaldi studies. 34 30

31 32 33 34

Marc Pincherle, Vivaldi , Paris: Plon, 1955. Translated into English as Vivaldi: Genius of the Baroque, New York: Norton, 1957. Pincherle does, however, quote Burney’s comments on the cantatas. Walter Kolneder Kolneder,, Vivaldi: Leben und Werk , Wiesbaden: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1965. Translated into English as Antonio Vivaldi: His Life and Work , London: Faber & Faber, 1970. Kolneder, Antonio Vivaldi, His Life and Work , p. 189. Mary Mar y Men Menev evee Du Dunha nham, m, ‘Th ‘Thee Se Secul cular ar Ca Canta ntatas tas of An Anton tonio io Viv Vivald aldii in the Fo Foàà Co Colle llect ction ion’, ’, unp unpubublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1969. Examples of North American doctoral dissertations completed before 1980 that, like Dunham’s, focus on the cantata output of a single composer are: Gloria Rose, ‘The Cantatas of Giacomo Carissimi’, Yale University, 1959; Caroline O. Sites, ‘Benedetto Marcello’s Chamber Cantatas’, University of North Carolina, 1959; David L. Burrows, ‘The Cantatas of Antonio Cesti’, Brandeis University, 1961; Edwin Hanley, ‘Alessandro Scarlatti’s Cantate da Camera: A Bibliographical Study’, Yale University, 1963; Irving R. Eisley, ‘The Secular Cantatas of Mario Savioni (1608–1685)’, University of California at Los Angeles, 1965; Kathleen Ann Chaikin, ‘The Solo Soprano Cantatas of Alessandr Alessandro o Stradella (1644–16 (1644–1682)’, 82)’, Stanford University, 1975; Josephine R. B. Wright, ‘The Secular Cantatas of Francesco Mancini (1672–1736)’, New York University, 1975; Kathryn Jane O’Donnell, ‘The Secular Solo Cantatas of Antonio Lotti’, University of Iowa, 1975; John Mayo, ‘Handel’s Italian Cantatas’, University of Toronto, 1977; Cecilia Kathryn Van de Kamp Freund, ‘A Study of the Duet Cantatas and Solo Cantatas with Obbligato Instrumental Accompaniment of Alessandro Scarlatti’, North-Western University, 1979. This list is indebted to Teresa M. Gialdroni, ‘Bibliografia della cantata da camera italiana (1620–1740 (1620–17 40 ca.)’, Le fonti musicali in Italia. Studi e ricerche , iv (1990), 31–131. Addenda to Gialdroni’s list and further items published on the Italian cantata between 1990 and 1997 appear in Colin Timms, ‘The Italian Cantata since 1945: Progress and Prospects’, in Francesco Fanna and Michael Talbot (eds), Cinquant’anni di produzioni e consumi della musica dell’età di Vivaldi, 1947–1997 , Florence: Olschki, 1998, pp. 75–94.


17

Alongside the moves made to evaluate Vivaldi’s cantatas – indeed, their necessary complement – came their location, authentication, and cataloguing. A start had been made in 1936, when the violinist Olga Rudge, Ezra Pound’s companion, drew up a manuscript thematic thematic catalogue of Vivaldi’s secular vocal works. This was published in photographic reproduction in 1941 and used in the preparation of Mario Rinaldi’s general catalogue (1945). 35 However, the inadequacies of all existing Vivaldi catalogues – including that of Marc Pincherle for the concertos and sinfonias – were becoming embarrassingly evident by the 1960s: they were too incomplete, too unsystematic and too liable to simple error. It was then that the Danish scholar Peter Ryom set himself the task of compiling catalogue gue raiso raisonné nné co forr Vi fo Viva vald ldii a catalo comp mpar arab able le in it itss ri rigo gour ur an and d sc scop opee wi with th th thos osee of of,, say, Wolfgang Schmieder for J. S. Bach or Anthony van Hoboken for Haydn. The preparation of this catalogue took several years. On his way, Ryom produced several articles justifying justifying the need for such a catalogue (principally by showing up the faults of those existing at the time) and explaining the principles on which the new catalogue would be based. One of these was an article concerned specifically with the cantatas (1972). 36 This was a good advertiseme advertisement nt for the catalogue to come. If one leaves aside the four cantatas that have since beco be come me re rega gard rded ed ge gene nera rall lly y as sp spur urio ious us an and d th thee tw two o ne new w on ones es th that at ha have ve be been en id iden en-tified only in recent years, Ryom’s list will serve almost as well today as when it was originally compiled. 37 The manner in which Ryom’s catalogue passed into the public domain was highly unusual (a reversal, in fact, of the stages through which such catalogues normally pass), and the resulting effects persist today. There was initially considerable resistance to the idea of creating yet another Vivaldi catalogue, since there were already three in existence (by Rinaldi, Pincherle, and Fanna), each of which had its adherents. Finding a publisher for the catalogue in its full form was not immediately possible, and as a stop-gap measure a ‘short’ edition ( Kleine Ausgabe) was chosen as the vehicle for its official introduction. introduction. In the meantime, Ryom, together with a small group of scholars collaborating with him on the newly founded multilingual journal Vivaldi informations, softened up the market by us usin ing g ‘R ‘RV’ V’ nu numb mber erss at ev ever ery y op oppo port rtun unit ity. y.38 As RV nu numb mber erss pa pass ssed ed pi piec ecem emea eall 35

36 37

38

‘Catalogo delle opere vocali inedite e dei microfilms della B[iblioteca] Chigi Saracini’, in Sebastiano A. Luciani (ed.), La scuola veneziana (secoli xvi–xviii). Note e documenti raccolti in occasione della settimana celebrativa (5–10 settembre 1941) , Siena: Accademia Musicale Chigiana, 1941, pp. 74–80; Mario Rinaldi, Catalogo numerico tematico delle composizioni di A. Vivaldi, Rome: Cultura Moderna, [1945]. Dans nskk Aa Aarb rbog og fo forr Pete Pe terr Ry Ryom om,, ‘L ‘Lee re rece cens nsem emen entt de dess ca cant ntat ates es d’ d’An Anto toni nio o Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’,, Da Musikforskning Musikforskn ing, vi (1968–72), 81–100. mio cor) and It does, however, mix up the folios attributable to two cantatas, RV 658 ( Il povero mio suo natio natio rigore rigore), some of which have accidentally become exchanged in the Turin RV 653 ( Del suo volume. The mistake was not recognized and corrected until the second edition (1979) of the ‘short’ edition of Ryom’s catalogue. Only two volumes (1971–1972 and 1973) of Vivaldi Informations appeared. The second volume contains (pp. 61–100) an inventory of the contents of the fourteen Foà volumes (‘Inventaire de la documentation documenta tion manuscrite des œuvres de Vivaldi: I. Bibliotec Bibliotecaa Nazionale di Torino. Première Partie: le fonds Foà’), which includes the cantatas contained in Foà 27 and 28. Contrary to popular belief, ‘RV’ is not short for ‘Ryom-Verzeichnis’ (by analogy with, say, ‘Köchel-

18


into general circulation and it became increasingly vital, for the sake of a bewildered wil dered and incr increasi easingly ngly irri irritate tated d publ public, ic, to esta establis blish h thei theirr rela relation tionship ship to existing numbers in the Rinaldi, Pincherle, and Fanna catalogues, the pressure grew to produce a usable catalogue even in advance of the appearance of the Kleine Ausgabe. In 1973 this materialized in the form of a Table de concordances, which is in effect an ‘extra-short’ catalogue. 39 RV numbers are divided into a main series, which in recent years has topped 800, and a supplement, or Anhang. In principle, the first contains authenticated works, while the second gathers gathe rs up works that have been attributed attribute d to Vivaldi (in some source, at some point in history) but are reckoned spurious. It goes without saying that individual cases are contested, in the sense that any Vivaldi scholar (the (t he pr pres esen entt wr writ iter er is no ex exce cept ptio ion) n) mi migh ghtt wi wish sh an it item em in on onee ca cate tego gory ry to be tr tran anssferred to the other. By and large, however, Ryom’s verdicts on authenticity are accepted. The catalogue numbers are ordered not chronologically, as in Köchel numbers for Mozart or Deutsch numbers for Schubert, but according to genre and/or scoring. Most of the authenticated cantatas (and three of contested authentici city ty)) ar aree fou oun nd in a bl bloc oc ru run nni ning ng fro rom m RV 649 ( All’ombra d’un bel faggio)toRV 686 (Qual in pioggia dorata i dolci rai ).40 These subdivide into twenty-one cantatas for soprano and continuo (RV 649–669), eight for alto (contralto) and conti con tinuo nuo (R (RV V 670 670–67 –677), 7), fiv fivee for sop sopran rano, o, ins instru trume ment( nt(s) s) and con contin tinuo uo (RV 678– 67 8–68 682) 2) an and d fo four ur fo forr al alto to (c (con ontr tral alto to), ), in inst stru rume ment nt(s (s), ), an and d co cont ntin inuo uo (R (RV V 683–686).41 The Table de concordances already contains one ‘late’ entry, the soprano cantata Prendea con man di latte , RV 753 (which later research has shown to be spurious); the last few years have seen the addition of two further soprano cantatas: Usignoletto bello, RV 796, and Tremori al braccio e lagrime al ciglio, RV 799. The untidiness of having ‘stragglers’ widely separated from the main bloc, their numbers determined solely by the chronology of their discovery, is naturally a great inconvenience. With hindsight, it would have been better to leave vacant numbers at the end of each category in order to accommodate newcomers. Ryom’s Anhang is practically void of cantatas. Those that Burney claimed to have found in Dr Aldrich’s collection collection are listed as RV Anh. 60. The practice of assigning a single number to a group of works of unknown size (and uncertain exis ex iste tenc nce) e) is hi high ghly ly qu ques esti tion onab able le – bu butt th thee po poin intt ne need ed no nott be la labo bour ured ed,, si sinc ncee to my knowledge this number has never passed into active use.

39 40

41

Verzeichnis’); it stands for ‘Répertoire vivaldien’. However, the first interpretation is hard to resist, since the most widely circulated versions of the catalogue have been in the German language. Peter Ryom, Antonio Vivaldi: table de concordances des œuvres , Copenhagen: Engstrøm & Sødring, 1973. In a few cases the titles given in the present study differ slightly from those adopted by Ryom in his catalogue. My preference is to normalize (and in so doing modernize) spelling and punctuation, and to give text incipits, which have to serve also as titles, in the form of complete lines, whereas Ryom frequently stops short of the end of the line. Hence the longer title for RV 686 (Ryom ends at ‘dorata’). RV 684 exists also in a variant, which Ryom distinguishes by appending ‘a’ to the numeral. Within each subgroup the cantatas appear in alphabetical order according to their text incipit.


19

In 1974 the Kleine Ausgabe finally appeared.42 A second edition, updated and corrected, followed from the same German publisher in 1979. To date, it remains the only Vivaldi catalogue to cover the whole of the composer’s output with reasonable accuracy. In 1986 a ‘large’ version of the catalogue covering only instru ins trume menta ntall wo works rks in the ma main in ser series ies app appear eared. ed.43 No cou counte nterpa rpart rt exi exists sts,, how howeve ever, r, for the vocal music. At the time of writing, a ‘large’ version of the complete catalogue is in active preparation, and it is anticipated that, when this appears, there will be some changes to individual numbers. Faute de mieux, the revised 1979 Ausgabe be re edit ed itio ion n of th thee Kleine Ausga rema main inss th thee mo most st co conv nven enie ient nt,, if no nott al alwa ways ys th thee mo most st informative, source of quick reference on the cantatas. The year 1978, in which the 300th anniversary of the composer’s birth occurred, was a watershed in the history of Vivaldian studies. It witnessed the first-ever international international conference on the composer, the absorption of the Istituto Italiano Antonio Vivaldi into the Fondazione Giorgio Cini (the Venetian foundation that also hosted that conference), the decision to publish a Vivaldi yearbook, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani (which first came out in 1980), and the formation of an ed edit itor oria iall bo boar ard d fo forr a ‘N ‘New ew Cr Crit itic ical al Ed Edit itio ion n of th thee Wo Work rkss of An Anto toni nio o Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ ( Nuova Nuova Edizione Critica delle Opere di Antonio Vivaldi Vi valdi).44 The proceedings of the conference became the first in a series of Vivaldi monographs ( Quaderni vivaldiani), of which eleven have appeared to date. Predictably, the cantatas have had relatively little part in the cornucopia of writin wri tings gs on Vi Vival valdia dian n sub subjec jects ts sin since ce tha thatt piv pivota otall dat date. e. Ne Never verthe theles less, s, the their ir near-absolute neglect has finally been ended. The larger of my two general studies of the composer (1978) devotes a little space to them. 45 Peter Ryom’s ever-valuable study Les manuscrits de Vivaldi contains much of direct relevance to them, including information on the physical structure of the manuscripts, the composer’s notational habits, his handwriting, and his creative process. 46 A catalogue by Ortrun Landmann of all the eighteenth-century sources of Vivaldi’s music in the SLUB adds significant bibliographical data. 47 The cantata texts set by Vivaldi have been transcribed in their near-entirety by Gianfranco Folena; 48 Francesco Degrada has commented on the texts of two cantatas: T’intendo, sì, mio cor, RV 668, and Nel partir da te, mio caro, RV 661.49 From Colin Timms 42 43 44 45 46 47

48

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Peter Ryom, Verzeichnis der Werke Antonio Vivaldis (RV): Kleine Ausgabe , Leipzig: Deutscher Verlag für Musik, 1974. Peter Ryom, Répertoire des œuvres d’Antonio Vivaldi: les compositions instrumentales , Copenhagen: Engstrøm & Sødring, 1986. The title of the edition will be given hereafter as NEC . Vivaldi, London: Dent, 1978. The later revised and augmented edition (1993) is virtually unaltered in relation to the cantatas. Peter Ryom, Les manuscrits de Vivaldi , Copenhagen: Antonio Vivaldi Archives, 1977. Ortrun Ortr un Lan Landman dmann, n, ‘Ka ‘Katalo talog g der Dres Dresdene denerr Viva Vivaldildi-Hand Handschr schrifte iften n und -Frü -Frühdru hdrucke’ cke’,, in Vivaldildi-Stud Studien: ien: Refe Referate rate des 3. Dres Dresdner dner Viva Vivaldildi-Koll Kolloqui oquiums ums , Dr Wolfgang Wolf gang Reic Reich h (ed.) (ed.),, Viva Dresd esden: en: Sächsische Landesbibliothek, 1981, pp. 101–67. Gianfranco Folena, ‘La cantata e Vivaldi’, in Lorenzo Bianconi and Giovanni Morelli (eds), Antonio Vivaldi. Teatro Teatro musicale, musicale, cultura cultura e società , Florence: Olschki, 1982, pp. 131–90. Work on the NEC has revealed several errors in Folena’s transcriptions, but their collection in a single location has meant that they remain invaluable for many purposes. Francesco Degrada, ‘Note filologiche in margine all’edizione critica delle cantate di Antonio

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there is a general analytical survey of the cantatas and also a dissection of 753,, tha thatt est establ ablish ishes es thi thiss wor work’s k’s non non-au -authe thenti nticit city. y. 50 Pren Pr ende dea a co con n ma man n di la latt ttee, RV 753 An analysis of one technical aspect of Vivaldi’s cantatas has been published by the pre presen sentt aut author hor..51 Ka Karl rl Hel Heller ler pro probes bes Vi Vival valdi’ di’ss pos possib sible le aut author horshi ship p of the ano anonnymous Dresden cantata Usignoletto bello, RV 796, and comes up with a positive verdict (more recently confirmed confirmed by the discovery of an attributed source of the same work).52 The recent discovery by Olivier Fourés of an undetected Vivaldi cantata in Vienna (RV 799) has resulted in an introductory article. 53 And, naturally: the Critical Notes in both Italian and English that follow every NEC volume collectively constitute an important contribution, albeit one strongly biased towards the bibliographic bibliographical. al. All things considered, this is a rather small haul. To some extent, it reflects the past paucity, or poor accessibility, of sources for scholars to consult. The concertos, for example, have had a head start of several decades, so far as accessible sources are concerned. Fortunately, the situation is today utterly transformed, as will be shown in the discussion that follows.

Their Modern Revival It wo woul uld d be to too o si simp mple le to sa say y th that at th thee pu publ blic ic re rece cept ptio ion n of Bar aroq oque ue mu musi sic, c, it itss av avai aillability in the form of modern editions, and its approval by scholars invariably move in step with each another. For a long time Telemann brought players pleasure and publishers profit without earning plaudits from mainstream musicology (indeed, Theodor Adorno reserved especial contempt for him). Gian Paolo Colonna has excited scholars for decades, but no opera omnia loom on the horizon, and his compositions are rarely heard. It is true, however, that a relationship of a kind does exist between these three factors, and that the typical outcome is self-reinforcing: self-reinforcing: either a virtuous spiral or a vicious circle. Until the Early Music Movement reached maturity in the 1980s, there was really very little in the way of a suitable public ‘forum’ for the Baroque cantata. Unlike a solo sonata for violin and bass, which can ‘work’ at a basic level as a composition for violin and piano suitable for insertion in, say, a programme of Classical and Romantic pieces, a cantata performed by solo voice and piano

50

51 52

53

Vivaldi’, in Antonio Fanna and Giovanni Morelli (eds), Nuovi studi vivaldiani. Edizione e cronologia critica delle opere , Florence: Olschki, 1988, pp. 355–85. Colin Timms, ‘The Dramatic in Vivaldi’s Cantatas’, in Lorenzo Bianconi and Giovanni Morelli (eds), Antonio Vivaldi. Teatro musicale, cultura e società , Florence: Olschki, 1982, pp. 97–129; Informazioni ioni e studi vivaldiani , vi idem, ‘ “Prendea con man di latte”: A Vivaldi Spuriosity?’, Informaz (1985), 64–73. Michae Mic haell Ta Talbo lbot, t, ‘Ho ‘How w Re Recit citati atives ves End and Ar Arias ias Be Begin gin in the So Solo lo Ca Canta ntatas tas of An Anton tonio io Viv Vivald aldi’, i’, Journal of of the Royal Musical Musical Association Association , cxxvi (2001), 170–92. Karl Ka rl He Helle ller, r, ‘Z ‘Zu u ein einig igen en Inc Incert ertaa im We Werkb rkbest estan and d Viv Vivald aldis’ is’,, in Ant Antoni onio o Fan Fanna na an and d Mic Micha hael el Ta Talbo lbott (eds), Vivaldi. Vero e falso. Problemi di attribuzione , Florence: Olschki, 1992, pp. 43–57, at 52–7. Olivier Fourés and Michael Talbot, ‘A New Vivaldi Cantata in Vienna’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani , xxi (2000), 99–108.


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alongside songs by Schubert or Wolf fits awkwardly into a recital programme. There are too many obstacles: the accompaniment is wrong in terms of timbre, balance, and (perhaps most of all) atmosphere; the vocal technique demanded differs considerably from that required for Lieder and mélodies; the language of the text appears (especially outside Italy) archaic, precious, and far too full of such devices as elision and synaloepha that seem designed to trip up a foreigner. And what is true of the arias is multiplied in the recitatives recitatives,, for which there seems no righ ri ghtt so solu luti tion on:: if th they ey ar aree su sung ng in an ov over erly ly ‘d ‘dra rama mati tic’ c’ ma mann nner er,, th thee ch cham ambe berr-mu musi sicc character of the programme (in terms of the conventions governing song recitals) is compromised; if they are sung too dispassionately, the result is tedium. This Th is in intr trac acta tabl blee pr prob oble lem m ab abou outt re reci cita tati tive ve ex expl plai ains ns wh why y – ev even en in th thee ei eigh ghte teen enth th cent ce ntur ury y ou outs tsid idee It Ital aly y – th ther eree ha hass al alwa ways ys be been en a te temp mpta tati tion on to do dome mest stic icat atee ca cant ntat atas as by ig igno nori ring ng th thee re reci cita tati tive ve an and d ma maki king ng tu tune nefu full lo loll llip ipop opss of th thee ar aria ias. s. Th This is te tend nden ency cy is exemplified by the three collections of Arie antiche for voice and piano edited (and sometimes tacitly composed) by Alessandro Parisotti in the late nineteenth century, which remain staple fare for singing pupils and recitalists alike up to this day.54 Needless to say, the distinctions between cantata aria and operatic aria, or between ‘accompanied’ ‘accompanied’ aria and continuo aria, are obliterated in this context. It would be no exaggeration to claim that precisely because of this difficulty the modern publication and performance of cantatas in their integrity has until quite recently always needed a heavy dose of musicological mission. Hugo Riemann’s anthology Auserwählte Kammer-Kantaten der Zeit um 1700 (‘Selected Chamber Cantatas from the Period around 1700’) is a prime specimen of its rare breed. 55 The dependence of professional performers specializing in early music on the availability of a published edition (or, at any rate, on an edition prepared by someone else), not so long ago taken for granted, is today rapidly becoming a thin th ing g of th thee pa past st.. Fo Forr a pr pres esen entt-da day y en ense semb mble le to be be,, to a hi high gh de degr gree ee,, self se lf-s -suf uffi fici cien entt in ob obta tain inin ing g th thee sc scor ores es an and d pa part rtss fr from om whi hich ch it pe perf rfor orms ms is a ma matt tter er both of professional pride and of financial convenience. Where performers have the opportunity to obtain photographic reproductions of the music, whether as print-outs from microfilm, photocopies, photocopies, or facsimile editions, they often have the ability and confidence to do exactly as the first performers did and read from the unaltered original source. If they do not, they can always make a desktop edition of the mus music ic for the themse mselve lves. s. Thi Thiss non non-de -depen penden dence ce on a pub publis lished hed edi editi tion on protected by copyright (or, to be less coy, this lack of a provable degree of dependence that would carry weight in a court of law) obviates the need to pay editor or publisher performance royalties or mechanical rights. 56 To an already 54

55 56

Alessandro Parisotti (ed.), Arie antiche, 3 vols, Milan: Ricordi, 1895–8. The Vivaldi aria collected by Parisotti, ‘Un certo non so che’, is not from a cantata but from the opera Ercole su’l Termodonte , RV 710. Hugo Riemann (ed.), Auserwählte Kammer-Kantaten der Zeit um 1700 , Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1911. Rather ironically, a scrupulous modern edition has less chance than a licentious arrangement of earning royalties, since it is less distinguishable, distinguishable, aurally and visually, from the original source. The reason why recording artists so rarely use in an obvious manner the continuo realizations provided by the editors of published pieces is partly laudable and artistically desirable (it enables the continuo player to improvise genuinely and to adjust his part to such factors as instrumental

22


high, and still increasing, extent, a modern critical edition – even if it conscientiously aims at the same time to provide a convenient performing text – serves scholars rather than performers. Those relatively few people who use it just as it stan st ands ds te tend nd to be am amat ateu eurs rs,, mu musi sici cian anss wh who o pe perf rfor orm m mo most stly ly fo forr pr priv ivat atee pl plea easu sure re,, or persons who come from corners of the world that the Early Music Movement has so far failed to penetrate. Most of the foregoing was untrue only thirty years ago (one remembers that until the late 1960s photocopiers were unavailable in Britain, so that for music there was no middle way between preparing a single copy by hand and running off an entire printing). At that time, even the most accomplished performers requ re quir ired ed so some meon onee el else se to pr prov ovid idee th them em wi with th th thee te text xt to si sing ng or pl play ay.. Th This is no norm rmal ally ly took the form of a published edition, although in the case of a recording or broadcast ca st it wa wass so some meti time mess po poss ssib ible le to co comm mmis issi sion on a sc scho hola larr to pr prep epar aree a sp spec ecia iall ma manu nu-script edition.57 Until the 1980s, or thereabouts, the frequency with which a work was performed in concert or recorded depended crucially on its availability in print. This point can be brought out by first giving an account of Vivaldi cantata editions prior to the appearance, in 1984, of the first cantata volumes in the NEC , then listing the recordings of cantatas that were made during that period, and finally looking for connections between the two lists. 58 The first modern edition of a Vivaldi cantata, from Carisch (Milan), came out c.1947. Ironically enough, it was of a work that is regarded today as spurious: Ingrata Lidia, ha vinto il tuo rigor, RV 673. The editor, Virgilio Mortari, Mortari, was a membe berr of th thee Si Sien enaa ci circ rcle le – it was he who ho,, in 19 193 39, had pre repa pare red d th thee mat ater eriial fo forr the earliest modern performance of a Vivaldi opera ( L’Olimpiade, RV 725). In 1956 John Edmonds edited for R. D. Row Music Co. (Boston, USA) five of the six arias contained in the three spurious Florentine cantatas: RV 673 (again), RV 672 (Filli, di gioia vuoi farmi morir), and RV 675 ( Piango, gemo, sospiro e piango). This compilation continued the old practice of extracting single arias for use as ‘lollipops’. In 1958 Franco Floris edited for Zanibon (Padua) complete versions of the same three cantatas, to be followed c.1970 by an edition by Mortari of RV 675, again for Carisch. This episode illustrates the inertia that can so ea easi sily ly se sett in wh when en pe perf rfor orme mers rs an and d th thei eirr au audi dien ence cess ‘k ‘kno now w wh what at th they ey li like ke an and d li like ke what they know’. In 1976 the first genuinely Vivaldian cantatas came out: a group of six edited by Roger Blanchard for the Parisian publisher Mario Bois. 59 Taken without exception from the Foà collection, they comprised RV 651, 654, 657, 659, 660, and 670. In the same year Manfred Fechner produced an exemplary critical edition for Deutscher Verlag für Musik of the lone cantata with obbligato flute,

57

58 59

timbre, timbr e, ba balan lance, ce, the ro room om aco acoust ustic ic,, and tem tempo po), ), but is als also o mot motiva ivated ted by a wish wish to avo avoid id any anythi thing ng that could make the performance traceable back to one particular published edition and therefore legally liable for the payment of royalties. A case in point is the complete recording of Vivaldi’s sacred music undertaken by Vittorio Negri for Philips in the late 1970s and early 1980s, for which Franz Giegling supplied handwritten scores. A list of these NEC volumes, with dates, is included as an appendix to the present volume. This edition was reissued in Italy by Edizioni Curci (Milan) in 1981.


23

678. 8. Th Thee fir irst st – an and d, to da datte, onl nly y – fa facs csim imiile ed edit itio ion n of All’ombra di sospetto, RV 67 Vivaldi cantatas was printed in Milan by Tip. U. Allegretti di Campi in 1978; these were Allor che lo sguardo , RV 650, and La farfalletta s’aggira al lume, RV 660, edited by Vanni Scheiwiller with a preface by Massimo Mila. In 1979 a major landmark was at last reached: a critical edition (albeit in some respects an imperfect one) of a representative portion of Vivaldi’s cantatas. The first of the two volumes contained eight works for soprano (RV 651, 656, 657, 662, 667, 678, 67 8, 68 680, 0, an and d 68 682) 2);; th thee se seco cond nd,, se seve ven n wo work rkss fo forr al alto to (R (RV V 67 670, 0, 67 671, 1, 67 674, 4, 67 676, 6, 67 677, 7, 683, and 684). The editor was Meneve Dunham, author of the doctoral dissertation ti on me ment ntio ione ned d ea earl rlie ier, r, an and d th thee pu publ blis ishe herr wa wass AA-R R Ed Edit itio ions ns (M (Mad adis ison on,, Wisconsin). The recordings made during this period follow a similar trajectory. 60 First, in 1952, came a recording, sung by Giancola Borelli, of the orchestrally accompanied cantata Qual in pioggia dorata i dolci rai, RV 686, for which the conductor, Angelo Ephrikian, created the performance material. 61 In 1963 Edwin Loehrer supp su ppli lied ed th thee ba bari rito tone ne La Laer erte te Ma Mala lagu guti ti wi with th th thee ma mate teri rial al us used ed fo forr re reco cord rdin ings gs of RV 675 and RV 684 (Cessate, omai cessate).62 Small groups of cantatas were then recorded in 1977 by Ana-Maria Miranda under Roger Blanchard Blanchard (RV 651, 654, 659, 660);63 in 1979 by René Jacobs (RV 677, 683, 684, 685);64 and in 1982 by Nella Anfuso (RV 651, 684, 684a). The ‘lollipop’ tradition continued with a recording by Frederica von Stade in 1982 of an aria from RV 672, and with the importation of an aria from RV 656 by Claudio Scimone for his 1980 version of the opera Orlando furioso, RV 728. What this comparison tells us is that although the level of interest in Vivaldi wass co wa comp mpar arab able le in th thee tw two o sp sphe here res, s, th ther eree wa wass in init itia iall lly y a pa part rtia iall mi mism smat atch ch be betw twee een n what editions could supply and musicians wished to record. This arose from the special favour in which instrumentally accompanied cantatas (beginning at RV 678) were held by recording artists. There has long been a distinct bias, observable generally in modern performances of Baroque cantatas, in favour of pieces displaying ‘counterpoint’ and/or instrumental colour: in other words, cantatas con strumenti. However, these are the most expensive to publish and the most difficult to market to amateurs. So on the comparativel comparatively y frequent occasions when artists recorded thickly scored cantatas, performance material was of necessity prepared specially. For continuo cantatas, in contrast, performers hardly ever looked beyond what was published. From its publication until the present day Dunham’s edition has been the most widely used, overtly or surreptitious surreptitiously, ly, in recorded performances and doubtless 60

61 62 63 64

For inf inform ormati ation on on re recor cordin dings gs of Viv Vivald aldi’s i’s can cantat tatas as,, I am ind indeb ebted ted to th thee rep report ortss by Roger-Claude Travers on Vivaldi recordings issued during the previous year (‘Discographie Informazioni ioni e studi vivaldian vivaldianii and its suc vivald viv aldien ienne’ ne’), ), pub publis lishe hed d an annua nually lly sin since ce 19 1980 80 in Informaz succe cesso ssor, r, Studi vivaldiani . Dr Travers also very kindly supplied me privately with information on recordings of cantatas prior to 1979. Period Renaissance LP RN X58. Accord CD 330 642 (transferred from a recording of 1963). Solstice LP Sol 5. Archiv Arc hiv 253 2533.3 3.385 85.. Fro From m thi thiss poi point nt onw onward ards, s, rec recor ordin dings gs wil willl no nott be ide identi ntifie fied d by lab label el an and d nu numb mber, er, since those details are retrievable from Travers’ annual discography.

24


also in live performances. In comparison, the NEC volumes have not made the public impact for which one would have hoped. This is not because musicians – least of all, specialists in early music – are indifferen indifferentt to the qualities of accuracy, fidelity, and informativeness informativeness valued by scholars. It is, rather, that they are pragmatists. An edition that comes out before another edition is today nearly always the early bird that catches the worm. Those who are interested invest in a copy, and they are accustomed to remain faithful to it without a special reason for turning elsewhere. But the advantages of a more scrupulous or competent edition may ma y no nott be im imme medi diat atel ely y cl clea ear, r, es espe peci cial ally ly if a we well ll-t -thu humb mbed ed ed edit itio ion n ha hass ap appa pare rent ntly ly served the performer well in the past, while its disadvantages, disadvantage s, if it is expensive or hard to obtain (qualities not uncommon in critical editions), may be only too evident. Since 1984 the ‘supply problem’ with published Vivaldi cantatas has grown ever ev er sm smal alle ler, r, an and d ha hass in an any y ca case se be been en ov over erta take ken n by th thee in incr crea easi sing ng se self lf-sufficiency of performers noted earlier. A new threshold was reached in 1990, when the Ensemble Concerto under Roberto Gini issued the first of what was evidently to have been a multi-volume ‘edition’ of Vivaldi chamber cantatas. This Th is di did d no nott pr proc ocee eed d be beyo yond nd th thee fi firs rstt CD CD,, bu butt si simi mila larr la late terr pr proj ojec ects ts ha have ve ha had d mo more re succes suc cess. s. In 199 1997 7 Ce Cecil cilia ia Gas Gasdia dia rec record orded, ed, wit with h Ba Baroc rocco co Ve Venez nezian iano o und under er Claudio Ferrarini, all twenty-six cantatas for soprano (minus the then undiscovered er ed RV 79 799) 9).. A si simi mila larr pr proj ojec ectt wa wass un unde dert rtak aken en be betw twee een n 19 1997 97 an and d 20 2001 01 by Mo Modo do Antiquo under Federico Maria Sardelli. 65 A third collected edition of these cant ca ntat atas as,, su sung ng by Ro Robe bert rtaa In Inve vern rniz izzi zi,, yi yiel elde ded d tw two o CD CDss wi with th el elev even en wo work rkss in 19 1998 98 and may not yet have been abandoned. In contrast, the much less numerous but equally meritorious alto cantatas have so far failed to stimulate a comparable project. ‘Two cheers’ would be the right response resp onse to this showing on the twin fronts of publication and recording. Every Vivaldi cantata so far uncovered can now be consulted in at least one adequate modern edition and listened to in at least one adequate recorded performance. This is an achievement scarcely conceivable thir th irty ty ye year arss ag ago. o. Al Alll th thee sa same me,, co cong ngra ratu tula lati tion on ha hass it itss pr prop oper er li limi mits ts.. As pr prog ogra ramm mmee and sleeve notes inadvertently reveal time and again, this is a repertory less well understood than any other within Vivaldi’s oeuvre. It shares in the general public diffidence towards the Baroque cantata as an art-form that is not merely musical but also literary. Before we go any further, therefore, we have to examine the literary premises of this genre.

65

Sard Sa rdel elli li’s ’s re reco cord rdin ing g in incl clud udes es RV 79 799 9 bu butt at th thee ti time me of wr writ itin ing g la lack ckss RV 64 649, 9, 65 650, 0, 66 663, 3, an and d 66 666. 6.

CHAPTER TWO

The Cantata Genre Its Historical Development Development

Much confusion is liable to arise from the fact that a generic label applied to musical compositions (sonata, symphony, cantata, etc.) as part of their title is rarely perfectly coextensive with the same word operating as a modern historical or analytical category. In other words, some pieces originally entitled ‘cantata’ mani ma nife fest st a se sett of ch char arac acte teri rist stic icss un unty typi pica call of th thee ge genr nree – to th thee ex exte tent nt th that at on onee ma mayy perhaps wish to exclude them altogether from discussion – whereas, conversely, other pieces not so titled may display cantata characteristics in abundance and legitimately be taken into account. In the opening volume of his history of what he termed ‘the sonata idea’ William S. Newman adopted a so-called semantic appr ap proa oach ch de desi sign gned ed to pr prod oduc ucee ‘t ‘the he hi hist stor oryy of a si sing ngle le te term rm,, by wh what atev ever er pr prin inci cipl ples es it might be governed’.1 Such an approach has the virtues of clarity and expediency, but is in the end less rewarding than one based on musical realities rather than on a choice of title that may be arbitrary, whimsical, or even inauthentic. On thee ot th othe herr ha hand nd,, th thes esee mu musi sica call re real alit itie iess mu must st no nott be co conc ncei eive vedd to tooo in infl flex exib ibly ly.. Pr Prob ob-ably the best basis for assigning a work to a generic category is its conformity to most – but not necessarily all – items in a list of criteria, in which the generic title appears only as one item among several. For the Italian chamber cantata, this list might look as follows: 1. The compos composition ition is descr described ibed or headed ‘canta ‘cantata’. ta’. 2. It is for for a sin ingl glee vo voic ice. e. Co Comp mpos osit itio ions ns for tw twoo or th thre reee vo voic ices es on a co comm mmon on te text xt aree no ar norm rmal ally ly re rega gard rded ed as ch chamb amber er du duet ets, s, te terz rzet ets, s, or ma madr drig igal als, s, wh whil ilee com compo posi si-tions for two or more voices with individual texts are classed as dialogues or serenatas (alternatively known as ‘dramatic’ cantatas). 3. Th Ther eree is in inst stru rume ment ntal al acc accom ompa pani nimen ment. t. ‘C ‘Con onti tinu nuo’ o’ can canta tata tass ha have ve on only ly a si simp mple le bass for performance by one or more melody or harmony instruments, while ‘accompanied’ cantatas use additional instruments, ranging from a single obbligato instrument to a full orchestra. 4. The composi composition tion is multi-s multi-section ectional al or in several several discre discrete te movements movements.. Musical Musical divi di visi sions ons fo foll llow ow th thee po poet etic ical al di divi visi sion ons, s, th thee fu fund ndam ament ental al st stru ructu ctura rall pr prin inci cipl plee of which is the alternation of ‘recitative’ verse with ‘aria’ verse (to be explained later). Single-movement compositions are likely to be simple arias. 1

William S. Newman, The Sonata in the Baroque Era , Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1959, pp. 5–6.

26


5. The poetic poetic text is purposepurpose-writte writtenn for a musical musical settin setting. g. In this this respect, respect, it has more in common with an opera libretto, despite the disparity of length, than with a sonnet, which, in the first instance, is self-sufficient as poetry. 6. The poetic poetic theme theme is secular secular (pasto (pastoral ral,, heroic, heroic, or histori historical cal). ). It may also be devotional (as in the cantata morale ) or didactic (as in the lezione amorosa) but is never suitable for performance at a religious service.2

Some explanatory remarks on the criteria are relevant at this point. The word ‘cantata’ (which means, literally, no more than ‘sung piece’) makes its first appearance in the late sixteenth century.3 In this formative period its significance is not yet generic in the narrow sense: the word serves merely to distinguish sung verse from spoken verse, or sung music from played music. The sister terms ‘sonata’ and ‘concerto’, it is interesting to note, both went through comparable pre-generic phases before crystallizing as generic terms. The first recorded use of ‘cantata’ to distinguish one kind of vocal music from another occurs in the first book of Cantade et arie by Alessandro Grandi, published in Venice in 1620. Since the edition in question is not a first edition, the putative date should be brought forward by a few years – and, in any case, one would expect this use of the term in manuscript sources to have predated its appearance in print. The new genre takes at least a couple of decades to establish itself firmly and develop a profile that is the common property of composers.4 By the sixth decade of the century it has achieved maturity in the hands of such composers as Luigi Rossi (c.1598–1653) and Giacomo Carissimi (1605–74), and it then becomes possible to speak of a cantata ‘mainstream’ to which composers conform with or without the addition of a personal inflection. The distinction made in the second criterion between ‘dramatic’ and ‘nondramatic’ presentation is crucial. In seventeenth-century terms, which are rooted in concepts established in classical antiquity by such authorities as Aristotle, a sung work is dramatic whenever two or more singers engage in dialogue and ther th eref efor oree ha have ve dif diffe fere rent nt te text xts, s, ir irre resp spec ectiv tivee of wh whet ethe herr th they ey ac actt an andd me memo mori rize ze th thei eirr parts or merely stand (or sit) and read from music. Similarly irrelevant is whether or not the work is dramatic in the modern, secondary sense of ‘gripping’. On this basis, operas, oratorios, serenatas, and dialogues are equally dramatic genres. A work for a single singer may adopt, wholly or in part, a dramatic ‘voice’, in that thee si th sing nger er ta take kess on th thee pe pers rson onaa of a ch char arac acte terr di dist stin inct ct fr from om th that at of th thee po poet et in ei eith ther er his ‘lyric’ voice (when he addresses the audience with his own thoughts) or his ‘epic’ voice (when he narrates or describes what he sees). 5 But this does not suffice to make the work itself dramatic, as understood by contemporaries. 2 Lezione amorosa amorosa 3

4

5

means ‘lesson in love’ or ‘advice to lovers’. Such cantatas take the form of a monologue addressed by the poet (in the guise of an older, wiser person) to a young lover. Thee se Th seco cond nd ed edit itio ionn of th thee New Grove (a (art rt.. ‘C ‘Can anta tata ta’, ’, 5, p. 9) gi give vess as th thee fi firs rstt re reco cord rded ed in inst stan ance ce of the word a Cantata pastorale fatta per Calen di Maggio performed in Siena (Siena: Bonetti, 1589). Thee ear Th early ly hi hist stor oryy of th thee ca cant ntat ataa (a (and nd of th thee us uses es of th thee wo word rd ‘c ‘can anta tata ta’) ’) is ex expl plor ored ed ve very ry th thor orou ough ghly ly in Ro Robe bert rt R. Ho Holz lzer er,, ‘M ‘Mus usic ic an andd Po Poet etry ry in Se Seve vent ntee eent nthh Cen Centu tury ry Ro Rome me:: Se Sett ttin ings gs of th thee Ca Canz nzon onet etta ta and Cantata Texts of Francesco Balducci, Domenico Benigni, Francesco Melosio and Antonio Abate’ Aba te’,, 2 vo vols, ls, unp unpub ublis lished hed doc doctor toral al dis disser sertat tation ion,, Uni Univer versit sityy of Pen Pennsy nsylva lvania nia,, 199 1990, 0, pp pp.. 226 226–7 –77. 7. Telemann’s Ino (1765), which is from start to finish a monologue in the mouth of the named

THE CANTATA GENRE

27

Conver Conv erse sely ly,, a wo work rk en enti titl tled ed ‘c ‘can anta tata ta a du duee vo voci ci’’ ma may, y, or ma mayy no not, t, be a ch cham ambe berr cantata. If the two parts (which will usually bear the names of two characters) have distinct texts, it is quite clearly a dramatic cantata. If, however, the texts t exts are identical (except that certain portions may be reserved for only a single voice), it is a chamber cantata – unless the lack of any clear separation into distinct movements makes the description of chamber duet more apt for ordinary analytical purposes. A pedant might argue that employing the analytical term ‘continuo cantata’ begs the question of whether the notated bass line is performed by a melody instrument alone, without any realization of the implied harmonies, or by a harmony instrument (supported, or not, by a melody instrument) that supplies a real re aliz izat atio ionn of th this is ki kind nd.. Bu Butt th thee po poin intt is to tooo fi fine ne to pe pers rsua uade de on onee to se seek ek an al alte tern rnaative term, especially since in the eighteenth century one occasionally sees ‘basso cont co ntin inuo uo’’ us used ed to de desc scri ribe be a pu pure rely ly me melo lodi dicc pa part rt,, as in th thee de defi fini niti tion on of th thee ex expr pres es-sion by Sébastien de Brossard in his Dictionnaire de musique (Paris, 1703), wher wh eree th thee au auth thor or re rema mark rkss th that at su such ch a li line ne is so some meti time mess pl play ayed ed si simp mply ly (‘simplement’) and without figures (‘sans chiffres’) on the bass violin and other instruments, or in the ‘basso continuo per violoncello o cembalo’ prescribed by Benedetto Marcello for his recorder sonatas, Op. 2, of 1712. The distinction between a multi-sectional and a multi-movement work is so fundamental and rich in consequences that it is surprising how little attention has so far been paid to the question in studies of the cantata – as opposed, notably, to ones of the sonata.6 One has to begin, naturally, by defining ‘section’ and ‘movement’. In ordinary musicological discourse the boundary between the two terms is rather hazy, so what one is seeking is a distinction that is sufficiently clear-cut to be analytically useful but not so rigid as to appear artificial or contrary to everyday perception. I drew up a set of criteria for establishing their separate identities in another context, and it will be appropriate to reproduce them here:7 Sections

Movements

Tonally open or closed Connected Connect ed to surro surrounding unding materia materiall Monothematic Progressive or rounded form

Tonally closed Disconnected Discon nected from surro surrounding unding materi material al Polythematic Rounded form

Once again, to qualify as a section or a movement a group of bars need not corr co rres espo pond nd to ea each ch si sing ngle le cr crit iter erio ion, n, pr prov ovid ided ed th that at its ov over eral alll pr prof ofile ile is co cong ngru ruen ent. t. Thee mo Th most st in inte tere rest stin ingg of th thee cr crit iter eria ia is th thee la last st.. On Onee co coul uldd ex expr pres esss th thee di diff ffer eren ence ce

6

7

heroine, conforms analytically to the profile of a ‘solo’ cantata rather than to that of a ‘dramatic’ cantata by virtue of the lack of dialogue with other characters. On the dis distin tincti ction on bet between ween sec sectio tions ns and mov moveme ements nts in so sonat natas, as, see esp especi eciall allyy And Andrea rea Dell’Antonio, Syntax, Form and Genre in Sonatas and Canzonas Canzonas,, 1621–1635 , Lucca: Libreria Musicale Italiana, 1997. Michael Talbot, The Finale in Western Instrumental Music , Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 19.

28


between a multi-sectional and a multi-movement composition by saying that the first is syntactic in its macrostructure and paratactic in its microstructure, while the second is exactly the reverse. To explain: a syntactic structure is one in which the components are organized hierarchically and in a patterned manner. In a musical context, typical expressions of syntactic organization are tonal rounding (the opening key returns at the end) and thematic rounding (the opening theme returns at the end). A paratactic structure is one in i n which the units have a simple additive relationship – like the carriages making up a train. A musical unit that is wholly through-composed and tonally open is fully compatible with paratactic organization. By ‘macrostructure’ is meant the overall structure of the complete work, while ‘microstructure’ represents the form at the level of an individual section or movement. Like sonatas, cantatas moved from multi-sectional to multi-movement design in the mid-seventeenth century.8 A ‘movement’ structure is at best only incipient in the cantatas of the Rossi-Carissimi generation and is not yet evident in those of Barbara Strozzi (1619–77), but it emerges clearly in the cantatas of Alessandro Stra St rade dell llaa (1 (163 639– 9–82 82). ). Th This is is no nott th thee fi firs rstt oc occa casi sion on on wh whic ichh we wi will ll fi find nd th thee st stru rucctura tu rall ev evol olut utio ionn of ca cant ntat atas as an andd so sona nata tass pr proc ocee eedi ding ng al almo most st in pa para rall llel el.. Sc Schm hmit itzz sa saw w this process, rightly, not as the renunciation of unity but as its achievement by alternative means.9 The most important outcome of the change was the delineation of recitatives and arias as more or less self-contained movements. Whereas recitatives are through-composed and usually tonally open (so that t hat in a different context the same music could be held equally well to constitute a section of a larger unit), the arias with which they alternate possess a clearly syntactic structure tu re th that at ma mark rkss th them em ou outt as mo move veme ment nts. s. Pu Purs rsui uing ng th thee an anal alog ogyy of a tr trai ain, n, on onee co coul uldd liken arias to the carriages, recitatives to the short corridors through which one passes from one carriage to the next. The fifth criterion is no less fundamental to the identity of the cantata. Vocal music can be divided, from the very beginning of the Western art music tradition up to th thee pr pres esen entt da day, y, be betw twee eenn mu musi sicc us usin ingg po poet etic ic te text xtss or orig igin inal ally ly co conc ncei eive vedd qu quite ite independently of music (for silent reading or recitation) and music based on texts designed from the outset for a musical setting (and therefore unsatisfactory withou wit houtt mus musica icall pre presen sentat tation ion). ). Whe Where re the poe poetry try exi exists sts ind indepe epende ndentl ntly, y, com compos posers ers have no automatic way of setting it. They will generally respect its division into stanzas and internal patterns (such as the use of a refrain), but most decisions relating to musical structure have to be made autonomously, a situation that produces a great diversity of possible results. Where the verse is expressly poesia per musica, however, the poet’s handiwork is apt to be more prescriptive and to restri res trict ct the com compos poser’ er’ss str struct ucture ure-re -relat lated ed cho choice icess ver veryy fir firmly mly.. Thi Thiss tigh tightt reg regula ulation tion of musical structure is seen at its most extreme in the formes fixes of the Middle

8

9

Willi Apel even attempted to identify a ‘first’ instrumental work to display multi-movement charact cha racteri eristi stics cs – the Ca Canz nzon onii a tr tree , Op Op.. 2 (1 (164 642) 2) of Ma Maur uriz izio io Caz Cazza zati ti – al alth thou ough gh mo most st co comm mmen enta ta-tors will prefer to remain more cautious. See Talbot, The Finale in Western Instrumental Music , p. 26. Schmitz, Geschichte der weltlichen Solokantate , pp. 68–9.

THE CANTATA GENRE

29

Ages – the ballade, virelai, and rondeau. In the case of the chamber cantata, the variables are more numerous (for example, the number of movements is free, prov pr ovid ided ed th that at th thee al alte tern rnat atio ionn of re reci cita tativ tivee an andd ar aria ia is ob obse serv rved ed,, an andd re reci cita tativ tivee ve vers rsee can be set in special ways – as accompagnato, arioso, or cavata – in special circumstances), but the general principle holds. The inevitable outcome of a music-dependent poetry is a poetry-dependent musi mu sic. c. Ne Neith ither er ca cann ev evol olve ve au auto tono nomo mous usly: ly: wh what at oc occu curs rs in inst stea eadd is a sl slow ow co-evolution like that in nature between a plant and a pollinating insect. What is remarkable, indeed unique, about the period 1650–1750 in Italy is that virtually all its secular vocal music, across the whole spectrum from an aria to an opera, is set to purpose-written texts. If cantatas are easily distinguishable from arias by virtue of their complex (multi-sectional or multi-movement) form, they diverge equally strongly from madrigals, even in the early period (1620–40) when both genr ge nres es ex exis iste tedd si side de by si side de,, si simp mply ly by us usin ingg th thes esee sp spec ecia iall te text xtss in pr pref efer eren ence ce to th thee sonnets, octaves, canzoni, and the rest that make up the promiscuous diet of the latter. Whether the cantata, as a musical genre, gained or lost on balance from this dependence is a moot point. Certainly, the literary and aesthetic quality of the poetry to which it was yoked was often no better than mediocre and frequently worse. One would not expect poets normally to include cantata texts, given their expressly musical destination, in their published rime, but the infrequency of poetic attributions in the musical sources tells its own story. Many of the poets were doubtless inexperienced poetasters writing for personal satisfaction rather than public recognition; in those instances (probably more frequent than one imagines) where the poets were recognized names, the perceived ephemerality and marginality of their contribution generally prevented them both from giving of their best and from seeking credit by claiming authorship. It is no coincidence that cantata texts collected as part of their author’s opera omnia (such as those by Metastasio and Antonio Ottoboni) are invariably of superior quality, capable of standing with credit alongside their author’s ‘non-musical’ verse. It is true that the standardization of their texts results in a corresponding standardization of the music for cantatas. Touches of originality and boldness are theere th reffor oree to be so soug ughht no nott at th thee ‘ma maccro ro’’ bu butt at th thee ‘m ‘mic icrro’ le leve vell – fo forr in inssta tanc nce, e, in a well-judged arioso passage in the middle of a recitative or in an ‘inessential’ ritornello making a retransition from the end of a ‘B’ section to the start of a restated ‘A’ section. On occasion, one encounters self-consciously experimental cantatas, such as Marcello’s Sujetkantaten, that break the mould. But even in these the se ca case ses, s, th thee re rete tent ntio ionn of th thee pr prin inci cipl plee of al alte tern rnat ating ing ar aria ia an andd re reci cita tativ tivee re redu duce cess the room for manoeuvre: the train simply acquires more carriages. Undeniably, the Baroque cantata possessed the virtue of its defects in being such an easy type of composition to mass-produce. This mattered in an age when topicality topica lity was so desirable a qualit qualityy and when the occa occasions sions at which cantatas cantatas were performed, such as the weekly accademie of a patron, succeeded one another so closely. A kind of composition that required more prior reflection on thee pa th part rt of ei eith ther er po poet et or co comp mpos oser er wo woul uldd ha have ve se serv rved ed it itss so soci cial al pu purp rpos osee le less ss we well ll.. The secular context of chamber cantatas – evident even when their theme is spiritual or moral – needs emphasis because of the contrary example of J. S.

30


Bach’s cantatas. It is ironic that many of these works by Bach, particularly the earl ea rlyy on ones es,, we were re no nott or orig igin inal ally ly ca calle lledd ca cant ntat atas as at al alll (t (the heyy we were re sa sacr cred ed co conc ncer erto toss or merely ‘pieces’), while those that bore the title were settings of religious verse (supplemented by chorale texts) closely modelled on the t he ‘standard’ – i.e., secular – cantata. Actually, to describe a piece as a ‘secular’ cantata already concedes too much, since the qualification implies that this genre was an adaptation of a sacred model rather than the reverse. The general features just discussed remained remarkably constant during the Blütezeit of the cantata (1650–1700) and its period of decline (1700 onwards). However, in one respect affecting poetry and music alike the cantata underwent a steady, unidirectional development over this period: its overall structure tended over ov er ti time me to towa ward rdss a si simp mple lerr pa patt tter ernn ba base sedd on fe fewe werr un unit itss an andd to towa ward rdss th thee pr prim imac acyy of aria over recitative. The regular alternation between recitative and aria was deeply ingrained: it is very rare to find two adjacent arias not separated by recitative, and the concept of two adj adjace acent nt rec recita itative tivess is har hardly dly sus sustai tainab nable, le, giv given en the thr throug ough-c h-comp ompose osedd nat nature ure of th thee st styl yle. e. Co Cons nseq eque uent ntly ly,, re reci cita tativ tives es an andd ar aria iass ar aree ei eith ther er ex exac actly tly eq equa uall in nu numb mber er (as in the RARA scheme) or differ by no more than one (as in the ARA and RARAR schemes). Where recitatives and arias coexist, the former is always preparatory to the latter – never the reverse. This is demonstrated in musical terms by the fact that it is normal for the opening chord of a recitative following an aria to establish its tonal (and emotional) distance from the latter by moving to a new scale-degree, and very likely a new key. The poetic rationale for the relationship between the two movement-types is well summed up in Willi Flemming’s dictum (originally applied to opera but equally relevant to the cantata) that ‘the recitative loads the gun, the aria fires it’.10 The standard modular unit of a cantata is i s therefore the RA pair. An eighteenth-century literary theorist, Ireneo Affò, recognised this when he characterized an RA structure as a ‘simple’ cantata ( cantata semplice), a ‘double’ cantata (cantata doppia) being the more familiar RARA structure.11 It was always possible to vary the structure by having a free-standing aria at the head of the cantata (as in ARA), comparable with an ‘entry’ aria (uscita) in an oper op erat atic ic sc scen ene, e, or a fr free ee-s -sta tand ndin ingg re reci cita tativ tivee at its cl clos ose. e. En Endin dingg wit withh an unad un ador orne nedd se setti tting ng of re reci cita tativ tivee wa wass no norm rmal ally ly av avoi oide ded, d, si sinc ncee th thee re resu sult lt wo woul uldd ha have ve been too perfunctory, but the option of setting the last line or pair of lines as an arioso or a cavata – both types of treatment introducing a more patterned, melodious style – provided a simple means of achieving a climax comparable with that afforded by an aria. From the poet’s point of view, the recitative was the more important component. It was the vehicle for description and narration, and employed metres – seven-syllable (settenario) and eleven-syllable (endecasillabo) lines – widely

10 11

Quoted in Donald Jay Grout, A Short History of Opera , 2nd edn, New York: Columbia UniverUniversity Press, 1965, p. 187. Ireneo Affò, Dizionario precettivo, critico ed istorico della poesia volgare , Parma: Carmignani, 1777, p. 114.

THE CANTATA GENRE

31

used in ordinary poetry, where they were associated with the most prestigious forms such as the canzone and the epic. However, audiences, singers, and composers alike regarded the aria as more important, exerting a persistent pressure to reduce the number and length of recitatives. Francesco Saverio Quadrio, whose massive history of Italian poetry is a valuable source of information on contemporary perceptions of the cantata, observed that recitatives risked boring audiences (for which reason he recommended that they should not exceed six lines in length) and tended to be skated over by singers, impatient to begin their next aria.12 This prejudice favoured schemes framed by a pair of arias (ARA, ARARA, etc.) over ones in which recitatives formed either one (as in RARA) or both (as in RARAR) of the framing movements. For some listeners, of course, even a single recitative was excessive. In a letter of 15 December 1751 to C. H. Graun, Telemann blamed the presence of recitative for the unfashionability of cantatas and their replacement by arias. The steadily growing rejection of recitative ti ve in th thee do doma main in of ch cham ambe berr mu musi sicc ca cann be ga gaug uged ed by co comp mpar arin ingg th thee in inci cide denc ncee of cantatas and separate arias in manuscript collections containing both. In seventeenth-century collections cantatas tend to outnumber arias, but in those of the following century the balance inexorably shifts in favour of the latter. Favoured though they were, arias in cantatas tended to become fewer as time went on. This was partly in i n compensation for their increased length, the product of a mo morre com ompl plex ex for orm m and a mo morre or orna nate te sty tyle le.. In a le lett tter er of 14 Feb ebrrua uary ry 175 7555 to Ranieri de’ Calzabigi, Metastasio expressed his view that cantatas with four arias were too taxing for a singer. This was good advice for its time but would not have carried weight seventy years earlier. Over and above the specific reasons why the structure of the cantata became more streamlined in the eighteenth century lies a more general one that David Burrows has identified as a major shift in ‘cultural style’ around 1700. 13 Taking Vivaldi’s published concertos, Zeno’s opera librettos, and Marco Ricci’s landscape paintings as exemplars of their respective art-forms, Burrows shows how, in each case, a system of construction using a large number of small units was replaced by one in which the units were larger but fewer. In music, this is manifested in a reduction in the number of movements; in opera librettos, by a reduction in the number of scenes (and, correspondingly, of arias) per act; in painting, by a reduction in the ‘clutter’ of objects in view. This revolt against fussiness in favour of clear outlines is a feature that marks off the Settecento as a whole from the Seicento. First concertos and then sonatas follow the same path as the cantata. In fact, if one equates cantata recitatives with sonata slow movements (S), and cantata arias (in any tempo) with sonata fast movements (F), one can draw an exac ex actt pa para rall llel el be betw twee eenn th thee re repl plac acem emen entt of th thee SF SFSF SF by th thee FS FSF F sc sche heme me in so sona nata tass and the replacement (albeit less fully realized) of the RARA by the ARA scheme in cantatas. 12

13

Francesco Saverio Quadrio, Della storia e della ragione d’ogni poesia , 7 vols, Bologna/Milan: Pisarri/Agnelli, 1739–52, 2, pp. 333–4. On p. 336 Quadrio reproaches composers for having capitulated to the prejudice of the multitude ( volgo) in order to spare themselves the effort of writing an opening recitative. David Burrows, ‘Style in Culture: Vivaldi, Zeno and Ricci’, The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, iv (1973–74), 1–23.

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Table 2.1 Cantata structures employed by Antonio Ottoboni and Pietro Metastasio Structure

A. Ottoboni

P. Metastasio

RA RAR RARA RARAR RARARA RARARAR

4 5 20 41 15 18

5 – 19 – 2 –

AR ARA ARAR ARARA ARARAR

1 5 28 27 30

– 8 – 2 –

The working out of this general tendency can be illustrated by a comparison (shown in Table 2.1) between the schemes adopted by two producers of cantata texts: tex ts: Anto Antonio nio Otto Ottobon bonii (16 (1646– 46–172 1720) 0) and Pie Pietro tro Met Metast astasi asioo (16 (1698– 98–178 1782). 2).14 Most of Ottoboni’s texts date from the period 1670–1720, with a peak around 1700; those by Metastasio occupy the time-frame 1720–70, the bulk having been composed before the poet’s removal to Vienna in 1729. In Ottoboni’s texts two arias and three arias occur with approximately equal frequency (94 and 90 times, respectively). Slightly more texts open with a recitative ti ve th than an wi with th an ar aria ia (1 (103 03 as ag agai ains nstt 91 91), ), wh whil ilee di dist stin inct ctly ly mo more re cl clos osee wi with th a re reci cita ta-tive than with an aria (123 as against 71). Ottoboni’s ‘classic’ scheme is therefore RARAR, which, with 41 examples, is by a long way more common than any other. His texts are noteworthy for their variety: no permutation of R and A up to three arias is ignored. In Metastasio’s texts two arias (27 examples) are encountered much more ofte of tenn th than an th thre reee (4 ex exam ampl ples es). ). Th Ther eree is a nu nume meri rica cally lly si sign gnif ific ican antt gr grou oupp of ‘s ‘simp imple le’’ cantatas (RA) resembling operatic scene. Special circumstances apply here: Metastasio wrote several celebratory works for birthdays or name-days of members of the imperial family, the singers for which were sometimes the archdukes or archduchesses themselves – hence the desirability of brevity. Considerably more of his texts open with a recitative than with an aria (26 as against 10), but – a sign of the times – not a single one closes with a recitative. Malcolm Boyd 14

The statistics for Ottoboni’s cantatas are taken from Michael Talbot and Colin Timms, ‘Music and the Poetry of Antonio Ottoboni (1646–1720)’, in Nino Pirrotta and Agostino Ziino (eds), Händel e gli Scarlatti a Roma. Atti del convegno internazionale di studi (Roma, 12–14 giugno 1985), Florence: Olschki, 1987, pp. 367–438, at p. 387; for greater simplicity, texts in which the

division between recitative and aria portions is unclear, in which the arias number more than thre th ree, e, or in wh whic ichh ar aria iass st stan andd in ad adja jace cent nt po posi siti tion on ar aree ex excl clud uded ed fr from om co cons nsid ider erat atio ion. n. Th Thee de deta tail ilss fo forr Metastasio are based on the cantatas included in Bruno Brunelli’s collected edition of the poet’s works (Tutte le opere di Pietro Metastasio , 5 vols, Milan: Mondadori, 1947–54). 1947–54).

THE CANTATA GENRE

33

datess th date thee be begi ginn nnin ingg of th thee re relu luct ctan ance ce am amon ongg It Ital alia iann co comp mpos oser erss to ha have ve a re reci cita tativ tivee in final position to c.1700, and his observation seems to be borne out by the evidence, whichever composer (or poet) one takes. 15 Metastasio’s ‘classic’ scheme is, therefore, RARA.16 As we will see when we consider the texts t exts set by Vivaldi, Metastasio is quite conservative in his general preference for an opening recitative. Quadrio observed that recitative had a special usefulness at the start of a cantata, where it could explain the situation and establish the dominant mood.17 Moreover, its presence there brought an important musical advantage, in that it liberated the first aria from the need to remain in the home key. Where tonal closure closu re was desir desired ed for the composition composition as a whole – and very few compo composers sers (Handel and Alessandro Marcello are the best-known) were prepared to sacrifice it – adopting the ARA plan condemned composers willy-nilly to place both arias in th thee sa same me ke key, y, th ther ereb ebyy re reno noun unci cing ng an im impo port rtan antt me mean anss of co cont ntra rast st.. Th Thee fa fact ct th that at they were so often willing to do so only underlines the irresistibility of the trend just described. The table also illustrates in stark fashion the narrowing of macrostructural options in the later phases of the solo cantata’s existence. Leaving aside the texts for ‘simple’ cantatas, RARA and ARA schemes account together for almost 90 per cent of Metastasio’s total. Small wonder that Vivaldi and the poets who served him remained so firmly wedded to these two plans, which had by then beco be come me as st stan anda dard rd fo forr th thee ca cant ntat ataa as th thee fa fami milia liarr th thre reee-mo move veme ment nt an andd four-movement schemes were in instrumental music. Its Literary Nature Nature

The basic unit of the poetry making up a cantata text is the stanza (strophe). A recitative stanza may contain any number of lines greater than one. Notwithstanding Quadrio’s recommendation of six lines as the effective limit, much longer stanzas are commonly encountered: for instance, the opening recitative of nell llee ve verd rdii sp spia iagg ggee by Benedetto Vinaccesi (c.1666–1719) the cantata Là ne comprises a single sentence stretching over eighteen lines. l ines. For arias, the number of lines is more circumscribed. Four lines is the lower limit, while twelve lines represents the practical upper limit. Recitative verse is formed from freely mixed endecasillabi (hendecasyllables, or eleven-syllable lines) and settenari (heptasyllables, or seven-syllable lines). These are the two metres canonized in the poetry of Petrarch (1304–74) and ever since dominant in Italian poetry. The two metres are closely related, since an endecasillabo can be viewed as a settenario either preceded or followed by a ‘lesser’ hemistich containing the remaining four or (with synaloepha, to be 15 16

17

Malcolm Boyd, ‘Form and Style in Scarlatti’s Chamber Cantatas’, Music Review, xxv (1964), 17–26, at 23. According to Boyd (ibid., 22–3), 60 per cent of Alessandro Scarlatti’s mature (post-1696) cantatas adopt RARA form – a clear sign of its growing pre-eminence around the turn of the century. Quadrio, Della storia e della ragione d’ogni poesia , 2, p. 336.

34


described on p. 35) five syllables. The great attraction of hendecasyllables and heptasyllables for Italian poetry – especially when used repetitively – is the great variety of stress pattern they permit. As a Romance language, Italian has a prosody pros ody governed governed by sylla syllable ble count rathe ratherr than, as in Germa Germanic nic languages, languages, by stress count. So the metrical flexibility that English iambic pentameter achieves through varying the nature of the foot (as iamb, trochee, etc.) is available to an endecasillabo (a (and nd to ma many ny oth other er It Ital alia iann me metr tres es,, th thou ough gh pr pred edom omin inan antl tlyy on ones es wi with th an odd number of syllables) through varied placement of the stress. Aria verse may also employ settenario and endecasillabo but tends to prefer ‘shorter’ (sometimes called ‘quicker’) metres with six syllables or fewer and/or metres containing an even number of syllables. Lines with wit h three (ternario), four (quaternario), five (quinario), six (senario), eight (ottonario), nine (novenario), ten (decasillabo), and even twelve (dodecasillabo) syllables may be employed. Even-numbered metres, especially the ever-popular quaternario and ottonario, enjoy special favour, since their relative regularity of stress (more comparable with the metres of Germanic poetry) contrasts with recitative verse and also conforms well to the regular musical accents that characterize arias, but not recitatives. Aria stanzas may be either monometric (employing a single metre throughout) or polymetric (employing more than one metre in either symmetrical or asymmetrical fashion). A fu fund ndam amen enta tall ch char arac acte teri rist stic ic of ar aria ia st stan anza zass du duri ring ng th thee en entir tiree lif lifee of the ca cant ntat ataa is their division into two semistrophes.18 The semistrophes are syntactically well sepa se para rate tedd – th they ey of ofte tenn co comp mpri rise se di diff ffer eren entt se sent nten ence cess – an andd th they ey ar aree of ofte tenn di dist stin inct ct in meaning and imagery. Typically, the first semistrophe expresses a thought that the second semistrophe illustrates, extends, modifies, or contradicts. Irrespective of what musical form is chosen for the stanza, its division into two sections has always forced composers into making difficult decisions. Should the musical trea tr eatm tmen entt of th thee st stan anza za be un unif ifor orm, m, ma maki king ng lit little tle of the te text xtua uall di diff ffer eren ence ce be betw twee eenn the two semistrophes, or should this difference be accentuated through musical contrasts? There is no universal recommendation to follow: all depends on context and individual preference. This binary division of aria verse can be illustrated by quoting the text of the Veng ngo o a vo voi, i, lu luci ci ad ador orat atee, RV 682 open op enin ingg ar aria ia of Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss Ve 82.. In th thee quo uota tati tioon, an andd in later quotations of aria verse, the opening lines of the two semistrophes are left unindented, while the remainder are indented. i ndented. Vengo a voi, luci adorate, perr da pe darr tr treg egua ua a ta tant ntee pe pene ne,, e ritorno ad adorarvi. Ben ench chéé si siat atee ta tant ntoo in ingr grat ate, e,

18

I come before you, belov oveed eyes es,, to of offe ferr a tr truc ucee af afte terr so mu much ch pa pain in,, and I am returning to love you. Alth Al thou ough gh yo youu ar aree so un ungr grat atef eful ul,,

Some writers regard the semistrophe as a self-contained stanza, making the full aria text bi-stanzaic. That this is really inaccurate is shown, however, by the frequent practice, observable durin du ringg mos mostt of the sev sevent enteen eenth th cen centur tury, y, of rep repeat eating ing the mus music ic of an ari ariaa to to new wor words. ds. It is obv obviiously far less cumbersome to speak of an aria employing successive stanzas than of one employing successive stanza-pairs.

THE CANTATA GENRE

care luci del mio bene, io no nonn la lasc scia iarr vo vo’’ d’ d’am amar arvi vi..

35

dear eyes of my beloved, I wi will ll ne neve verr ce ceas asee to ad ador oree yo you. u.19

Here, the first semistrophe explains that the lover (female) is returning to the object of her affections, having suffered greatly during her estrangement. It is left to the second semistrophe, however, to explain that ingratitude (normally to be equated with the non-reciprocation of amorous feelings or even with infidelity) was the cause of that estrangement. The poet leaves the composer the option of emphasizing the negativity of the first line of the second semistrophe (perhaps by a tu turn rn to mi mino norr to tona nali lity ty an and/ d/or or th thee us usee of di diss sson onan ance ce or ch chro roma mati tici cism sm)) or of se sett ttin ingg the two stanzas in similar style throughout in order to underline the overall positive mood. How Ho w th thee sy syll llab able less of It Ital alia iann ve vers rsee ar aree to be co coun unte tedd – th this is kn know owle ledg dgee is vi vita tall fo forr thee re th reco connst stru ruct ctio ionn of th thee po poem em,, if it exi xissts on only ly in th thee for orm m of an und ndeerl rlai aidd te text xt – is not an easy matter for the uninitiated, especially if they are not native speakers. piano): its final syllable is unstressed, The standard kind of line is called ‘plain’ ( piano and its penultimate syllable is stressed. All the lines of the aria quoted above conf co nfor orm m to th thee piano mo mode del. l. Re Reci cita tativ tivee ve vers rsee ha hard rdly ly ev ever er em empl ploy oyss an anyy ot othe herr ty type pe.. If the final unstress unstressed ed syllable syllable is suppr suppresse essed, d, leaving leaving a stressed stressed syllable syllable to end the line, the latter is said to be ‘truncated’ ( tronco). The two opening lines of the second aria of Era la notte, quando i suoi splendori, RV 655, follow this model: ‘Se non potei mirar | le luci del mio sol’. It is important to remember that when a line is tronco, its metre is described as if the missing final unstressed syllable were actually present. So the quoted lines are settenari, not senari. (When metre settenario ario tronc tronco o.) is de desc scri ribe bedd us usin ingg fi figu gure res, s, th thee ex expr pres essi sion on ‘7 ‘7t’ t’ ca cann be us used ed fo forr a setten A tronco li line ne is es espe peci cial ally ly va valu lued ed as th thee cl clos osin ingg li line ne of an ar aria ia se semi mist stro roph phe, e, wh wher eree it facilitates the composer’s task of placing the final syllable on a suitably accented note. The third kind of line, called ‘sliding’ (sdrucciolo), adds an extra unstressed syllable to the single unaccented syllable ending a piano line. This supe su pern rnum umer erar aryy sy sylla llabl blee is si simil milar arly ly ig igno nore redd wh when en cl clas assi sify fyin ingg the me metr tre. e. Sdrucciolo lines, the least common of the three t hree types, are encountered most often in aria verse in short metres, particularly where a comic effect is desired (as with buffo characters in opera). It is seen in the opening two lines of Vivaldi’s cantata RV 669: ‘Tra l’erbe i zeffiri | placidi spirino’. Here, the effect is deliberately playful (the highly appropriate word scherzino appears at the end of the first line of the second semistrophe). The suffix ‘s’ identifies a sdrucciolo line in descriptions of metre, so the two above lines would be described as ‘5s’. Thee id Th iden entif tific icat atio ionn of th thee me metr tree is co comp mplic licat ated ed fu furt rthe herr by th thee op oper erat atio ionn of po poet etic ic devices that effectively knock two (or more) syllables into one or, conversely, resist doing this in contexts where coalescence would be expected. The most impor imp orta tant nt of th thes esee ar aree sy syna naer eres esis is ( sineresi) an andd sy syna nalo loep epha ha (sinalefe).In sineresi, adjacent vowels in the same word are treated as one syllable; in sinalefe, adjacent vowels belonging to two or more adjacent words are treated similarly. Consider the following endecasillabo, which opens the central recitative of Alla caccia, dell’alme e de’ cori , RV 670: 19

All translations of cantata texts are by the author.

36


Ma sia crudele o infida, oh Dio, mi piace. 1 |2 |3 |4 |5 |6|7 |8 |9 |10|11

If one counts up all the syllables individually, they total a surprising sixteen. But sineresi op oper erat ates es in tw twoo in inst stan ance ces, s, ca caus usin ingg sia and Dio to be tr trea eate tedd as mo mono nosy syll llaables. Sinalefe also takes its toll, reducing the trisyllable ‘-le o in-’ and the bisy bi sylla llabl blee ‘‘-da da,, oh oh’’ to ef effe fect ctiv ivee mo mono nosy sylla llable bles. s. (I (Inn th thee un unde derl rlai aidd te text xt of a mo mode dern rn,, printed musical score such coalescence is conventionally shown with so-called ‘elis ‘e lisio ionn sl slur urs’ s’.) .) So the fi fina nall re resu sult lt is a me metr tric ical ally ly or orth thod odox ox lin linee of el elev even en sy syll llab able les. s. More radically, vowels in collision with other vowels may simply be omitted, producing the familiar effect of elision, shown in such forms as vostr’ombre (for vostre ombre). Elision never causes problems for those seeking to identify metre, since the ‘extra’ vowels are not present in the first place. Some difficulty may be experienced, however, in recognizing the effects of diaeresis ( dieresi) and dialoepha (dialefe), which can be described as the intentional non-application of sineresi and sinalefe, respectively. There is usually a good poetic reason for eschewing the normal coalescence-producing devices: the syllables may be the last two in the t he line (where coalescence is excluded a priori); the adjacent vowels may belong to words located in different clauses or simply sound unpleasant toge to geth ther er.. Ju Just st oc occa casi sion onal ally ly,, on onee su susp spec ects ts th thee po poet et of us usin ingg dieresi or dialefe merely to get himself out of a metrical fix. For their part, composers are apt to introduce these devices casually in defiance of the poet’s intention, and with the inevitable resu re sult lt th that at th thee li line ne be beco come mess hy hype perm rmet etri ric. c. Bu Butt th this is wa wass a pe perm rmit itte tedd li lice cenc nce: e: so lo long ng as listeners did not become spontaneously aware of the violation of prosody, composersfeltfreetotailorlinesofpoetryinthiswaytotheirmusicalintentions. The use of end-rhyme in recitative and in aria stanzas is different. Most recitative is cast in the form of versi sciolti (unrhymed lines). A few poets – Antonio Ottoboni, discussed earlier, is among them – resisted the facility of blank verse, but these were in a tiny minority. In a recitative stanza, it is conventional, however, to rhyme the closing line with the penultimate or the antepenultimate line (rather as in the ‘rhyming couplets’ of Shakespearean verse). This acts as a signal of closure and can give the final line an attractively att ractively epigrammic quality. In arias, most lines are rhymed, using patterns such as the following: rime baciate rime alternate rime intrecciate rime incatenate

AABB ABAB ABBA ABA BCB CDC

With rare exceptions, end-rhymes are not shared between the two semistrophes, rima a chi chiave ave) th exce ex cept pt fo forr th thee so so-c -cal alle ledd ‘k ‘key ey rh rhym yme’ e’ ( rim that at cu cust stom omar aril ilyy li link nkss th thee fi fina nall line of each semistrophe. It is not obligatory to match every line with a rhyming line. lin e. ‘S ‘Sin ingl glet eton ons’ s’ ar are, e, in fa fact ct,, ve very ry co commo mmon, n, an andd ha have ve gr grea eatt sa salie lienc ncee in Metastasian verse. Part of the poet’s art in arias is to establish sufficient, but not excessive, regularity. There are four principal parameters that may be treated in either a tightly patterned or a loosely patterned way:

THE CANTATA GENRE

1. 2. 3. 4.

37

The two two semistrop semistrophes hes may may have an identical identical or divergent divergent number of lines. lines. The metre metre of the the two semis semistrophe trophess may be identical identical or divergen divergent.t. The stanza may be monomet monometric ric or polymet polymetric. ric. End-rhyme End-r hyme may be pervas pervasive ive or incompl incomplete. ete.

As a rule of thumb, loose patterning in one or two of these parameters can be compensated for by tight patterning in the others. Consider the following three examples: O di tua man mi svena o con un guardo il mio morir consola. Quest’alma senza pena con tal mercede ai rai del dì s’invola.

In this aria, taken from the cantata Ingrata Lidia, RV 673 (attributed to Vivaldi but no longer considered authentic), the metrical structure of each semistrophe is 7–11. This irregularity must, however, be set against the total symmetry between the semistrophes. The rhyme occurs in this instance between, rather than within, the semistrophes (AB|AB) – less unusual when these consist only of a couplet or tercet. Mentiti contenti son veri tormenti d’amante fedel. Gran male è quel bene, son dardi quei guardi che vibra per pene bellezza crudel.

This is th This thee sec econ ondd ar aria ia of All’ombra del sospetto, RV 67 6788. It is asy symm mmeetr tric ical al in it itss number of lines (3 + 4) and its inclusion of one unrhymed line (the fifth). A compensatory regularity is provided by the uniformity of its senari (6–6–6t | 6–6–6–6t), the line bearing the key rhyme being tronco. Le fresche vïolette e le vezzose erbette in voi fioriscano, liete gioiscano al mio partir. So che tra lor diranno: ‘Lungi sarem d’affanno se quel partì da noi che coi lamenti suoi sempre ne’ fe’ languir’.

This aria closes Perché son molli , RV 681. The two semistrophes have an equal numb nu mber er of li line ness an andd a ma matc tchi hing ng rh rhym ymee sc sche heme me (A (AAB ABBC BC|D |DDE DEEC EC), ), bu butt th thei eirr li line ness are of very diverse length and nature: 7–7–5s–5s–5t | 7–7–7–7–7t. The poetic themes of cantata texts depended intimately on their social and cultural context, which was dominated on the one hand by the institution of the

38


accademia, wh whic ichh de dete term rmin ined ed th thee na natu ture re of th thei eirr au audi dien ence ce,, an andd on th thee ot othe herr by th thee

convention of pastoralism, which governed their style and expression. At its simplest, an ‘academy’ was merely a private concert or recitation of poetry. Burney defines it tout court as a concert.20 More accurate is Edward Wright’s characterization of it as ‘a general Word us’d among them t hem [Italians] for publ pu blic ickk As Asse semb mbli lies es an andd Pe Perf rfor orma manc nces es,, wh whet ethe herr of Mu Musi sick ck,, or of Belles Lettres’.21 (Wright’s ‘publick’, needless to say, has to be understood in its contemporary sense of ‘pertaining to respectable society’.) Even more specifically, academies could be societies at which any combination of music, poetry, and drama could be cultivated but whose main business was scholarly investigation (in the manner of a learned society), open discussion (in the manner of a debating club), or simple ceremony. Such societies had formal constitutions and a list of identified members, who most commonly adopted ‘academic’ names on entry.22 Intermediate between the most informal and the most formal kinds of academy were the regular – for example, weekly – meetings of a small but not necessarily fixed group of persons at the home of a patron, where music and poetry were heard (and refreshments, naturally, were served). Such were the celebrated conversazioni held in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries in the palazzi of Benedetto Pamphilij, Pietro Ottoboni, Ott oboni, and Francesco Maria Ruspoli in Rome. A revealing description of an Italian academy around the middle of the armonica ica, eigh ei ghte teen enth th ce cent ntur uryy is pr prov ovid ided ed in Gi Gior orgi gioo An Anto toni niot otto to’s ’s L’arte armon publ pu blis ishe hedd in Lo Lond ndon on in th thee 17 1760 60s. s.23 As an It Ital alia iann im immi migr gran antt (a ce cell llis ist) t) wo work rkin ingg in England, Antoniotto (c.1690–1776) saw it as his task to describe for his readers thee se th sett ttin ings gs an andd oc occa casi sion onss of mu musi sica call pe perf rfor orma manc ncee in hi hiss na nati tive ve co coun untr try, y, wh whic ichh he often does with an attention to detail lacking in similar accounts written by Italians for other Italians. The extract quoted below follows the description of a conversazione with pertinent comments on its i ts most characteristic musical genre, the cantata: The simple vocal [chamber music] without instruments [other than those of the basso continuo] is only used in Italy, and very seldom in other countries, and it is used in some particular assemblies of lords and ladies, who pass the long winter evenings in singing some cantatas or duettos, only with the harpsichord and violoncello, when the rest of the assembly pass the time in playing at cards or otherwise. These cantatas are performed only by the ladies of quality, and sometimes by some young lords, in which assembly are not admitted the prof pr ofes esso sors rs of mu musi sic, c, bu butt on only ly so some me st stra rang nger er[s [s]] of th thee be best st so sort rt,, an andd th that at bu butt ve very ry 20 21 22

23

Charles Burn Charles Burney, ey, Th Lond ndon on:: Be Beck cket et,, 17 1771 71,, p. [i [iii ii]. ]. Thee Pr Pres esen entt St Stat atee of Mu Musi sicc in Fr Fran ance ce an and d It Ital alyy , Lo Edward Wright, Some Observations made in Travelling through France, Italy [. . .] in the Years 1720, 1721, and 1722, 2 vols, London: Ward and Wicksteed, 1730, 2, 450n. For a discussion of academies in general, and of the rôle of music within them, see Michael Talbot, ‘Musical Academies in Eighteenth-Centu Eighteenth-Century ry Venice’, Note d’archivio per la storia musinuov ovaa se seri rie, e, 2 (1 (198 984) 4),, 21 21–5 –50, 0, re repr prod oduc uced ed in fa facs csim imil ilee in in:: id idem em,, Ve cale, nu Vene neti tian an Mu Musi sicc in th thee Ag Agee of Vivaldi , Aldershot: Ashgate, 1999. On Antoniotto and his treatise, see Emilia Zanetti, ‘Giorgio Antoniotto, il suo trattato “L’arte armonica” (London, 1760) e l’Opera V di Corelli’, in Pierluigi Petrobelli and Gloria Staffieri (eds), Studi corelliani IV. Atti del Quarto Congresso Internazionale (Fusignano, 4–7 settembre 1986), Florence: Olschki, 1990, pp. 381–404.

THE CANTATA GENRE

39

seldom. This simple music is of the best sort, composed by the best poets, and masters of music; and sometimes by the same lords the poetry and music, or also the music by the ladies, among whom are not only many ma ny excellent singers, but also composers. These sort of compositions being deprived of the help of the instrumental [sic], and of all action, consequently there must be used all the most expressive combinations, and properest progressions, in composing not only on ly th thee re reci cita tati tive ve pa part rt,, bu butt al also so th thee ai airs rs;; th thee me melo lody dy of wh whic ichh mu must st be ex extr trem emel elyy proper to the words. The bass for the violoncello, when whe n it is separated from that for the harpsichord, must be composed in the best and most melodious manner, by imitation or some different melody, proper to help the expression of the vocal part: The harmony of the harpsichord, particularly in pathetic airs and recitatives, must be in as full combination as possible, with its accicaturas [ sic], more proper for the strongest expression. These cantatas are very v ery studious, and give the greatest pleasure with their moving affections: But in some ordinary cantatas, a voice [sic] sola, composed by [sic] an indiff indifferent erent poetic style, the musi mu sicc ca cann nnot ot be of th thee mo movi ving ng so sort rt,, bu butt on only ly pr prop oper er to th thee in insi sign gnif ific ican antt se sens nsee of the poetry; and these sort of cantatas are those which commonly run in every coun co untr try, y, bu butt th thee be best st so sort rt ve very ry se seld ldom om,, be beca caus usee th thee pe pers rson onss ke keep ep th them em ze zeal alou ousl slyy 24 close for their own use.

We will return to Antoniotti’s account later, but what is interesting for present purposes is his statement that professional musicians, the ‘professors of music’, were excluded from the gatherings. Doubtless, this was true in circumstances where it was considered that professionals would sully the ‘politeness’ of the assembly or where the noble amateurs wished to t o exercise their poetic or musical talent unobserved by the multitude, but it was at least as common – particularly when the same musicians were in the employ of noble households – to make use of th thei eirr se serv rvic ices es.. In Inde deed ed,, th thee lib liber eral alit ityy an andd ‘c ‘con onsp spic icuo uous us co cons nsum umpti ption on’’ of a pa patr tron on would shine all the more brightly if he went to such expense. What academies could be at their most elaborate is shown by the description for his English readers by another Italian émigré living in London, Giuseppe Bare Ba retti tti (1 (171 719– 9–89 89), ), of the Ar Arca cadi dian an Ac Acad adem emyy in Ro Rome me..25 As we well ll tu turn rned ed an andd wi witt ttyy as Antoniotto’s commentary is awkward and ponderous, Baretti’s text can be allowed to run on a little, since he continues with a description, laced with hilarious satire, of the aesthetics of Arcadia. Next to the academy Della Crusca, that of the Arcadia Romana rose in repute. Thee bu Th busi sine ness ss of th this is Ar Arca cadi diaa wa wass to co corr rrec ect, t, en encr crea ease se an andd be beau auti tify fy ou ourr po poet etry ry,, as that of the Crusca to purify, illustrate, and fix our language. Thee Ar Th Arca cadi dian an li life fe,, as fa fabu bulo lous us hi hist stor oryy re repr pres esen ents ts it it,, wa wass alt altog oget ethe herr in inno nocen centt and simp si mple le.. Th Thee in inha habi bita tant ntss of th that at co coun untr tryy li live vedd on th thee me mere re pr prod oduc ucts ts of th thei eirr la land ndss and flocks, and cultivated only those arts that are conducive to rural elegance and guiltless pleasure. Upon this foundation Jacopo Sanazzaro [Sannazaro], who lived in the beginning of the sixteenth century, century, composed in Italia Italiann a pastor pastoral al romance intitled 24 25

Giorgio Antoniotto, L’arte armonica , 2 vols, London: Johnson, 1760, 1, p. 109. Strictly speaking, ‘Arcadian Academy’ is a misleading expression, since the second word does not appear in the society’s official name, Adunanza degli Arcadi. A good way to circumvent the problem is to call it the ‘Roman Arcadia’.

40


L’Arcadia, which in Italy did him no less honour than his Latin poem De Partu Virginis, and out of Italy procured him several imitators, amongst whom the

celebrated Sir Philip Sidney did not disdain to be numbered. Sana Sa nazza zzaro ro’s ’s Ar Arca cadi diaa is in pr pros ose, e, in inte term rmix ixed ed wi with th ec eclog logue uess in ver verse se;; an andd bot bothh hi hiss pros pr osee an andd hi hiss ec eclo logu gues es ar aree so cr crou oude dedd wi with th pa past stor oral al im imag ages es an andd se sent ntim imen ents ts,, th that at one would think the subjec subjectt quite exhausted. Yet the Italia Italians ns did not think so towards the middle of the last age, where some few verse-mongers of Rome took it into their heads again to cultivate that imaginary rural region. If we credit Maria [ recte, Michel Giuseppe] Giuseppe] Morei, who publis published hed lately the history of this academy, those who first clubbed clubbe d together to form it [in October 1690] were no more than fourteen , whose names Morei has thought proper to preserve. But such is the fondness of the Italians for verse and rhyme, that it soon consisted of as many thousands. These fourteen people joined in a friendly body, to which they gave the effective title of Arcadia Romana; and amongst the few laws, written for them in very elegant Latin by the learned Vincenzo Gravina, there was one, by which it was enacted, that no person should be admitted into this society without first assuming a pastoral name. It is impossible to conceive the eagerness with which this whimsical scheme of turning turni ng all sorts of men into imagin imaginary ary shepherds shepherds was adopte adoptedd both in Rome and out of Rome; and how the inflammable imaginations of my countrymen were we re fi fire redd by it it!! Th Thee ve very ry po pope pe th then en re reig igni ning ng,, wi with th ma many ny ca card rdin inal alss an andd pr prin inci cipa pall monsignori’s, suffered themselves to be persuaded, that this poetical establishmentt wou men would ld pro prove ve inf infini initel telyy adv advant antageo ageous us to lit litera eratur turee in gen general eral,, and poe poetry try in particular; nor did they disdain to be listed in the catalogue of these Arcadian swains, befriending their union with several privileges, assigning them a place to hold their assemblies in, and attending frequently at their meetings. The fame of this new academy was soon spread all over Italy, and the rural compositions produced on their first outset by the Arcadians, met with so great and general a favour with a nation always eager after every novelty, especially poetical novelty, that all became ambitious of being admitted into such an academy. But as this wish could not instantly be gratified, no less than fifty-eight to town wnss of It Ital aly, y, ac acco cord rdin ingg to Mo More rei’ i’ss ac acco coun unt, t, re reso solv lved ed on a su sudd dden en to have like academies of their own, which they unanimously called Colonies of the Roman Arcadia .26 The madness of pastoral now became universal. Every body who had the least knack for poetry, was metamorphosed into a shepherd, and fell directly upon composing rustic sonnets, eclogues, ydylliums, and bucolics. Nothing was heard from the foot of the Alps to the farthermost end of Calabria but description ti onss of pu purl rlin ingg st stre reams ams ro roll llin ingg ge gent ntly ly al along ong fl flowe oweri ring ng me mead adow owss si situa tuate tedd by th thee sides of verdant hills shaded by spreading trees, among whose leafy branches thee sa th sadd Pr Prog ogne ne wi with th he herr me mela lanch nchol olyy si sist ster er Ph Phil ilom omel elaa wa warb rble ledd th their eir cha chast stee lo love ves, s, or murmured their doleful lamentations. Rome being thus transformed transformed by a poetical magic into a province of Greece, saw her capital turned to a cottage, the favourite habitation of Pan and Volumnus; and the charming Flora did not scruple to walk hand in hand with 26

It should be pointed out, in correction of Baretti’s implication, that many of these colonies, including the Accademia degli Animosi in Venice, were pre-existing literary societies that merely needed to affiliate to the Roman Arcadia to earn the status of colonies.

THE CANTATA GENRE

41

the lovely Pomona about the Vatican Vatica n and Saint Peter. No body was to be found in the streets but coy nymphs and frolicksome satyrs, or amorous fauns and buxo bu xom m drya dryads ds.. No bo body dy wa wass no now w ca call lled ed by hi hiss ch chri rist stia iann or fa fami mily ly na name me;; all all our our Antonio Anto nio’s, ’s, Fra Frances ncesco’ co’s, s, and Bar Bartol tolomm ommeo’ eo’ss wer weree tur turned ned int intoo Erg Ergast asto’s o’s,, Dameta’s, and Silvano’s: and as neither the Arcadia nor her colonies refused admittance to the other sex, it may easily be guessed gue ssed that every fair would now be a ha hand ndso some me ny nymp mphh or an ar artl tles esss sh shep ephe herd rdes ess, s, an andd th that at ou ourr Ma Mari ria’ a’s, s, Or Orso sola la’s ’s,, and Margherita’s became on a sudden all Egle’s, Licori’s, and Glicera’s. None of our cicisbeo’s dared now to peep pee p out of his hut, but with a hook in one hand, 27 and a flute in the other.

Theree ar Ther aree ma many ny re reas ason onss fo forr th thee vo vogu guee fo forr th thee pa past stor oral al th that at Ba Bare rett ttii do does es no nott gi give ve.. In the first place, the genre paid homage to the prototype of an academy: the garden near ne ar At Athe hens ns na name medd af afte terr th thee he hero ro Ac Acad adem emus us us used ed by Pl Plat atoo an andd hi hiss fo foll llow ower erss fr from om c.387 BC for their meetings. The location of the mythical realm within the heartland of the Ancient World, in the Peloponnese, made this historical connection ever ev er-p -pre rese sent nt.. Se Seco cond nd,, it pr prov ovid ided ed op oppo port rtun uniti ities es fo forr th thee di disp spla layy of er erud uditi ition on th that at no alternative mise-en-scène (for instance, that of the medieval Romance) could equal and referred to a corpus of literature with which most members of academies had – or would claim to have – at least a little acquaintance. Third, its port po rtra raya yall of an eg egal alita itari rian an wo worl rldd of sh shep ephe herd rdss an andd ny nymp mphs hs co corr rres espo pond nded ed ne neat atly ly to the oasis of social familiarity between noble and non-noble lovers of music and poetry that academies were intended to provide; the Arcadian names adopted by members made it all the easier to introduce veiled topical reference without Arcadi adian an dis disgui guise se ren render dered ed pal palatatgiving giv ing off offenc encee or cau causin singg emb embarr arrass assmen ment.t.28 An Arc able, even amusing, many a sharp and personal point or a controversial statement of political allegiance. At this point, it is appropriate to digress briefly in order to comment on the view advanced by the distinguished Handel scholar Ellen Harris that academies and the cantatas performed at them formed a locus for the expression of homoerotic feeling.29 It is true that Arcadianism accepted, as part of its classical inheritance, portrayals of close bonds between members of the same sex. But whereas Homer’s Achilles and Patroclus or Virgil’s Nisus and Euryalus were presented to societies in which homosexual displays and practices were acceptable in certain situations (as the strange institution of the cicisbeo was in seventeenth-century Italy), the revived classicism of Arcadia existed within a society nominally 27

28

29

Joseph [Giuseppe] Baretti, An Account of the Manners and Customs of Italy , 2 vols, London: Davies, 1769, 1, pp. 247–52. The ‘cicisbeo’s’ ( cicisbei ) of the last sentence were young single men who, according to Italian upper-class custom, were allowed to befriend and accompany married women openly and – one imagines – usually innocently. Writing in the nineteenth century about Venetian academies in the last decades of the Republic, the historian Giovanni Rossi observed that ‘in the majority [of academies], where nobles and priests mixed with diverse kinds of people, it was thought fitting that all should fraternise and abandon distinctions of birth and rank, while remembering nevertheless to address each other correctly’ (for the original Italian text and source details, see Talbot, ‘Musical Academies’, p. 29). Ellen Ell en T. Har Harris ris,, Handel as Orpheus: Voice and Desire in the Chamber Cantata , Cam Cambri bridge dge (MA (MA)) and London: Harvard University Press, 2001.

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accepting official Christian morals. The big question is whether such expressions are to be taken as fantasy sanctioned by convention (in the manner of references to pagan gods) or as allusions to reality. Even if the second conclusion is drawn, we still have to disentangle the respective relationships of the patron, the poet, and the composer to the homoerotic representation. Harris sidesteps this problem to some extent by focusing on the milieu itself: homoeroticism, she argues, was something that permeated the world of the academy and of the cantata and in that way drew in even those who had no special affinity for it. One would not seek to deny de ny th that at th ther eree is a hi hist stor oric ical al co conn nnec ectio tionn be betw twee eenn in inte tens nsee co colle llect ctive ive in inte tere rest st in th thee arts and homoerotic currents – as evident in the nineteenth-century salon and perh pe rhap apss in th thee mo mode dern rn ‘r ‘rea eade ders rs’’ gr grou oup’ p’ as in th thee ac acad adem emie iess of th thee Ba Baro roqu quee pe peri riod od.. And it is equally true that Arcadian texts, steeped in sly allusion, provided the perfect cover for risqué comment or sentiment. But one always has to beware of reading too much into texts and music that were intended first and foremost as entertainment, not as a manifesto. In Vivaldi’s case, the question never surfaces directly. None of the cantata texts he set appears to have even the slightest homoerotic content, and one must assume that the Red Priest, notorious for having women in his entourage (the Girò sisters), was not minded to introduce it on his own initiative. To some extent, the authors of cantata texts must have regarded Arcadian convention as an amusing form of game-playing. A cheerful cynicism emerges from a portion of text from a cantata by Bernardo Pasquini (1637–1710) quoted almost a hundred years ago by Edward Dent: Eh che non è possibile scrivere scriv ere e non parlar parlar di Filli Filli e Clori Clori!! Il mondo vuole amori, vuol sentir dolci pene, vuol parlar di catene, vuol suono di piacer, non di rigori.30

How impossible it is to write write without without mentio mentioning ning Phyllis Phyllis and Chloris! The world wants to hear about love, to experience sweet suffering, to hear talk of chains, to hear the sound of pleasure, not of pain.

The poetic themes of cantatas crystallized around a few topoi, each with its favourite set of keywords inviting musical illustration. Schmitz recognized this narrowness when he wrote of older Italian lyric poetry in general: In fact, Italian lyric verse, whether popular or literary, has made the subject of love lo ve pr pree-em emin inent ent fr from om th thee ve very ry beg begin inni ning ng,, alt altho houg ughh it gr grad adual ually ly be becam camee tr treat eated ed in a tasteless and monotonously mannered way in texts from our time [the Baroque period] and musical genre [the cantata]. Here, one encounters the traditional recitation of woes in phrases sated with tragic pathos or of witty conc co ncei eits ts de delv lvin ingg in into to st ster ereo eoty typed ped fi figu gure ress of sp speec eechh al alre read adyy us used ed fo forr ce cent ntur urie iess in Italian poetry – delightfully rhymed, cleverly expressed, but also inexpressibly tedious. Whether a lover moans because he must depart from his lady-love or because she resists his advances, one cannot escape the same finely tuned pleas to the supremely beautiful and supremely cruel object of desire: always the 30

Edward J. Dent, ‘Italian Chamber Cantatas’, The Musical Antiquary, ii (1910–11), 142–53 and 185–99, at 191.

THE CANTATA GENRE

43

same outbursts and exquisitely tooled cries of pain, always the ‘io moro’ [I am dying] or the ‘morirò’ [I shall die] as the final remedy for interminable grief – the never-changing never-changing expression expression of a passion in whose reality no one believe believes, s, least of all the poet who puts the words into the mouth of the lover.31

Of course, Schmitz’s distaste for this kind of poetry was rooted in the belief widely held in his age (also by Italians themselves) that, after the Renaissance, Italian letters had entered a period of decadence, from which they had to be rescued by Romanticism. Nevertheless, his criticisms continue to strike home, even when one has grown to accept many of these topoi as convenient starting points, rather than final destinations, of poetic invention – at least, where the better poets are concerned. The texts of Vivaldi’s thirty-seven cantatas are a sample-card of these topoi. Eleven deal with the subject of separation between lovers, the central keyword being lontano (distant) and its cognates. 32 Ten, including one text set twice, deal with the non-reciprocation of love, for which such keywords as crudele (cruel) and rigore (harshness) are apposite. 33 Two introduce the related theme of the beloved’s infidelity, real or alleged.34 As many as four describe a timid lover, initially unable to confess his feelings, drawing on such keywords as confuso (confused) and tacere (to be silent).35 Then there are two texts that vent a non-specific Weltschmerz.36 More positive feelings are expressed in one cantata (RV (R V 66 660) 0) th that at is a de decl clar arat atio ionn of lo love ve,, an anoth other er ce cele lebr brat atin ingg a lo long ng-d -del elay ayed ed re reci cipr proocation of love (RV 669), another recounting the act of falling in love (RV 653), another singing the praises of Arcadia as a refuge from a hostile world (RV 671), and two (RV 685 and 686) that are encomiums of identified persons. This leaves cantate tate mor morali ali th three can that at ar aree no nott sp spec ecif ific ical ally ly Ar Arca cadi dian an in lo loca cale le:: RV 67 670, 0, a lezione amorosa, cautions male lovers against female snares, while RV 676 and RV 678 offer wistful meditations on the nature of love. To treat these themes, the author has the choice of four poetic ‘voices’.37 The 31

32 33 34 35 36 37

Schmitz, Geschichte der weltlichen Solokantate , pp. 19–20: ‘In der Tat hat in der italienischen Lyrik, Lyr ik, in der vo volks lkstüm tümlic lichen hen wie in der kun kunstg stgemäß emäßen, en, die Lie Liebes besdic dichtu htung ng vo vonn jeh jeher er ein einee abs absolu olutt präval prä valier ierend endee Rol Rolle le ges gespie pielt, lt, die in der Tex Textli tliter teratu aturr uns unserer erer Zei Zeitt un undd Mus Musik ikgat gattun tungg all allmäh mählic lichh zu geschm ges chmack acklos loser, er, ein eintön tönige igerr Man Manier ier gew geword orden en war war.. Das ist jen jener er “he “herkö rkömml mmlich ichee Lie Liebes bes- jammer[”] in Phrasen voll tragischen Pathos oder in witzigen Concetti mit getreuer Wiederholung der in der italienischen Poesie seit Jahrhunderten stereotyp gewordenen Redensarten, ganz zierlich gereimt, ganz artig ausgedrückt, aber auch von unaussprechlicher Langweiligkeit. Ob der Liebende jammert, weil er von der Geliebten scheiden muß oder weil sie ihm unerbittlich bleibt – es kommen immer dieselben wohltönenden Apostrophen an den unerhört schönen und unerhört grausamen Gegenstand der Herzensflammen, immer dieselben Ausrufungen und edel stilisierten Schmerzensschreie, immer das “io moro” oder “morirò” als letztes Mittel gegen die endlose Pein – der stets gleiche Ausdruck der Leidenschaft, an deren Wahrheit niemand glaubt und der im Namen des Liebenden sprechenden Dichter am allerwenigsten.’ RV 652, 653, 654, 655, 657, 658, 659, 661, 662, 665, and 680. RV 650, 651/683, 656, 664, 666, 667, 677, 682, 684(a), and 679. RV 674 and 676. RV 649, 663, 668, and 799. RV 681 and 796. Thiss typ Thi typolo ology gy is in intro trodu duced ced and dis discus cussed sed in Mic Michae haell Tal Talbot bot , Ben Bened edett etto o Vin Vinacc accesi esi:: A Mus Musici ician an in Brescia and Venice in the the Age of Corelli Corelli , Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994, pp. 166–7.

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first is the familiar ‘lyric’ voice in which the poet addresses his audience directly qua po cantat tatee mor morali ali. The second is the poet et.. Th This is is th thee vo voic icee no norm rmal ally ly ad adop opte tedd fo forr can narr na rrat ativ ivee (o (orr ‘e ‘epi pic’ c’)) vo voic ice, e, in wh whic ichh th thee po poet et de desc scri ribe bess a sc scen enee or na narr rrat ates es an ev even entt in the manner of a witness. It is preferred for the opening recitative of a cantata in RARA form, but is found quite often in later recitatives as well. The third is the ‘quoting’ voice. Here, the poet reproduces, in direct speech, the words of one or both of the protagonists (i.e., the lover and the beloved); this voice appears, logically, only in subordination to another voice. The fourth is the ‘dramatic’ voice, which is where the poet assumes from the start the identity i dentity of the protagonist, as in Mar Marcel cello’ lo’ss Cassandra or Tel Telema emann’ nn’ss Ino. Th This is vo voic icee is no nott li limi mite tedd to hi hist stor oric ical al or mythological subjects already familiar to the audience: it can be used just as effectively for the words of an invented protagonist. 38 It enjoys prominence in Vivaldi’s cantatas, although this is partly due to the high incidence of the ARA plan, which does not permit an initial init ial narration. The boundary between the lyric and dramatic voices can sometimes be hard to establish. Does the voice that euloselve, amici prati prati (R gizes Arcad Arcadia ia in Care selve, (RV V 67 671) 1) be belo long ng to th thee poe poett him himse self lf or to an imaginary shepherd? Since the practical import is nil, this is not a question to agonize over. Its Musical Nature Nature

Looking through the text in front of him, a cantata composer of Vivaldi’s time must have had a very clear idea of how to set it. The first movement, if an aria, would be in the home key; if a recitative, it would start from the tonic chord and then modulate to a different key for the following aria. If the cantata was con strumenti, there might be an introductory sinfonia, which would similarly relieve whatever movement followed from the task of establishing the tonic. The last move mo veme ment nt,, if an ar aria ia,, wo woul uldd ag agai ainn be in th thee ho home me ke key; y; if a re reci cita tati tive ve,, it wo woul uldd st star artt in a different key and work its way back to the tonic, ending with an extended passage of music, perhaps in the form of a cavata or an extended arioso passage, in that key. Thee ke Th keys ys of th thee tw twoo or mo more re ar aria iass we were re pr prob obab ably ly pl plan anne nedd at an ea earl rlyy st stag age, e, cl clar ar-ifying the tonal points between which the connecting recitatives had to navigate. Recitatives were likened earlier to the corridors forming the slightly flexible articulation between the carriages of a train. A strict analogy breaks down, however, when we consider in detail the manner in which recitatives are conn co nnec ecte tedd (o (orr no not) t) to th thee su surr rrou ound ndin ingg ar aria ias. s. A ha harm rmon onic ic an andd ev even en to tona nall disjunction after the aria is normal; it was suggested earlier that this helps to establish the pair RA (rather than AR) as the basic module from which a cantata (or operatic scene) is constructed. Composers vary greatly in the form of 38

Timms, ‘The Dramatic in Vivaldi’s Cantatas’, pp. 101–4, outlines the discourse around the ‘voices’ of the cantata in eighteenth-century German writings by Mattheson, Scheibe, and Krause. He draws a useful distinction (pp. 107–10) between ‘soliloquy’ (when the speaker’s words are directed inward) and ‘address’, when they are directed outward at some person or thing. Arias tend towards the ‘address’ subtype, recitatives towards the ‘soliloquy’.

THE CANTATA GENRE

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connection they make between a recitative and a succeeding aria. What I like to call the ‘zero’ progression (from a final tonic chord to an identical initial tonic chord)) is commo chord common, n, even standard, standard, in seve seventeen nteenth-ce th-century ntury music, which in any casee ope cas operat rates es with within in a nar narrow rower er ton tonal al fra framew mework ork tha thann eig eighte hteent enth-c h-cent entury ury music.39 Th This is ‘z ‘zer ero’ o’ pr prog ogre ress ssio ionn ha hass th thee ef effe fect ct of al allo lowi wing ng th thee re reci cita tativ tivee to ‘g ‘glid lide’ e’ smoo sm ooth thly ly in into to th thee ar aria ia – to ma make ke it se seem em a sp spon onta tane neou ouss co cont ntin inua uati tion on or ex expa pans nsio ion. n. However, if a recitative ends with a chord that is not the tonic chord of the following aria, this introduces an attractive element of uncertainty and, through the specific chord progression made at the point of connection, enables the composer to establish a mood (affetto) with the very first chord of the aria. More than any other Baroque composer I have observed, Vivaldi makes a poin po intt of ke keep epin ingg th thee tw twoo ch chor ords ds,, an andd th thee ke keys ys th they ey re repr pres esen ent, t, di dist stin inct ct.. In so do doin ing, g, he sets up a change (interpretable as intensification, mitigation, or negation) of affetto right at the start of the aria, which will be consolidated as the movement proceeds. The clearest example of this is the juxtaposition of a minor tonic chord and the major tonic chord a major third t hird lower (as in E minor and C major). When the two chords occur in this order at the point of junction between a recitative and an aria, the effect is one of relief and relaxation. An example occurs in the first recitative–aria pair of All’ombra di sospetto, RV 678, where the two keys conc co ncer erne nedd ar aree B mi mino norr an andd G ma majo jor. r. Co Conv nver erse sely ly,, wh when en th thei eirr or orde derr is re reve vers rsed ed,, th thee effect changes to one of tension or even grimness. This is i s the case with the move from C major to E minor at the same point in Qual per ignoto calle, RV 677. In many ma ny ins insta tanc nces es,, th thee co cont nten entt of th thee lit liter erar aryy te text xt bo both th su supp ppor orts ts th thee de desc scri ript ptio ionn of th thee change of affetto given above and lends plausibility to the idea that Vivaldi did not leave such transitions to chance. So the connection is not necessarily a ‘tight fit’ at either end. Common sense would nevertheless suggest that the prime task of a recitative is to negotiate the tonal passage from one aria key (or at least its environs) to the next. In opera, where the keys of successive arias are often very distinct, this function can be very evident. In chamber cantatas containing few arias, however, these keys norm no rmal ally ly re rema main in cl clos osee (w (wit ithi hinn th thee ambitus, th thee th theo eori rist st Joh ohaann Da Davvid Heinichen’s term for a group of related keys that in modern notation are no more than one accidental apart in their key signatures). This means that there is so little tonal ground to cover that a recitative threatens to ‘walk on the spot’ tediously. Fortunately, modulation is used in recitatives not only for functional but also for expressive reasons. Within late Baroque recitatives one finds bold and elaborate forms of modulation hardly encountered in any other type of movement prior to the development sections of sonata-form movements in the Classical period. For instance, there are ‘modulation chains’, my term for series of modulations in which each modulation is modelled exactly on the one preceding it. If the restraints of the ambitus are observed, as one progresses stepwise upwards in C major, one arrives successively at D minor, E minor, F major, and G major. The changes of mode and the variation between tone and semitone steps suffice to keep the music at all times within the orbit of C major. Now, if one progresses 39

Talbot, ‘How Recitatives End and Arias Begin’, 171.

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from C major to D major, and then by exact analogy from D major to E major, from E major to F sharp major, and so forth, one widens the field of modulation enormously and breaks free from the orbit of the home key. Naturally, the direction of such progressions can be reversed to bring one back. Thus one can travel flatwards along the circle of fifths from F sharp major to C major, passing on the wayy th wa thrrou ough gh B, E, A, D, and G ma majo jorr. An Anot othe herr hel elpf pful ul re reso sour urcce is th thee mo moda dall shi hift ft,, wher wh ereb ebyy on onee re repl plac aces es th thee ma majo jorr to tona nali lity ty on a gi give venn ke keyn ynot otee by th thee mi mino norr to tona nali lity ty,, 40 or th thee re reve vers rsee – mo movi ving ng th thre reee de degr gree eess al alon ongg th thee ci circ rcle le of fi fift fths hs at a st stro roke ke.. So th thee tona to nall ‘c ‘cur urve ve’’ of a la late te-B -Bar aroq oque ue re reci cita tati tive ve of at le leas astt mo mode dera rate te le leng ngth th is li like kely ly to be not a smooth arc but a complex, zigzagging shape whose final destination becomes clear only at the very end. Once again, we can illustrate this by taking an example from Vivaldi’s music. His cantata Sorge vermiglio in ciel , RV 667, is cast in RARA form. The opening recitative starts on an A minor chord but begins to modulate in the third bar and finds its way eventually to a concluding cadence in E flat major. The aria that follows is in G minor (this is the ‘mediant’ relationship discussed two paragraphs earlier). Reversing the progression, Vivaldi begins the longer second recitative (‘Ah Silvia, tu sei quella’) in E flat major. Some listeners will hear, or sense, the identity of this harmony with the one closing the first recitative and perceive the seco se cond nd re reci cita tativ tivee as a lin linea earr co cont ntin inua uati tion on of th thee fi firs rst, t, wi with th th thee ob obvi viou ouss imp implic licat atio ionn that the aria sandwiched between them is an interpolation. This reading of the structure of a cantata, which carries the implication that recitative is more fundamental than aria, may seem at variance with common sense, but it has deep roots and can be seen operating time and again in Baroque opera, where arias are routinely removed, inserted, or exchanged in the course of a typical work’s performance history. The final aria is, inevitably, in A minor, so the linking recitati ta tive ve,, tw twen enty ty-o -one ne ba bars rs lo long ng,, ha hass a re rela lati tive vely ly sm smal alll to tona nall sp spac acee to tr trav aver erse se (f (fro rom mG mino mi norr to A mi mino nor) r).. Th Thee tr traj ajec ecto tory ry th that at it fo foll llow owss is is,, ho howe weve ver, r, fa farr fr from om st stra raig ight htfo forrward (upper-case letters represent major keys; lower-case ones, minor keys): Bars 1–6: Bars 7–12: Bars 13–21:

E b c d a C d e b G a e j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

j

Bars 1–6 remain comfortably within the ambitus of G minor established in the preceding aria. In bar 7 the music breaks out of these confines and moves distinctly sharpwards, remaining until bar 12 in the ambitus of C major. In bar 13 it strikes out again (but less dramatically) in a sharpward direction; the last four modulations are to keys within the ambitus of G major. Overall, therefore, the movement performs the sharpward movement needed to bring it within striking distance of the key of the next aria, but the tonal curve is heavily ‘kinked’ and filled with incidental modulations that are, strictly speaking, redundant to the main purpose. The high density of modulation and the high incidence of ‘deceptive’ cadences that evade, by one means m eans or another, the expected perfect cadence 40

On mo moda dall sh shif ifts ts in Bar Baroq oque ue mu musi sic, c, se seee Mi Mich chael ael Tal Talbo bot, t, ‘M ‘Mod odal al Sh Shif ifts ts in th thee So Sona nata tass of Do Dome meni nico co Scarlatti’, Chigiana , nuova serie, xx (1985), 25–43.

THE CANTATA GENRE

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correspond extremely well to the emotional climate of the recitative, which depicts the lover’s pursuit of Sylvia, who flees him. Note, however, that amid the apparently chaotic stream of modulations elements of regular patterning emerge. All three phases of the recitative accord a prominent place to modulation to the key a tone higher. In phase 1 this is c–d ; in phase 2, C–d–e; in phase 3, G–a. Regulating the incidence and nature of modulation is only one means among many of controlling the emotional temperature of a recitative. Single chord progressions themselves have a strong affective value. To the stability of a root-position chord can be contraposed the instability of an inverted chord; to the transparency of a simple triad, the gently dissonant richness of a seventh chord. The smoothness or angularity of the bass line also builds up a mood. Leaps convey restlessness; augmented or diminished intervals, harshness. An unexpeccte pe tedd cho horrd can be a wa wayy of rep eprres esen enti ting ng sh shoock or su surrpr pris isee in th thee te text xt.. Th Thee ra rate te at which the chords succeed one another can also hold significance. If a single harm ha rmon onyy is su sust stai aine nedd – ty typi pica call lly, y, wi with th a st stri ring ng of ti tied ed se semi mibr brev eves es or mi mini nims ms in th thee bass – over several bars, the general effect is restful; if chords succeed one another at the interval of a crotchet, it is agitated. In the section ‘Vom Styl im Recitativ’ (‘On the Style of Recitatives’) in his famous treatise on composition Gradus Gra dus ad Par Parnas nassum sum (w (whi hich ch is so mu much ch mo more re th than an a me mere re co coun unte terp rpoi oint nt pr prim imer er!) !) Johann Joseph Fux noted that where the text is impassioned, the bass should constantly change (‘beständig den Baß dabei ändern’), whereas in reverential passages it should change little littl e (‘wenig zu verändern ist’).41 Naturally, the shape and rhythm of the vocal line play a major part in setting the mood. The choice of wide or chromatically altered intervals for the singer has an effect similar to that already described for the bass line. In late Baroque ‘simple’ recitative accompanied only by continuo the singer is expected – true to the conception of recitative as ‘heightened speech’ – to exercise great rhythmic freedom, lending considerable plasticity to the square-cut series of crotchets, quavers, and semiquavers from which his or her line is formed. Example 2.1 shows the first six bars of a particularly arresting opening recitative by Vivaldi Perfidi fidissi ssimo mo cor cor!! Iniq Iniquo uo fat fato! o!, RV 67 (tha (t hatt of Per 674) 4).. He Here re,, in ty typi pica call fa fash shio ion, n, re rest stss ar aree used not only to demarcate the lines of poetry, variously of eleven and seven syllables, but also the divisions within those lines.42 The two endecasillabi with which the quoted passage opens, and that with which it closes, are all interrupted in this manner before the second hemistich (i.e., before Iniquo, Tirsi, and si), and the rhetorical repetition of Dov’è in the settenario forming the third line (on this occasion, not the composer’s decision but prescribed by the literary text) is given added emphasis by an intervening rest. Highly characteristic of early eighteenthcentury recitative are the cadences in bars 4 and 6. The second, a form of imperfect fe ct (o (orr ‘P ‘Phr hryg ygia ian’ n’)) ca cade denc ncee in wh whic ichh th thee ba bass ss fa falls lls fr from om su subm bmed edia iant nt to do domi mina nant nt,, while the voice rises from subdominant to dominant, is a topos to end all topoi: 41

42

Johann Joseph Fux, Gradus ad Parnassum oder Anführung zur regelmäßigen musikalischen Composition , Leipzig: Mizler, 1742, p. 193. This edition is a German translation of the Latin original (1725). It sometimes happens that there are no rests separating the settings of adjacent lines. In such cases, the break is usually marked in an alternative way: by a deceleration (a move to minims or crotchets) at the close of the first vocal phrase.

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Ex. 2.1 Vivaldi, Perfidissimo cor! Iniquo fato! , RV 674: opening

the standard method, adopted by all composers, of representing a question. The first is a cadenza tronca, or truncated (‘foreshortened’) cadence. The foreshortenin en ingg in qu ques esti tion on is th thee cl clos osur uree of th thee si sing nger er’s ’s ph phra rase se on th thee do domi mina nant nt,, le leav avin ingg th thee bass to effect the move to the tonic and clinch the t he perfect cadence. The first note in bar 3 is written, in accordance with convention, as a C sharp – the pitch of the foll fo llow owin ingg qu quav aver er – bu butt sh shou ould ld be pe perf rfor orme medd as an ap appo pogg ggia iatu tura ra,, ta taki king ng it itss pi pitc tch, h, F sharp, from the previous note. The cadenza tronca is perhaps statistically the most frequent variety of perfect cadence encountered in Baroque recitative after c.1680. The singer, composer, and author Pier Francesco Tosi (1654–1732) opined that such ‘broken’ cadences (the term is that of his translator, John Ernest Galliard) were ten times as numerous as they ought to be, but this remark only betrays his age and conservatism.43 The blatant friction between tonic (in the appoggiatura of the vocal part) cause se cél célèbr èbree .Inthe andd do an domi mina nant nt (i (inn th thee ba bass ss)) ha harm rmon onyy ha hass ma made de th this is ca cade denc ncee a cau late la terr ei eigh ghte teen enth th ce cent ntur ury, y, th thee cl clas ashh wa wass av aver erte tedd by de dela layi ying ng the ad adve vent nt of th thee do domiminant note in the bass – at some cost to the music’s flow. Until Winton Dean in 1977 produced decisive arguments in favour of the validity of foreshortened cadences, most performances of recitative in opera, oratorio, solo motet, and cantata alike followed (contrary to the notation of the sources) the ‘delayed’ model – transferring back to the earlier part of the eighteenth century a practice known to be valid for the later part.44 43

44

Pier Francesco Tosi, Observations on the Florid Song , London: Wilcox, 1742, § 5.13. This was the second edition of John Ernest Galliard’s translation (with extra footnotes) of Tosi’s Opinioni de’ cantori antichi e moderni , Bologna: Lelio della Volpe, 1723. A German translation of the samee tre sam treati atise, se, gre greatl atlyy exp expand anded, ed, app appear eared ed as Joh Johann ann Fri Friedr edrich ich Agr Agrico icola’ la’ss Anle Anleitun itung g zur Singkunst , Berlin: Winter, 1757. Winton Dean, ‘The Performance of Recitative in Late Baroque Opera’, Music & Letters, lviii (1977), 389–402. 389–402. No article more influential for performance practice can ever have appeared.

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The acceptance at face value of the cadenza tronca naturally compels the accompanist to find a solution that mitigates the harmonic clash. One easy solution is simply to add an acciaccatura on the same dissonant note as the appoggiatura to the dominant chord.45 Less radically, one can introduce the suspension or appo ap pogg ggia iatu tura ra of a fo four urth th at th thee st star artt of th thee ch chor ord, d, re reso solv lvin ingg it to th thee th thir irdd on th thee la last st note of the voca vocall phra phrase. se. Where tempo permits, one can even use a ‘Cade ‘Cadential ntial Six-Four’, the most euphonious solution of all. Whichever option is selected, a light, detached accompaniment will always produce less friction than a heavy, sustained one. Gradus dus ad Par Parnas nassum sum Fux proposed a kind of grammar for the In his Gra cadence-types used in recitative. 46 Each was matched with a punctuation mark: comma, full stop, question mark, exclamation mark, etc. This attempt to treat music and language as alternative expressions of the same ideas was characteristic of the German tradition, which, ever since the establishment of the Lateinschule in the sixteenth century, had attempted to legitimize music’s place in the academic curriculum by demonstrating its close conformity to rhetorical and grammatical grammatical princ principles. iples. In a similar spirit, Mattheson Mattheson ‘ana ‘analysed lysed’’ a canta cantata ta aria by Benedetto Marcello to reveal how its structure followed that of a classical oration, complete with exordium, propositio, peroratio, and the rest.47 In a very broad sense, of course, Fux was right. The coincidences between the punctuation marks present (or implicit) in cantata texts and the designated types of cadence shown in his treatise are legion. But Italian composers worked from experience (or imitation of precedent) and instinct rather than from a prescriptive rule-book. In this light, the modern scholar should always beware of too readily carrying over the full weight of Germa Germann theor theoryy (gra (grammatica mmatical,l, rheto rhetorical, rical, aesthetic) aesthetic) to a coeval Italian context. Tosi distinguishes between ‘chamber’, ‘church’, and ‘theatrical’ varieties of recitative, following the three-way division of music according to performance context conte xt normal normal in the period. period.48 His di dist stin inct ctio ionn ha hass lit littl tlee to do wi with th th thee com compo pose ser’ r’ss art and mainly concerns the type of expression that the singer should bring to the music. More relevant for our purposes (but ignored by Tosi) is the difference in mode of performance between music memorized and sung during action on stage (in opera and some serenatas) and music read from the page and sung without acti ac tion on (i (inn ca cant ntat atas as,, or orat ator orio ios, s, an andd mo most st se sere rena nata tas) s).. Op Oper erat atic ic re reci cita tativ tivee is conceived so as not to impose an impossible burden on the singer’s memory and conc co ncen entr trat atio ion. n. It is in th thee ma main in fo form rmul ulai aicc – ce cent nton oniz ized ed fr from om a st stoc ockp kpot ot of fa fami mili liar ar fragments – and swift-moving. It is intended for the masses and avoids ostentation and complexity. Cantata recitative, intended for an elite audience, can be recherché and unusual: indeed, the quality of bizzarria was highly prized among musical connoisseurs in Italy. Being a short episode in a short composition, 45

46 47 48

‘Accia ‘Acc iacca ccatu tura ra’’ is us used ed he here re in th thee se sens nsee emp emplo loye yedd by An Anto toni niot otto to ear earli lier er:: an ad adde dedd di diss sson onan antt no note te,, quickly released, that ‘spices’ the plain chord. c hord. Francesco Gasparini’s primer L’armonico pratico al cimbalo (Venice: Bortoli, 1708) deals extensively with the device. Fux, Gradus ad Parnassum , pp. 194–5. Mattheson, Der vollkommene Capellmeister , pp. 237–9. Tosi, Observations on the Florid Song , § V, 1–9.

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cantata recitative does not need to hurry along: it can dwell on, and develop at leisure, leisu re, selected passages. passages. Since it does not have to be memor memorized, ized, it reve revels ls in complication of every kind. Johann Adolph Scheibe recognized clearly the special opportunities available to recitative in chamber cantatas when he wrote in 1745: All species of interval – the diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic alike – can be used to contribute to the refinement and beauty of a recitative of this kind [. . .] Recitatives in the chamber style and most especially in cantatas, about which I am now writing, confer on [the composer] in particular pa rticular the freedom to obey the bidding of his imagination, to expand his thoughts in an impressive manner, to usee al us alll th thee re reso sour urce cess of ar artt an andd in indu dust stry ry,, an and, d, fi fina nall lly, y, to in intr trod oduc ucee ma many ny ki kind ndss of harmonic beauty that the nature of other musical genres does not always permit.49

In addition to ordinary (‘simple’) recitative, ‘accompanied’ recitative was available to composers of cantatas con strumenti. Rousseau, in his Dictionnaire de musique, recognized a distinction between récitatif accompagné (accomparécitatif tif obligé (obbligato recitative) that, although not nied recitative) and récita commonly made in present-day commentaries, aids clarity. 50 The first retains the trad tr adit ition ional al lo long ng,, fr freq eque uent ntly ly tie tied, d, ba bass ss no note tess of si simp mple le re reci cita tativ tivee an andd si simp mply ly ad adds ds to them the upper parts. This produces a ‘halo’ effect familiar from the passages for Matth tthew ew Pa Pass ssio ion n. Th Jesu Je suss in Ba Bach ch’s ’s St Ma Thee sec ecoond ha hass mo more re in co comm mmon on wi with th ar ario ioso so treatment, since strongly rhythmicized notes, usually in much shorter notevalues, are assigned to the orchestra. The rhythmic freedom required for the singer in any kind of recitative prevents this orchestral texture from intruding to any great extent into the sung passages, but it is used to punctuate and connect vocal phrases. In accompanied recitative, more than anywhere else, the Baroque cantata comes close to the world of opera. Just as in opera, the addition of the ‘instruments’ (generally comprising just the three upper string parts) is carefully rationed. Many passages remain in simple recitative, accompanied recitative taking over at moments of exceptional drama or poignancy. For its part, the continuo cantata could always achieve greater weight and memorability in the setting of recitative verse by substituting an arioso section or a cavata for ordinary recitative. Arioso means ‘aria-like’; it entails a switch to a style that is virtually indistinguishable from that of an aria except by its greater simplicity and its through-composed structure. Such sections, if placed at the end of a recitative, lend gravitas and reinforce closure. Short passages of arioso can 49

50

Johann Adolph Scheibe, Critischer Musikus , rev. edn, Leipzig: Breitkopf, 1745, pp. 399–400: ‘Alle ‘Al le Art Arten en der Int Interv ervall allen, en, so woh wohll der dia diaton tonisc ischen hen,, chr chroma omatis tische chen, n, als ena enarmo rmonis nische chen, n, sin sindd es, die zur Auszierung und Schönheit eines solchen Rezitativs nicht wenig beytragen [. . .] Das Rezitativ im Kammerstil, vornehmlich aber in der Art von Cantaten, die ich anitzo beschreibe, erlaub erl aubet et ins insond onderh erheit eit die Fre Freyhe yheit, it, sei seiner ner Ein Einbi bildu ldung ngskr skraft aft zu fol folgen gen,, auf edl edlee Art aus aus-zuschw zus chweif eifen, en, Kun Kunst st und Arb Arbeit eitsam samkei keitt zu fol folgen gen,, und end endlic lichh man manche cherle rleyy har harmon monisc ische he Schönheiten anzubringen, die die Eigenschaften anderer Musikstücke nicht allemahl zulassen.’ Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Dictionnaire de musique , Paris: Veuve Duchesne, 1768, art. ‘Récitatif’, pp. 399–405, at pp. 403–5.

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also be used to excellent effect in the middle of a recitative whenever passing illustration of a keyword is desired. Vivaldi employed full-blown arioso only twic tw icee in hi hiss can anta tata tass (i (inn RV 67 6777 an andd RV 680 80)), but le lefft ma many ny mo morre exa xamp mple less in th thee recitatives of his solo motets and introduzioni. A ‘ca ‘cavat vata’ a’ is so cal called led bec becaus ausee the the words words set are not des destine tinedd aut automa omatic ticall allyy for for this kind of setting but have to be extracted (ricavato) by the composer for the purpose. Its history and character have been examined minutely by Colin Timms.51 The words selected were normally the last line, the last half-line, or the last two lines of a recitative stanza. The most common type of cavata – the kind cultivated with distinction by Vivaldi’s older Venetian contemporaries Biffi, Albinoni, and Caldara – takes the form of a section of moderate length in a flowing two-part counterpoint that draws freely on the devices of fugato, canon, and invertible counterpoint. Such sections appear nowhere in Vivaldi’s cantatas, and it is interesting to consider why. classicus icus for a cavata was at th In th thee fi firs rstt pl plac ace, e, th thee locus class thee end of a fin inaal recita ta-tive. Since all Vivaldi’s cantatas end with an aria, this opportunity is denied. It mayy al ma also so be th that at he he,, or th thee si sing nger erss fo forr wh whom om he wr wrot ote, e, co cons nsid ider ered ed th thee ca cava vata ta ob obso so-lete le te.. Vi Viva vald ldii wa wass pr prac actis tised ed at imi imita tativ tivee co coun unte terp rpoi oint nt,, as th thee ma many ny su supe perb rb fu fugu gues es in his concerti a quattro prove, but he did not often make a show of it where it was not required. A hint of what a cavata by Vivaldi might have looked like is provided by the opening of the Preludio of the ninth sonata of his Op. 2 (1709), shown as Example 2.2. Were one to fit the words of a concluding settenario (e.g., ‘Lontanan ‘Lon tananza za crudele’) crudele’) to the openi opening ng phrase, and to make the treble line more singable by compressing some of the ‘violin leaps’, one would have the perfect material for a typical cavata. Ex. 2.2 Vivaldi, Violin Sonata in E minor, Op. 2 no. 9 (RV 16): Preludio , opening

Discussion of the structure of cantata arias must begin with a reminder of the bipa bi part rtite ite st stru ruct ctur uree of th thei eirr te text, xt, a fe feat atur uree re regu gula larl rlyy en enco coun unte tere redd fr from om th thee mi midd ddle le of the seventeenth century onwards. How this division is reflected is not uniform: what remains constant is that it always translates clearly into musical terms. During the middle third of the seventeenth century, the period of Carissimi and Cesti, binary form is preferred. The form is either simple (AB) or what 51

Timms, ‘The Cavata at the Time of Vivaldi’, in Antonio Fanna and Giovanni Morelli (eds), Nuovi studi vivaldiani, 19 1988, 88, pp pp.. 45 451–7 1–77. 7. Alb Albino inoni’ ni’ss can cantat tatas as in inclu clude de som somee of exc except eption ional al len length gth and contrapuntal complexity.

52


musico musi colo logi gist stss co comm mmon only ly te term rm ‘e ‘ext xten ende ded’ d’ bin binar aryy fo form rm (A (ABB BB')'),, wh wher eree th thee mu musi sica call setting privileges the second semistrophe. In the last third of the century ternary form (ABA) swiftly assumed dominance. Initially, the ‘A’ section stated the complete text of the first semistrophe only once (discounting immediate repetition ti on of in indi divi vidu dual al wo word rdss or ph phra rase ses) s),, so th that at it wa wass eq equi uiva vale lent nt in le leng ngth th an andd we weig ight ht to th thee ‘B ‘B’’ se sect ctio ion. n. Th Thee re repr pris ised ed ‘A ‘A’’ se sect ctio ionn wa wass no norm rmal ally ly wr writ itte tenn ou outt in fu full ll,, wh whic ichh encouraged the presence of small variations vis-à-vis the first statement, and the dimensions were often compact enough for the entire ABA structure to be treated strophically. Some time around 1690 a new trend (applying equally to operatic arias) set in. Two complete statements of the text of the first semistrophe instead of one were allowed in the ‘A’ section. This innovation radically modified the balance of the aria, transferring the weight decisively to the ‘A’ section. The imbalance carried the ever-present risk that the ‘B’ section would atrophy or become subject to purely routine treatment (as is so often the case with the ‘middle eight’ section in modern popular music). The anonymous author (believed to be Josse de Villeneuve) of a Lettre sur le méchanisme de l’opéra italien published in 1756 suggests that all too many composers succumbed. Explaining the structure of the Italian aria for his French readers, the author observes: This aria [. . .] is divided into two unequal parts: the first, the more elaborately work wo rked ed,, is th thee on onee in wh whic ichh th thee co comp mpos oser er de depl ploy oyss al alll hi hiss ar art; t; th thee sec econ ondd is a ki kind nd of repose inserted to give the singer a breathing space.52

Good composers, of course, continued to fire on all cylinders during the ‘B’ section. The expansion of the ‘A’ section went hand in hand with a general enlargement of scale, due in part to the increased i ncreased cultivation and ever more extravagant character of melismatic writing. If there is a name that deserves to be attached to this cult of floridity, it is that of the highly influential and respected singer, singing teacher, and composer Francesco Antonio Pistocchi (1659–1726), an almost exact contemporary of Alessandro Scarlatti. The cantatas in Pistocchi’s Scherzi musicali , Op. [2], published in Amsterdam in 1698, are a straw in the wind wi nd.. Ex Exam ampl plee 2. 2.33 sh show owss ho how w th thee vo voic icee co conc nclu lude dess th thee ‘A ‘A’’ se sect ctio ionn of th thee fi firs rstt ar aria ia,, ‘Vedo Zeffiro con l’aura’, of the fourth cantata ( Dolorosa partenza, oh Dio, che l’alma) from this collection. In this case, the two melismas aptly illustrate the words of which the syllables concerned form part: the semiquavers for scherzar conjure up the sound of laughter, while the t he protracted undulations of the second melisma are a good visual and aural representation of onde. Less skilled, or less scrupulous, composers did not fail to abuse melisma, meli sma, as did singers when improim provising cadenzas. Benedetto Marcello flails the practice mercilessly in his satire Il teatro alla moda (1720), writing: If, in the aria, one finds proper nouns, such as padre, impero, amore, arena, regno, beltà, lena, core, etc., etc., or adverbs, such as no, senza, and già, the modern co veryy lon long g me melis lisma ma on th comp mpos oser er wi will ll wr writ itee a ver them em,, in the st styl ylee paaaa . . . 52

[Josse de Villeneuve], Lettre sur le méchanisme de l’opéra italien , Naples, 1756, p. 22.

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Ex. 2.3 Pistocchi, Dolorosa partenza, oh Dio, che l’alma : ‘Vedo Zeffiro con l’aura’, bars 11–16

impeeee . . . amoooo . . . areeee . . . reeee . . . beltaaaa . . . lenaaaa . . . coooo . . . etc., noooo . . . seeen . . . giaaaa . . . etc. And this in order to make a break with the old style, where such melismas were not used on proper nouns or adverbs, but only on words denoting some passion or emotion, such as tormento , affanno , canto, volar, cader , etc., etc., etc.53

For better or for worse, however, this melismatic style was part and parcel of the late Baroque aria in all genres. If theorists hated it, singers loved it. Poets tried to accommodate it as best they could by placing expressive keywords strategically at convenient points – which generally meant in the middle of lines rather than at their extremities. One consequence of the expansion of ternary form in arias was that it put an end to strophic repetition of the music. Another was that it forced composers to make specific decisions about the thematic relationship between the ‘A’ and ‘B’ sections. In the older version of the form the ‘B’ section was perceived as the continuation and pendant of the ‘A’ section, so the two sections could be related thematically in rather the same easy manner as the two halves of an allemanda or corrente. In the newer version the two sections were syntactically less dependent on one another (indeed, cuts sometimes took the form of suppressing the ‘B’ section and the reprised ‘A’) and therefore could, in principle, follow different 53

Translated from the edited version by Andrea d’Angeli (Milan: Ricordi, 1956), which presents the text (p. 18) as: ‘Se nelle arie vi entrassero nomi propri, verbigrazia padre, impero , amore, arena, regno , beltà, lena, core, etc., etc., no, senza, già, ed altri avverbi, dovrà il compositore moderno comporvi sopra un ben lungo passaggio : v.g. paaaa . . . impeeee . . . amoooo . . . areeee . . . reeee . . . beltaaaa . . . lenaaaa . . . coooo . . . etc., noooo . . . seeen . . . giaaaa . . . etc. E ciò per allontana allo ntanarsi rsi dall’anti chee no nonn us usav avaa il pa pass ssag aggi gioo su no nomi mi propri o so sopr praa avverbi ,mabensì antico co stile, ch sopra parole solamente significanti qualche passione o moto, v.g. tormento , affanno, canto, volar , cader, etc., etc., etc.’

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paths, especially if the sense of the text encouraged this. The choice lay, essential ti ally ly,, be betw twee eenn a ‘m ‘mon onot othe hema mati tic’ c’ (E (Elle llenn Ha Harr rris is’s ’s te term rm)) ap appr proa oach ch,, wh wher ereb ebyy th thee ‘B ‘B’’ sect se ctio ionn wo woul uldd re rese semb mble le th thee de deve velo lopm pmen entt se sect ctio ionn in so sona nata ta fo form rm,, an andd a ‘polythematic’ one, for which an apt comparator would be the Trio alternating withh a Minuet. wit Minuet. Dif Differ ferent ent compo composer serss inc incline linedd tow toward ardss dif differ ferent ent model modelss (Vi (Vival valdi di is definitely to be counted among the partisans of monothematicism), but most retained a degree of flexibility. If anything, the general bias shifted towards polythematicism as the Baroque period drew to its close – a harbinger of advancing Classicism. One clear symptom of polythematicism is the choice of a different metre and/or tempo for the ‘B’ section. Fredrick Millner has noted how this feature becomes increasingly common in Johann Adolf Hasse’s operatic arias after 1745, and there is good reason to suppose that his finding has equal validity for the cantata and solo motet.54 With increased length came a growing inclination to keep the reprised ‘A’ section identical in notation to the first statement (in performance, of course, the singer would ornament it elaborately). No direct cause-and-effect relationship betw be twee eenn th thee tw twoo te tend nden enci cies es ca cann be di disc scer erne ned, d, an andd it co coul uldd we well ll ha have ve be been en pr pres essu sure re from fr om si sing nger ers, s, wh whoo wi wish shed ed to im impr prov ovis isee on – an andd to de demo mons nstr trat atee to au audi dien ence cess th thei eirr improvisation on – material already heard in simpler form, coupled with an unde un ders rsta tand ndab able le im impa patie tienc ncee to pr prog ogre ress ss to th thee ne next xt ta task sk,, th that at in indu duce cedd co comp mpos oser erss to finish writing out the aria at the end of the ‘B’ section, to which they appended ‘Da capo’ (from the top). If any alterations were to be made, these were usually cuts cu ts,, wh whic ichh co coul uldd be in indi dica cate tedd in th thee no nota tati tion on of th thee or orig igin inal al ‘A ‘A’’ se sect ctio ionn by me mean anss of special signs (Vivaldi liked to use a large ‘hash’ shape). A few arias, particularly ones with orchestral accompaniment, add ‘al segno #’ to ‘Da capo’, thereby instructing performers to begin the reprise at the sign. In modern commentary such an aria is known as a dal segno aria.55 The standard layout of a cantata aria in the period 1700–50 is the following: ‘A’ Section

1 2 3. 4. 5.

Introductory ritor Introductory ritornello, nello, start starting ing and finish finishing ing in the tonic key. First vocal period period,, ending ending with a cadence cadence in a second secondary ary key, which for major tonalities is normally the dominant (minor keys display more variety). Brief Bri ef lin linkk pas passag sagee or rit ritorn ornello ello.. Second vocal period, retur returning ning to the home key. Concluding Conclu ding ritorn ritornello, ello, usuall usuallyy identic identical al with with the introd introductory uctory ritorn ritornello. ello. ‘B’ Section

6.

Third vocal period period,, visiting visiting furth further er related related keys and always cadenci cadencing ng in in a foreign key. Reprise of the the entire ‘A’ section section

54 55

Fredrick L. Millner, The Operas of Johann Adolf Hasse , Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1979, p. 41. In th thee or orig igin inal al It Ital alia iann th thee re repe peat at is us usua uall llyy ex expr pres esse sedd as ‘a ‘at’ t’ ( al)ratherthan‘from’( dal)thesign.

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Theree ar Ther aree ma many ny va vari riab able less th that at le lend nd di dive vers rsit ityy to th this is ou outl tline ine.. Th Thee op open ening ing ri rito torn rnel ello lo is not mandatory, except in an aria opening a cantata, where it serves to fix the pitch for the singer. In opera, arias in which the singer enters directly are often used to express interruption, as when a recitative by one singer leads to an aria by another, but in solo cantatas the omission of the introduction has more the effect of inf inform ormali ality ty or sim simplic plicity, ity, app approp ropria riate te for dan dancece-like like mov moveme ements nts.. Viv Vivald aldii nev never er dispe dis pens nses es wi with th th thee op open enin ingg ri ritor torne nello llo in his ca cant ntat atas as,, as op oppo pose sedd to hi hiss op oper eras as;; th thee reason is perhaps not so much a lack of imagination as a positive, protective attitude towards the instrumental component. Cantata composers who were also noted instrumentalists, such as the harpsichordists Marcello and Gasparini or the cellists Bononcini and Porpora, usually betray this affinity in their cantatas. A string player, for example, has a tendency to ‘skew’ the character of the bass line towards the cello, while a harpsichord player may favour his own instrument similarly. Instrumentalists may seek additional opportunities for obbligato participation, as when the bass part divides into a simple, accompanying line and an elaborate obbligato line (one for cello, one for harpsichord), or a keyboardist or violinist borrows the vacant bars on the singer’s stave during a ritornello to insert an obbligato treble line. Both practices occur in Gasparini’s Cantate da camera a voce sola , Op. 1 (1695), a collection with which Vivaldi presumably became acquainted during the years (1703–13) when the two men served side by side at the Pietà. Vivaldi does not introduce obbligato writing casually, as do many other composers – there is either an extra obbligato instrument or there is not – but he constantly reveals his instrumental background through the memorability and high level of activity of his bass lines, especially during ritornellos. In designing the ritornello, composers had two main options. The first, favoured in continuo arias, was to give the bass a theme, often emphatically ‘bass-like’ in character, which, although it might well paraphrase the opening of the first vocal period in harmonic respects, preserved its independent identity throughout. Such a theme, broken down into its component fragments, could be used in accompaniment to the voice – or it could be replaced by simpler, more neutral material. The second option, the more common choice for orchestrally accompanied arias, was to model the ritornello melody on that of the voice, making it a ‘pre-echo’ of the following vocal material. This could also be done, albeit with greater difficulty, in continuo arias. The problem there was that a ‘treble’ melody is often hard to harmonize satisfactorily if transferred to the bass of the texture. In fact, composers rarely replicated vocal phrases from start to finish when quoting them in the bass: they started similarly but at some point switched to the more jagged shapes, in fourths, fifths, and octaves, that characterize cade ca dent ntia iall pr prog ogre ress ssio ions ns in Ba Baro roqu quee ba bass ss pa part rts. s.56 Wh When en a rit itor orne nell lloo wa wass to tooo clo lose se in design to the first vocal period, the risk of tedium easily arose. In a highly interesting but little-known critique of the contemporary (1758) opera by another Italian émigré in London, Vincenzo Martinelli, we read: 56

The su The subj bject ect of ri rito torn rnel ello lo de desi sign gn is di disc scus usse sedd at le leng ngth th in Mi Mich chael ael Tal Talbo bot, t, ‘T ‘The he Fu Func ncti tion on an andd Ch Char ar-acter of the Instrumental Ritornello in the Solo Cantatas of Tomaso Albinoni (1671–1751)’, Quaderni della Civica Scuola di Musica [Milan], xix–xx (1990), 77–90.

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The re The reas ason on wh whyy – sp spea eaki king ng of ar aria ias, s, wh whic ichh ar aree th thee si sing nger er’s ’s ma main in bu busi sine ness ss – ev even en the most beautiful musical inventions often bore the listener, is the ritornellos, which pursue the singer from start to finish, their excessive length, their excessive si ve re repe peti titi tion on,, and and,, fi fina nall lly, y, th thos osee bl bles esse sedd cad caden enzas zas in wh whic ichh si sing nger erss [M [Mar arti tinel nelli li uses the word musici, which refers principally to castratos] sometimes vomit forth in one gush the entire wealth of their art.57

Betwee Betw eenn th thee op open enin ingg ri ritor torne nello llo an andd th thee fi firs rstt vo voca call pe peri riod od it be beca came me fa fash shio iona nable ble during the approximate period 1690 to 1715 to insert an extra period, termed the Devise period. ‘Devise’ is the German word for heraldic device, and it was used by Hu Hugo go Ri Riem eman annn to de deno note te a br brie ieff mo mott ttoo op open enin ingg st stat ated ed se sepa para rate tely ly an andd le lead adin ingg to a cadence in the home key via an instrumental continuation. In most cases, the motto was identical with the opening phrase of the first vocal period, and the continuation with the closing phrase or phrases of the opening ritornello. This ‘false start’ formula, which can easily become wearisome if used routinely, lost currency swiftly during the 1710s. After 1720 only Albinoni, among composers active in Italy, remained attached to it. Vivaldi, apparently, never favoured it: it rarely appears even in his earliest surviving vocal compositions, such as the Stabat Mater, RV 621, of 1712 or the operas Ottone in villa (1713) and Orlando finto pazzo (1714).58 Between the first and second vocal periods there is nearly always a linkpassage that allows the singer to catch his or her breath. In ‘accompanied’ arias this can amount to an intermediate ritornello, while in continuo cantatas it rarely extends beyond a phrase or two. Thee se Th seco cond nd vo voca call pe peri riod od is co comm mmon only ly lo long nger er th than an th thee fi firs rst. t. No Nott in infr freq eque uent ntly ly,, it cont co ntin inue uess be beyo yond nd th thee fi firs rstt ca cade denc ncee re reaf affi firm rmin ingg th thee to toni nicc wi with th a pa pass ssag agee le lead adin ingg to a second, even more decisive, cadence. This tailpiece often resembles the petite reprise used in some instrumental music and may be identical to the closing portion of the main, first section of the period. The most elaborate fioritura of the whole aria is likely to be contained in this passage. In lighter arias around 1700, the first, and sometimes the second, vocal period may be repeated. This borrowing from binary form – a throwback to the early cantata (albeit now using the ‘A’ text alone rather than the complete text) – was usually coupled with the adoption of a dance metre, or at least a dance lilt. Venetian composers, who were known for their propensity to strait-jacket operatic arias into dance rhythms, participated gladly in this fashion, and the cantatas of Vinaccesi and Albinoni contain many such examples. This feature quite soon 57

58

Vincenzo Martinelli, Lettere familiari e critiche , London: Nourse, 1758, pp. 372–3: ‘La ragione perché anco le cose più belle della Musica, parlando delle arie, che fanno il maggior ma ggior negozio del canto, tediano spesse volte l’udienza, sono le zinfonie, che perseguitano il Cantore dal principio fino alla fine, l’esser troppo lunghe, le tante ripetizioni, e poi le benedette cadenze, nelle quali vomitano i Musici talvolta tutto in un colpo l’intero capitale dell’arte loro’. The significance of the word perseguitano (‘pursue’) is ambiguous: it could refer either to the common practice of using one of the violin parts to play colla parte, or to the echoing e choing and pre-echoing of the voice by the orchestra. In an ensuing remark, Martinelli regrets that the orchestra has been used, since Pistocchi’s time, to accompany the voice instead of just sounding alternately with it. Onee ex On exam ampl plee oc occu curs rs in ‘L ‘L’a ’alm lmaa de dell fo fort rte’ e’ (Orl II.1 .13) 3),, wh whic ichh ha hass no in intr trod oduc ucto tory ry Orland ando o fin finto to paz pazzo zo, II ritornello (the singer, Grifone, interrupts Ersilla).

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petere pete redd ou out. t. Th Thee kn know ownn ex exam ampl ples es by Vi Viva vald ldii co come me,, wi with th on onee ex exce cept ptio ionn (R (RV V 68 681) 1),, nott fr no from om his ca cant ntat atas as bu butt fro rom m his ea earl rlyy ope pera rass and th thee mo mote tets ts of th thee sa same me pe peri riod od – thus from the time just before he started to write cantatas in bulk. The third vocal period, which constitutes the entire ‘B’ section, gives the composer his first opportunity for modal contrast. In major-key arias, the minor keys most likely to be visited are the submediant and mediant, often in that order. There are usually two cadences in different keys, the second bringing to a close the kind of tailpiece discussed just now in connection with the second vocal period. Such tailpieces are often set off from the preceding material – again, with the pragmatic object of providing a breathing space – by a short instrumental interpolation. The passage leading to the second cadence is sometimes long enou en ough gh to ac acco comm mmod odat atee th thee co comp mple lete te ‘B ‘B’’ te text xt,, al alth thou ough gh th this is is ra rath ther er exceptional. Most often, the return from the final cadence of the ‘B’ section to the t he reprised ‘A’ section is direct, producing the effect of hiatus. This unmediated transition from, say, a mediant chord to a tonic chord can have the same powerful affective forc fo rcee as th thee eq equiv uival alen entt pr prog ogre ress ssio ionn at th thee ju junc nctio tionn of re reci cita tativ tivee an andd ar aria ia,, dis discu cuss ssed ed earl ea rlie ier. r. Ju Just st oc occa casi sion onal ally ly,, on onee fi find ndss wh what at,, us usin ingg th thee la lang ngua uage ge of so sona nata ta-f -for orm m an anal al-ysis ys is,, wo woul uldd be de desc scri ribe bedd as a ‘r ‘ret etra rans nsiti ition on’, ’, wh whic ichh st stee eers rs th thee mu musi sicc sm smoo ooth thly ly ba back ck to th thee to toni nicc be befo fore re th thee ‘A ‘A’’ se sect ctio ionn re resu sume mes. s. If th thee op open enin ingg of a re repr pris ised ed ‘A ‘A’’ se sect ctio ionn is modified in ways too complex to be shown with the familiar segni, the substituted bars may be written after the conventional thin-thin double barline ending the ‘B’ sec section tion.. Lat Latee sev sevent enteen eenthth-cen centur turyy can cantat tatas as oft often en sho show w gre great at inv invent entive ivenes nesss in their reintroduction of the ‘A’ section – an inventiveness stimulated by the custom of writing out the reprise in full. Cantata composers of Vivaldi’s time are more content to do the obvious, and Vivaldi himself is a prime case. Here, once again, one suspects pressure from singers – and perhaps also a production-line mentality inherited from operatic composition. As we well ll as be bein ingg th thee ‘A ‘Age ge of Th Thor orou ough gh Ba Bass ss’, ’, th thee Ba Baro roqu quee pe peri riod od wa wass th thee ‘A ‘Age ge of Ground Bass’. Indeed, the use of this device, both learned and popular in its associations, permeates aria composition in the cantata genre, although it tended over time to become more sporadic and more dilute. In very early arias, free-standing or within cantatas, ground bass ( basso ostinato) most often appears in its pure form, in which all repetitions occur at the same pitch.59 The tonal plan of arias in the mature cantata did not allow for such stasis, so one finds movements in which the bass theme migrates from key to key, following the course of the modulations: a procedure very familiar from Purcell’s songs. It is not always possible or desirable simply to repeat the theme unaltered at various pitch-levels. The solution is to employ, where necessary, ‘altered’ statements, in which the theme starts normally but then diverges, or even to insert on occasion a ‘free’ section that plays with fragments of the theme but does not state it in literal form. How sophisticated such a design can become is illustrated by a wonderful aria by Vinaccesi, ‘Che pena è il vivere’, from his cantata Belve, se mai provaste, which 59

One encounters as well the ‘strophic bass’, in which the note-values of the bass theme vary from repetition to repetition.

58


Table 2.2 Treatment of the ostinato bass theme in Benedetto Vinaccesi’s aria ‘Che pena è il vivere’ from Belve, se mai provaste

Bars

Section

Form of theme

Ke y

11 –41 52 –82 92 –122 132 –162 171 –191 192 –222 231 –241 242 –272 282 –311 322 –342 352 –382 402

opening ritornello Devise period first vocal period (1) first vocal period (2) second vocal period (1) second vocal period (2) second vocal period, tailpiece closing ritornello third vocal period (1) third vocal period (2) third vocal period (3) section ‘A’ minus closing ritornello

basic basic basic basic derived motives basic second half basic basic derived motives basic

c c c g g, f, Eb, c c c Eb Eb c, g g

j

dates from c.1700.60 Its plan is shown in Table 2.2. Vinaccesi very artfully uses rest re stss in th thee ba bass ss pa part rt,, wh whil ilee th thee vo voca call ph phra rase sess co cont ntin inue ue no norm rmal ally ly ab abov ove, e, in or orde derr to articulate repetitions of the theme and at the same time to smooth out harmonic transitions that might otherwise have been too abrupt. After about 1710 such parading of a basso ostinato dwindles to almost nothing in cantatas. Vivaldi introduces the device occasionally in the arias of his earlier operas – ‘D’un bel viso in un momento’ in L’incoronazione di Dario (I.5) is a good example – but he is far less interested in it in his vocal music than in i n his concertos (esp (e spec ecia ially lly hi hiss ‘r ‘rip ipie ieno no’’ an andd ‘c ‘cha hamb mber er’’ co conc ncer erto tos) s),, wh wher eree it of ofte tenn de deri rive vess fr from om th thee chaconne.61 Fundamentally, Vivaldi is a ‘bottom up’ composer: he forms themes from motives, not motives from themes. This is why his themes and themecomplexes are so protean, while his germinal motives remain so constant. His musi mu sicc is sa satu tura rate tedd by the os ostin tinat atoo pr prin inci cipl ple, e, ev even en wh wher eree ac actu tual al os ostin tinat atoo th them emes es ar aree missing. The contrast with Albinoni could not be greater: Albinoni is a ‘top down’ composer for whom the complete theme, often complex in its motivic make-up, is primary. One is not surprised, therefore, to find that ostinato basses are quite common in the arias of Albinoni’s cantatas.62 Our last general reflection on the form of late l ate Baroque cantatas concerns their over ov eral alll ton tonal al sh shap ape. e. In AR ARA A ca cant ntat atas as,, th thee pla place ceme ment nt of bo both th ou oute terr mo move veme ment nts, s, the 60 61 62

Paris, Bibliothèque du Conservatoire National Supérieur, Rés. 1451, ff. 94v–101v. This cantata, edited by the present writer, is available from Edition HH (Launton). ‘D’un ‘D’ un bel vis viso’ o’ its itself elf emp employ loyss a typ typica icall ‘ch ‘chaco aconne nne’’ pro progre gressi ssion, on, alb albeit eit tra transm nsmute utedd int intoo 2/4 met metre. re. Thee fi Th fift fthh an andd tw twel elft fthh can canta tata tass of Al Albi bino noni ni’s ’s Op Op.. 4 (1 (170 702) 2) eac eachh co cont ntai ainn on onee ar aria ia ov over er a mo modu dula lati ting ng basso ostinato .

THE CANTATA GENRE

59

arias, in the home key guarantees a symmetrical, well-balanced tonal shape. Indeed, the central recitative has to work hard to establish any tonal variety at all. In RARA cantatas, however, imbalance is the t he rule. The home key may have been established in the opening recitative by no more than a single phrase, even a sing si ngle le cho horrd. Whe henn th thee fir irst st ar aria ia ar arri rive ves, s, it itss ke keyy is li liab able le to be ta takken by th thee li list sten eneer – usually incorrectly – as the primary primary tonality of the work. The contrast contrast with the otherwise so similar four-movement (SFSF) sonata is striking, since the latter likes to place both fast movements, in addition to the t he opening slow movement, in the home key. For Vivaldi – perhaps because he was steeped in the tradition of the chamber sonata, in which all the movements are commonly in the same key – tonal unity was always more important than tonal variety. More than any other composer of his generation, he was prepared to place the internal slow movements of conc co ncer erto toss an andd so sona nata tass no nott in th thee re rela lativ tivee ke keyy (t (the he qu quas asii-au auto toma matic tic ch choi oice ce fo forr Ba Bach ch and Handel), nor in a remote key (like Valentini and Locatelli), but in the tonic key itself, sometimes with modal variation. Nor was he always greatly concerned to compensate for tonal sameness with metrical variety: in the concerto for two flutes RV 533 all three movements are in C major and in common time. Surprisingly many instances of this homotonality and homometricality, presumably inspired by his practice in instrumental music, occur in the arias of Vivaldi’s cantatas. Timms notes that four of his RARA cantatas (RV 652, 676, 678, and 686)) pla 686 place ce the fir first st ari ariaa in in the hom homee key key,, whi while le as man manyy as twe twenty nty can cantata tatass ove overal ralll employ the same metre for both arias. 63 This does not mean, of course, that Vivaldi was indifferent to the need for contrast: it means, simply, that he often sought it by other means. In recitatives and arias alike, the presence of words imposes special tasks on the composer. The first is to reflect the natural accentuation of words, as they would be declaimed in spoken poetry. ‘Reflect’ is not the same as ‘reproduce’: syll sy llab able less be beco come me un unna natu tura rally lly el elon onga gate tedd or co comp mpre ress ssed ed in an anyy st styl ylee th that at em empl ploy oyss a grea gr eatt va vari riet etyy of no note te-v -val alue uess an andd ad admi mits ts me melis lisma ma.. It Ital alia iann is mo more re fo forg rgiv ivin ingg of de deviviations from standard accentuation than German or English, and therefore more plia pl iabl blee in th this is re resp spec ect. t. Ma Many ny ar aree th thee in inst stan ance cess wh wher ere, e, st stan andi ding ng at th thee he head ad of a li line ne or hemistich, a normally unaccented particle such as ‘di’ or ‘a’ is placed on a strong beat. There is little variation between Italian composers in the tolerance that they show for deviations from natural accentuation, and surprisingly little contemporary criticism concerned with word-setting, the abuse of extended melisma excepted. All Italian composers subscribed to the idea of expressing the general mood of a text, the affetto, in the general features of a movement. The choice of tempo, metre, rhythm, mode, and key set the initial parameters, which were then reinforced by the style of writing selected for the voice and its accompaniment. However, composers were equally keen to illustrate individual words and phra ph rase ses, s, es espe peci cial ally ly th thee on ones es wi with th sp spec ecia iall ex expr pres essi sive ve fo forc rcee th that at ar aree ca calle lledd ‘keywords’ in this study. Sometimes, the two principles come into collision: the 63

Timms, ‘The Dramatic in Vivaldi’s Cantatas’, p. 119.

60


keyword contradicts, rather than supports, the overall affetto. I have quoted elsewher wh eree th thee ca case se of an ar aria ia in Al Albi bino noni ni’s ’s op oper eraa Statira (1 (172 726) 6) in wh whic ichh th thee he hero roin ine’ e’ss words expressing fortitude in the face of a threat of imprisonment i mprisonment (‘Non creder, no, che sia |d’orrore all’alma mia’) are accompanied by ‘horrific’ diminished seventh seve nth chord chords. s.64 Th Thee pr prob oble lem m is th that at ke keyw ywor ords ds ca cann nnot ot be ill illus ustr trat ated ed as ne nega gativ tives es,, only as positives. As a composer with a background in instrumental music and a tendency to develop musical material autonomously, without reference to specific features of the sung text, Vivaldi did not always capture the affetto of a text impeccably, although on balance he was more successful in this than most around him. Where he excelled, however, was in keyword illustration. Unlike many contemporaries, he nea nearly rly alw always ays avo avoide idedd usi using ng ext extend ended ed mel melism ismaa on on neu neutra tral,l, ine inexpr xpress essive ive wor words ds and instead homed in on the keywords, which he highlighted not only through meli me lism smaa bu butt al also so by in inve vent ntiv ivee us usee of th thee in inst stru rume ment ntss – of wh whic ichh he he,, na natu tura rall lly, y, wa wass a past master.65 We will see this mastery demonstrated over and over again in his cantatas.

64 65

Talbot, Tom Tomaso aso Alb Albino inoni ni:: the Ven Veneti etian an Co Comp mpose oserr and his Wor World ld , Oxf Oxford ord,, Cla Claren rendo donn Pre Press, ss, 19 1990, 90, p. 240. Vivaldi’s use of melisma in La costanza trionfante degl’amori degl’amori e de gl’odii (1716) is compared favourably with that of Lotti and Porta in Faun Tanenbaum Tiedge and Michael Talbot, ‘The Berkeley Castle Manuscript: Arias and Cantatas by Vivaldi and his Italian Contemporaries’, Studi vivaldiani , iii (2003), 33–86. Francesco Degrada expresses the same contrast between Vivaldi the setter of texts and Vivaldi the illustrator of individual words when he writes (‘Note filologiche’, 359): ‘È indubbio che in Vivaldi c’è una grande attenzione per la parola come portatrice di affetto, ma altresì una relativa indifferenza ai valori specificamente stilistici dei testi da lui musicati’ (‘It is undeniable that Vivaldi is very attentive to the word as bearer of an affetto, but at the same time he shows a relative indifference towards the specific stylistic characteristics of the texts that he set’).

CHAPTER THREE

Vivaldi and the Voice

The Composer and the Text Whether or not he had been much exposed to vocal music previously, Vivaldi became immersed in it from his teenage years onwards. He trained as a priest from 1693 to 1703, and this experience must have left him with a thorough knowledge of both canto fermo (plainsong) and canto figurato (figural music – the catch-all term for composed sacred vocal music). His work as a jobbing violinist alongside his father, Giovanni Battista Vivaldi (c.1655–1736), must have introduced him to countless sacred and operatic works; his first known publ pu blic ic ap appe pear aran ance ce as a vi viol olin inis istt wa wass at Ch Chri rist stma mass 16 1696 96,, wh when en he wa wass en enga gage ged d as a supernumerary supernumera ry player at the ducal church of S. Marco.1 Giovanni Battista, if he is identical with the Giambattista Rossi who composed a short dramatic work, La fedeltà sfortunata, in 1688, may even have possessed a composer’s understandi sta nding ng of voc vocal al mus music ic him himsel self. f.2 It ca cann nnot ot be st stre ress ssed ed en enou ough gh th that at un unti till th thee 17 1710 10ss – perhaps, more exactly, until the publication of Antonio’s L’estro armonico concertos conce rtos in 1711 1711 – Giovann Giovannii Battist Battistaa was the ‘senio ‘seniorr part partner’ ner’ of the two two in stat status us as we well ll as in ag age. e. He mu must st ha have ve be been en a ma mass ssiv ivee fo form rmat ativ ivee in infl flue uenc nce. e. Hi Hiss lo loya yalt lty y to Antonio’s interests – with which, of course, his own and those of the whole Vivaldi family were bound up – caused him later to serve his son almost until his death (which occurred not many years before Antonio’s own) as a diligent and reli re liab able le co copy pyis ist, t, an and d pe perh rhap apss al also so as an ac acco comp mpan anis istt an and d pa part rtne nerr in pe perf rfor orma manc nces es.. A republican polity without a court in the accepted sense, Venice lacked a focal point for the cultivation of the cantata. But it possessed many other venues: the homes of patricians (such as Antonio Ottoboni) who had literary aspirations or mus musica icall inc inclin linati ations ons;; the res reside idence ncess of for foreig eign n amb ambass assado adors, rs, who who,, for forbid bidden den by law to socialize with the Venetian nobility, made their own entertainment in private; the salons of leading singers. A good description of such a salon is provided in the biography of Johann David Heinichen (1683–1729) that appears Lebensbeschreibungen gen berühmter Musikgelehrten und in Johann Adam Hiller’s Lebensbeschreibun Tonkünstler neuerer Zeit , a series of biographies of leading musicians, mainly

1 2

Informazioni ioni e studi For details, see Gastone Vio, ‘Antonio Vivaldi violinista in San Marco?’, Informaz vivaldiani , ii (1981), 51–9. ‘Rossi’ or ‘Rosso’ – a reference to red hair-colour – was a sobriquet frequently used in place of their real surname for the two Vivaldis, father and son.

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German, which were in part based on information supplied by the subjects themselves. The relevant episode runs: Shortly after this time [1713], Heinichen had occasion to make the acquaintanc ta ncee of a fi fine ne si sing nger er,, An Angi giol olet etta ta,, wh who o ha had d be been en ra rais ised ed in th thee Ve Vene neti tian anospedale of the Incurabili but had married a rich merchant [named Bianchi]. She took a liking to Heinichen’s cantatas, some composed with an obbligato part for the harp ha rpsi sich chor ord, d, wh whic ich h sh shee pl play ayed ed ve very ry we well ll he hers rsel elf. f. Th Thee hu husb sban and d of th this is si sing nger er ha had d thee ta th task sk of pa payi ying ng al allo low wan ance cess fo forr hi hiss ne need edss to th thee cr crow own n pr prin ince ce of Saxony-Poland, the future elector of Saxony and king of Poland [Friedrich] August II, who was then staying in Venice. The prince sometimes came to his house, where Signora Angioletta often had the opportunity to sing and play to him. hi m. No Nott on only ly di did d sh shee si sing ng so some me of He Hein inic iche hen’ n’ss ca cant ntat atas as,, wh whic ich h th thee pr prin ince ce li like ked d very much, and inform him that their composer was a Saxon by birth: her husband also laid on a grand festa in his own house to mark the prince’s birthday [17 October 1716], for which Heinichen had to compose a serenata in great secrecy [. . .]3

One must assume that for occasions such as these Vivaldi gained opportunities to play pl ay th thee vi viol olin in (a (and nd al also so th thee ce cell llo? o?)) fo forr ca cant ntat atas as,, if no nott al also so to co comp mpos osee so some me of hi hiss own. ow n. Do Docu cume ment ntar ary y ev evid iden ence ce is la lack ckin ing, g, ho howe weve ver. r. Fr From om Re Remo mo Gi Giaz azot otto to we ha have ve a repo re port rt th that at Vi Viva vald ldi, i, to toge geth ther er wi with th th thee si sing nger erss Gi Giov ovan anni ni Pa Pait itaa an and d Sa Sant ntaa Marchesini, performed performed in 1705 for the French ambassador, Henri de Pomponne, at a so soir irée ée he held ld fo forr th thee be bene nefi fitt of th thee Ca Capu puch chin in co conv nven entt of S. Gi Giro rola lamo mo,, wh whic ich h ha had d suffered fire damage. 4 But the existence of the document that he cites has never been proven. Vivaldi presumably learned something about cantata composition from his close contact with Francesco Gasparini, who, as Maestro di coro of the Ospedale della Pietà, a post to which he was appointed in 1701, recommended him for the post po st of Maestro di violino in 17 1703 03 an and d ap appa pare rent ntly ly wo work rked ed ha harm rmon onio ious usly ly wi with th hi him m until his own departure in 1713. Gasparini, as we saw, was a specialist in cantata composition and in accompaniment at the keyboard. It is uncertain whether the figlie di coro of the Pietà (the female foundlings who constituted its choir and orchestra) learned learne d or performed cantatas. There was certainly a large music salon

3

4

Lebensbe nsbeschr schreibu eibungen ngen berü berühmte hmterr Musi Musikgel kgelehrt ehrten en und Tonk Tonkünst ünstler ler Johann Ada Johann Adam m Hill Hiller, er, Lebe neuerer neu erer Zeit , Leip Leipzig: zig: Dykische Dykische Buch Buchhand handlung lung,, 1784 1784,, pp. 136– 136–7: 7: ‘Bal ‘Bald d hern hernach ach beka bekam m Heinichen Gelegenheit, mit einer braven Sängerin, welche in dem venezianischen Hospitale agli Incurabilii erzogen, jetzt aber an einen reichen Kaufmann verheyrathet war, und mit ihrem Incurabil Angioletta a hie Vornahmen Angiolett hieß, ß, bek bekann anntt zu wer werden den.. Die Diese se fan fand d an He Heini inich chens ens Ca Canta ntaten ten Ges Geschm chmack ack,, deren einige mit dem concertirenden Klaviere, welches sie selbst sehr gut spielte, gesetzt waren. Der Mann dieser Sängerin hatte an den damals in Venedig sich aufhaltenden königlichen Churprinzen, nachherigen König von Polen und Churfürsten von Sachsen, August II, die benöthigten Gelder auszuzahlen. Der Prinz kam bisweilen in sein Haus, und dabey hatte Signora Angioletta oft Gelegenheit vor ihm zu singen und zu spielen. Sie sang nicht nur etliche von Heini He iniche chens ns ge gedac dachte hten n Ca Canta ntaten ten,, wel welche che dem Pri Prinz nzen en seh sehrr gef gefiel ielen en,, und ma macht chtee da dabey bey dem demse selbe lben n bekannt, daß der Verfasser der Cantaten ein geborner Sachse sey: sondern ihr Mann gab auch dem de m Pri Prinz nzen, en, an de desse sselbe lben n Geb Geburt urtsta stage ge,, in sei seinem nem Hau Hause se ein gro große ßess Fes Fest, t, wo wozu zu He Heini inich chen en in al aller ler Stille eine Serenade hatte componiren müssen [. . .]’. Remo Giazotto, Antonio Vivaldi , Turin: ERI, 1973, p. 62.

VIVALDI AND THE VOICE

63

next to the governors’ board room that would have served as the ideal venue for thee pe th perf rfor orma manc ncee of su such ch wo work rkss be befo fore re an au audi dien ence ce.. Mo More reov over er,, se seve vera rall of th thee ol olde derr figlie possessed keyboard instruments of their own – we know this from dowry lists – and would therefore have been quite capable of giving self-accompanied perf pe rfor orma manc nces es in th thei eirr ow own n ro room oms. s. Th Thee Pi Piet etàà co coul uld d sc scar arce cely ly ha have ve ob obje ject cted ed on pr prin in-ciple to music dealing with amorous or pagan subjects, when it was prepared to honour eminent visitors with serenatas from exactly the same stable. 5 Even if Vivaldi had little occasion to write chamber cantatas before his move to Mantua in 1718, he gained considerable practical experience of writing in all thee vo th voca call fo form rmss cu cult ltiv ivat ated ed in th thee ge genr nre. e. He wa wass co comp mpos osin ing g ar aria iass an and d re reci cita tati tive vess by no la late terr th than an 17 1708 08,, th thee da date te of th thee lo lost st se sere rena nata ta Le gare del dovere, RV 688.6 Itisa great shame that Vivaldi’s private archive as preserved in Turin contains no Stabat bat Mat Mater er, RV manu ma nusc scri ript ptss of hi hiss mu musi sicc da data tabl blee to be befo fore re 17 1712 12,, th thee ye year ar of th thee Sta 621. It may be that prior to that time he did not trouble to retain archival copies of his music, or perhaps some disaster such as fire or loss in transit caused his ‘first’ archive to disappear. After 1713, when Vivaldi composed the first of a long stream of operas, Ottone in villa, and succeeded Gasparini as main purveyor of new sacred vocal compositions to the Pietà, his surviving vocal compositions, both sacred and secular, become plentiful. Among the operas of the period up to 1718 we possess in complete or near-comple near-complete te form Orlando finto pazzo (1714, autumn), Arsilda, regina di Ponto (1716, autumn), L’incoronazione di Dario (1717, (17 17, car carniv nival) al) and Armida al campo d’Egitto (1718 (1718,, carn carnival ival), ), whil whilee subs substant tantial ial numbers of arias from La costanza trionfante degli amori e de gl’odii (1716, carnival) and Tieteberga (1717, autumn) are extant. Then we have the oratorio Juditha triumphans of 1716. Among the sacred works for solo voice there are, in addition to the Stabat Mater written for the Chiesa della Pace in Brescia, two sett se ttin ings gs of ps psal alms ms (t (the he Laudate pueri Dominum RV 60 600 0 an and d the Nisi Dominus RV 608), five motets (RV 624, 625, 630, 633, and probably RV 628) and five introduzioni (RV 635, 638, 639, 641, and 642). Most similar to cantatas are the mote mo tets ts,, wh whic ich h co coul uld d be de desc scri ribe bed d as AR ARA A ca cant ntat atas as on sa sacr cred ed La Lati tin n te text xtss conc co nclu ludi ding ng wi with th an ‘A ‘All llel elui uia’ a’ th that at re rese semb mble less a co conc ncer erto to mo move veme ment nt,, wi with th th thee vo voic icee as so solo lois ist. t. (T (The he ad addi diti tion on of th thee ‘A ‘All llel elui uia’ a’ ma make kess a vi vita tall di diff ffer eren ence ce,, ho howe weve ver, r, si sinc ncee it enables the second aria to be in a key other than the tonic.) The introduzioni, Dominuss, et prefac pre faces es to lon longer ger wor works ks on li litur turgic gical al tex texts ts ( Gloria, Dixit Dominu etc.) c.),, rese re semb mble le mo mote tets ts ex exce cept pt in ha havi ving ng no ‘A ‘All llel elui uia’ a’ an and d so some meti time mess de depa part rtin ing g fr from om th thee ARA plan. Finally, there are the concertato works, such as the Gloria RV 589, which contain individual movements for solo voice. In hi hiss ve very ry ea earl rlie iest st kn know own n vo voca call wo work rks, s, Vi Viva vald ldii be betr tray ayss hi hiss in inex expe peri rien ence ce by th thee sometimes rather chaotic delivery of the text, of which fragments appear in

5

6

Examples are Giovanni Porta’s Il ritratto dell’eroe (1726: in honour of Pietro Ottoboni), Vivaldi’s Il Mopso (c.1716: in honour of Duke Ferdinand Maria of Bavaria) and Gennaro coro ro de dell llee Mu Muse se (17 D’Alessandro’s Il co (1740: 40: in ho honou nourr of Fri Fried edric rich h Ch Chris ristia tian, n, pri prince nce of Saxony-Poland). On Vivaldi’s serenatas, see Michael Talbot, ‘Vivaldi’s Serenatas: Long Cantatas or Short Operas?’, in Lorenzo Bianconi and Giovanni Morelli (eds), Antonio Vivaldi. Teatro musicale, cultura e società , pp. 67–96.

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seemin seem ingl gly y ra rand ndom om or orde der. r. Th Thee wo word rdss se seem em to be th ther eree to ‘c ‘clo loth the’ e’ th thee no note tes, s, no nott th thee other way round. In addition, Vivaldi, in the liturgical works, makes a habit of troping: interpolating interpolating portions of text taken from elsewhere. A striking instance occurs in the penultimate movement of the psalm Laudate pueri Dominum, RV 600, which dates from around 1715. Like most movements in psalm settings, this is a ‘church aria’ – a movement for solo voice structured like the ‘A’ section of a da capo aria.7 The words that are supposed to be set are those of the second verse of the Lesser Doxology: ‘Sicut erat in principio, et nunc, et semper, et in saecula saeculorum. Amen’. What emerges instead is the following mélange: Laudate pueri, laudate Dominum . Sicut erat in principio, et nunc, et nunc, et semper, et semper, et in saecula saeculorum. Amen. A solis ortu usque ad occasum. Laudabile nomen Domini , et nunc, et nunc, et semper. Laudabile nomen Domini , et nunc, et semper, et in saecula saeculorum. Amen. Sit nomen, perr, et in nome no men n Dom Domini ini,, sit ben bened edict ictum um,, sit be bene nedic dictum tum, et nunc, et nunc, et sempe saecula, in saecula saeculorum. Amen. Laudate nomen Domini, laudate nomen Domini.

The italicized words are reprised, none too tidily, from vv. 1–3 of the psalm, whic wh ich h pr prov ovid idee th thee te text xt fo forr mo move veme ment ntss I– I–II III. I. Vi Viva vald ldii is of co cour urse se re resp spon ondi ding ng in th thee traditional punning way to the phrase ‘Sicut erat in principio’ (‘Thus it was in the beginning’) by bringing back the material of the first movement, and in that way rounding off the music in a satisfying way. Completely anomalous, anomalous, however, is the reintroduction of actual text from ‘the beginning’ (and in fact from much further into the psalm than the beginning). No profound theological purpose info in form rmss Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss tr trop opes es:: he is no Ba Bach ch ma maki king ng a su subt btle le co conn nnec ecti tion on or communing privately with God. Their spirit is casual, almost playful. As with the very first works that Handel composed in Italy, it is difficult to know what is the boldness of youth, what is ignorance ignoranc e of convention, and what is sheer sloppiness. At all events, Vivaldi slowly civilized and regularized his text-setting text-setti ng as time went on. Some questionable features, such as the inversion of phrases on their repetition, never completely disappeared. disappeared. But peccadillos of this kind abound among Italian composers generally. Around the middle of the 1720s Vivaldi, like all Venetian composers, found it necessary to adjust his musical style to conform to the new fashion introduced by a group of Naples-trained composers, among whom Leo, Vinci, and especially Porpora were prominent. The first sign of the ‘new wave’ was the production of Leo’s Timocrate at the Teatro S. Angelo in 1723. By 1725 Neapolitan composers and Neapolitan style ruled the roost in Venice. 8 The main novelties of this Neapolitan style are the following:

7 8

Since psalm texts and other liturgical texts are not designed for textual reprises, the full ABA form is inappropriate. On the impact of Neapolitan composers on Venice, see Reinhard Strohm, ‘The Neapolitans in Con n che so soavi avità tà:: St Studi udies es in Ita Italia lian n Op Opera era,, Son Song g and Venic Ve nice’, e’, in Iai Iain n Fen Fenlon lon and Ti Tim m Ca Carte rterr (ed (eds), s), Co Dance, 1580–1740 1580–1740, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995, pp. 249–74. The same essay is reprinted in Reinhard Strohm, Dramma per musica: Italian Opera Seria of the Eighteenth Century , New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1997, pp. 61–80.


1.

2. 3.

4.

5.

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The music music is is more more treble-dom treble-dominated inated than before. before. Basse Bassess are slowe slower-mo r-moving ving (orr us (o usee si simp mple le dev devic ices es su such ch as re repe peat ated ed no note tess to ac achi hiev evee an anim imati ation on)) an and d hi high ghly ly functional. The harmonic rhythm is generally slower. The melodic melodic line (in (in the voice or the violin violins) s) is rhythm rhythmically ically very diverse diverse and fussy in its details. The ‘sewing-machine’ style of the 1710s is abandoned. Specific Specif ic melodic melodic and rhythm rhythmic ic devices devices are favoure favoured: d: trills, trills, appoggiat appoggiaturas, uras, Lombardic rhythms (inverted dotted groups), and triplet semiquavers are especially prominent. Poin Po ints ts are speci specifi fical cally ly creat created ed (the end of the se seco cond nd vocal vocal se secti ction on is a favourite spot) for the performance of vocal cadenzas (as opposed to the instrumental cadenzas that Vivaldi tried to introduce during the previous decade). The phrase phrase structur structuree tends to four-squ four-squarenes areness, s, and the word-se word-setting tting is is highly highly rational and disciplined.

Ironicall Ironic ally, y, Vi Vival valdi di him himsel selff rec receiv eived ed cre credit dit for the int introd roduct uction ion and pop popula ulariz rizati ation on of Lombardic rhythms during his operatic sojourns in Rome of 1723 and 1724 from no less an authority than Quantz.9 Otherwise, however, there was much for our composer to absorb. He quickly conformed to the new taste in all respects except the last. His ‘bottom up’, additive method of musical construction construction always preferred asymmetry to the straightforwardly quadratic phrase structures of the Neapolitans. Symptomatic is the fact that ‘ternary’ phrase-groups (A + B + C) abound in his music, the ‘C’ being either a foreshortene foreshortened d consequent to ‘A’ and ‘B’’ co ‘B comb mbin ined ed or a re rest stat atem emen ent, t, us usua uall lly y va vari ried ed,, of ‘B ‘B’. ’. Th This is id idio iosy sync ncra rasy sy re rema main ined ed with him till the end. Recitatives are found regularly in his motets and introduzioni, and ther theree are even some quasi-recitatives in the psalm settings and the hymn Stabat Mater, wher wh eree Vi Viva vald ldi, i, fo forr th thee sa sake ke of br brev evit ity y an and d va vari riet ety, y, ch chos osee to em empl ploy oy an ap appr prox oxim imaation ti on to ac acco comp mpan anie ied d re reci cita tati tive ve.. In so some me of th thes esee mo move veme ment ntss he ac achi hiev eves es dr dram amat atic ic effects and touches of originality that place him among the best writers of recitative of his time. The motet Nulla in mundo pax sincera , RV 630, has a ravishing central recitative that uses arioso passages in a variety of tempi to underline keywords. Corda (‘hearts’) inspires a slow melisma over a diminished seventh; fuggiamus (‘let us flee’), a rapid succession of semiquavers; vitemus (‘let us evade’), a twisting and turning line; ostentando (‘showing off’), a mock-pedanti mock-pedanticc passage of two-part imitation. 10 For dramatic realism there is little to equal the recitati reci tative ve in Juditha triumphans in whi which ch Vag Vagaus aus,, Hol Holofe oferne rnes’ s’ ste stewa ward, rd, dis discov covers ers his master’s headless trunk. Here, Vivaldi’s pacing and choice of modulation and chord-change are masterly. 11 Sadly, but perhaps also predictably, there is also much recitative of a humdrum, unmemorable (and even, on occasion, clumsy) kind in Vivaldi’s vocal music. In recitative he needed, perhaps, something particularly vivid to illustrate before he could rise to his full potential. This unevenness exists also in his cantatas.

9 10 11

Versuch uch eine einerr Anw Anweisu eisung ng die Flöte Flöte traversi traversiere ere zu spie spielen len , Ber Johann Joachim Quantz, Vers Berlin: lin: Voss, Voss, 1752, p. 309. The complete recitative is transcribed in Talbot, The Sacred Vocal Music , pp. 293–4. Transcribed ibid., pp. 439–41.

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Vivaldi as Literary Bricoleur Where did composers obtain their cantata texts from? The question is less naïve than it appears. Whereas composers of madrigals or of nineteenth-century art songs could go straight to the poetry, usually available in published form, and make their choice, cantata composers relied almost exclusively on texts that had no independent existence outside the genre. When cantatas were produced for performance at conversazioni in a nobleman’s residence, the poet or poets could be the nobleman himself, his secretary, the tutor to his children, his fellow academicians, or his guests. The poem would often be hurriedly composed and equally hurriedly set to music in a smooth, if hectic, line of transmission. Ottoboni’s Trattenimenti poetici contain a piece by Angelo Farina entitled ‘Duetto fatto per commando di due dame all’improviso a cavallo, messo subito in musica dal Signor Angelo Farina e cantato dalle medesime’ (‘Duet improvised on horseback at the behest of two ladies, set to music on the spot by Signor Angelo Farina, and sung by the same ladies’). 12 The result of such collaboration was as much the prop pr oper erty ty of th thee pa patr tron on-p -poe oett as of th thee co comp mpos oser er,, an and d it is no su surp rpri rise se to se seee An Anto toni nio o Ottoboni collecting the annual ‘crop’ of cantatas set to his texts in souvenir volumes. 13 However, the texts for many cantatas were not set on a plate before the composer. They had to be borrowed or invented. This was especially true when composers presented cantatas on their own initiative to patrons, sold them to customers, or fulfilled commissions from persons who supplied no poetry for setting. Texts suitable for borrowing existed in great quantity in the manuscripts of cantatas by other composers. These were readily available, if through no other route, from the repertory of singers. Because of their itinerant existence, singers were the natural couriers of music in this period. Many surviving collections of cantatas for a single voice-type must be the relics of singers’ own collections. Copying the text for a new cantata from that underlaid to the notes in an old cantata (rather than from a separate poem) was a recipe for minor errors arising from fr om mi misr srea eadi ding ng,, an and d it is th ther eref efor oree no nott su surp rpri risi sing ng th that at th thee te text xt in di diff ffer eren entt se sett ttin ings gs of the same poem often diverges, apparently unintentionally, in trivial but revealing ways. Four Vivaldi cantatas – RV 668, 670, 677, and 678 – exist in musically unrelated settings by other composers, and it is interesting to compare the readings of the und underl erlaid aid tex textt in the dif differ ferent ent ver versio sions. ns. The dir direct ection ion of tra transm nsmiss ission ion frequently remains unclear, and is always complicated by the knowledge that exta ex tant nt so sour urce cess fo forr ca cant ntat atas as co cons nsti titu tute te on only ly a fr frac acti tion on of th thee va vast st qu quan anti tity ty th that at mu must st once have existed. Nevertheless, a philological investigation into the text can sometimes help to date a cantata, or at least to place it within a particular orbit. RV 668 is set to words that are a primitive version of the text by Metastasio first published, under the title Amor timido, by Quillau (Paris) in 1755. In its 12 13

Venice, Museo Civico Correr, Ms. Correr 466, pp. 577–8. There are volumes for 1709 and 1710 in the British Library (Add. Mss. 34056 and 34057), and a volume for 1713 is on loan to the British Library as Loan 91.11.


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revised version, the text acquired an introductory recitative (thus changing its form from ARA to RARA), and had its second recitative completely rewritten; the two arias were also polished up a little. Contemporary Contemporary with Vivaldi, we find the following four settings of the original version, which must have been penned before Metastasio moved to Vienna in 1729: 14 Leonardo Leo: Milan, Conservatorio di Musica ‘Giuseppe Verdi’, Fondo Noseda L 40–221. Nico Ni cola la Po Porp rpor ora: a: Ha Hamb mbur urg, g, St Staa aats ts-- un und d Un Univ iver ersi sität tätsb sbib ibli liot othe hek k ‘C ‘Car arll vo von n Ossietzky’, Musiksammlung, M A/833:2, pp. 320–3. Giovan Gio vanni ni Bat Battis tista ta Pes Pescett cetti: i: Ham Hambur burg, g, Sta Staats ats-- und Uni Univer versit sitäts ätsbib biblio liothe thek k ‘Ca ‘Carl rl von Ossietzky’, Musiksammlung, M A/833:2, pp. 384–9. Diogenio Bigaglia: listed in Eitner, Quellenlexicon , 11, p. 28, as in the private collection of Hermann Springer (Berlin).

Metastasio’s ties to Roman and Neapolitan composers were much stronger than those to Venetian ones, whom he had little opportunity to meet in person. A good work wo rkin ing g hy hypo poth thes esis is wo woul uld d be th that at ei eith ther er Le Leo o or Po Porp rpor ora, a, or bo both th,, se sett Me Meta tast stas asio io’s ’s text te xt in Na Napl ples es,, an and d th that at th thee th thre reee Ve Vene neti tian anss – Bi Biga gagl glia ia,, Vi Viva vald ldi, i, an and d Pe Pesc scet etti ti – an and d possibly also one of the Neapolitans acquired it as a result of the inflow of Neapolitan musicians to Venice during the 1720s. 15 It is an interesting fact that the text set by Leo, Porpora, and Pescetti is concordant in every detail. Vivaldi’s text te xt is mo most stly ly co conc ncor orda dant nt,, bu butt th thee de devi viat atio ions ns – fo forr wh whic ich h on onee su susp spec ects ts th that at Vi Viva vald ldii was personally responsible – are very revealing.16 In the first aria, there are no divergences between the text as transmitted by the four composers (Vivaldi, Leo, Porpora, Pescetti). Metastasio, however, later made two beneficial changes to the second and third lines of the first quatrain, altering ‘Con tanto sospirar | forse ti vuoi lagnar’ to ‘Con tanto palpitar | so che ti vuoi lagnar’. In the following recitative, altered for Metastasio’s published version, Vivaldi detaches himself from his three confrères. The two versions of the stanza are given below:

14 15

16

Leo, Porpora, Porpora, Pescetti

Vivaldi

Aure suavi e grate, garru gar ruli li ru rusc scel elle lett tti, i, am ameni eni co coll lli, i, voi taciti serbate d’un rispet rispettoso toso amant amantee il nobil foco.

Aure suavi e grate, garru gar ruli li ru rusc scel elle lett tti, i, am amen enii col colli li,, voi placidi serbate d’un rispet rispettoso toso amante il nobil nobil foco. foco.

I ig igno nore re fo forr pr pres esen entt pu purp rpos oses es th thee mu much ch la late terr se sett ttin ings gs of th thee po poem em by Ha Hass sse, e, Na Naum uman ann, n, Ga Gass ssma mann nn,, Paër, and Beethoven. The presence in the Hamburg manuscript of copies in the same hand of settings by both Porpora T’intendo,, sì, mio cor and Questo è il platano , implies and the Venetian Pescetti of two cantatas, T’intendo that th at th thee fo form rmer er’s ’s se sett ttin ings gs be belo long ng to on onee of hi hiss tw two o pe peri riod odss of re resi side denc ncee in Ve Veni nice ce:: ei eith ther er 17 1725 25–3 –33, 3, when wh en he wa wass Maestro di coro at th thee In Incu cura rabi bili li,, or 17 1741 41–4 –47, 7, wh when en he he held ld th thee sa same me po posi siti tion on fi firs rstt at the Pietà and then at the Ospedaletto. This interpretation – that Vivaldi modified an early version of Metastasio’s text set in its ‘pure’ form fo rm by Le Leo o – co coin inci cide dess wi with th th that at ad adva vanc nced ed by De Degr grad adaa in hi hiss pr prev evio ious usly ly ci cite ted d ar arti ticl clee ‘I ‘In n ma marg rgin inee all’ed all ’edizi izion onee cri critic ticaa de delle lle ca canta ntate te di Ant Antoni onio o Viv Vivald aldi’. i’. De Degra grada da do does es not ref refer er to the oth other er co conte ntemmporary settings, but their testimony only reinforces his original point.

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O se giammai per gioco a Fi Fill llii di dirr la pe pena na mi miaa vo vole lete te,, il nom nomee di chi l’a l’ama ma alm almen en tace tacete. te.

O se giammai per poco a Fi Fill llii di dirr la pe pena na mi miaa vo vole lete te,, il nom nomee di chi l’a l’ama ma alm almen en tace tacete. te.

Since this is recitative, the opportunity to exploit the change of a single word for illustrative illustrati ve purposes is minimal. Leaving aside the rather remote possibility that two slightly different early versions of this text reached Venice separately, Vivaldi’s changes seem petty in the extreme. The conversion of taciti (‘silently’) to placidi (‘ (‘pe peac acef eful ully ly’) ’) is at le leas astt in ke keep epin ing g wi with th wh what at we kn know ow of Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss le less ss than tha n ent enthus husias iasti ticc att attitu itude de tow toward ardss Met Metast astasi asio’s o’s ver verse. se.17 Th Thiis can be su sum mme med d up as an indifference to the ethical and philosophical preoccupations preoccupations of the poet and a dissatisfaction with the insufficiently vivid expression of his language. The change from per gioco . . . volete (‘you wish in jest . . .’) to per poco . . . volete (‘yo (‘ you u ar aree on th thee po poin intt of wis ishi hing ng . . .’ .’)) al alte ters rs th thee me mean anin ing g qu quit itee ra radi dica call lly y bu butt ha hass no impact on the music. One concludes – and many other cases will bear out this interpretation – that Vivaldi was a compulsive ‘meddler’, or bricoleur, where poet po etic ical al te text xtss we were re co conc ncer erne ned. d. He al alwa ways ys th thou ough ghtt he kn knew ew be best st – an and d he ce cert rtai ainl nly y believed he knew what he, and the singers under his direction, needed in order to play to their strengths. In the second aria text there is an interesting divergence between Vivaldi Vivaldi and thee ot th othe hers rs wh wher ere, e, fo forr th thee fi firs rstt ti time me,, th thei eirr re read adin ing g co coin inci cide dess wi with th Me Meta tast stas asio io’s ’s fi fina nall version and his does not: he has s’incontri (‘if you meet’), whereas they have se trovi (‘if you find’). This case suggests even more strongly than the others that Vivaldi made the alterations autonomously. Once again, the change is rather pointless. The case of RV 670, Alla caccia dell’alme e de’ cori , exemplifies perfectly how composers, or the poets who assisted them, modified texts to suit new requirements. Its text exists in three successive versions set, respectively, by Heinichen, Porpora, and Vivaldi; both the second and the third version radically amend the one immediately preceding it. One cannot be sure that there were not originally intermediate versions, today lost, but the line of transmission from Hein He inic iche hen n to Po Porp rpor ora, a, an and d th then en fr from om Po Porp rpor oraa to Vi Viva vald ldi, i, is pe perf rfec ectl tly y co cohe here rent nt as it stan st ands ds.. Th Thee th thre reee ve vers rsio ions ns,, la laid id ou outt in su such ch a wa way y as to br brin ing g co conc ncor orda dant nt li line ness le leve vell with one another as much as possible, run as follows, opposite (italics highlight changes). Heinichen’s setting setting presumably dates from his years in Venice around 1715; 18 it may even have been written for Angioletta Bianchi’s conversazioni. In this, its original form, the poem is well proportioned. The text for the first aria consists of two quatrains, with the interesting complication that the two opening lines are settenari rather than senari. The central recitative has the substantial but not excessive length of ten lines. For the final aria, the poet provides two tercets of ottonari.

17

18

Francesco Degrada writes about Vivaldi’s discomfort with Metastasio’s dramas in ‘Vivaldi e Metastasio: note in margine a una lettura dell’ Olimpiade ’, in Francesc Francesco o Degrada (ed.), Vivaldi veneziano europeo , Florence: Olschki, 1980, 155–81. Dresden, SLUB, Mus. 2391-I-2, 27 (pp. 419–38).

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Heinichen Heiniche n

Porpora

Vivaldi

Alla caccia dell’alme,

Alla caccia dell’alme, e de’ cori,

Alla caccia dell’alme, e de’ cori,

la barbara Clori, amanti, sen’ va. Già i lacci dispone, le reti già stende; al varco vi attende l’ingrata beltà.

la barbara Clori, amanti, sen’ va. Già i lacci dispone, le reti già stende; al varco vi attende quell’empia beltà.

All’ l’er erta ta,, am aman anti ti,, al all’ l’er erta ta,, dal crin, dal sen, dagl’occhi ovee sta ov stanno nno l’i l’insi nsidie die,, i str strali ali e l’arco.

Ma si sia a cr crud udel elee o in infi fida da,, oh Di Dio, o, mi piace . E sebben sia spietato , da quel bel volto, o cor, tu sei legato .

alla caccia de’ cori, la perfida Clori, amanti, sen’ va. Già i lacci dispone, le reti già stende; al passo vi attende l’ingrata beltà. All’ l’er erta ta,, al all’ l’er erta ta,, am aman anti ti,, da quel labro e da quel ciglio ovee sta ov stanno nno l’i l’ins nsidi idie, e, i str strali ali e l’arco. Ma più ti guardi il Ciel da quel bel seno ove hanno il trono i dispietati amori. E tu, cor mio mio,, gua guarda rdati ti be ben n da Clori, che prigionier ti vuole. Guardati ben. Ma, oh Dio, non m’hai inteso, povero incauto core?

E tu, cor mio mio,, la libertà, la vita salva se puoi, dico, se puoi, da lei che sua preda ti vuole o vivo o morto. Salvati . Oh Dio, non m’hai inteso, povero incauto cor? Tu già sei preso.

E già, e già, sei preso. S’egli è ver, ah non sperar

Preso sei, non sperar più

di poter mai più spiegar fuor de’ lacci, o core, il volo. Consolarti ben potrai ché a provar i lacci suoi non no n se seii pr prim imo o e no non n se seii so solo lo..

dalla bella servitù di poter spiegar il volo. Consolar bensì tu puoi ché a provar i lacci suoi non no n se seii pr prim imo o e no non n se seii so solo lo..

Preso sei, mio cor piagato, non sperar, non sperar più dalla bella servitù di poter spiegar il volo. Consolar bensì tu puoi ché a provare i lacci suoi non no n se seii pr prim imo o e no non n se seii so solo lo..

It is no noti tice ceab able le th that at th thee or orig igin inal al po poem em co cont ntai ains ns a ce cert rtai ain n am amou ount nt of phrase-repetition for rhetorical effect ( alla caccia . . . alla caccia ; all’erta, all’erta; e già, e già). Such repetition lays a trap – like the huntress Clori of the poem po em – fo forr th thee un unwa wary ry pu purl rloi oine nerr of th thee te text xt wh who o co copi pies es fr from om th thee un unde derl rlai aid d wo word rds, s, sinc si ncee it ri risk skss co conf nfus usio ion n wi with th th thee re repe peti titi tion onss th that at co comp mpos oser erss in intr trod oduc ucee on th thei eirr ow own n initiative, sometimes even in recitatives. When Porpora came to use the text, probably in the mid-1720s, whoever revised it for him (or he may have made the adaptation himself) seems to have made heavy weather of these repetitions programmed into the literary text. 19 Lines 1–2 of the first aria are conflated into a single, ungainly decasillabo that makes little metrical sense in isolation; the wor ordd-or orde derr of th thee fi firs rstt li line ne of th thee re reci cita tati tive ve is tr tran ansp spos osed ed;; an and d it itss la last st tw two o li line ness ar aree reduced, none too happily, to a single endecasillabo. Two internal lines are 19

London, Royal College of Music, MS 824, ff. 113–16. Concordances, variously for soprano and alto, alt o, ex exist ist in Bol Bologn ognaa (C (Civi ivico co Mus Museo eo Bib Biblio liogra grafic fico o Mus Musica icale) le),, Ha Hamb mburg urg (S (Staa taatsts- und Universitätsbibliothek ‘Carl von Ossietzky’), Munich (Bayerische Staatsbibliothek), Naples (Conservatorio di Musica ‘S. Pietro a Majella’) and Washington (Library of Congress).

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clippe clip ped d fr from om th thee re reci cita tati tive ve,, an and d an ex extr traa li line ne is in inse sert rted ed in a di diff ffer eren entt pl plac acee – an ac actt of surgery that triggers much change in the surrounding lines. The recitative ends up slightly condensed, with eight lines. The first tercet of the second aria is comprehensively modified, the original second line ( di poter mai più spiegar ) contributing most of the material to the new third line ( di poter spiegar il volo). The adapter links the new opening line of this aria to the last line of the recitative by op open enin ing g wi with th a ch chia iasm smic ic re repe peti titi tion on of it itss la last st tw two o wo word rds, s, sei pre preso so, as Pre Preso so sei. Otherwise, there are incidental changes of words, such as the replacement of passo by varco. Vivaldi accepts the text for the first aria more or less as bequeathed to him by Porpora, changing only the opening words of the last line. He replaces the central rec ecit itat atiive by as min inim imal al a tex extt as it wou oulld ha hav ve bee een n po poss ssib ible le to de devi vise se – one ve verry probably of his own composition composition.. Quadrio, the partisan of recitative, would have shaken his head knowingly. The recitative’s third and last line omits the word preso, thereby sacrificing Porpora’s textual link to the second aria. However, Vivaldi makes a link of a different kind by repeating the ‘-ato’ rhyme in the first line li ne of th thee ar aria ia.. He wr wrea eaks ks ha havo vocc on it itss fi firs rstt te terc rcet et by in inse sert rtin ing g tw two o ex extr traa ha half lf-l -lin ines es ( . . . mio cor pia that at tur urn n it int nto o a qua uattrai ain n des estr truc ucti tive ve of the iag gato, | non sperar . . .) th stanza’s symmetry. symmetry. His evident purpose was to provide a rhyming companion for thee se th seco cond nd li line ne,, dal ince ce at the end of the fir irsst li line ne he had rep epllac aced ed dalla la bel bella la ser servit vitù ù, sin più by piagato. Vivaldi’s intervention is both clever and amateurish: clever, because it knocks the text efficiently into the shape he wishes it to have; amateurish, because it is so poetically inept. Comparing Vivaldi’s text with the one set by Heinichen, we witness a poetic degradation that has to be deplored, even if, in modern conditions, we are more exercised by the music than by the words. Vivaldi’s Qual per ignoto calle, RV 677, has a single known literary concordance, the text of an anonymous cantata included in a volume at the British Librar Lib rary y con contai tainin ning g can cantat tatas as by Ar Arrig rigoni oni,, D’ D’Ast Astorg orga, a, Bi Bigag gaglia lia,, Gi Giova ovanni nni Bononcini, Gasparini, Hasse, Lotti, Mancini, and Alessandro Scarlatti. 20 An attempt to establish the composer’s identity will be made in Chapter 6. For the present, all that needs to be said is that its text is practically identical with Vivaldi’s, the differences being the presence of an apostrophizing ‘o’ before Irene in the first aria, tanta doglia instead of tante pene in the second recitative, and folgori instead of turbini in the second aria. The filiation of the two texts and the chronology of the two settings remain obscure. Another cantata for Dresden, All’ombra di sospetto, exists in a setting attributed to Bigaglia in Naples.21 Diogenio Bigaglia (c.1676–c.1745), a Benedictine who rose to become prior of the Venetian monastery of S. Giorgio Maggiore (today home to the Istituto Italiano Antonio Vivaldi), was a prolific composer of rather anaemic music, both sacred and secular. The continuo cantata was a genre in which he was especially active, and it can be assumed that he frequented some

20 21

London, British Library, Add. Ms. 14213, ff. 63–70. Naples, Conservatorio di Musica ‘S. Pietro a Majella’, 33.4.88, ff. 17–24. I am grateful to Enrico Careri for having inspected and reported on this source.


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of the same Venetian salons as Vivaldi. His text differs at several points from our composer’s. Variant lines are listed below. line Bigaglia

Vivaldi

7 12 13 15 19 22 23

ch’add ch’a ddol olci cisc scaa il penar con finti vezzi. che fedeli e costanti vengon delusi da lusinghe accorte Più d’ognun così langue, di vezzosa bellezza mai spera di goder , sin ch’ingannato viene amante schern schernito ito et ingannato .

ch’ h’aadd ddo olcisca l’amar con fi fint ntii ve vezz zzi. i. che son fidi e costanti, sono ingannati da lusinghe accorte Più d’uno così langue, di bellezza vezzosa mai sp sper eraa egli d’aver, sin ch’ing ch’ingannato annato viene vie ne ama amante nte sch schern ernito ito e abbandonato .

As Francesco Degrada remarks in his edition of Vivaldi’s cantata, the repetition of ingannato at the end of line 23 (the closing line of the second recitative) recitative) is certainly a mistake. This does not prove that Bigaglia’s text, or one closely cognate with it, served Vivaldi as raw material. Vivaldi’s copy text, minus that error, could in theory have been a primitive version of Bigaglia’s poem. But the probability, taking into account the general picture, is that the deviations of Vivaldi’s text are the result of his usual tinkering. For the sake of completeness, it should be mentioned that a different setting exists of the spurious cantata Ingrata Lidia, ha vinto il tuo rigor (RV 673), attributed to Giovanni Bononcini. 22 There is also a second setting, by Francesco Bartolomeo Conti, of the text of Prendea con man di latte , RV 753, a similarly dubious work.23 Vivaldi’s methods of obtaining or fashioning cantata texts also included the importation, collage style, of fragments taken from other sources. In two known instances, the cantatas RV 663 and RV 651/683 (these are two settings of the same text), the borrowed words come not from other cantatas but from opera librettos. RV 65 651 1 an and d 68 683 3 in intr trod oduc ucee as th thee th thir ird d an and d fo four urth th li line ness of th thee fi firs rstt re reci cita tati tive ve th thee first half of the opening quatrain of Cosroe’s aria ‘Gelido in ogni vena’ in Siro roe, e, re di Pe Pers rsia ia (I Metastasio’s Si (III II.5 .5), ), gi give ven n it itss fi firs rstt ou outi ting ng in th thee se sett ttin ing g by Vi Vinc ncii performed at Venice’s premier theatre, the Teatro S. Giovanni Grisostomo, in early 1726.24 Vivaldi’s interest in this aria text, which invites the musical depiction of shivering, is shown by his appropriation of it for his own Siroe, performed in the following year in Reggio Emilia. In Siroe the ‘iciness’ arises not from freezing temperatures temperatures but from the situation of the character who sings the aria: Cosroe, king of Persia. He is in a state of horrified shock, having (so he believes) delivered his own son Siroe to execution for treason just before learning, in the previous scene, of his innocence:

22 23 24

Copies in Berlin, Staatsbibliothek ‘Preußischer Kulturbesitz’, Mus. ms. 30074, pp. 270–77, and London, Guildhall Library, G. Mus. 449, no. 2. Sondershausen, Stadt- und Kreisbibliothek ‘J. K. Wezel’, Mus. B4:1. wass the secon second d op opera era of the seaso season n per perfor forme med d at that that theatre theatre.. Ap Appro prova vall for th thee grantin granting g of a Siroe wa licence to publish the libretto, an essential prerequisite for its staging, was given by the civil and ecclesiastical censors on 27 January 1726.

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Gelido in ogni vena scor orrrer mi sen entto il san ang gue; l’ombr braa de dell figl gliio esan ang gue m’ingombra di terror.

Icily in every vein I feel my blood flowing; the shad adee of my dead son fills me with terror.

Since their metre is settenario, these lines are compatible also with recitative. Needless to say, the situation depicted by Vivaldi in the cantata deals with a less serious matter: the rejection by Clori of her unnamed lover: Amor, hai vinto, hai vinto. Ecco il mio seno da’ tuoi strali trafitto. Or chi sostiene l’alma mia dal dolore abbandonata? Gelido in ogni vena scorrer mi sento il sangue, e sol mi serba in vita affanno e pena. Mi palpita nel petto con nuove scosse il core. Clori, crudel, e quanto ha da durar quest’aspro tuo rigor? 25

Love, you have won. Behold my breast pierced by your arrows. Now who will sustain my soul, given up to grief? Icily in every every vein I feel my blood blood flowing, flowing, and only sorrow and dread keep me alive. My heart beats in my chest with new thumps. Cruel Clori, how long does your bitter rejection have to last?

The ic The icin ines esss is at a pi pinc nch h co cons nson onan antt wi with th th thee lo love ver’ r’ss dr drea ead d (affanno). In it itss co cont ntex ext, t, the borrowing arguably adds no significant new incongruity to what is already present. One wonders whether Vivaldi wished the grafted snippet of text to be apparent to his audience as a deliberate intertextual intertextual reference. The probability is that he did not. In his musical borrowings, borrowings, at any rate, our composer was always furtive. For the aria opening Scherza di fronda in fronda , RV 663, Vivaldi transported with wi thou outt al alte tera rati tion on th thee te text xt (b (by y Do Dome meni nico co La Lall lli) i) of an ar aria ia th that at he ha had d us used ed in 17 1721 21 in the opera Filippo, re di Macedonia (III.3). 26 (He also adapted the original music mu sic,, as Cha Chapte pterr 5 will will show show.) .) Thi Thiss is a typic typical al ‘co ‘compa mparis rison’ on’ (or ‘si ‘simil mile’) e’) ari ariaa in which a feature of the natural world – in this case, a bird fearful of becoming ensnared in a trap – is evoked to illustrate the human condition: Scherz Sche rzaa di fr fron onda da in fr fron onda da incerto l’augelletto; or corre su la sponda del chiaro ruscelletto. Ma palpitante il core ha sempre per timore perché fra duri lacci non resti il pie’ ristretto.

The li The litt ttle le bi bird rd ho hops ps ga gail ily y bu butt wa wari rily ly from leaf to leaf; now it runs on the bank of the clear-running brooklet. But its heart always flutters from fear that its foot may be caught in a cruel snare.

Ingeniously and aptly, Vivaldi applies this simile in the cantata to the topos of the timid lover, Eurillo, who is wary of falling victim to one of the many nymphs lying in wait for him. In general, aria texts in operas and cantatas can tatas differ in subject

25 26

The transcription is from RV 683 (RV 651 has a few variant readings). This opera, with which the carnival season opened at the Teatro S. Angelo, was the joint composition of Giuseppe Boniventi, who wrote the first two acts, and Vivaldi, who provided the third act.


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and tone. Here, however, there is a happy coincidence of situation for Vivaldi to exploit. The authorship and provenance of the rest of this cantata’s text are hard to esta es tabl blis ish. h. Pe Perh rhap apss th thee bo borr rrow owed ed ar aria ia wa wass a re repl plac acem emen entt fo forr an anot othe herr te text xt th that at or orig igiinally stood in the same position, in which case the author was probably someone othe ot herr th than an th thee co comp mpos oser er.. Pe Perh rhap apss th thee po poet et wa wass La Lall llii hi hims msel elf, f, de delv lvin ing g ba back ck in into to hi hiss own works for the first aria. I suspect, however, that Vivaldi cobbled everything everything together himself. Doubtless, his cantata texts contain many similar borrowings that have yet to come to light. By far the most celebrated instance of Vivaldi’s bricolage in any genre is his four fo ur at atte temp mpts ts to ge gett bo both th th thee mu musi sicc an and d th thee wo word rdss ri righ ghtt in th thee op open enin ing g re reci cita tati tive ve of discussion Nel partir da te, mio caro, RV 661.27 The fullest and most penetrating discussion appears in Degrada’s essay on Vivaldi’s cantatas, 28 but there are useful earlier accoun acc ounts ts fro from m Dun Dunham ham and Ry Ryom. om.29 Bot Both h Dun Dunham ham and Deg Degrad radaa pro provid videe comple com plete te tr trans anscri cripti ptions ons of the thr three ee abo abort rted ed ope openin nings gs and one com comple pleted ted movement. Since RV 661 belongs to the group of cantatas composed for the court in Mant Ma ntua ua,, on onee wo woul uld d as assu sume me th that at Vi Viva vald ldii wa wass su supp ppli lied ed by so some meon onee el else se wi with th a te text xt to set. Degrada reconstructs its first three lines convincingly as: Parto, sì parto, [addio, lungi da te, mio bene, ma in pegno del mio amor ti lascio il core.]

I am going, yes, I am going, farewell, far away from you, my love, but I leave you my heart as a pledge pledge of my love.

The bracketed portion is conjectural, since the underlaid text of the first version proceeds no further than the third word, and that of the second version no further than the second word. Both versions continue the vocal part for a few phrases with untexted notes, and both have blank bass staves. Vivaldi must have had a preconceived idea of how the text would continue under the notes already written and what the bass harmonies would be, but, following his usual custom, he began by sketching out the notes of the principal melodic part. Why did he give up and start again? Perhaps the reason for breaking off the first draft was simply that the stress pattern of the opening words was incompatible with the proposed notes. Sì falls on the second beat and bears a stronger accent than the ‘par-’ that follows as a quaver between the beats – an obvious solecism. Unfortunately, the second draft offered little improvement, since it began with a pair of dactyls (quaver plus two semiquavers), which are almost comic in their repetitive effect and moreover introduce an undesirable dialoepha between the third and fourth words. The third version, five bars of which were notated completely, made some progress, continuing the three lines quoted above with two more:

27 28 29

Foà 28, ff. 26–9. Degrada, ‘Note filologiche in margine all’edizione critica’, pp. 371–7. manuscritss de Vivaldi, Dunha Dun ham, m, ‘Th ‘Thee Sec Secula ularr Ca Canta ntatas tas of An Anton tonio io Viv Vivald aldi’, i’, pp pp.. 63– 63–5; 5; Ry Ryom om,, Les manuscrit pp. 23–4.

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Gradiscilo, ti priego, poiché un dì lo gradisti.

Receive it, I beg you, since once you received it.

But Vivaldi committed an error. He omitted the word addio at the end of the first line li ne,, an and d so re redu duce ced d an or orth thod odox ox settenario to a quinario. Degr Degrada’ ada’ss tran transcri scription ption accepts the quinario as the intended first line, and his attempted explanation explanation for Vivaldi’s abandonment of the third draft is more elaborate than the one I have give gi ven n he here re.. It is tr true ue th that at in or ordi dina nary ry It Ital alia ian n po poet etry ry quinario me metr tree ca can n be a pa part rtne nerr to settenario and endecasillabo, bu butt th this is as asso soci ciat atio ion n do does es no nott ap appl ply, y, in my ex expe peri ri-ence, to eighteenth-ce eighteenth-century ntury recitative verse. At this point a crisis occurred. Rather than go back and work on the same jinxed text once again, Vivaldi set – this time with his customary fluency – a paraphrase of it. The definitive stanza runs: Parto,, mi Parto mio o be ben, n, da te, io pa parto rto,, ad addio dio;; ma il cor qui rest restaa in osse ossequio quioso so pegn pegno. o. Di gradirlo ti priego, e all’afflitto mio core donali don ali in prem premio io alme almeno no un dolc dolcee amor amore. e.

I am lea leavin ving g yo you, u, my lov love, e, I am lea leavin ving, g, fa farew rewell ell;; but my hear heartt is stay staying ing here as a humb humble le pled pledge. ge. I beg you to receive it, and to reward my wounded heart with at leas leastt a swee sweett affe affectio ction. n.

Who wrote the second version of the text, which improves marginally on the abys ab ysma mall li lite tera rary ry qu qual alit ity y of th thee fi firs rst? t? Mo Most st co comm mmen enta tato tors rs ha have ve as assu sume med d th that at it wa wass quattro o Vivaldi himself. He certainly claimed authorship of the sonnets on Le quattr stagioni, and on that evidence would easily have been capable of such a task. 30 Degra De grada da is sce scepti ptical cal,, bel believ ieving ing tha thatt the rep repla lacem cement ent tex textt wa wass pro provid vided ed by someone else.31 Although Degrada does not actually claim this, the reviser could well we ll ha have ve be been en th thee or orig igin inal al po poet et.. We se sens nsee fr from om Go Gold ldon oni’ i’ss re repo port rt of hi hiss en enco coun unte terr with Vivaldi in 1735 (in connection with the revision of Zeno’s libretto for Griselda) that the composer was quite capable of throwing back in a poet’s face anything with which he was dissatisfied. So, ironically, this may have been one instance where his meddling took the form not of direct intervention but of persuading a collaborator to have a second try. Amon Am ong g ca cant ntat ataa co comp mpos oser erss wh who o we were re al also so po poet etss Vi Viva vald ldii oc occu cupi pies es th thee hu humb mble lest st imaginable place. Quantz tells us that Alessandro Scarlatti Scarlatti penned the texts for a 32 great number of his own cantatas, and the shining example of Benedetto Marcello naturally leaps to mind. Vivaldi did not have the educational background or breadth of culture – nor, perhaps, the patience and inclination – to take his ventures into the realm of poetry beyond the point where their products were merely serviceable. For all his success at the peak of his career, his mentality never fundamentally outgrew that of a jobbing musician. However, he had the goo ood d se sens nsee to cho hoo ose – or, when he co cou uld no nott cho hoo ose se,, to ad adaapt – te text xtss tha hatt sho how wed off his musical talents to their best advantage. 30

31 32

The copies in Manchester of these concertos, prepared in the composer’s atelier, describe the sonnets as his composizioni (in the early eighteenth century composizione more often denotes a literary than a musical composition). Degrada, ‘Note filologiche in margine all’edizione critica’, pp. 375–7. ‘Herrn Johann Joachim Quantzens Lebenslauf, von ihm selbst entworfen’, in Friedrich Wilhelm Historisch-kritische -kritische Beyträge zur Aufnahme der Musik , vol. 1, Berlin: Schütz, 1755, Marpurg, Historisch pp. 197–250, at p. 229.


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The Composer and the Singer Composers and singers were natural partners. In the opera house either party cou co uld rid idee to fa fam me – or sl slid idee int nto o in infa famy my – on the ba back ck of the ot othe her. r. Si Sing nger erss ha had d the upper hand in this relationship. In any human chain of transmission, such as that running from the librettist via the composer to the singer, the last ‘link’ holds the greatest power, since he or she is at the interface with the public, where the process ends. It was therefore not the composer’s job to ‘push’ a singer into unfamiliar regions for the sake of art or his own reputation. His task was to assess the singer’s qualities (in terms of strength, compass, timbre, dramatic expression, etc.) and write music music that gratified gratified him or her, at the same same time avoiding avoiding anything that might reveal weaknesses. Forr a co Fo comp mpos oser er wo work rkin ing g fo forr a si sing ngle le in inst stit itut utio ion n or in a si sing ngle le mi mili lieu eu,, a pe perf rfec ectl tly y cust cu stom omiz ized ed mu musi sicc wa wass th thee id idea eal. l. Ho Howe weve ver, r, fo forr co comp mpos oser erss wh whos osee ‘c ‘cli lien entt ba base se’’ wa wass diverse and sometimes unknowable in advance, excessive customization was a drawback, since it placed obstacles in the way of subsequent use by different performers in other locales. Vivaldi is the supreme example of a composer who like li ked d to sp spre read ad ri risk sk an and d ac acqu quir iree wi wide derr fa fame me by se serv rvin ing g si simu mult ltan aneo eous usly ly a mu mult ltit itud udee of patrons and clients all over Europe. How proudly he boasted, in his famous letter of 16 November 1737 to Guido Bentivoglio d’Aragona, of maintaining a correspondence with nine ‘high princes’ ( principi d’altezza), all of whom, one presumes, were his customers. For the mature Vivaldi, therefore, customization wass ne wa near arly ly al alwa ways ys te temp mper ered ed by th thee an anti tici cipa pati tion on of re recy cycl clin ing. g.33 Fo Forr th this is re reas ason on,, th thee chor ch oral al pa part rtss wr writ itte ten n fo forr fe fema male le ‘b ‘bas asse ses’ s’ at th thee Pi Piet età, à, no norm rmal ally ly to be su sung ng an oc octa tave ve above their notated pitch, were made to work equally well when sung without transp tra nsposi ositio tion n by mal malee voi voices ces,, all allowi owing ng the wor works ks con contai tainin ning g the them m to pas passs successfully into the repertory of all-male church choirs and, much later on, of mixed choirs. Although relatively few of Vivaldi’s cantatas survive in more than a single source, there is ample evidence from annotations in the manuscripts stored in his personal archive (e.g., instructions for transposition, small revisions revisions to notes or words, the allocation of a serial number) that the composer reissued them on many occasions. One could use the slightly oxymoronic phrase ‘generic customization’ to describe the degree to which the vocal parts in Vivaldi’s chamber cantatas are tailored to the singer. They have an objectively determinable compass, but one also capable of instant expansion or contraction with a few strokes of the composer’s pen (such minor amendments abound in the scores). They take no apparent account of the difference in timbre between female (soprano, contralto) and high male (soprano castrato, alto castrato, counter-tenor) voices. Any part head he aded ed by a C cl clef ef on th thee lo lowe west st st stav avee-li line ne is fo forr ‘s ‘sop opra rano no’, ’, wh what atev ever er it itss pe pecu culi liar ariities; any with a C clef on the middle line is for ‘alto’. Their written-in ornamental deta de tail il is fa fair irly ly st stan anda dard rd fo forr th thee gi give ven n le leve vell of di diff ffic icul ulty ty.. Ob Obvi viou ousl sly, y, si sing nger erss ha had d th thee

33

An exception should be made for a few violin concertos exploiting the ultra-high register that Vivaldi seemingly reserved for himself as showpieces.

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opportunity to introduce their ‘trademark’ embellishments as part of their improvisational practice both in the da capo repeat of the ‘A’ section of an aria and – with even more freedom – in cadenzas. Who were the singers of Vivaldi’s cantatas? At Mantua, where Vivaldi received his first opportunity to compose cantatas in quantity, they came in at least four categories. First, there were the amateurs: members of the ruling house and their companions. As Chapter 4 will show, the family of the governor, Prince Philip, had members capable of sustaining a solo part not merely in a cantata but even in a full-length serenata. serenata. Next, there were the salaried household musicians. In seasons when opera was running, this would be the main platform for their talents, but in the greater part of the year, when the theatres fell silent, a diet of cantatas made up their daily bread. Third, there was the penumbra of singers not attached to the court but resident locally and therefore available for engagement on an occasional basis. In Mantua the singers attached to the local cathedral, S. Pietro, and to the ducal church of S. Barbara formed such a nucleus. Last but not least, there were the numerous itinerant singers, many of international stature, who were permitted by patent to style themselves ‘virtuosi’ or ‘servi’ of Prince Philip and doubtless paid occasional visits to Mantua. 34 Their ranks included such luminaries as the soprano Cecilia Belisani, the alto Giovanni Battista Carboni, the tenor Annibale Pio Fabri, the soprano Margherita Gualandi, the alt alto o Gi Giova ovanni nni Ba Batti ttista sta Min Minell elli, i, the sop sopran rano o Pie Pietro tro Mor Morigi igi,, the sop sopran rano o Giuseppa Pircher, and the bass Angelo Maria Zanoni. 35 The contracts governing such patents were very varied in nature. Some brought membership of the ducal famigliarità) or a pa househ hou sehold old ( famigliarità pass sspo port rt,, so some me no not. t. Th They ey no norm rmal ally ly en enta tail iled ed,, in ad addi di-tion to the title, a monetary payment to the singer, who might in return have to perf pe rfor orm m oc occa casi sion onal al du duti ties es at co cour urt. t. In ef effe fect ct,, th thee sy syst stem em wa wass a fo form rm of cross-advertising cross-advert ising whose billboards were the cast-lists in opera librettos: singers gained the prestige of recognition by a ruler; rulers gained the prestige of supporting celebrated artists. In the case of the Mantuan cantatas, it is a hopeless task to assign individual compositions, composition s, even speculatively, to named singers on the basis of their musical feat fe atur ures es,, si sinc ncee th thee nu numb mber er of po poss ssib ible le ca cand ndid idat ates es in ea each ch vo voca call ca cate tego gory ry is so va vast st.. At best, one can suggest which cantatas were conceived for professional, and which for amateur, singers. The cantatas sent to Dresden in 1733 (see Chapter 6) were composed for a small nucleus of highly skilled court singers, all of whom had served at least part of their apprenticeship in Venice and must have been known personally to Vivaldi. Here, some guesses are possible. In the intervening years, cantatas by Vivaldi must have been performed in Venice at private ‘academies’ of the kind held by Angioletta Bianchi. There is a

34

35

On the practice of granting such patents, see Paola Besutti, La corte musicale di Ferdinando Carlo Gonzaga ultimo duca di Mantova. Musici, cantanti e teatro d’opera tra il 1665 e il 1707 , Mantua: Arcari, 1989. Mantua’s change from independent duchy (under Ferdinando Carlo) to dependentt province (under Prince Philip) made no difference to the practice, although Philip’s dependen ‘virtuosi’ were, naturally, different from those of his predecessor. It wa wass Za Zano noni ni,, al also so a pl play ayer er of th thee vi viol olaa da ga gamb mba, a, wh who o to took ok th thee rô rôle le of th thee cr crot otch chet ety y tu tuto torr Ni Nice cena na in Vivaldi’s opera L’incoronazione di Dario .


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hint in Vivaldi’s correspondence that he attended musical gatherings at the house in Ve Veni nice ce of th thee fa famo mous us si sing nger er Fa Faus usti tina na Bo Bord rdon oni, i, wh who o wa wass to ma marr rry y th thee co comp mpos oser er Hasse in 1730 and had earlier been associated with (and in one English source identified as the lover of) the violinist-composer Mauro D’Alay, a member of Vivaldi’s circle in the mid-1720s. 36 These diverse destinations explain the great diversity of compass, style, and level of difficulty among Vivaldi’s cantatas. To give a flavour of this range, extracts from the soprano part of two cantatas are quoted as Example 3.1. In each case, the extract comprises the first and second vocal periods of the final aria. Since final arias are commonly set to texts that propose a resolution to the prob pr oble lem m (o (off se sepa para rati tion on,, re reje ject ctio ion, n, ti timi midi dity ty,, et etc. c.)) ad addr dres esse sed d in th thee ea earl rlie ierr pa part rt of th thee cantata, they tend to be lighter in spirit and style than the preceding ones. They prefer brisk tempos and ‘short’ metres such as 3/8 or 2/4. Example 3.1a represents the Mantuan cantatas at their simplest and most straightforward. straightforw ard. Indeed, it retains something of the faux-naïf quality of Vivaldi’s arias for minor characters in his early operas. The vocal line displays a noteworthy thematic economy: the three-note stepwise descent, the first note often anticipated by an upbeat, comes back repeatedly in various guises and is present equally in the ritornellos, interludes, and accompaniment provided by the bass. The ‘B’ section, despite its new text, is based on exactly the same material. This aria should be described as ‘monomotivi ‘monomotivic’ c’ rather than ‘monothematic’, since it is the building block itself, not any larger structure formed from it, that stays cons co nsta tant nt.. On Onee se sees es we well ll wh why y Ka Karl rl Wö Wörn rner er wa wass ab able le to vi view ew Vi Viva vald ldii as th thee in inve vent ntor or of the thematische Arbeit that became the glory of Viennese Classicism. Classicism. 37 Extended melisma is reserved for the syllable ‘sa-’ of sani (‘assuage’). Here, the illustration of the text is perfect, since on all three occasions the vocal line performs a smoothing, stroking motion suggestive of a hand applying balm. The whole section has an emphatically vocal character: most motion is conjunct, and the wider intervals employed now and again are easy for the voice to negotiate. To recall Mattheson’s description, there are no ‘violin leaps’ here. Copious rests allow the voice to recover between phrases. The two periods are modelled on the two sections of simple binary form. The three-bar cadential phrase ending the second period (bars 67–9) echoes the one endi en ding ng th thee fi firs rstt pe peri riod od in th thee do domi mina nant nt (b (bar arss 27 27–9 –9), ), wi with th so some me rh rhyt ythm hmic ic va vari riat atio ion. n. Such matching of section endings is normal in binary-form instrumental movements of the time. The tonal and thematic design of the opening of the second period likewise follows a routine familiar from binary form. First, we have a statement in the dominant of the opening phrase (bars 34–9); then a statement in the tonic replicating the opening of the first period (bars 41–46); and finally a modified restatement of the same material that introduces a subdominant inflection via a tonic seventh (the E flat in bars 48–9) and thereby keeps the tonal momentum going. Its phrase structure is perhaps the most sophisticated aspect of this otherwise 36 37

See pp. 123–4. Zeitalter der thematische thematischen n Proz Prozesse esse in der Ges Geschic chichte hte der Musi Musik k , Karl H. Wörn Wörner, er, Das Zeitalter Regensburg: Gustav Bosse Verlag, 1969, pp. 67–73.

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Ex. 3.1a Vivaldi, All’ ombra d’un bel faggio , RV 649: ‘Vorrei, mio ben, da te’, vocal periods 1–2

unpretentious ‘A’ section. As Table 3.1a reveals, three-bar units dominate, although there are enough two-bar and four-bar units to set up interesting asymmetries. Add to this the complications introduced by the insertion of uniformly one-bar onebar inst instrume rumental ntal inter interlude ludess betw between een the subu subunits nits (show (shown n with within in squa square re brackets in the table), and we have a section full of fascinating ambiguities of phrasing, where endings may be heard equally well as openings. Table 3.1a Structure of the first and second vocal periods (with tailpiece) in ‘Vorrei, mio ben, da te’, from All’ombra d’un bel faggio , RV 649 (c.1720) Bars

Section

Phrase structure

14–29 14–2 9 34–6 34 –62 2

1st vo 1st voca call se sect ctio ion n 2nd 2n d vo voca call se sect ctio ion n

63–69

tailpiece

3 + 3 + [1] + (2 + 2 + 2) + 3 3 + 3 + [1 [1]] + 3 + 3 + [1 [1]] + 3 + 3 + [1 [1]] + (1 + 1 + 1+ 1) + 3 [+ 1] (1 + 1 + 1 + 1) + 3

Note: quaver upbeats are discounted in the calculation. calculation.


79

The vo The voca call co comp mpas asss em empl ploy oyed ed in th this is se sect ctio ion n ( f'–a''), wh whic ich h th thee ‘B ‘B’’ se sect ctio ion n do does es not modify except to add e', is very compact. Note that instead of reserving the highest note, a'', for a single climax, Vivaldi returns to it periodically. The idea of havi ha ving ng a si sing ngle le cl clim imac acti ticc no note te wa wass no nott fo fore reig ign n to th thee mu musi sica call th thou ough ghtt of th thee pe peri riod od – the d''' to which Vivaldi soars eight bars before the end of his Laudate pueri Dominum RV 601 is a striking case in point – but it was at least as common to ‘stake out the boundary’ by reaching the highest note repeatedly, as Vivaldi does here. All in all, this aria, from All’ombra d’un bel faggio, RV 649, exemplifies to perfection the tradition of the cantata da camera. Without being undeveloped in any an y wa way, y, it ex exer erci cise sess du duee mo mode dera rati tion on in su such ch ma matt tter erss as le leng ngth th an and d te tech chni nica call di diff ffiiculty. What may on the surface appear artlessness is in reality the product of a great gre at art artist istry ry tha thatt pro probab bably ly owe owess mor moree to ins instin tinct ct and exp experi erienc encee tha than n to conscious calculation. It represents the ideal ‘social’ music – accessible to compet com petent ent am amate ateur ur sin singer gerss and sui suitab table, le, if nee need d be, for sel selff-acc accomp ompani anied ed performance. Example 3.1b shows the composer in his post- galant phase. It breaks the boun bo unds ds of th thee pu pure re ch cham ambe berr st styl ylee to be beco come me,, so to sp spea eak, k, ‘o ‘ope pera ra by ot othe herr me mean ans’ s’ – the ideal material with which an accomplished professional professional singer can regale his or her patron in private surroundings. The cantata, Par che tardo oltre il costume , RV 662, exists in an autograph score datable to c.1731. In every respect, this aria is more expansive than the one we have just considered. Its vocal compass is wider (the voice rises to the note c''', which, characteristically, it ‘hits’ on three separate occasions); its phrases are spun out further; its melismas are more extr ex trav avag agan ant; t; it in incl clud udes es mo more re de deco cora rati tion on in th thee sh shap apee of tr tril ills ls,, ap appo pogg ggia iatu tura ras, s, et etc. c.;; its rhythms are more varied; its thematic material is more diverse. Once again, the model of instrumental binary form lurks in the background. Butt he Bu here re,, it is a pr prog ogre ress ssiv ivee ve vers rsio ion n of bi bina nary ry fo form rm,, th thee so so-c -cal alle led d ‘r ‘rou ound nded ed’’ bi bina nary ry form, that asserts itself. In bar 53 we find a varied reprise, textual and musical, of the opening of the first vocal section. This feature, which entails an unusual second return to the opening word of the text (‘Allor’) (‘Allor’),, is not standard in the da capo aria. Its inclusion, besides revealing Vivaldi’s background in instrumental music, demonstrates demonstrates his admirable preoccupation preoccupation with musical musical unity. The reprise is far from mechanical: two bars (53–4) that repeat the opening without alteration are followed by five (55–9) that reproduce it in paraphrase, whereupon the music moves to entirely new material. Vivaldi’s approach is no longer strictly monomotivic. monomotivic. The section is based on three primitive melodic archetypes: the scale, the broken-thirds progression (which may be regarded as an elaborated scale), and the repeated note. All three elements are rhythmicized in different ways, and the first two appear in both descending and (less often) ascending form. The ‘stutter’ figure first introduced in bar 70 (this is a favourite building-block of Vivaldi in his late period, best known from its appearance in the Sinfonia to L’Olimpiade) may seem entirely new, but is in reality only a different way of presenting the repeated-note idea. As usual, Vivaldi pays attention to the possibilities for word-painting. The descending scale in semiquavers marking the arrival of the word Notte in fact refers – very effectively – to the veil ( velo) that Night draws over the earth. On

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Ex. 3.1b Vivaldi, Par che tardo oltre il costume , RV 662: ‘Allor che in cielo’, vocal periods 1–2


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Ex. 3.1b Vival Vivaldi, di, Par che tardo oltre il costume , RV 662: cont.

this occasion, Vivaldi initially ignores the temptation to illustrate the word dolori (‘sorrows’):: good composers know that word-painting has to be rationed in order (‘sorrows’) to st stan and d ou outt an and d av avoi oid d im impe pedi ding ng th thee mu musi sica call fl flow ow.. Ho Howe weve ver, r, he is ab able le to il illu lust stra rate te this word economically and subtly in bars 61 and 63, where the diminished third produc pro duced ed by chr chroma omatic ticall ally y alt altere ered d orn orname amenta ntall res resolu olutio tions ns of a sus suspen pensio sion n hin hints ts at discomfort. The most prominent instances of coloratura writing occur, however, on syllables of neutral words ( avrò and ristoro). Here, Vivaldi could be accused of in inse sens nsit itiv ivit ity y – on onee re reca call llss ho how w sc scan anda dali lize zed d Be Berl rlio iozz be beca came me at Mo Moza zart rt’s ’s ex extr trav av-agant melisma on the ‘-rà’ of sentirà in Donna Anna’s aria ‘Non mi dir, bell’idol mio’ in Don Giovanni, which is an exactly parallel case. In his defence, Vivaldi would doubtless have pleaded that melisma was mandatory for structural and stylistic reasons, and that it was the poet’s task, not his, to supply suitably expressive words at pre-cadential points. (He might have appended the remark that all other Italian composers did likewise.) As in the other aria, melodic contour, modulation, and phrase structure are handle han dled d con consum summat mately ely.. The There re is the sam samee bea beauti utiful ful bal balanc ancee bet betwe ween en the exp expect ected ed (literal repetition or symmetry) and the unexpected (modified repetition or asymmetry). Table 3.1b reveals a phrase-structure even more complex than that of ‘Vorrei, mio ben, da te’. Modulatory inflections, such as the hint of D minor in barrs 42– ba 2–6 6 an and d the tur urn n to B fl flat at maj ajor or in ba bars rs 60 60– –61 61,, occ ccu ur jus ustt at th thee rig ight ht po poiint to save the music from stasis. It is arguable, however, that ‘Allor che in cielo’ lacks personality in comparison with ‘Vorrei, mio ben, da te’. By choosing (for perfectly understandable understandable reasons) to keep abreast of the stylistic changes spearheaded by the Neapolitans, Vivaldi Vivaldi may have sacrificed a little of what made him distinctive. Put more succinctly, he traded originality for fashionability. fashionability. There is no cle clearar-cut cut ans answer wer to thi thiss cha charge rge.. The sam samee pro proble blem m aff affect ected ed all Ita Italia lian n composers of Vivaldi’s generation (Albinoni and E. F. Dall’Abaco spring first to mind) who attempted to continue their successful careers after the mid-1720s unde un derr th thee ne new w st styl ylis isti ticc co cond ndit itio ions ns br brou ough ghtt ab abou outt by Ne Neap apol olit itan an do domi mina nanc nce. e. Bu Butt if Viva Vi vald ldii su succ ccum umbe bed, d, he ce cert rtai ainl nly y di did d so to a le less sser er de degr gree ee th than an ma many ny ar arou ound nd hi him. m. One would expect there to be less distinctiveness about Vivaldi’s recitatives, give gi ven n th thee li limi mite ted d ro room om fo forr ma mano noeu euvr vree wi with thin in th thee co conv nven enti tion onss th that at go gove vern rned ed it it.. On thee wh th whol ole, e, th this is is tr true ue,, bu butt th ther eree ar aree si sign gnss ev ever eryw ywhe here re of ef effo fort rt to ac achi hiev evee in inte tens nsit ity y

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Table 3.1b Structure of the first and second vocal periods (with tailpiece) in ‘Allor ‘Allor che in cielo’, from Par che tardo oltre il costume , RV 662 (c.1731) Bars

Section

Phrase structure

13–29 33–5 33 –52 2 53–80 53– 80 81–85

1st vocal period 2nd 2n d vo voca call pe peri riod od (1 (1)) 2nd voc vocal al per period iod (2) tailpiece

2+3+2+4+6 3 + 4 + 2 + 4 + (2 + 2) + 3 2 + 3 + 2 + (2 + 2 + 2) + 4 + (2 + 2 + 2) + 3 + 2 2+3

Note: quaver upbeats are discounted in the calculation. calculation.

and originality of effect: in short, to be expressive. The composer’s letter of 2 January 1739 to Guido Bentivoglio d’Aragona, in which he takes satisfaction from the applause gained by certain scenes consisting wholly of recitative in his opera Farnace as produced at Ancona, shows how seriously he regarded recitative composition. About the melodic design of his recitatives there is little to say except that Vivaldi deploys the full range of effects (leaps, stepwise motion, note-repetition, chroma chr omatic ticall ally y alt altere ered d int interv ervals als)) tha thatt one wo would uld exp expect ect fro from m a res resour ourcef ceful ul composer of his time. One interesting detail is that on two occasions, in RV 656 and an d 65 657, 7, he en ends ds th thee vo voca call li line ne of a re reci cita tati tive ve on a mo mono noto tone ne th that at ac acts ts,, in ha harm rmon onic ic terms, as an ‘inverted’ pedal: a pitch that grates against some of the harmonies below it. Example 3.2 shows the last five bars of the central recitative in Geme l’onda che parte dal fonte, RV 657. Such a cadence, commonly associated with languishing (as here) or dying, has a decidedly seventeenth-century seventeenth-century ring about it. By Vivaldi’s maturity, it was no longer current, and its resuscitati resuscitation on here, and in 38 RV 656, is an unexpected archaism. The more personal quality in Vivaldi’s cantata recitatives comes from their bold, sometimes frankly outlandish, chord juxtapositions, which in turn generate unus un usua uall vo voca call in infl flec ecti tion ons. s. A ce cent ntra rall co conc ncep eptt fo forr th thee an anal alys ysis is of hi hiss ha harm rmon ony y is th that at of ellipsis. Progressions that would normally take three chords to achieve are effected in only two, since the linking chord is merely understood, not literally present. The progression between the third and fourth bars of Example 3.2 offers an excellent illustration. Ordinarily, one would expect a chord of D minor or D majo jorr to li link nk the dom omiina nan nt se seve vent nth h ch cho ord on A in bar 14 to th thee di dimi mini nish shed ed tri riaad on D sharp in bar 15. Vivaldi short-circuits the process, producing a much more arresting effect. Occasionally, he exploits real (as opposed to merely notated) enharmonic change. Example 3.3, taken from Par che tardo oltre il costume , shows him first, in bars 6–7, introducing an elliptical progression (from D sharp to G sharp in the bass, omitting an intervening chord of E), and then, in bars 7–8, reinterpreting reinterpret ing the G sharp as A flat, which allows him to continue by treating this note as the submediant of C minor. 38

Schmitz draws attention to this cadence ( Geschichte der weltlichen Solokantate , p. 151), using it to dem demon onstr strate ate hi hiss ob obser servat vation ion tha thatt Vi Vival valdi di is su super perio iorr in inv invent entive ivene ness ss to Alb Albino inoni ni as a com compo poser ser of recitatives. He does not, however, point out its ancestry in seventeenth-century music (or, for that matter, Albinoni’s own use of the very same cadence).


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Ex. 3.2 Vivaldi, Geme l’onda che parte dal fonte , RV 657: recitative, bars 12–16

Ex. 3.3 Vivaldi, Par che tardo oltre il costume , RV 677: recitative, bars 1–8

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Arioso is a device rarely used in Vivaldi’s recitatives, although it is handled expertly when it appears. Timms identifies only two passages of arioso in them, occurring in RV 677 and RV 680, respectively. 39 To these one may add certain bars in the first recitative of the recently discovered Tremori al braccio e lagrime sul ciglio, RV 799, and a short phrase in the middle of the second recitative of Elvira, anima mia, RV 654. The motivation for an arioso is always to be found in the words. In RV 654 the cue is tormento (c (cau ausi sing ng th thee si sing nger er to fl flai aill ab abou outt in ch chro ro-matic broken chords); in RV 677 it is terribile tempesta (a scale in the voice and undu un dula lati ting ng br brok oken en ch chor ords ds in th thee ba bass ss); ); in RV 68 680, 0, corro (a (an n as asce cend ndin ing g sc scal ale) e) an and, d, separately, Deh per pietade, Amore (a br briief pr pray ayer er to Cup upid id ov over er a sol olem emn n ba bass ss of repeated quavers); in RV 799, Amor sen’ ride (Cupid’s mockery is expressed through a repeated ‘laughing’ phrase). In the can cantat tatas as wit with h ful fulll ins instru trumen mental tal acc accomp ompani animen ment, t, whe where re recitativo accompagnato and recitativo obbligato become available, Vivaldi deploys the full arsenal of devices. In ascending order of complexity, these are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Simple recitat Simple recitative, ive, as in contin continuo uo cantata cantatas. s. Simplee recitative Simpl recitative reinfor reinforced ced by unison unison string stringss (violins (violins and and violas violas play play in the the upper octave). Harmonized Harm onized recita recitative tive (upper (upper string stringss share share the the rhythm rhythm of the the bass). bass). Patt Pa tter erne ned d re reci cita tati tive ve,, wi with th in inde depen pende dent nt no notete-val value uess in th thee acc accom ompa panyi nying ng pa part rts. s. In this kind of recitative the vocal part has to be sung in strict time. Dial Di alogu oguin ing g re recit citati ative ve,, wh wher eree vo voca call an and d in inst stru rume ment ntal al ph phra rase sess al alte tern rnat ate, e, us usua uall lly y with overlapping.

How these different types combine to make up a composite recitative movement will be discussed later in connection with individual cantatas.

The Composer and the Accompaniment The accompaniment for Vivaldi’s continuo cantatas would almost always have been harpsichord (or spinet) plus cello, or either separately. There is no intrinsic reason why lute, theorbo, or guitar could not also have served, either alone or in combination with the named instruments, but there is no specific evidence, internal or external, that this was ever so. In fact, the bass parts of Vivaldi’s conti con tinuo nuo can cantat tatas as are wi witho thout ut exc except eption ion con concei ceived ved im imagi aginat native ively ly for cel cello, lo, wi withi thin n whos wh osee no norm rmal al co comp mpas asss th they ey re rema main in.. Th This is is no nott qu quit itee th thee sa same me as sa sayi ying ng th that at th they ey are ‘for’ cello tout court . Doubtless, they were often played in performance, and even ev en mo more re of ofte ten n in re rehe hear arsa sal, l, on th thee ke keyb yboa oard rd.. Bu Butt th they ey fi fitt th thee ce cell llis ist’ t’ss ha hand nd be bett tter er than the harpsichordist’s, and their occasional marks of phrasing seem designed for a stringed instrument. Take, for example, the ritornello with which the first aria of All’ombra d’un bel faggio, RV 649, opens (Example 3.4). A harpsichord can ca n ha hard rdly ly co comp mpet etee wi with th th thee ce cell llo o in le lend ndin ing g el eloq oque uenc ncee to th thee sl slur urre red d se semi miqu quav aver erss or in giving weight to the individual notes of the broken chords in quavers. Then

39

Timms, ‘The Dramatic in Vivaldi’s Cantatas’, p. 115.


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Ex. 3.4 Vivaldi, All’ombra d’ un bel faggio , RV 649: ‘Senti che ti risponde’, opening

there are those rapid repeated notes and compound intervals that the cello executes easily but which become a struggle for any keyboard instrument, as Example 3.5, the accompaniment to the start of the first vocal period in the first aria of Perfidissimo cor! Iniquo fato!, illustrates illustrates.. Ex. 3.5 Vivaldi, Perfidissimo cor! Iniquo fato! , RV 674: ‘Nel torbido mio petto’, bars 5–8 (bass)

The merits of the harpsichord emerge more fully in recitative recitatives, s, since it is able to provide a continuous chordal accompaniment, whereas a cello, even applying ingenuity, can produce chords only intermittently. However, However, intermittent chords are probably all that most recitatives require. Gasparini, Gasparini, whose advice has to be take ta ken n se seri riou ousl sly, y, si sinc ncee he wa wass Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss co coll llea eagu guee an and d mu must st ha have ve be been en re refe ferr rrin ing g as much to vocal chamber music as to opera, tells the harpsichordist to sustain bass notes and their chords until they decay naturally. Other authorities and observers, however, are unanimous in identifying short ‘attacks’ as the normal mode of performance for Italian recitative. Take, for example, the eye-witness account of Joachim Christoph Nemeitz, a Saxon court official who visited Venice in 1721. Nemeitz precedes his discussion of the accompaniment with some interesting remarks on the performance of recitative that, although they concern opera, have relevance also for the cantata: So far as vocal music is concerned, their language [Italian] itself seems to have a special advantage over others in that its vowels sound very good when they wish wi sh to ex exec ecut utee fl flor orid id pa pass ssag ages es.. In Inde deed ed,, ev even en wh when en th they ey co conv nver erse se am amon ong g th them em-selves, the tone of their voices rises and falls as if they were singing. Hence the recitatives in their opera are made to conform to ordinary speech, becoming something neither wholly sung nor wholly spoken, and the actors observe neither the metre nor the length of the prescribed notes, but deliver the words slowly or quickly as they deem appropriate, and as the action demands. The

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accompaniment, consisting of harpsichord, theorbo, and great bass, always follows the lead of the singer or actor. It does no more than to punctuate the music occasionally, thereby assisting the singer to maintain pitch.40

Rousseau’s Dictionnaire de musique confirms this ‘dry’ mode of performance. ‘In Italian recitative’, he writes, ‘whatever the length of a bass note, it must be struck only once: firmly and with a full chord; one strikes the chord again only it changes over the same note’. 41 From certain rare performance directions in Vivaldi’s scores, such as ‘arcate lunghe’ (‘long bows’), one receives further confirmation confirmati on that short attacks were the ‘default’ mode in his recitatives recitatives.. In the previous chapter Vivaldi’s failure to give the harpsichord any obbligato pass pa ssag ages es wa wass me ment ntio ione ned. d. In fa fact ct,, he se seem emss to ha have ve ha had d a ne near ar av aver ersi sion on to th thee ha harp rp-sichord that strikes one as curious in a composer who otherwise was so ready to explore the full instrumental gamut. Claims have been made that he played the harpsichord himself, himself, but none of the evidence stands up to close scrutiny. A transcription by Giazotto of a secret agent’s report that mentions Vivaldi’s Vivaldi ’s playing of thee ha th harp rpsi sich chor ord d at a fu func ncti tion on he held ld in Ven enic icee at th thee Sp Span anis ish h am amba bass ssad ador or’s ’s ho hous usee in 1739 must be discounted, since no one has managed to locate the document independently.42 A reference to him as ‘Maestro di spineta’ in a Pietà document of 1736 17 36 is an ob obvi viou ouss er erro ror: r: ev even en if he wa wass (o (off so sort rts) s) a ha harp rpsi sich chor ordd-pl play ayer er,, he sh shou ould ld have ha ve be been en id iden enti tifi fied ed th ther eree by hi hiss of offi fici cial al ti titl tle, e, wh whic ich h wa wass Maestro de’ concerti.43 Obbligato parts for harpsichord are meagre in Vivaldi’s music, both in quantity and in substance. The aria ‘Io sono quel gelsomino’ in Arsilda, regina di Ponto (I (I.1 .15) 5) ma make kess th thee tw two o ha harp rpsi sich chor ords ds in un unis ison on pl play ay br brok oken en ch chor ords ds in th thee ri righ ghtt hand to create a shimmering background. The work once identified and even published as the harpsichord concerto RV 780 is now agreed to be nothing of the sort (the choice of harpsichord as solo instrument resulted from a misunderstanding of the significance of the word ‘cembalo’ in the title), and the number has been withdrawn withdrawn.. Otherwise, there are merely instructions for the harpsichord or ha harp rpsi sich chor ords ds to ar arpe pegg ggia iate te an im impr prov ovis ised ed ac acco comp mpan anim imen ent; t; th thes esee ar aree fo foun und d in at least two concertos (RV 249 and an d RV 293) and three operas ( Orlando finto pazzo, Giustino, and Orlando furioso). By comparison, the organ is lavishly treated, on

40

41 42 43

Joachim Christoph Nemeitz, Nachlese besonderer Nachrichten aus Italien , Leipzig: Gleditsch, Gleditsch, 1726, p. 425: ‘Es scheinet auch, was die Vocal-Music betrifft, ihre Sprache an sich selbsten eine sonderbahre avantage vor andern darinn zu haben, daß ihre vocales sehr wohl lauten, wann sie einige Läuffe machen wollen. Ja, wann sie auch in gemeinen Umgang mit einander sprechen, erhe er hebe ben n si siee de den n Th Thon on de derr St Stim imme me,, un und d la lass ssen en ih ihn n au auch ch wi wied eder er fa fall llen en,, so da daß ß es sc sche hein inet et,, al alss wa wann nn sie die Wor Worte te her sän sänge gen. n. Da Daher her ge gesch schich ichts, ts, daß ihr ihree recitative in den Opern zu ein einer er gewöhnlichen Rede dergestalt accommodiret sind, daß es eigentlich kein Singen und auch keine Rede ist, und die Acteurs weder mesure noch valeur in denen ihnen vorgeschriebenen noten halten, sondern nach ihren Gutdüncken die Worte langsahm oder geschwind hervorbringen, nachdem es die action erfodert; da dann das accompagnement vom Clavecin , Thuorbe und grossen Bass sich allemahl nach dem Sänger oder Acteur regliren muß; jenes aber nicht mehr thut, al zuweilen nur um den andern Tact einmahl anzuschlagen, damit der Sänger im Ton erhalten werde.’ Rousseau, Dictionnaire de musique , art. ‘Accompagnement’, pp. 6–15, at p. 13. Giazotto, Antonio Vivaldi , pp. 309–10. Venice, Archivio di Stato, Ospedali e luoghi pii diversi, Busta 703, Scontro, f. 59.


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Ex. 3.6 3.6 G. B. B. Pescetti, Pescetti, Di sì bel faggio all’ ombra: ‘Come va l’ape nel prato’, opening

one occasion receiving an idiomatic part that features interplay between the two hands (in the second slow movement of the early sonata RV 779). All things considered, the primacy of the cello in the cantatas, where instrumental instrumental display is concerned, comes as no surprise. It will be interesting to illustrate at this point the possibilities that Vivaldi gave up by pushing the harpsichord so firmly into the background. Giovanni Battista Pescetti’s setting of Di sì bel faggio all’ombra, contained in the Hamburg manuscript mentioned earlier in connection with settings of Metastasio’s T’intendo, sì, mio cor, employs a treble line for the harpsichordi harpsichordist st throughout the ritornellos of both arias.44 The opening ritornello of the first aria is shown as Example 3.6. Pescetti was a noted harpsichordist and the composer of numerous harpsichord sonatas, whose quality is praised by Newman. 45 As in the typical ‘accompanied’ aria, the ritornello is recognized by its treble line (which here pre-echoes that of the voice); its bass is strictly functional and would make little musical sense if 44 45

Hamburg, Staats- und Universitäts Universitätsbibliothek bibliothek ‘Carl von Ossietzky’ Ossietzky’,, Musiksamml Musiksammlung, ung, M A/833:2, pp. 390–6. William S. Newman, The Sonata in the Classic Era , 2nd edn, New York: Norton, 1972, pp. 684–6.

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simply harmonized in the normal manner with chords above. Vivaldi certainly knew kne w Pes Pescet cetti’ ti’ss mu music sic,, inc incide identa ntall lly, y, sin since ce the com compos poser’ er’ss fat father her,, Gi Giaci acinto nto Pescetti, served the Pietà as organ technician and harpsichord tuner from 1697 onwards; and in 1728, when Vivaldi directed the music at the Teatro S. Angelo, Pescetti was one of the two up-and-coming composers (the other was Galuppi) to whom the second carnival opera, Gl’odii delusi dal sangue, was entrusted. In the seven cantatas with a full string accompaniment – RV 679, 681, 682, 683, 684/684a, 685, and 686 (the last with a pair of horns added) – Vivaldi employs the same resources that he would use in most operatic arias. There is litt li ttle le to di dist stin ingu guis ish h th thee ca cant ntat ataa ar aria iass fr from om th thei eirr op oper erat atic ic co coun unte terp rpar arts ts,, al alth thou ough gh th thee fact that no inter-genre borrowings have so far been discovered suggests that the comp co mpos oser er ke kept pt th thee tw two o ar area eass ap apar artt in hi hiss mi mind nd.. In a ‘b ‘bli lind nd’’ te test st on onee wo woul uld d pe perh rhap apss identify the first aria of RV 683, ‘Passo di pena in pena’, as coming from a cantata: the severity of its counterpoint and the complexity of its thematic development mark it out as a piece for connoisseurs that would probably have fared badl ba dly y in th thee op oper eraa ho hous use. e. Th Ther eree is pe perh rhap apss a te tend nden ency cy fo forr ca cant ntat ataa ar aria iass no nott to st stra ray y too far from a mezzo carattere, avoiding the absolute extremes of expression. This is in keeping with the civilized, temperate atmosphere of a conversazione, where, however cruelly Cupid’s darts pierced Silvio or however miserably Aminta pined for Filli, the company would all take refreshment and depart for home contentedly. Finally, we must consider the obbligato parts for flute and violin in All’ombra 680, 0, re resp spec ecti tive vely ly.. Th Thei eirr rô rôle le is di sos sospet petto to, RV 678, and Lungi dal vago volto, RV 68 not accompanimental in the strict sense. In ritornellos and linking passages they supp su pply ly tr treb eble le li line ness si simi mila larr to th that at fo forr ke keyb yboa oard rd sh show own n in Ex Exam ampl plee 3. 3.6. 6. In th thee vo voca call sections, however, they become true partners for the voice: the texture is effectively that of a chamber duet in which one ‘voice’ remains mute. Vivaldi seeks ways of making the obbligato instrument a protagonist in the story recounted by the text. In both arias of RV 678 the transverse flute, the perfect embodiment embodiment of the galant sty style, le, rep repres resent entss the fla flatte tteri ring ng ( lusinghiero) bu butt de dece cept ptiv ivee cha charm rmss ( finti vezzi) of love; it relentlessly ensnares the lover in imitative play or in chains of parallel sixths and thirds. In the first aria of RV 680 the violin represents picturesqu es quel ely y th thee fo fore rest st bi bird rds, s, to wh whom om th thee si sing nger er co conf nfid ides es th thee an angu guis ish h of hi hiss se sepa para rati tion on from the beloved; when he sings, in the second aria, of being reunited with her, the violin is tran transfor sformed med into the beloved herself, double stops conve conveying ying the hefty abandon of the lovers’ embraces. As their popularity in modern performance attests, these cantatas are so successful at integrating the obbligato instrument, conveying the principal affetto, and summoning up interesting textures and imitative play that one can only regret how few they are.

CHAPTER FOUR

The Mantuan Cantatas

Vivaldi’s Mantuan Episode The period spanning little more than two years that Vivaldi spent at the court of the governor of Mantua, Prince Philip of Hesse-Darmstadt, is one of the most clearly defined, and most singular, of his career. His experiences in Venice, his instincts and his strategic sense must all have told him that the life of a maestro di cappella at a court would reduce his freedom of action beyond tolerable limits, yet he took the bait. The experiment was ultimately unsuccessful, unsuccessful, even if Vivaldi was able to extricate himself neatly and remain on good terms with a patron whose name he could continue to parade on title-pages and in librettos, and who occasi occ asiona onall lly y com commis missio sioned ned mus music ic fro from m him him.. Mor Moreov eover, er, the con contac tactt wi with th members of the nobility of the Habsburg domains that residence in Mantua brought him proved fruitful in later years. Service at Mantua was the first stepping stone towards his meeting with Emperor Charles VI in 1728, his visit to central Europe in 1729 – and perhaps, ultimately, to his ill-fated journey to Vienna in 1740.1 Ever since Vivaldi’s operas made their mark on the Venetian stage in the mid-1710s, their composer became ‘hot property’. When the elector of Bavaria, Maximilian II Emanuel, newly restored to his capital city of Munich after the conclusion of the War of the Spanish Succession, asked his wife, Electress Ther Th eres esee Ku Kuni nigu gund nde, e, wh who o ha had d no nott ye yett re retu turn rned ed fr from om he herr ex exil ilee in Ve Veni nice ce,, fo forr ad advi vice ce on musicians to recruit for his Hofkapelle, she mentioned the name of Vivaldi, presumably in connection with the post of Kapellmeister. Her letter has not survived, but we can guess much of its content from Maximilian Emanuel’s slightly dismissive reply: 1

Secondary literature on Vivaldi’s connections with Mantua, with an understandable emphasis on opera, is abundant. The most significant items, in order of publication, are: Claudio Gallico, ‘Vivaldi dagli archivi di Mantova’, in Francesco Degrada (ed.), Vivaldi veneziano europeo , pp. 77–88; Luigi Cataldi, ‘Il teatro musicale a Mantova (1708–1732): studi sulle fonti documentarie’, mentarie ’, unpublished dissertation, Parma, 1983–4; idem, ‘I rapporti di Vivaldi con il “Teatro detto il Comico” di Mantova’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani , vi (1985), 88–109; idem, ‘Alcuni documenti documen ti relativi alla permanen permanenza za di Vivaldi a Mantova’, ibid., viii (1987), 13–22; idem, ‘La rapprese rapp resentaz ntazione ione man mantova tovana na del “Tit “Tito o Manl Manlio” io” di Anto Antonio nio Viva Vivaldi’ ldi’,, ibid ibid., ., 52– 52–88; 88; idem idem,, ‘L’at ‘L ’attiv tività ità op operi eristi stica ca di Viv Vivald aldii a Man Mantov tova’, a’, in An Anton tonio io Fan Fanna na an and d Gi Giova ovanni nni Mor Morell ellii (ed (eds), s), Nuovi studii viva stud vivaldia ldiani ni, pp. 131 131–4 –45. 5. I am gr grate atefu full to Lui Luigi gi Ca Catal taldi di for add additi itiona onall in infor forma matio tion n an and d op opini inion on communicated through private correspondence.

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Concerning the composer called Vivaldi, I have not seen any of his compositions but can well believe that they are excellent, since I trust your judgement. We are not in a very good position to hand out more pensions than necessary, but if the sum were small, you could come to an agreement with him. Torri [the Kapellmeister designate] is very good at composition and has an exquisite feel for opera.2

Perhaps the sum demanded by Vivaldi was not small enough for the Bavarian court. Or perhaps his amour propre would not allow him to occupy a position subordinate to Torri. At any rate, we hear nothing more about this pension. The genesis of Vivaldi’s engagement at Mantua appears to have been the prod pr oduc ucti tion on of hi hiss ne new w op oper eraa Armida al campo d’Egitto, hi hiss si sixt xth h for Veni nicce, at th thee Teatro S. Moisè. This opera opened on 15 February 1718. Perhaps Prince Philip, visiting Venice for carnival, as so many among the higher European nobility did, attended this production. The sequel was a new production in Mantua at the Teatr Tea tro o Ar Arcid ciduca ucale le (al (also so cal called led the Tea Teatro tro Com Comico ico), ), a civ civic ic the theatr atree und under er patronage of the ruler, for which two members of the cast remained the same (Antonia Merighi as Armida and Rosa Venturini as Osmira). At around the same time Vivaldi was appointed Maestro di cappella di camera to the court at a handsome monthly salary of 680 Mantuan lire. The title’s termination, ‘di camera’, iden id enti tifi fied ed hi hiss re resp spon onsi sibi bili liti ties es as th thos osee pe pert rtai aini ning ng on only ly to se secu cula larr mu musi sic; c; a se sepa para rate te maestro di cappella , Pietro Crescimbeni, attended to sacred music at the ducal church. Vivaldi was also permitted – perhaps required – to take a hand in the management of the theatre, a task for which his similar activity in Venice had prepared him well. His new post in Mantua did not prevent him from supervising thee pr th prod oduc ucti tion on in Fl Flor oren ence ce of a ne new w op oper era, a, Scanderbeg (f (for or wh whic ich h he ha had d pr pres esum um-ably entered into a contract prior to his appointment), in June 1718, and Philip even provided him with a letter of recommendation to Anna Maria de’ Medici, dowager electress of the Palatinate, who had returned to her native city. Nor was Vivaldi inhibited from fulfilling commissions received from other patrons: a receipt dated 19 April 1719 for ‘un pachetto con carte musicali’ supplied to the Bohe Bo hemi mian an co coun untt We Wenz nzel el vo von n Mo Morz rzin in (a (amo mong ng wh whic ich h Le quattro stagioni probably 3 figured) points to this parallel activity. Giovanni Battista Vivaldi stayed with his son in Mantua for long periods. We know kn ow th this is be beca caus usee he was so some meti time mess no nott pr pres esen entt in Ve Veni nice ce to co coll llec ectt in pe pers rson on hi hiss salary, paid every two months, from the ducal church. Presumably, he did not reside continuously in Mantua during the whole of the period, because otherwise he would have sought formal leave of absence from S. Marco – as he was to do in 1729, when he accompanied his son on his transalpine travels.

2

3

Letter of 21 October 1714 (Munich, Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv, Geheimes Hausarchiv, Korrespondenzakten 753/9), transcribed in the original French in Berthold Over, ‘Antonio Vivaldi und Therese Kunigunde von Bayern’, Studi vivaldiani , iv (2004), 3–7, at 4. On Vivaldi’s relationship to Morzin, see Michael Talbot, ‘Wenzel von Morzin as a Patron of Antonio Vivaldi’, in Konstanze Musketa and others (eds), Johann Friedrich Fasch und der italienische Stil: Bericht über die Internationale Wissenschaftliche Konferenz am 4. und 5. April 2003 20 03 im Ra Rahm hmen en de derr 8. Int Inter ernat nation ionale alen n Fa Fasch sch-Fe -Festt sttag agee in Zer Zerbst bst , Dess Dessau: au: Anha Anhalt-E lt-Editi dition, on, 2004 2004,, pp. 67–76.

THE MANTUAN CANTATAS

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Vivald Viva ldi’ i’ss fo fort rtun unes es ro rose se to a cl clim imax ax in th thee ca carn rniv ival al se seas ason on of 17 1718 18–1 –19, 9, wh when en hi hiss operas Teuzzone and Tito Manlio were produced at the Teatro Arciducale. He seemed set to achieve similar success in the following season, when his La wass du duee to be st stag aged ed as th thee se seco cond nd op oper era, a, fo foll llow owin ing g Cand Ca ndac acee o si sian ano o Li ve veri ri am amic icii wa the past pasticci iccio o Aless Alessandr andro o cogn cognominat ominato o Seve Severo ro . Then disaster struck. On 19 January 1720 the dowager empress Eleonora Magdalena Theresa von Neuburg, mother of Charles VI, suddenly died, plunging the empire into compulsory mourning and causing the immediate cessation of public entertainments. The season was aborted, and Vivaldi found himself unexpectedly in a position where, if he remained in Mantua, he would have time on his hands, so far as opera was conc co ncer erne ned, d, fo forr at le leas astt an anot othe herr ye year ar.. (I (In n fa fact ct,, th thee Te Teat atro ro Ar Arci cidu duca cale le di did d no nott re reop open en for opera until 1 June 1722, when Boniventi’s Il Climene took the stage.) Vivaldi therefore petitioned Philip for release from his post, collected the last instalment of his salary on 26 February 1720 and was back in Venice probably by the end of the following month, armed with a letter of recommendation from Philip to Johann Baptist Colloredo-Waldsee, the imperial ambassador to Venice. Was Vivaldi glad to go? In fact, the death of the dowager empress and its consequences probably came as a windfall, since they provided a plausible pretext for leaving. During his two years in Mantua he had extracted whatever benefits were at hand, including a title infinitely grander than that of sometime viol vi olin in ma mast ster er at th thee Pi Piet età, à, an and d Ph Phil ilip ip’s ’s co cont ntin inue ued d pa patr tron onag agee wa wass to se serv rvee hi him m we well ll.. In 17 1725 25 hi hiss op oper eraa L’Artabano (o (onl nly y th thee th thir ird d si sinc ncee th thee th thea eatr tre’ e’ss re reop open enin ing) g) pl play ayed ed at the Teatro Arciducale, and in carnival 1732, the last season in which it was to host ho st op oper era, a, Vi Viva vald ldii to took ok co cont ntro roll of it itss ma mana nage geme ment nt an and d mu musi sica call di dire rect ctio ion, n, tr trea eati ting ng the Mantuan public to revivals of his Semiramide and Farnace. In 1726 he wrote a se sere rena nata ta (i (in n th thee li libr bret etto to gi give ven n on only ly th thee ge gene neri ricc de desc scri ript ptio ion n of ‘S ‘Ser eren enat ataa a qu quat attr tro o voci’) that was performed on 31 July to mark Philip’s birthday eleven days earlier. This composition is lost, but from its libretto we can glean valuable clues of the highest relevance for Vivaldi’s cantatas composed in Mantua.

The Mantuan Court Philip Phil ip wa wass no or ordi dina nary ry pa patr tron on.. Hi Hiss co comm mmit itme ment nt at Ma Mant ntua ua to mu musi sicc an and d sp spec ecta tacl clee was har hardly dly les lesss int intens ensee tha than n tha thatt of his not notori orious ously ly pro prodig digal al pre predec decess essor, or, Ferdinando Carlo, the last Gonzaga duke. He was born in Darmstadt on 20 July 1671 as a younger brother to Ernst Ludwig (1667–1739), who became reigning landgr lan dgrave ave (i (init nitial ially ly und under er a reg regenc ency) y) in 167 1678. 8.4 Inte Interest restingl ingly y enoug enough, h, Ernst Ludwig possessed musical talents: his Douze suites et symphonies , engraved in score at Darmstadt in 1718, are of a quality to merit modern revival. Philip, who had a similar practical involvement with music (as we shall learn from a cantata text te xt), ), pu purs rsue ued d a mi mili lita tary ry ca care reer er.. In 16 1691 91–9 –92 2 he se serv rved ed in th thee En Engl glis ish h ar army my fi figh ghti ting ng 4

Biographical details concerning Philip and his family are taken mainly from Carl Knetsch, Das Haus Brabant. Genealog Genealogie ie der Herzoge von Brabant und der Landgrafe Landgrafen n von Hessen , Darms Dar mstad tadt: t: Hi Histo storis rische chess Ve Verei rein n für das Gr Großh oßherz erzogt ogtum um Hes Hessen sen,, 19 19[18 [18]–3 ]–31, 1, pp. 31 310–1 0–11, 1, 314 314,, an and d 436.

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against France in the Netherlands at the head of a regiment bearing his name. In 1693, while in Brussels, he took the unprecedented step for anyone in his family of converting to Catholicism. For a brief period in the summer of 1695 he relapsed into Lutheranism, but this was the only dent in an otherwise rock-hard commitment to his new faith. In 1693, the day after his official conversion, he married Princess Maria Theresia von Croy und Havre. Philip steadily ascended the military ladder of the Habsburg empire. Meanwhile, his first surviving son, Joseph, was born in 1699. As a token of his conversion, Philip forced Joseph, who might reasonably have expected, as the eldest living son, to enjoy the privileges of primogeniture, into the church. Joseph received his tonsure in Mantua in 1728 and rose in the ecclesiasti ecclesiastical cal hierarchy to beco be come me bi bish shop op of Au Augs gsbu burg rg in 17 1740 40.. A fi firs rstt da daug ught hter er,, Ma Mari riaa Fr Frie iede deri rica ca,, wa wass bo born rn in 1705. One year later, a second daughter, Maria Theodora arrived. She was to leave the court to marry Antonio Ferdinando Gonzaga, duke of Guastalla, in 1727. In 17 1707 07 Ph Phil ilip ip on once ce ag agai ain n sa saw w mi mili lita tary ry ac acti tion on as im impe peri rial al an and d Fr Fren ench ch-M -Man antu tuan an forces battled in northern Italy. On 13 March 1707 imperial troops led by Philip ente en tere red d Ma Mant ntua ua.. He wa wass ma made de go gove vern rnor or of it itss fo fort rtre ress ss an and d su supr prem emee co comm mman ande derr of the imperial forces left behind in Lombardy as the campaign continued. In June 1707 he departed to wage war on the Spanish in Naples. In April 1708, during his absence, a further son, Leopold, was born in Mantua. It was Leopold who was to carr ca rry y on th thee fa fami mily ly’s ’s mi mili lita tary ry tr trad adit itio ion n in pl plac acee of Jo Jose seph ph.. In Ju July ly 17 1708 08 Ph Phil ilip ip wa wass put in command of the victorious imperial troops in Naples, where he remained for six years. In Italy he was always known as ‘landgrave’, for whereas in Germany, as in England, only eldest sons succeeded to the family title, in Italy, following age-old custom, all sons shared the title without distinction. So ‘Prinz Philipp’ became ‘langravio Filippo’. Meanwhile, in 1710, Mantua had been declared a hereditary possession of Austria. To mark its new status, it needed a governor to replace the temporary admini adm inist strat rator, or, Co Count unt Gi Giova ovanni nni Bat Battis tista ta di Cas Castel telbar barco, co, who had act acted ed sin since ce 170 1707. 7. On 21 September 1714 Philip was appointed to the post, which he took up on 29 December. Shortly before before this climax to his career, the the prince had had been visited visited by tragedy. tragedy. His wife Maria Theresia died in May 1714. From that point until his death Philip remained an eligible widower, whose ‘availability’ ‘availability’ is subtly alluded to in certain canta can tata ta tex texts. ts. He mad madee one det determ ermine ined d eff effort ort to bre break ak his wi widow dowerh erhood ood,, beco be comi ming ng en enga gage ged d on 30 De Dece cemb mber er 17 1718 18 to El Eleo eono nora ra Lu Luis isa, a, pr prin ince cess ss of Guas Gu asta tall llaa – an and d wi wido dow w of Fr Fran ance cesc sco o Ma Mari riaa de de’’ Me Medi dici ci (1 (164 642– 2–17 1711 11), ), to wh whom om sh shee had ha d co cons nspi picu cuou ousl sly y fa fail iled ed to gi give ve a so son n to ca carr rry y on th thee Me Medi dici ci na name me.. Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss Tito Manlio, a much grander affair than the preceding Teuzzone, was intended to celebrate the wedding; but, unexpectedly and abruptly, it was called off in the middle of th thee br brid ide’ e’ss pr prog ogre ress ss to Ma Mant ntua ua.. So Some me bl blam amed ed he herr no noto tori riou ousl sly y fl flig ight hty y ch char arac acte ter, r, others the obduracy of the Guastalla court. Tito Manlio apparently went ahead as programmed, and it is interesting to note that Eleonora continued to be named as prot pr otec ectr tres esss of th thee Te Teat atro ro Ar Arci cidu duca cale le in th thee li libr bret etto toss fo forr th thee op oper eras as of th thee fo foll llow owin ing g season. Philip’s engagement was formally annulled only on 7 December 1721. His courtly ambitions eventually proved Philip’s undoing. From the local


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historian Federigo Amadei (1684–1755) we learn that Charles VI recalled him in 1735 in order to replace him with someone with fewer princely airs (‘qualche personaggio che meno odorasse del sublime carattere del sangue principesco’) principesco’).. 5 Retiring to Vienna, Philip died there on 11 August 1736. We do not learn of any interest in music or drama on the part of princess Maria Friederica, but her three younger siblings all participated actively in court entertainments. Between 1716 and 1726 they took leading rôles in four plays with music and two works of serenata type that were performed before the court. The first of the plays was L’Alessandro, with Joseph in the title-rôle, which was given on 8 June 1716 in the Sala di Troia (the reception room in the ducal palace decorated with frescoes by Giulio Romano depicting scenes from the ) . Se Sett ttin ing g a pa patt tter ern n fo foll llow owed ed in th thee la late terr pl play ays, s, me memb mber erss of th thee co cour urtt pa part rtic ic- Aeneid ). ipated as actors, as orchestral players in the prologue and as dancers in the intermedi. The format was thus that of the French tragédie-ballet . L’Alessandro was performed to mark the birth of the archduke Leopold of Austria – a highly significant political political event, since the arrival of a male heir to Charles VI promised (in the event, vainly, since Leopold died young) to secure the imperial succession with wi thou outt in invo voki king ng th thee Pr Prag agma mati ticc Sa Sanc ncti tion on of 17 1713 13 an and d pr pric ickl kly y qu ques esti tion onss of fe fema male le precedence.6 The later plays involved all three of Philip’s children as performers. The first was L’Antioco (a (aft fter er Th Thom omas as Co Corn rnei eill lle) e),, gi give ven n on 21 Ap Apri rill 17 1721 21.. Th This is pr prod oduc ucti tion on was described as just a divertimento for the three children, but its real purpose may have been to signal the end of the year-long period of mourning at court. There followed L’Arminio (after Jean Galbert de Capistron), performed in the litt li ttle le co cour urtt th thea eatr tree du duri ring ng th thee ca carn rniv ival al of 17 1722 22 in ho hono nour ur of Ph Phil ilip ip’s ’s br brot othe herr He Henr nry, y, a distinguished military commander, and Rodoguna, principessa de’ Parti (after Pier Pi erre re Co Corn rnei eill lle) e),, pe perf rfor orme med d in th thee sa same me th thea eatr tree on 3 Ju June ne 17 1722 22 be befo fore re th thee vi visi siti ting ng prince and princess of Modena. 7 Thee fi Th firs rstt of th thee en enti tire rely ly mu musi sica call wo work rkss wa wass Amore sul monte overo Gli amori di Diana e d’Endimione nel monte Lamo di Paria, a ‘pastorale in musica’ for four voices performed privately (‘in camera’), likewise on the occasion of Henry’s visi vi sitt in ea earl rly y 17 1722 22.. In th this is sm smal alll-sc scal alee co comp mpos osit itio ion n (t (the he li libr bret etto to ha hass on only ly 19 pa page ges) s) Theodora took the role of Diana; Joseph, that of Endimione; countess Margherita ‘Facipecora’ Pavesi Furlani, that of Serpilla; the prince of Squinciano, that of Aminta.8 The high point of the princely pair’s musical outings came on 31 July 1726, when they took the rôles of Elpino and Eurilla in the previously mentioned Sere Se rena nata ta a qu quat attr tro o vo voci ci, a su subs bsta tant ntia iall wo work rk (w (wit ith h te ten n cl clos osed ed nu numb mber erss in ea each ch of it itss 5 6 7

8

Quoted after Cataldi, ‘L’attività operistica di Vivaldi a Mantova’, 132 (n. 4). The performance was reported in a news sheet ( Gazzetta di Mantova ) for 12 June 1716. See Cataldi, ‘La rappresentazione mantovana del “Tito Manlio” di Antonio Vivaldi’, 58–9. A libretto for L’Arminio survives: see Claudio Sartori, I libretti italiani a stampa dalle origini fino al 1800 1800, 7 vols, Cuneo: Bertola & Locatelli, 1990–94, no. 2793. The prince and princess of Modena were regaled in addition with Boniventi’s opera Il Climene. The absence of Leopold from the cast is revealing: evidently, evidently, he was no singer. ‘Facipecora’ ‘Facipecora’ is placed within quotation marks, since it appears to be a nickname rather than a given name or surname.

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two parts) paying fulsome homage to Philip on his birthday. 9 The libretto set by Vivaldi was written by Vittore Vettori, a prominent local poet who was possibly in cou court rt ser servic vice. e.10 Th Thee lo loca cale le wa wass th thee pa pala lace ce kn know own n as ‘L ‘Laa Fa Favo vori rita ta’. ’. On th this is oc occa ca-sion, Joseph and Theodora were partnered once again by Margherita Pavesi Furlani (taking the male role of Tirsi), and also by countess Maria Caterina Capilupi Biondi (as Fillide). This is the last known production to include members of the Mantuan court as performers. That there were, apparently, no sequ se quel elss is ha hard rdly ly su surp rpri risi sing ng,, gi give ven n th that at th thee st star ar co coup uple le,, Jo Jose seph ph an and d Th Theo eodo dora ra,, we were re very soon to move on to the priesthood and to matrimony, respectively. respectively. What is remarkable about this serenata (although there are parallels in some smaller-scale smaller-sc ale serenatas performed slightly later in Vienna by junior members of the imperial court) is that the singers, under the flimsy disguise of nymphs and shep sh ephe herd rdss of Ar Arca cadi dia, a, pl play ay th them emse selv lves es.. Jo Jose seph ph an and d Th Theo eodo dora ra (E (Elp lpin ino o an and d Eu Euri rill lla) a) recount the vicissitudes of their unsettled upbringing during the War of the Spanish Succession, while the two countesses (Fillide and Tirsi) reveal to them thee id th iden enti tity ty of th thee be beni nign gn ru rule lerr of th thee co coun untr try y to wh whic ich h th they ey ha have ve tr trav avel elle led: d: Ph Phil ilip ip,, going under the Arcadian name of Daliso. In this serenata there are thus five Arcadian names attached to five identifiable members of the court. The interesting question is this: are these names picked at random from the general Arcadian stockpile, or do they represent established identities equivalent to the ‘academic’ names, Arcadian or otherwise, adopted by members of academies (for example, the librettist Vittore Vettori was known as ‘Lo Schizzinoso’ – ‘The Fastidious’ – within Mantua’s Accademia dei Timidi)? The evidence provided by the texts of the cantatas that Vivaldi wrote during his three years in Mantua suggests that some of the names were fixed, and consequently that these cantatas were performed at gatherings of a more or less stable group of people capable of recognizing and appreciating the allusions contained in them. In other words, the cantatas were composed for a kind of informal academy comprising members of the court, their guests and visitors, and musicians, resident or itinerant, in their service.

A Mirror of Court Court Life A good way to begin a general survey of Vivaldi’s twelve surviving ‘Mantuan’ cantatas is by considering the data collected in Table 4.1. 11 Its first column gives the RV numbers. Those from RV 649 (where the cantatas begin in the catalogue) to RV 665 are continuo cantatas for soprano, which are listed alphabetically by 9 10

11

This wo This work rk,, RV 69 692, 2, is di disc scus usse sed d br brie iefl fly y in Ta Talb lbot ot,, ‘V ‘Viv ival aldi di’s ’s Se Sere rena nata tas’ s’,, p. 92 92.. In Vi Viva vald ldia ian n li lite terrature it is sometimes known as ‘Queste, Eurilla gentil’, following the first line of text. Vettori (1697–1763), born in Ostiglia but domiciled in Mantua, was a medical doctor by prorecitate pubblicamente pubblicamente nel solito loro teatro fession. A publication of 1739 ( Discorso e poesie recitate [. . .] dagli Accademici Timidi di Mantova [. . .]) identifies him as the ‘primo consigliere e primo cens ce nsor ore’ e’ of th this is li lite tera rary ry ac acad adem emy. y. If it we were re ce cert rtai ain n th that at he wa wass al alre read ady y in Ma Mant ntua ua by th thee en end d of th thee second decade of the century, he would be reckoned a likely candidate as author of some of the cantata texts set by Vivaldi. Many of the ideas in this section, and some short portions of text, were given a first outing in

t c e j b O t c e j b u S n o i t i s o p s n a r T

e n a l e a a l r i i m i r i d v u l i l E C L E –

i d . o o a s s i r i n i n s l g r v o a l a i T – D E M B

o o s i n i s l e r l a i i T D – F – – – ; a i n t l a t a a . : l b 3 A a a a : : l l 3 5 o a a a t a l l : l l l a 4 a A

i r i r o l o l C – C

o p p i l i F

a r i v l E

–

–

s k r a i m 2 : r a ; e 0 8 4 8 P h t 1 . . . : ; O p S S p 2 r e b m u N s s a p m o C

s a t a t n a c n a u t n a M s ’ i d l a v i V 1 . 4 e l b a T

a : 4 a t a t n a C

a : 7 a t a t a n d a 2 C

a : 5 a t a t a a a t t m : n n i a a i C C X

a t a a t m n a i r C P "

" " " a " a " a g a – – – ' – ' – ' b ' b ' b e d e d e

" " b b b a – b ' b d

" " a " a – d – ' – ' b c e b

e c i o V

o o o o o n n n n n a r a r a r a r a r p p p p p o o o o o S S S S S

o o n n a r a r p p o o S S

o o n n a r a r o p p t o o l S S A

o t l A

o n a r p o S

d n a H

h * * * * p 4 4 4 4 a r e e e e g b b b b i i i o i r r r t c c c r c u a S S S S

h 4 p r e a g b i o r t c u S a

h 4 4 p r e e a g b b i i o r r t c c u S S a

h p a r g o t u a

* 4 e b i r c S

y h p a r g o r t s a R

) ) ) ) 1 ( 1 ( 1 ( ) 1 ( 5 5 5 1 ( 8 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 8 . 4 4 4 4 4 8 8 8 8 8 1 / 1 / 1 / 1 / 1 / 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1

) ) 1 ( 1 ( 8 . 8 . 4 4 8 8 1 / 1 / 0 0 1 1

) 1 ) ( ) 5 1 ( 1 ( 2 . 8 . 8 . 4 4 4 8 8 8 1 / 1 / 1 / 0 0 0 1 1 1

0 0 3 3

7 0 0 2 3 3 B B B

+ ) ) 1 ( 1 ( 8 . 7 . 4 4 8 8 1 / 1 / 0 0 1 1 ? 6 B + 0 3 B

r e 0 7 7 7 p a 3 2 2 2 0 P B B B B 3 5 – 4 2 2 1 + 8 3 6 2 1 1 + – – – – 3 8 0 5 3 1 3 1 2 n 3 , , , , , o i 8 7 8 8 8 t 2 2 2 2 2 a c à à à à à o o o o o o L F F F F F 2 3 4 8 V 9 4 5 5 5 5 R 6 6 6 6 6

–

b

" c – g

a – ' b

d

4 1 9 – – 3 6 1 2 , , 8 8 2 2 à à o o F F

2 0 2 2 4 3 – – – 9 3 7 1 3 2 , , , 8 7 7 2 2 2 à à à o o o F F F

2 5 – 1 4 , 7 2 à o F

r e , d e . d s e n G u e , f r 0 4 a 3 n k i n s 1 6 e i u I V M V

9 1 5 6 6 6

5 0 5 6 8 8 6 6 6

6 8 6

9 9 7

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text incipit. RV 680 is the sole example within this group of a cantata for soprano and instruments, while RV 685 and 686 are cantatas for alto and instruments. instr uments. RV 799 owes its high number to its recent discovery (all RV numbers from RV 751 onwards are accessions to the original catalogue and therefore do not follow the usual ordering criteria). Column 2 gives the location. ‘Foà’ stands for ‘raccolta Mauro Foà’ (at the Biblioteca Nazionale Nazionale Universitaria, Turin). It can be seen that the seven Mantuan cantatas in Foà 28 occupy a continuous bloc running from f. 13 to f. 36. 12 Paul Everett has suggested that in some cases the Turin volumes, into which Vivaldi’s mostly loose manuscripts were bound after the composer’s death, preserve an original ordering in his archive. 13 Where the Mantuan cantatas are concerned, I would be inclined to keep an open mind. Similarity of page-dimensions is likely to ha have ve be been en an eq equa uall lly y im impo port rtan antt an and d of ofte ten n in inde depe pend nden entt fa fact ctor or in de dete term rmin inin ing g th thee loca lo cati tion on of th thee ma manu nusc scri ript pts. s. No Note te th that at ea each ch of th thee tw twel elve ve ca cant ntat atas as su surv rviv ives es in on only ly a si sing ngle le ma manu nusc scri ript pt.. Ha Had d th thee Tu Turi rin n ma manu nusc scri ript ptss no nott co come me to li ligh ght, t, at mo most st th thee lo lone ne cantata in Vienna would be known today. Column 3 identifies the paper type, following a system of classification devised and developed by Everett. There is as yet no complete published catalogue of the paper types encountered in Vivaldi’s manuscripts, but Everett and othe ot hers rs ha have ve qu quot oted ed th them em in indi divi vidu dual ally ly as th thee ne need ed ha hass ar aris isen en..14 Wit With h one exc except eption ion (RV 686), each manuscript uses only one paper type. The papers are all of ‘royal’ dimensions ( foglio reale) and in oblong quarto format, measuring around 23cm (vertical) by 31cm (horizontal), with small variations between the different types.15 Column 4 identifies the rastrography – Everett’s term for the characteristics of the pattern made by the pre-ruled staves. In Italy, music dealers, and sometimes the paper manufacturers themselves, used a multi-nibbed instrument called a pettine (literally, a ‘comb’) to draw staves across each page. Particularly in music paper prepared in the Veneto, such instruments could rule ten, twelve, or even more staves in a single action, thereby requiring only one ‘pass’ to complete the page. The number of staves per page is consistently ten in the Mantuan cantatas,

12 13

14

15

Michael Talbot, ‘Vivaldi’s “Academic” Cantatas for Mantua’, in Ivan Klemen čič (ed.), 300 Years Academia Philharmonicorum Labacensium 1701–2001: Proceedings of the International Symposium held in Ljubljana on October 25th and 26th 2001 , Ljubljana: Založ ba ZRC, 2004, pp. 157–70. The peculiar ‘nested’ arrangement arran gement of the manuscripts of RV 653, RV 661, and RV 658, reflected reflec ted in their irregular foliation, results from an error of binding. Paul Everett, ‘Vivaldi’s Marginal Markings: Clues to Sets of Instrumental Works and Their Chron Ch ronolo ology’ gy’,, in Ge Gerar rard d Gi Gille llen n and Ha Harry rry Wh White ite (ed (eds), s), Irish Musicologic Musicological al Studies, I: Musicology in Ireland , Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1990, pp. 248–63, at p. 254. Everett has been extraordinarily generous in allowing scholars access to his database of paper type ty pess an and d ra rast stro rogr grap aphi hies es in ad adva vanc ncee of th thei eirr co comp mple lete te pu publ blic icat atio ion n in a ca cata talo logu gue, e, an and d I wo woul uld d li like ke to record my thanks to him for providing extra information from it via private correspondence. The papers are normally left untrimmed on their fore-edge and their lower edge; the upper edge, where a knife has cut the paper along the first fold to separate the folios, is straighter. The page dimensions given in catalogues and in prefaces to editions frequently give conflicting information: it is admittedly very hard to measure paper size accurately when manuscripts are tightly bound in very large volumes, and when fraying at the exposed edges introduces irregularity.


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as can be seen by the ‘10/’ opening each entry in this column. This was an ideal number for continuo cantatas, allowing five two-stave systems per page. It was equally suited to arias and accompanied recitatives recitatives with four-part strings, where two five-stave systems would be employed. The number following the oblique is the combined vertical span, expressed in millimetres, of the staves – the distance from the highest to the lowest stave-line. Final bracketed numbers serve to distinguish two otherwise identical rastrographies. It is important to remember that, whereas more than one rastrography can appear in conjunction with a single paper type in commercially produced Venetian music paper, no rastrographies ever partner more than one paper type. Rastrography is therefore a closer means of id iden enti tifi fica cati tion on th than an pa pape perr ty type pe as de defi fine ned d by wa wate term rmar arks ks an and d ot othe herr characteristics. There are two major groups, as defined by paper and rastrography, among the Mantuan cantata manuscripts. The first comprises RV 652, 653, 654, and 665. The same paper and rastrography appear in some pages of the manuscript of the viol vi olin in co conc ncer erto to RV 22 229 9 in Tu Turi rin, n, an and d th thee sa same me pa pape perr wi with th a di diff ffer eren entt ra rast stro rogr grap aphy hy is used, alongside other papers, for the scores of Teuzzone and Tito Manlio. Batches of music paper featuring the same paper type and rastrography were usually ‘consumed’ by the composer and members of his atelier quite quickly, especially if belonging to this common variety. We can therefore place the B27 manuscripts in late 1718 and/or early 1719. Thee se Th seco cond nd,, la larg rger er gr grou oup p co comp mpri rise sess RV 64 649, 9, 65 658, 8, 65 659, 9, 66 661, 1, 68 680, 0, 68 685, 5, an and d 68 686. 6. Its B30 paper appears with identical rastrography rastrography in the concertos RV 160, 210 (Turin manuscript), 250, and 536, and in the loose aria of uncertain provenance ‘La pastorella sul primo albore’, RV 749.7. 16 Since RV 686, as we shall see, can have ha ve be been en co comp mpos osed ed no ea earl rlie ierr th than an Ap Apri rill 17 1719 19,, it ap appe pear arss th that at th thee B30 gr grou oup p as a whole is of slightly later date than the B27 group. The B6 paper used for part of the RV 686 manuscript establishes establishes a link to further coeval works: the concertos RV 121, 151 (the autograph manuscript), 229, 231, 332, and 534, and the introduzione RV 639a. Colu Co lumn mn 5 id iden enti tifi fies es th thee ha hand nds. s. Th Ther eree ar aree on only ly tw two: o: th thos osee of Vi Viva vald ldii hi hims msel elff (i (in n all cases, these are composition manuscripts, manuscripts, not autograph copies) and of Scribe 4, hi hiss fa fath ther er.. Th Thee as aste teri risk skss fo foll llow owin ing g th thee ‘4 ‘4’’ de deno note te th thee pr pres esen ence ce in fi five ve ca cant ntat atas as of autograph corrections, alterations alterations or annotations. It is interesting that no further copyists participated in this activity. The implication is that the preparation of cantatas, unlike that of operas, was a private affair that did not concern professional copyists. Column 6 gives the voices employed. With two exceptions, RV 685 and 686, the singer is a soprano. In late Baroque cantatas generally, the soprano voice predominates, accounting for about three quarters of the preserved total. It enjoye enj oyed d gre greate atest st pub public lic fav favour our and pre presti stige, ge, was cul cultiv tivate ated d bot both h by mal malee (castrato) and female singers, and boasted numerical supremacy among the

16

‘RV 749’ is the general number under which Ryom groups loose arias that at present cannot be assigned to other works. A full list is given in Peter Ryom, ‘RV 749’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani , xiv (1993), 5–49.

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professional singers most likely to sing cantatas: those employed by courts. Most of the remainder were written for the alto voice. Tenors existed, naturally, but they had no separate repertory in the continuo cantata, merely singing soprano parts an octave lower. 17 Bass voices, which required a different style of treatment (entailing the frequent doubling or paraphrasing of the instrumental bass), had a small ‘niche’ repertory. So far as we know, Vivaldi wrote no bass cantatas, although his expertise at writing arie all’unisono for bass voice in his operas suggests that he would have made a success of it. Column 7 gives the vocal compass. No fewer than four cantatas employ the compass eb'–a'', and most of the others for soprano exceed it by no more than one note at either end. The great exception is RV 659, which, on account of its much wider compass (bb –bb''), must have been written for a different singer. Column 8 records a series of annotations taking the form of ordinal numbers preceded (except in the case of RV 654) by the word ‘Cantata’. It appears that, while still at Mantua, Vivaldi was asked to have a set of cantatas for soprano (twelve in number?) copied. The series led off, appropriately, with the accompanied cantata in praise of Prince Philip, RV 686, and continued with continuo cantat can tatas. as. The ann annota otatio tions ns ar aree an aide-mémoire to th thee co copy pyis istt re rega gard rdin ing g th thee ch chos osen en sequence of the works, which may, of course, have been quite different from the orde or derr of th thei eirr co comp mpos osit itio ion n an and d fi firs rstt pe perf rfor orma manc nce. e. On Only ly si six x ou outt of th thee tw twel elve ve ex exta tant nt cantatas are so numbered. Unless the ordinal number was on occasion allocated tacitly, one has to assume that the third, sixth, and eighth to eleventh cantatas were works that are today lost (with the possible exception of RV 799). Extrapolating, one might calculate that the total number of cantatas written by Vivaldi in Mantua was about twice as many as we possess today, or around twenty-four – and this calculation assumes that the set was assembled towards the end of his period of residence. Column 9 lists various other short annotations, mostly autograph, found in the manuscripts.. Their significance is enigmatic. The ‘S’ preceding a number in RV manuscripts 652 and 653 could stand for ‘Soprano’. The ‘p’ preceding a numeral in RV 649 and 654 is possibly a reference to a page of the copied manuscript (in which new cant ca ntat atas as wo woul uld d no nott ne nece cess ssar aril ily y be begi gin n on a fr fres esh h pa page ge), ), bu butt a ga gap p of on only ly tw two o pa page gess seem se emss pu puzz zzli ling ngly ly sm smal alll if a ‘t ‘thi hird rd’’ ca cant ntat ataa ha hass to be in inse sert rted ed be betw twee een n th them em.. Th Thes esee annotations establish, establish, at any rate, that the cantatas were copied on more than one occasion. Colu Co lumn mn 10 li list stss in inst stru ruct ctio ions ns fo forr tr tran ansp spos osit itio ion. n. As we sh shal alll se seee co conc ncre rete tely ly in th thee case ca se of RV 79 796, 6, it wa wass co comm mmon on pr prac acti tice ce to tr tran ansp spos osee th thee pi pitc tch h of ca cant ntat atas as by up to a fifth in order to bring them within the range of other voices or voice-types. This task was in principle simple enough for a copyist to undertake unaided. The first inst in stru ruct ctio ion n li list sted ed fo forr RV 65 658 8 me mean ans: s: ‘f ‘fou ourt rth h [c [can anta tata ta]] ta take ken n up a th thir ird’ d’ (w (whe heth ther er a major or a minor third would be clear from the context); the second instruction means: ‘taken up a fifth and notated in the alto clef’. In fact, the latter is not a 17

This practice is referred to in Legrenzi’s Cantate and canzonette , Op. 12, of 1676, G. B. Brevi’s I deliri d’amor divino divino, Op. 5, and Bernardo Gaffi’s Cantate da camera of 1700. There are some ‘acco ‘a ccompa mpanie nied’ d’ ca canta ntatas tas ex expre pressl ssly y for ten tenor: or: he here, re, the pre presen sence ce of the vio violin lin and vio viola la pa parts rts ma make kess the choice of octave (soprano or tenor) critical.


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direction for transposition at all: it prescribes only a change of clef, from soprano to alto, as a result of which Middle C moves two lines higher. 18 In columns 11 and 12 we arrive at the main point for discussion: the Arcadian names present in the texts and their significance. By ‘subject’ is meant the shepherd or nymph in whose voice the poet speaks, or whose voice he quotes. The ‘object’ is the object of his or her desire. Four names appear more than once. Daliso appears as subject in RV 652, as obje ob ject ct in RV 66 665; 5; Ti Tirs rsii ap appe pear arss tw twic ice, e, as su subj bjec ectt an and d ob obje ject ct,, re resp spec ecti tive vely ly (R (RV V 64 649 9 and 659); Clori appears twice as subject (RV 665 and 685); Elvira appears three times as object (RV 654, 680, and 799). Moreover, we remember Daliso as the disguise for Philip in the Serenata a quattro voci , and Tirsi as that for Margherita Pavesi Furlani. Eurilla (present as object in RV 649) is the name adopted by Philip’s daughter Theodora in the same serenata. It seems beyond coincidence that three names should appear in both contexts. Recent writing on the cantata and serenata has drawn attention to the use, sometimes consistent and repeated, of Arcadian names in reference to real persons. For instance, Ellen Harris shows how the ‘Olinto’ in Handel’s serenata Oh, come chiare e belle , HWV 143, is to be identified with Prince Francesco Maria Mar ia Rus Ruspol poli, i, who in Arc Arcadi adiaa wa wass sty styled led ‘O ‘Olin linto to Ars Arseni enio’. o’. 19 Eve Even n mo more re nume nu mero rous us ar aree th thee ca cant ntat atas as wr writ itte ten n fo forr th thee Ru Rusp spol olii ho hous useh ehol old d or fo forr Ar Arca cadi dian an ga gath th-erings hosted by it in which the name ‘Daliso’ appears. The etymology of the nam na me is un unce cert rtai ain n – it is no nott tak aken en fr from om cla lass ssic ical al myt ytho hollog ogy y – bu butt it se seem emss to ha hav ve somee con som connec nectio tion n wi with th Del Delos, os, Ap Apoll ollo’s o’s bir birthp thplac lace. e. 20 Pri Prince nce Rus Ruspol poli’s i’s son Bartolomeo bore the Arcadian name of ‘Dalgiso Asteronio’, and it is more than likely that the very large number of ‘Daliso’ cantatas produced within the Roman orbit from no later than 1708 (the date of Handel’s Amarilli vezzosa, HWV 82) to at least 1717 (that of Gasparini’s Qui di natura a scorno ) were written in homage to him.21 The substitution of ‘Daliso’ for ‘Dalgiso’ could have arisen for the sake of euphony. It is not too far-fetched to imagine that Philip and his court, newly established in Ma Mant ntua ua,, pa paid id th thee Ro Roma man n Ar Arca cadi dian anss th thee si sinc ncer eres estt fo form rm of fl flat atte tery ry.. Bo Both th ‘D ‘Dal alis iso’ o’ cantatas appear to allude to events in the life of the prince. In Si levi dal pensier, RV 665, Clori attempts to erase from her mind her wandering lover, Daliso, who won her heart through the playing of a ‘concave instrument’ (the kithara, commonly cited in poetry to denote the violin and other stringed instruments). Addr Ad dres essi sing ng th thee co comp mpan any y of sh shep ephe herd rds, s, wh who o re repr pres esen entt he herr su suit itor ors, s, sh shee ch chid ides es th them em for their lack of constancy and warns them that on his return from ‘Adria’ (the ancient city on the Adriatic, a common poetic synonym for Venice), Daliso will

18 19 20 21

See, however, Francesco Degrada’s different view in his Critical Notes to the Ricordi edition (1993) of RV 658. Harris, Handel as Orpheus , p. 117. Carlo Vitali, in private correspondence, wonders whether it might mean ‘follower of Apollo’. This idea was first mooted in Fourés and Talbot, ‘A New Vivaldi Cantata in Vienna’, 104–5. Composer Comp oserss who wro wrote te ‘Da ‘Daliso liso’’ cant cantatas atas in Rome include Bono Bononcin ncini, i, Cald Caldara, ara, Freg Fregiott iotti, i, Gasparini, Handel, Mancini, Benedetto Marcello, Alessandro and Domenico Scarlatti, and Zipoli.

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know how to act like Ulysses and take a cruel revenge on them. Finally, addr ad dres essi sing ng Da Dali liso so hi hims msel elf, f, sh shee ro roun unds ds on hi him m fo forr hi hiss de dese sert rtio ion n of he herr an and d re remi mind ndss him that others are not immune to her charms. Who Clori is remains obscure. obsc ure. She may have been an actual person, perhaps a lady of the court, who harboured, or was rumoured to harbour, amorous feelings for Philip. Or she may be an allegory for the court itself. Philip’s crime is to have paid a pleasure-visit to Venice, as he doubtless did at least once every year. In Aure, voi più non siete, RV 652, Daliso, now the subject, laments the absence of his beloved, Climene. The breezes and the shade of beeches have lost their attraction for him, and he asks the stream to convey his lamentations to her. Wandering alone in the wood, he finds everywhere reminders of Climene – her name carved on a tree-trunk; a narcissus eclipsed in whiteness by her breast; a meadow in which he opened his heart to her. He ends by acknowledging that although the stream kisses and brings benefit to its banks, he remains tormented tormented by thoughts of Climene. The elegiac tone of the stanzas suggests that Climene’s departure is a euphemism for her death. Could she be Philip’s late wife Maria Theresia? If so, this cantata could be the secular counterpart to the ecclesiastical commemoration that he no doubt performed annually. At this point, we might also consider an isolated ‘Daliso’ cantata almost certai cer tainly nly wri writte tten n for Man Mantua tua (it (itss man manusc uscrip riptt sur surviv vives es in Da Darms rmstad tadt, t, in the Hessi He ssisch schee Lan Landes des-- und Hoc Hochsc hschul hulbib biblio liothe thek) k) by Mau Mauro ro D’ D’Ala Alay y (c. (c.169 1690–1 0–1757 757), ), a younger contemporary of Vivaldi whose path frequently crossed his in the 1720s and an d wh whom om we wi will ll di disc scus usss mo more re fu full lly y in th thee ne next xt ch chap apte ter. r. Th Thee ca cant ntat ataa Amo Daliso, è ver, set for soprano and continuo, possibly dates from the mid-1720s, since it displays a number of galant mannerisms.22 The content of its text is singular. In an opening aria the obviously female singer laments that she has lost her heart to Daliso but has been unable to tell him that she is of royal birth (and therefore a potential bride for him). Her situation is described poignantly in the first aria: Nacqui al reg Nacqui regno no e nacq nacqui ui al tro trono, no, I was bor born n int into o a thro throne ne and a king kingdom dom e pur son sono o sve sventur nturata ata pas pastor torell ella. a. and ye and yett I am an un unfo fort rtun unate ate sh shep epher herdes dess. s. Cominciò la mia fortuna My fortune showed itself dalla cuna a mostrar mostrarsi si a me me rubella. rubella. to be adverse adverse right right from my birth birth..23

In a second recitative, the royal shepherdess prays to God to let her identity be made known to Daliso, and the final comparison aria likens her firstly to a boat tha hatt nee eeds ds a sta tarr by whi hich ch to na navi viga gatte and th then en to a yo youn ung g tu turt rtle le do dove ve tha hatt ne neeeds to be taught by some older bird how to fly. Thee in Th inte tend nded ed re read adin ing g of th this is te text xt is pe perh rhap apss th that at Ph Phil ilip ip,, re rema main inin ing g el elig igib ible le af afte terr 22

23

Shelfmark: Mus. ms, 1046. This cantata was singled out by Schmitz ( Geschichte der weltlichen Solokantate , p. 156), who writes of its ‘original harmonic turns’ (‘originellen harmonischen Wendungen’). I learned recently from Lowell Lindgren that the text of this aria is plagiarized from Silvio Stampiglia’s libretto for Il trionfo di Camilla (first set by Giovanni Bononcini for Naples in 1696). The fact of its plagiarism does not diminish, of course, its possible relevance to its new context.


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the fiasco with Eleonora de’ Medici, is in the sights of some young lady attached to, or visiting, his court, who is of higher birth than her ostensible status suggests but needs advice from others on how to pursue her suit. Who this lady might be eludes our knowledge. Certainly, dynastic wars in Europe, especially the War of the Spanish Succession, had left the continent awash with stranded royalty. Clori returns in O mie porpore più belle, RV 685, to congratulate Monsignor Monsignor Antonio dei Conti Guidi di Bagno (1683–1761) on his consecration as bishop of Mantua.24 Antonio was appointed on 15 April 1719 and consecrated on 1 May, although he did not take possession of the see until 21 October. 25 Once again, Clori possibly stands for Philip’s court. There is a truly awful pun in the opening aria stanza, where ‘Manto’ (the traditional personification of Mantua) is made to rhyme with ‘manto’, the prelate’s purple mantle. In All’ombra d’un bel faggio, RV 649, Tirsi (Countess Margherita Pavesi Furl Fu rlan ani) i) is th thee su subj bjec ect, t, Eu Euri rill llaa (P (Pri rinc nces esss Th Theo eodo dora ra)) th thee ob obje ject ct.. Ti Tirs rsii is is,, of co cour urse se,, a male shepherd, so the love that he/she expresses could be taken as sexually ambiguous. In fact, erotic love is probably being used here as an innocent analogue of the due devotion shown by a lady-in-waiting to her mistress. Tirsi stan st ands ds in th thee sh shad adee of a be beec ech h tr tree ee.. En Enam amou oure red d of Eu Euri rill llaa bu butt in inhi hibi bite ted d by sh shyn ynes ess, s, he tells her that the stream is saying that it would like to run down to the sea but is obstructed by rocks. Eurilla sits down on the grassy bank beside the stream and asks Tirsi to explain himself more clearly. Tirsi then asks her to reciprocate his love. Indarn arno o cer cerca ca la tor tortor torell ella a, RV 659, Tirsi becomes the object. The In Ind unnamed subject is very likely Eurilla. Here, the opening aria stanza voices the thought that the turtle dove – a traditional emblem of fidelity in both classical literature and biblical lore – always laments its separation from its mate. The subj su bjec ect, t, id iden enti tifi fied ed ‘p ‘poe oeti tica call lly’ y’ as ma masc scul ulin inee th thro roug ugh h th thee us usee of th thee ad adje ject ctiv ival al fo form rm ‘vicino’ at the very end of the recitative stanza, laments that he has to remain separated from Tirsi but hopes to return. He describes how hope lessens the pain of separation. The same-sex relationship of mutual devotion between Tirsi and the subject forms a perfect counterpart to that between the heroine Judith and her hand ha ndma maid iden en Ab Abra ra in Gi Giac acom omo o Ca Cass sset etti ti’s ’s li libr bret etto to fo forr Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss Juditha triumphans, expressed through the aria ‘Veni, veni me sequere fide’, where a soprano chalumeau acts the part of a turtle dove. In Del suo natio rigore, RV 65 653, 3, th thee un unna name med d su subj bjec ectt co conf nfes esse sess ho how, w, al alth thou ough gh hardened against love, he became enamoured of Lidia after seeing her weep. Her tears provided the point of entry for Cupid’s dart. In this instance, one must be caut ca utio ious us ab abou outt pr pres esum umin ing g th that at Li Lidi diaa re repr pres esen ents ts a re real al in indi divi vidu dual al ra rath ther er th than an a fi fict ctiitious, off-the-peg character, although one suspects the presence of a concrete allusion. The three cantatas in which Elvira appears, each time as object, form – or at 24 25

Vivaldi refers to him in the title as ‘Monsignor da Bagni’: accuracy in rendering surnames was not one of his strengths. See the fuller account in Francesco Degrada’s Critical Notes to the Ricordi edition. Degrada wonders whether ‘Clori’ ‘Clori’ represents the city (as opposed to the court) of Mantua, but I consider this unlikely, given the presence of Manto in that rôle.

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least can be formed into – a little story. The name itself is interesting. It does not come from the classical or Renaissance repertory of names, and it has Spanish associations (as we know from Mozart’s Don Giovanni) that might be relevant to the identity of the person. 26 In Tremori al braccio e lagrime sul ciglio , RV 799, the unnamed lover breaks out in sweat and trembles at his inability to confess his love to Elvira. He describes how Elvira is unaware of his love, which he resolves to disclose. In the final aria stanza he does this, although not without qualms. We learn from Elvira, anima mia, RV 654, that the lover’s name is Fileno. He bears the sad tidings to Elvira that he has to leave and declares that his absence from her will make him miserable. He asks her for one last kiss before his departure. In Lungi del vago volto, RV 680, the homeward-bo homeward-bound und lover – presumably the same Fileno – expresses the agonies of separation that he has suffered. He sees Elvira approaching in the distance, and his excitement unsettles him. He asks the birds of the wood to attract her hither with their song. Elvira duly arrives to a rapturous reunion. Could this be the court’s playful re-enactment of a romance that its members witnessed? The notion is not improbable, for we know that certain cantata cycles by Ca Cald ldar araa an and d Ma Marc rcel ello lo we were re de desi sign gned ed,, li like ke th thee ma madr drig igal al co come medi dies es of ol old, d, to pl plot ot a narrative.27 There is no clinching argument to confirm this interpretation of the Mantuan cantatas as a chronicle or mirror of court life. However, the separate small pieces of evidence supporting the hypothesis are so numerous that it deserves serious consideration.

Individual Works Works In the discussion of individual cantatas in this section, and in its counterparts in the following two chapters, the order in which works appear will be strictly in accordance with their RV number (i.e., moving down the first column of Table 4.1). This procedure inevitably ignores the chronology of their composition and juxtaposes stronger and and weaker works randomly, randomly, but it has the the important important advantage of aiding the reader’s orientation.

26

27

It is pertinent to add that a damigella named Elvira, presumably the same person, is mentioned in passing in the libretto of Boniventi’s Il Climene (II.4) of 1722. I am grateful to Luigi Cataldi for pointing this out to me. Caldara’ss cantatas are the six written in Milan in August 1711 that all begin ‘Caro Daliso mio’ Caldara’ (infor (in forma matio tion n fro from m Bri Brian an Pri Pritch tchard ard); ); Mar Marce cello llo’s ’s ca canta ntatas tas are the two cyc cycles les,, ea each ch of twe twelve lve wo works rks,, writt wr itten en bet betwe ween en Jan Januar uary y and Mar March ch 171 1713, 3, and Oct Octobe oberr and Dec Decem ember ber 17 1713, 13, res respe pecti ctive vely. ly. On the latter, see Marco Bizzarini, Benedetto Marcello. Le cantate profane. I testi poetici , Venice: Edizioni Fondazione Levi, 2003, pp. xvii–xix.


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RV 649: All’ombra d’un bel faggio (RARA) We hav havee al alrea ready dy quo quoted ted the ope openin ning g ri ritor tornel nello lo of thi thiss can cantat tata’s a’s fir first st ari ariaa (Example 3.4) and the vocal part of the ‘A’ section of its second aria (Example 3.1a). Its recitatives are a little unmemorable, but nicely fashioned; particularly attractive is the swift turn to G minor from E minor in bars 13–15 of the first recitative. This is another instance of ellipsis: the ‘missing’ chord is that of G majo ma jor, r, wh whic ich h br brid idge gess th thee tw two o mu mutu tual ally ly re remo mote te ke keys ys.. In th thee sa same me re reci cita tati tive ve th ther eree is one bar with only two crotchet beats. Since most movements in common time in thee mu th musi sicc of Vi Viva vald ldii an and d ma many ny of hi hiss co cont ntem empo pora rari ries es ma make ke a pr prac acti tice ce of us usin ing g th thee half-bar rather than the full bar as the effective metrical unit, the anomaly is more visual than aural. Some of Vivaldi’s ‘odd’ 2/4 bars seem to have been created pure pu rely ly by ac acci cide dent nt,, as wh when en th thee co comp mpos oser er mo move ved d to a ne new w sy syst stem em or tu turn rned ed a pa page ge but overlooked that he needed to complete an existing bar before proceeding to the next. The first aria shows the strengths of Vivaldi’s modular method of constructing a movement. Having introduced, in the first bar of the ritornello, an apt figure to illustrate the murmur of a brook (see Example 3.4), he takes it into the vocal line, where it generates both imitative play with the bass and, via sequential repetition, extended melismas on the ‘cor-’ of correr (‘run’). The basic premise of this monomotivic approach is that the germinal motive has enough plasticity to fit a great variety of harmonic contexts. Vivaldi has the talent and imagination to devise such motives, and the result, at its best, is a movement in which the demands of unity and variety are both satisfied in full. At the same time, he has a sure sense of when to inject new material so as to preserve a movement from monotony. As Example 3.1a shows, the new impetus provided by the syncopations of the melismatic passages (see bars 21 and 55) arrives just in time to prevent the music from chasing its own tail. Neit Ne ithe herr ar aria ia co cont ntai ains ns a fe ferm rmat ataa fo forr th thee in inse sert rtio ion n of a vo voca call ca cade denz nza. a. In Inde deed ed,, th this is feat fe atur uree is wh whol olly ly ab abse sent nt fr from om th thee Ma Mant ntua uan n ca cant ntat atas as,, an and d it itss so soli lita tary ry ap appe pear aran ance ce in a Vivaldi cantata aria (in RV 679) predictably postdates 1720. Unusually, but certainly not uniquely, Vivaldi’s composition score of RV 649 is not headed with the composer’s name. There was, of course, no overriding reason for any manuscript that remained in his personal archive to bear his name, since this could always be added to the copies made from it before they passed into circulation. To illustrate the tendency of Arcadian poetry to restrict itself to a very narrow range of words and images, some examples can be quoted of other cantatas or duets of which the first line combines the two keywords faggio (‘beech’) and ombra (‘shade’): Di sì bel faggio all’ombra (Pescetti); So Sotto tto l’ l’om ombr bra a d’ d’un un fa fagg ggio io,, Scarlatt latti, i, Manc Mancini) ini);; So sull ma su marg rgin inee d’ d’un un ri rivo vo (A. Scar Sotto tto l’o l’omb mbra ra d’ d’un un fa fagg ggio io Am Amin inta ta il pastorello (de Majo); Vieni all’ombra di quel faggio (anon.); Sotto l’ombra d’un faggio, piangente e sospirante (A. Scarlatti); D’un faggio a l’ombra assiso (Steffani). A similar constellation of closely related first lines clusters around the titles of most of Vivaldi’s cantatas.

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RV 652: Aure, voi più non siete (RARA) The first aria of this eloquently elegiac cantata, ‘Ti confido il pianto mio’, is remarkable for keeping the thematic material of the voice and bass distinct from star st artt to fi fini nish sh.. Th Thee co cont ntin inuo uo ha hass co cont ntin inuo uous us ondeggiando semi semiquave quavers rs expr expressi essing ng the motion of the stream, while the soprano sings mostly in conjunct quavers that represent Daliso’s Daliso’s sighs for his lost Climene. After Scribe 4 had copied out this cantata, Vivaldi revisited it – one cannot tell whether immediately after copying or on a la late terr oc occa casi sion on – an and d ma made de so some me ve very ry de deep ep cu cuts ts.. On th thee co comp mpos oser er’s ’s ge gene nera rall prop pr open ensi sity ty to ap appl ply y cu cuts ts wh when en re revi visi sing ng hi hiss mu musi sic, c, De Degr grad adaa ha hass ma made de a ve very ry as astu tute te observation: The re The rema mark rkab able le fa fact ct is th that at Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss re revis visio ions ns te tend nd al almo most st in inva vari riab ably ly to towa ward rdss a tightening of the structure vis-à-vis its original, usually more expansive, form; thee im th impr pres essi sion on th they ey gi give ve is th that at of a co comp mpos oser er wh who o wr writ ites es im impu puls lsiv ivel ely y (w (who ho ca can n forget the ‘furie de composition’ that flabbergasted Président [Charles] de Brosses?) and only later passes a critical eye over his work, striving to purge it of re redu dund ndan ancy cy or at an any y ra rate te to ex expr pres esss hi hims msel elff mo more re ef effe fect ctiv ivel ely y an and d 28 succinctly.

The opening of the same aria, quoted as Example 4.1, shows this pruning in action. The example gives the introductory ritornello, first vocal period, and linking ritornello. Originally eighteen bars long, this passage was reduced to thirteen and a half bars simply by deleting the portions rendered in small notes. These portions could all be sacrificed, since they repeated, literally or in paraphrase, material adjacent to them. For most other composers, such ruthless cutting would have played havoc with the phrase structure. For Vivaldi, this is less of a problem, since his ‘bottom up’ method of composition, where symmetry and asy asymm mmetr etry y jos jostle tle pro promi miscu scuous ously, ly, rem remai ains ns res resili ilient ent in the fac facee of suc such h surgery. In the case under consideration, the outcome is certainly an improvement: the harmonic rhythm of the ritornello becomes tauter, and the unfortunate bar 10, which needlessly holds up the descent of the melodic line, disappears. The second recitative, beginning ‘Infelice Daliso’, is an object lesson in tonal planning. The word ‘planning’ may be a misnomer, since Vivaldi could have arri ar rive ved d at th thee re resu sult lt me mere rely ly vi viaa in inst stin inct ct an and d ex expe peri rien ence ce – bu butt th thee ef effe fect ct is th thee sa same me.. This movement is based on modulation chains ascending and descending by fifths. The first chain (bars 1–6) starts in B minor and moves flatwards through E and A mino norr to D min inor or.. It the hen n move vess ov oveer to th thee maj ajor or sid idee an and d de desc sceend ndss fr from om B flat to E flat major (bars 7–8). Returning to the minor side, it embarks on another, longer modulation chain (bars 9–17) that moves up sharpwards from C minor via

28

Degrada, ‘Note filologiche in margine all’edizione critica’, p. 377: ‘Il dato singolare è che le corre co rrezio zioni ni viv vival aldia diane ne ten tendon dono o qua quasi si un unifo iform rmam ament entee all allaa ric ricerc ercaa di un det dettat tato o più sin sintet tetico ico ris rispet petto to a una prima formulazione generalmente più espansa; l’immagine che esse forniscono è quella di un mu music sicist istaa che com compo pone ne di ge getto tto (c (come ome no non n pe pensa nsare re all allaa ‘fu ‘furia ria inv invent entiva iva’’ che las lasciò ciò sbi sbigo gotti ttito to il Presiden Pres idente te De Bros Brosses? ses?)) e che successivam successivamente ente passa al vag vaglio lio crit critico ico il prop proprio rio lavo lavoro, ro, studiandosi di eliminare il superfluo, o comunque di esprimersi in maniera più efficace e stringata.’


Ex. 4.1 Vivaldi, Aure, voi più non siete , RV 652: ‘Ti confido il pianto mio’, opening

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Ex. 4.1 Vivaldi, Aure, voi più non siete , RV 652: cont.

G, D, A, and E minor to B minor. To finish, it slips over once more to the major side and passes from G major to C major (bars 18–20). What lends added meaning to the tonal design is its close correlation with the mood of the text. The first shift to the major occurs just at the point where Daliso sees the first of his reminders of Climene (her name carved on a tree-trunk), and the second shift come co mes, s, po poig igna nant ntly ly,, at th thee st star artt of th thee fi fina nall co coup uple lett of th thee st stan anza za,, wh wher eree Da Dali liso so bi bids ds his memories be silent so as not to overwhelm him. In the second aria (‘Le fiorite e belle sponde’), which is light and breezy in style, Vivaldi integrates voice and bass more closely. The opening ritornello, pref pr efig igur urin ing g th thee vo voca call li line ne,, in intr trod oduc uces es a de deli ligh ghtf tful ul fi figu gure re (a (an n as asce cend ndin ing g six–th six –three ree tri triad ad rhy rhythm thmici icized zed as qua quaver ver,, qua quaver ver,, cro crotch tchet) et) tha thatt dep depict ictss the lapping of its banks by the stream. Scalar movement in a variety of guises informs most of the thematic material of this aria, contributing to the sense of continual movement. There are two interesting structural details to be mentioned. The second vocal peri pe riod od be begi gins ns wi with th an ex exac actt re repr pris isee of th thee fi firs rstt se seve ven n ba bars rs of th thee fi firs rstt vo voca call se sect ctio ion. n. This is a progressive feature that makes the ‘A’ section resemble the simple version of sonata form sometimes called ‘sonatina’ form, where, once the second key has been confirmed at the end of the exposition, an immediate return is made to the home key, in which the music remains thereafter (this form is standard in Rossini overtures). An immediate reversion to the tonic following the central


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modulation is encountered similarly in several of Vivaldi’s bipartite concerto slow movements – for example, that of La primavera, RV 269. The surprise about the form of the ‘B’ section of this aria is that both of its ‘structural’ cadences cadences are in the same key – A minor. This identity of key is very rare in the Baroque da capo aria. In Vivaldi, it occurs only in a small minority of arias – but the fact that it occurs at all is noteworthy. Vivaldi’s Vivaldi’s aim seems to be to broaden and simplify the formal outline, giving the ‘B’ section a more uniform character. RV 653: Del suo natio rigore (RARA) Vivald Viva ldii ma made de la late terr co corr rrec ecti tion onss to th this is ca cant ntat ataa in si simi mila larr fa fash shio ion n to RV 65 652. 2. It Itss fi firs rstt aria summons up the disconsolate Lidia, on whom the unidentified subject of the cantata takes compassion. Vivaldi employs powerful, if traditional, ways of conveying the idea of weeping. Already on the third beat of the first bar there is a Neapolitan Second to colour the minor tonality. The downward flow of tears is expressed by a descending scale in bar 2, and in bar 3 a longer descent introduces the device sometimes known as the ‘iambic prime’, whose repetitive stutter has been employed by composers from the Baroque Seufzer right up to modern times to represent sighing or sobbing. 29 Example 4.2 gives the opening up to the first vocal cadence. Later on (in bar 19), the inversion of the ‘stutter’ phrase creates a melodic augmented second. secon d. Vivaldi’s liberal use of this interval within a melodic phrase is a hallmark of his style. One hesitates to say that he invented its melodic use in Western art music; but one can safely claim that he was the first great composer to exploit its melodic potential conspicuously and frequently. In contrast, the second aria (‘Sempre invano il Dio d’amore’), which describes the subject’s love for Lidia, is almost skittish in character. Here, the keyword is ‘vezzi’ – the charms with which Cupid delights the heart. In a texture that at certain points becomes as elaborately contrapuntal as two-part writing permits, Vivaldi allows an exhilarating game of ‘tag’ to develop between treble and bass. There is a complex interplay of conflicting accents, phrases starting variously on the first and the second beat of the bar. Example 4.3 shows the first fourteen bars of the ‘B’ section. The mood, and the musical means of achieving it, are very similar to those of the aria ‘Chi seguir vuol la costanza’, given its first outing in Ottone in villa (I.5) and much used subsequently. This is vintage early-period Vivaldi. RV 654: Elvira, anima mia (RARA) This is another heavily ‘corrected’ cantata. Its first aria, ‘Partirò, ma vedrai quan qu anto to’, ’, is on only ly on onee of se seve vera rall th that at we sh shal alll en enco coun unte terr in th thee Ma Mant ntua uan n gr grou oup p to us usee the passus duriusculus , a downward movement by chromatic steps from tonic to dominant, the traditional emblem of lament (here, signifying departure from

29

The term ‘iambic prime’ was coined by Joachim Joach im Braun, who refers to it in ‘The Double Meaning Meani ng of Jewish Elements in Dmitri Shostakovich’s Music’, Musical Quarterly , lxxi (1985), 68–80.

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Ex. 4.2 Vivaldi, Del suo natio rigore , RV 653: ‘Quei begl’occhi io pianger vidi’, opening

Elvira). In the opening ritornello, shown as Example 4.4a, the passus duriusculus appears in the course of the lower ‘part’ of a self-accompanied line. 30 Both this and the upper ‘part’ that responds to it employ syncopated slurring, a Vivaldian speciality. The affective significance of the slurs becomes clearer later on when, in halved note-values, they appear during a melisma on the ‘-lor’ of dolor (Example 4.4b). Schmitz, who knew none of the Mantuan cantatas, wrote of Albinoni’s superiority superiority to Vivaldi as a melodist in arias written in slow tempo. 31 This movement proves him over-hasty, for it has shapely contours, expressive intervals, and a sense of balance equal to the best of Albinoni. In the second recitative (‘Passo al rogo fatal, e son già cinto’) the passus duriusculus turns up again (shorn of its first note) in the soprano part of a brief arioso passage highlighting the word tormento (Example 4.5). Sadly, the final aria, ‘Pupille vaghe’, fails to maintain the quality of the earlier movements. It is thematically diffuse and has a notably perfunctory ‘B’ section – always a symptom of low creative energy. 30 31

A ‘self-accompanied’ line is one in which, by constant movement between registers, the impres sion of two or more contrapuntally interacting lines is produced. Schmitz, Geschichte der weltlichen Solokantate , pp. 150–1. Schmitz’s real quarrel was with the extravagant fioritura of the Dresden cantatas, which he knew well.


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Ex. 4.3 Vivaldi, Del suo natio rigore , RV 653: ‘Sempre invano il Dio d’amore’, bars 57–73

Ex. 4.4 Vivaldi, Elvira, anima mia, RV 654: ‘Partirò, ma vedrai quanto’, extracts e xtracts

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Ex. 4.5 Vivaldi, Elvira, anima mia, RV 654: ‘Passo al rogo fatal, e son già cinto’, bars 7–10

Vivald Viva ldii pe penn nned ed an en enig igma mati ticc in insc scri ript ptio ion n – ‘L ‘Las asci ciar ar le Se Semi micr crom ome’ e’ – at th thee he head ad of the last movement. Degrada, in the Critical Notes to the Ricordi edition, wond wo nder erss wh whet ethe herr it me mean anss th that at th thee ha harp rpsi sich chor ordi dist st,, as op oppo pose sed d to th thee ce cell llis ist, t, sh shou ould ld refr re frai ain n fr from om pl play ayin ing g th thee se semi miqu quav aver erss of th thee ba bass ss.. I do doub ubtt th that at th this is in inte terp rpre reta tati tion on is correct, since the informality of the phrase is uncharacteristic of Vivaldi’s direction ti onss to pe perf rfor orme mers rs.. Pe Perh rhap apss ‘l ‘las asci ciar ar’’ sh shou ould ld be un unde ders rsto tood od in th thee se sens nsee of ‘r ‘ret etai ain’ n’ (‘lasciar stare’) rather than ‘omit’ (‘lasciar fuori’), in which case the purpose of the phrase might be to rescind an earlier oral instruction to the copyist. RV 658: Il povero mio cor (ARA) The imposing first aria of this cantata is dominated, once again, by the chromatic lamento bass. Its opening ritornello is a self-accompanied line that cleverly pref pr efig igur ures es th thee op open enin ing g of th thee fi firs rstt vo voca call se sect ctio ion n by ma maki king ng th thee up uppe perr ‘p ‘par art’ t’ a go good od approximation to the soprano melody and the lower ‘part’ a simplified version of its bass. Incredibly, the ‘B’ section has both of its cadences in B flat minor, the lowered seventh degree of the tonic, C minor. This key lies right outside the ambitus, and the return to the ‘A’ section for the reprise inevitably gives a jolt. This Th is mo move veme ment nt ex expr pres esse sess as cl clea earl rly y as an any y ot othe herr in Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss oe oeuv uvre re hi hiss re read adin ines esss to explore unusual tonal designs within structures that in all other respects are conventional. After a short but expressive recitative, recitati ve, we arrive at the second aria, ‘Disperato, confuso, agitato’. Vivaldi conveys the unbalanced state of mind described by the text effectively enough, using hammered repeated quavers in the bass and a syncopated ‘sawing’ rhythm (quaver, crotchet, crotchet, quaver) in the soprano part. The vocal line is splendidly mobile, rising to great heights and falling to great depths. All the same, this aria errs by being too repetitive for its own good: the syncopations are so unrelenting that their effect becomes inappropriately inappropriately comic in certain places. RV 659: Indarno cerca la tortorella (ARA) The fi The firs rstt ar aria ia of th this is ca cant ntat ata, a, wh whic ich h in intr trod oduc uces es on once ce ag agai ain n th thee lamento ba bass ss an and d th thee device of a self-accom self-accompanied panied ritornello theme, is pleasingly varied in rhythm and melodic design. Scalar movement dominates, but this is expressed variously as two-n tw o-note ote ‘si ‘sighi ghing’ ng’ fig figure ures, s, thr threeee-not notee ‘sl ‘slide ide’’ fig figure uress and lon long g swe sweeps eps of sem semiqu iquaavers. The ‘B’ section comes to a glorious finish with a descending scale running


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the full length of the movement’s unusually wide compass ( b'' flat to b flat ) in illustration of the word sparge (‘spreads’). An interesting interesting formal detail is that the second vocal period includes, half-way through, a reprise of the material of the first vocal period in the manner of ‘rounded’ binary form, which c.1720 was beginning to supersede simple binary form in longer instrumental movements. But instead of returning to the text and word-setting of the opening two lines, Vivaldi presents a jumbled and partly garbled version: bars 11–21 11–21 bars 54–62

Indarno cerca Indarno cerca la tortore tortorella, lla, la la tortorella tortorella al suo suo compagno compagno di far ritorno ritorno.. Di far far ritorno ritorno invano cerca al suo suo compagno compagno la tortorell tortorella. a.

This unforced alteration, which perhaps puzzled Vivaldi’s singers, is harmless enough. It does, however, betray the fact of the composer’s background in instrumental music. For him, the melody has an intrinsic status independent of the words, which are, so to speak, its necessary but not always identical clothing. The second aria, ‘La sola spene’, mirrors the first in its slow tempo, its use of a lamento bass, and its inclusion of a reprise to different words (this time, those of the fourth and fifth lines). To give the outer movements of a work common structural, technical, and expressive characteristics (in addition to the obvious identity of key) is a characteristic found over and over again in Vivaldi’s instrumental music, so one is not surprised to encounter it also here, where the reigning affetto in the two arias (the grief of separation) is identical. There is, however, an interesting additional element in the second aria: a repetitive use of the harsh melodic interval of a diminished third, which occurs ten times in the movement (ignoring the da capo repeat).

RV 661: Nel partir da te, mio caro (ARA) The first aria of this attractive cantata has a breathless quality arising from its segmen seg mentat tation ion int into o tw two-b o-bar ar uni units. ts. Vi Vival valdi di use usess rhy rhythm thmic ic var variet iety y and str strong ong contrasts between syllabic and melismatic delivery of the words to counterbalance this regularity. The movement gets off to a very good start with a ritornello them th emee of re real al ch char arac acte terr (E (Exa xamp mple le 4. 4.6) 6):: th thee to toni nici ciza zati tion on of th thee do domi mina nant nt no note te in ba barr 2 imparts a spin to the music that lends it a powerful forward momentum. The rippling arpeggios in bar 7 and subsequently are used very effectively in alternation with vocal fioritura during the melismatic passages. The first vocal period cadences in the relative key, C minor – another unconventional but, for Vivaldi, scarcely unexpected choice. From the smooth efficiency of the recitative one would never guess what travails, described in Chapter 3, Vivaldi went through to complete it. Gaiety returns in the second aria, ‘Di quel volto sempre amato’. This is a compact aria of more conventional cast than the first. The movement contains three delicious melismas comprising four ‘dotted’ groups (dotted semiquaver plus demisemiquaver) plus a longer concluding note. On the first two occasions the figure aptly illustrates the word invola (‘steals’), alluding to the meaning of its root, vola (meaning ‘flies’). On the third occasion, in the ‘B’ section, it accompanies the ‘-lor’ of dolor – not quite as fittingly, but at least without incongruity. Vivaldi

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Ex. 4.6 Vivaldi, Nel partir da te, mio caro : opening ritornello

does not quite have Handel’s flair for introducing dotted rhythms in order to lend vita vi tali lity ty an and d me memo mora rabi bili lity ty to a ph phra rase se,, bu butt hi hiss to touc uch h is ve very ry su sure re on th this is oc occa casi sion on.. RV 665: Si levi dal pensier (ARA) This bittersweet cantata is more sophisticated than it looks. Its opening aria deals with Clori’s unsuccessful attempts to banish Daliso from her mind. Vivaldi captures the idea of obsession brilliantly by treating in constant imitation the lively phrase that opens both the initial ritornello and the first vocal period. The word lusinghier (‘f (‘flat latter tering ing’, ’, ‘at ‘attra tracti ctive’ ve’)) is the cue for som somee ext extrav ravaga agant nt melismas that reveal the depths of Clori’s infatuation. In contrast, the bass in the second aria, ‘Vanne sull’Adria, infido’, is very simple and characterized by much note-repetition. The repeated notes may be widely spaced (in which case they may be separated by rests) or continuous. Vivaldi was in the vanguard of the composers who, in the 1720s, adopted the ‘drum bass’ (called Trommelbaß by German writers) as a simple but effective means of securing rhythmic animation without harmonic complexity. Like many good devices, it suffered from over-generous application. Quantz castigated its near-universal use in the Italian music of his time. His view of typical Italian bass ba sses es wa wass th that at th they ey we were re ‘n ‘nei eith ther er im impo posi sing ng no norr me melo lodi dic, c, no norr ha havi ving ng an any y es espe peci cial al connec con nectio tion n wi with th the pri princi ncipal pal par part’. t’.32 He we went nt on on:: ‘E ‘Eve ven n in th thei eirr so solo lo so sona nata tass th they ey cann ca nnot ot to tole lera rate te a ba bass ss th that at no now w an and d ag agai ain n mo move vess in a me melo lodi dicc ma mann nner er.. Th They ey pr pref efer er it if the bass is treated very drily, sounding only intermittently or drumming cons co nsta tant ntly ly on a si sing ngle le no note te’. ’. C. P. E. Ba Bach ch wa wass no mo more re sy symp mpat athe heti ticc to th thee de devi vice ce.. And yet: the Trommelbaß proved its worth all through the rest of the century and beyond. Who would dare to argue that the repeated bass quavers in the finale of La Passione) or in th Hayd Ha ydn’ n’ss Sy Symp mpho hony ny no no.. 49 ( La thee fi firs rstt mo move veme ment nt of Be Beet etho hove ven’ n’ss String Quartet in C minor, Op. 18 no. 4, were out of place? The depth of Vivaldi’s addiction to drum basses is seen in the revisions he made in the 1720s to some of his violin sonatas composed in the previous decade (a comparison of the ‘Dresden’ and ‘Manchester’ versions of the C minor sonata, RV 6, will exemplify this) and in the substituted movements in the 1739 version (RV 611) of his Magnificat . His fondness for them stemmed not only from their intrinsic convenience convenience but also from his lifelong penchant for pedal-notes and his wish to direct the listener’s attention unreservedly towards the principal part. The 32

Johann Joachim Quantz, Versuch einer Anweisung die Flöte Traversiere zu spielen , p. 313.


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Ex. 4.7 Vivaldi, Si levi dal pensier , RV 665: ‘Vanne sull’Adria, infido’, bars 10–35

first vocal period of ‘Vanne sull’Adria, infido’, shown as Example 4.7, illustrate illustratess the device in operation. Could the bass have been handled in a more complex manner without detracting from the raciness of the vocal part? Does the immobility of the ‘drumming’ passages (bars 15–22 and 26–30) not make an attractive contrast with the more dynamic material surrounding it? In short, Vivaldi’s drum basses always have to be assessed in their context, not damned in advance. RV 680: Lungi dal vago volto (RARA) This cantata with violin obbligato is the jewel of the Mantuan group. It is not pre-em pre -emine inent nt mer merely ely bec becaus ausee of the add added ed con contr trapu apunta ntall par part, t, but Vi Vival valdi’ di’ss cre creati ative ve flame may have received extra inspiration from the challenge this posed. No concept in the whole cantata repertory is more certain to elicit graphic word-painting than that of distance ( lungi, lontano, lontananza, etc.). Schmitz provides music examples of three instances: by Antonino Biffi, Lodovico Busca, and Alessandro Scarlatti, respectively.33 Vivaldi conforms to tradition in a rather

33

Schmitz, Geschichte der weltlichen Solokantate , pp. 102, 119, and 129.

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Ex. 4.8 Vivaldi, Lungi dal vago volto , RV 680: opening

eccentric way, for the wide interval duly appears – but only after the illustrated word (lungi) has been and gone (Example 4.8). There is no mistaking, however, the eloquence and power of this recitative, which repeats certain phrases for added emphasis. Just before the end, where Elvira’s lover makes a short prayer to Cupi Cu pid, d, Vi Viva vald ldii in inse sert rtss fo four ur ba bars rs of wh what at Ro Rous usse seau au ca call lled ed ‘r ‘réc écit itat atif if me mesu suré ré’. ’. 34 This is not true arioso, since the voice continues to sing syllabically, but it is not ordinary recitative either, since the bass moves in even quavers (with a ‘drumming’ pattern, in fact), thereby forcing the singer to adhere to a strict tempo. As remarked at the end of Chapter 3, the arias of this cantata have much of the substance of chamber duets (leaving aside the violin’s task of punctuating them with wit h quasi quasi-orc -orchestr hestral al rito ritornel rnellos) los).. Viva Vivaldi ldi work workss syst systemat ematical ically ly towa towards rds the climaxes, his method being the time-honoured one of proceeding in clearly defined stages. As Table 4.2 shows, passages in parallel motion are the chief instruments of climax. They symbolize joyful union or synchronized feelings. Vivaldi makes these passages more interesting by introducing birdsong effects (bar (b arss 17 17–1 –18, 8, 23 23–4 –4,, an and d 35 35–6 –6)) or en enli live veni ning ng th them em wi with th sy sync ncop opat atio ion n (b (bar arss 37 37–8 –8 an and d 57–8). The final aria, ‘Mi stringerai, sì, sì’, follows a similar course. Its muscular ritornello, full of double stopping, already depicts the embrace of the reunited lovers. Particularly impressive impressive is the tailpiece to the second vocal period (shown as Example 4.9), where the violin returns to its ritornello material, and the voice supplies a new counterpoint to it opening with percussive repetitions of the two words sì (to the love between the two) and no (to the prospect of future separation). The repetition of these particular words – which, in addition to its possible inanity, plays havoc with prosody – has been ridiculed by commentators ever since the eighteenth century. Here, however, the effect is gloriously uplifting.

34

Rousseau, Dictionnaire de musique , art. ‘Récitatif’, p. 404.


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Table 4.2 Structure of the first aria, ‘Augelletti, ‘Augelletti, voi col canto’, from Lungi dal vago volto, RV 680 Bars

Section

Voice/Violin

1–8 9–13 14–16 17–20 21–2 23–32

ritornello (g g) first vocal period ritornello (c c) second vocal period (1) linking phrase (c g) second vocal period (2)

violin voice violin voice and violin violin voice and violin

33–9

tailpiece

40–5 46–50 51–3 51 –3 54–61

ritornello (g g) third vocal period rito ri torn rnell ello o (Bb Bb) tailpiece

Texture Te

solo solo solo parallel parall el motio motion n solo parallel parall el motio motion, n, then dialog dialogue ue (bar 36), then imitation (bar 30) voice and violin dia dialogue, then parallel motion (bar 36) violin solo voice solo violin solo voice and violin voice solo, then parallel motion (bar 56), then voice solo (bar 59)

Ex. 4.9 Vivaldi, Lungi dal vago volto , RV 680: ‘Mi stringerai, sì, sì’, bars 81–7

Although the main key of this work is E flat major, G minor has a special salience. It is the key of the first aria and also the final destination of the ‘B’ section of the second aria. Elsewhere, I have written about key relationships in Vivald Viv aldi’s i’s wor works ks tha thatt I des descr cribe ibe as ‘pr ‘privi ivileg leged’ ed’.. 35 These are two-way relationships that are not reducible to generic relationships based on harmonic function (e.g., between a major key and its mediant minor) and in consequence occur both more frequently and in less predictable contexts than is the case with other, similarly related keys. Two such pairs can be identified in Vivaldi’s music: E flat major/G minor and C major/E minor. It really does seem that Vivaldi assigned intrinsic 35

Talbot, ‘How Recitatives End’, p. 187. The cantatas emphasizing the E flat major/G minor relationship are RV 659, 663, and 667; those emphasizing the C major/E minor relationship are RV 652, 667, and 668.

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expressive value to certain keys over and above their functional rôle. Perhaps his background as a violinist influenced him in this, or perhaps a trace of modal ‘ethos ‘et hos’’ inh inheri erited ted via the tuoni of th thee se seve vent ntee eent nth h ce cent ntur ury y su surv rviv ived ed in hi hiss th thou ough ght. t. RV 685: O mie porpore più belle (ARA) Vivaldi’ Vival di’ss tw two o Man Mantua tuan n can cantat tatas as wi with th ins instru trumen mental tal acc accom ompan panime iment nt do not compare in quality and musical interest with the superb accompanied cantatas of the next period (RV 683 and 684, in particular). They were both ‘occasional’ works, perhaps composed in a hurry and not engaging the composer’s imagination very strongly. Maybe their blandness and relative brevity were ‘designed’ features, in the sense that the cantatas were intended to form a small part of a comp co mple lex x ce cere remo mony ny in wh whic ich h it wo woul uld d ha have ve be been en a mi mist stak akee to ob obtr trud udee unnecessarily. RV 68 685 5 op open enss wi with th an ar aria ia in mi minu nuet et rh rhyt ythm hm an anno noun unci cing ng Gu Guid idi’ i’ss co coro rona nati tion on as bish bi shop op.. Mi Minu nuet ets, s, es espe peci cial ally ly qu quic icke kerr on ones es in 3/ 3/8 8 me metr tre, e, we were re co comm mmon only ly us used ed at th thee time to express rejoicing (this is how Johann Kuhnau celebrates Hezekiah’s recovery and the victories of David and Gideon in his Biblische Historien of 1700). Vivaldi’s aria is almost vulgarly triumphalist in mood, recalling Ozias’s aria ‘Gaude felix’ in Juditha triumphans (Example 4.10). In the vocal sections Vivaldi employs a sparse bassetto accompaniment on unison upper strings, except at the climactic points, where the vocal line is superimposed on ritornello material in the manner already described for RV 680. 36 The recitative, ‘simple’ in type, occupies a mere five bars. Unexpectedl Unexpectedly, y, the seco se cond nd ar aria ia,, ‘N ‘No, o, no non n vi vidi di il pi più ù ge gent ntil ile’ e’,, do does es no nott em empl ploy oy th thee fu full ll st stri ring ng en ense semb mble le but contents itself with a solo violin. It is very unusual in Baroque multimovement works for the two framing movements not to have identical scoring and not to call on all the performers. There are, however, precedents in Vivaldi’s other works for such asymmetry. For instance, his Salve Regina in F major, RV 617, opens with a movement in which the only accompanist (apart from the continuo player) is a solo violin; the orchestra is used only in subsequent movement me nts. s. It is pr prob obab ably ly no co coin inci cide denc ncee th that at he here re,, to too, o, th thee so solo lo vi viol olin in ca caus uses es th thee de devi vi-ation from the expected pattern. In certain circumstances, it seems, Vivaldi wished at all costs to bring himself, as a virtuoso of the violin, to the fore. In RV 685 68 5 th thee vi viol olin inis istt-co comp mpos oser er pa pays ys a pe pers rson onal al,, vi visi sibl blee ho homa mage ge to th thee pr prel elat ate. e. Wa Wass he angling for an extra-large regalo (gratuity)? Perhaps so – and quite blamelessly, according to the custom of the time. This second aria is fluent and totally unmemorable – ‘Vivaldi-lite’, one might jocularly say. RV 686: Qual in pioggia dorata i dolci rai (RARA) Since the text of this cantata speaks of ‘un giorno sì sereno’ (‘so serene a day’), one imagines that it was composed for Philip’s birthday or name-day. To the 36

A bassetto (literally, a ‘little bass’) is a bass line similar to that of a continuo part but placed in a higher octave, where it is typically played by violins and/or viola. Such bassetti are apt to cross thee vo th voca call li line ne bu butt co cont ntin inue ue ev even en th then en to fu func ncti tion on as tr true ue ba bass ss pa part rtss by vi virt rtue ue of th thei eirr di dist stin inct ct ti timb mbre re and characteristic shape.


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Ex. 4.10 Vival Vivaldi, di, O mie porpore più belle , RV 685: opening

string ensemble a pair of horns is added. These not only augment the grandeur of the orchestral sound but also contribute what one could term a symbolical element. Brass instruments were associated above all with the courtly lifestyle. Trumpets evoked the world of military endeavour and, more generally, of pageantry and court ritual, while horns accompanied the favourite pastime of hunting and represented the leisurely pursuits of a nobleman. To include horns in an or orch ches estr tral al co comp mpos osit itio ion n de dedi dica cate ted d to a no nobl blem eman an (a (ass Ba Bach ch di did d so co cons nspi picu cuou ousl sly y in his First Brandenburg Concerto ) was in itself an act of tribute. Whereas German composers – among them, Bach, Telemann, and Fasch – on occasion worked actual horn calls into their parts for the instrument, Italian composers were content with more generic effects, making full use of such features as the ‘horn fifth’ (the interval between the sixth and ninth harmonics of the natural instrument, used, in two-part writing for horns, as a point of transition between a third and a sixth) and rapid repeated notes. Except in one instance (the use of horns in F in the tonal context of C minor in Farnace), Vivaldi’s use of horns – invariably in pairs – is by his exacting standards rather conventional and unadventurous, although perfectly idiomatic. There is some uncertaint uncertainty y about where the horn play players ers used in the perfo perforrmance of RV 686 came from. Cataldi has pointed out that no horn players are present in contemporary lists of the members of the court orchestra, the ‘Regia Ducal Cappella’. 37 His opinion is that they were recruited specially for the occasion. However, the orchestra did have three trumpeters, who may well have doubled on the lower instrument. It is perhaps significant that in eighteenthcentury Italy the horn was often viewed as a second species of trumpet: a tromba da caccia, as opposed to a tromba lunga. Noth No thin ing g ne need ed be sa said id ab abou outt th thee tw two o re reci cita tati tive vess of RV 68 686 6 ex exce cept pt th that at th thee fi firs rstt is introduced by the direction ‘arcate lunghe’. This is an unusual direction for the 37

Cataldi, ‘I rapporti di Vivaldi’, 90–92.

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bass in simple recitative (it makes obvious sense in accompanied recitative, wher wh eree th thee up uppe perr st stri ring ngss su sust stai ain n th thei eirr so soun unds ds). ). Pe Perh rhap apss it si sign gnif ifie iess th thee pa part rtic icip ipat atio ion n of a larger than normal number of instruments. Another possibility possibility is that, if the performance was held outdoors, Vivaldi wished to ensure that the sound carried effectively. In all other respects, this recitative and its sequel are perfectly conventional. The two arias are given over, somewhat wearisomely, to the tonic and dominant harmonies that come naturally to the horn idiom. The entire ‘B’ section of the first aria is all’unisono (the horns are silent). Marcello is particularly scathing about this expedient, writing: In ad addi diti tion on,, th thee mo mode dern rn ma will ll ha have ve to wr writ itee canzonette , es espe pe-maest estro ro di ca capp ppell ella a wi cially for contraltos and mezzo-sopranos, where the bass instruments accompany or play the same thing in the lower octave, while the violins play it in the upper octave, with all the parts written in the score, so that the piece can be described as ‘in three parts’ even though this aria in reality consists of a sole part diversified only by virtue of being reproduced in higher and lower octaves.38

In fact, Vivaldi does not trouble to create even the visual illusion of three-part writing, for he writes the ‘B’ section on only two staves: one for the alto and one for all the instruments. RV 799: Tremori al braccio e lagrime sul ciglio (RARA) Many of the Vivaldi works unearthed in recent years have been either incomplete or unremarkable in quality (which is not to say lacking in historical interest), interest), but this work ranks high on all counts, being easily the best of the Mantuan continuo cantatas of more serious cast. How its manuscript arrived separately in Vienna is impossible to say. It may have been a member of a set, copied from an autograph manuscript once in Vivaldi’s own collection but today lost, that subsequently became detached from its companions. At one stage, RV 799 was bound into a volume together with cantatas by Attilio Ariosti and Emanuele D’Astorga, but there is no evidence of any original connection with those works. 39 The opening of RV 799 is arresting: four bars of ‘measured’ recitative recitative starting with three trilled notes expressive of trembling (Example 4.11). The first aria, ‘Quando chiami dolce e cara’, introduces the lamento figure very discreetly (it is broken up by notes échappées ) in the middle middle of the opening opening ritornel ritornello. lo. With With great ingenuity, Vivaldi works the same phrase into the vocal line during the second and third vocal periods, stamping a strong sense of unity on the movement. The second aria, ‘Quello che senti, o bella’, is styled as a siciliana in 12/8 metre. In

38

39

Marcello, Il teatro alla moda , p. 21: ‘Dovrà il maestro di cappella moderno ancora compor canzonette particolarmente in contralto o mezzo soprano , che i bassi accompagnino o suonino la medesima cosa all’ ottava bassa e li violini all’ ottava alta , scrivendo sulla partitura tutte le parti, comp mporr orree a tre, be e cos cosìì s’i s’inte ntende nderà rà di co benc nché hé l’arietta in so sosta stanz nzaa sia d’ d’una una parte sola diversific diversificata ata solamente per ottava in grave e in acuto.’ Details are given in Fourés and Talbot, ‘A New Vivaldi Cantata in Vienna’, p. 102.


119

Ex. 4.11 Vivaldi, Tremori al braccio e lagrime sul ciglio , RV 799: opening

sicilia iliana na st Vivaldi’ss musi Vivaldi’ music, c, alla sic styl yliz izat atio ion n is ve very ry co comm mmon on (t (thi hink nk of th thee ma main in sl slow ow movement of the D minor concerto RV 565 or of the ‘Domine Deus, Rex caelestis’ movement in the Gloria RV 589), so it is perhaps surprising that this is our first encounter with it in the cantatas. Cleverly, Vivaldi allows some relief from the prevalent stereotyped rhythms. A rising phrase broken up by quaver rests is used to illustrate the word scherzare (‘play’), while a complementary descending phrase is employed for sospiro (‘sigh’). In both arias the continuo bass participates effectively in contrapuntal imitation and dialogue with the voice. Although both arias are in slow tempo and the minor mode, their mood is subtly different. In the first aria the singer, representing Elvira’s bashful lover, is lachrymose and self-absorbed; self-absorbed; in the second, he has not lost his natural timidity but has at least resolved to try his fortune and to that extent is thinking positively. If Elvira’s suitor, or would-be suitor, was present in the audience before whom RV 799 was performed, he might even have considered the portrait quite flattering.

CHAPTER FIVE

Cantatas of the Middle Years

Vivaldi’s Blütezeit The 1720s were Vivaldi’s glory years. On his return from Mantua, he slipped back effortlessly into his former pattern of activity. In October 1720 his new opera La verità in cimento signalled, just in time for Marcello’s satire, his return to the world of Venetian opera. Very soon, he became an operatic composer in demand outside Venice. In 1721 he received a scrittura (commission) for Milan. Commissions for Rome (1723, 1724), Mantua (1725), Florence (1727), and Reggio Emilia (1727) followed. Many of these external commissions required him to take personal charge of the performance in situ, obliging him, despite his precarious health (his strettezza di petto has been identified with near certainty as bronchial asthma), to venture abroad. Within Venice, his career as a composer of opera was reinforced in many seasons by his direction of the music at the S. Angelo theatre, which allowed him, so to speak, to offer himself commissions, while choosing as partner composers younger men who as yet posed no threat to his dominance.1 Like several other Venetian opera composers (Lotti and Albinoni spring to mind mi nd), ), Vi Viva vald ldii es esta tabl blis ishe hed d a cl clos osee pa part rtne ners rshi hip p wi with th a le lead adin ing g fe fema male le si sing nger er.. Si Sinc ncee he was a priest, there was no question of pursuing this relationship as far as marriage – tongues wagged furiously enough at the mere suggestion of a close professional association. The singer was Anna Tessieri (better known as Anna Girò), who, together with her half-sister and chaperone Paola, formed part of Vivaldi’s entourage from the mid-1720s onwards. Born in Mantua around 1710, Girò sang in opera for the first time in Vicenza in 1723 and made her Venetian début in 1724. Vivaldi first employed her in Farnace (1727, carnival) and thereafte af terr ra rare rely ly di disp spen ense sed d wi with th he herr se serv rvic ices es.. Sh Shee wa wass in Vi Vien enna na wi with th hi him m wh when en he di died ed in 1741. His dependence on her probably exceeded her dependence on him: significantly, significant ly, she did not follow him to central Europe in 1729 and secured good operatic parts during his absence. Her stage career continued for some years after hiss de hi deat ath, h, en endi ding ng on only ly wh when en sh shee ma marr rrie ied d a co coun untt fr from om Pi Piac acen enza za in 17 1748 48.. Al Alth thou ough gh she doubtless learned much from Vivaldi and remained loyal to his interests, it 1

For a survey and evaluation of Vivaldi’s operatic activity in the 1720s, see Reinhard Strohm, Essays on Handel and Italian Opera , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985, pp. 122–63, and Michael Talbot, ‘A Venetian Operatic Contract of 1714’, in Michael Talbot (ed.), The Business of Music , Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2002, pp. 10–61.

CANTATAS OF THE MIDDLE YEARS

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would be a mistake to regard her, as some commentators have seemed to do, as simply his ‘creature’. Her voice was not strong, and her contralto (really, mezzosopr so pran ano) o) re regi gist ster er wa wass of on only ly av aver erag agee co comp mpas asss – fr from om ab abou outt a to e'', ju judg dgin ing g fr from om surviving parts – but her stage presence and acting ability were universally admired. Certainly, Certainly, she should be regarded as the possible original singer of any Vivaldi cantatas for mezzo-soprano notated in the alto clef dating from after c.1726.2 At a deeper level, she may even have influenced decisively Vivaldi’s taste and imagination. Vivaldi’s production of instrumental music proceeded apace. In July 1723 the Pietà, whose Maestro di coro was now the castrato singer and composer Carlo Luigi Pietragrua, drew up a contract with Vivaldi according to which he would supply its coro with two concertos per month at the price of one sequin each and take three or four rehearsals of the new compositions if residing in Venice at the time. Effectively, this was a form of re-engagement as Maestro de’ concerti that spared him the drudgery of giving lessons or committing him to weekly attendance. The agreement remained in force until Vivaldi’s expedition to central Europe in 1729, by which time over 140 concertos had been supplied. Nor was Vivaldi inactive in the domain of sacred vocal music, even though he no lo long nger er ha had d an in inst stit itut utio ion n to ke keep ep re regu gula larl rly y su supp ppli lied ed wi with th ps psal alms ms,, Ma Mass ss se sett ttin ings gs,, and motets. Roman patrons commissioned sacred works from him, and it was during the 1720s that he inaugurated his impressive series of works for double choir and orchestra ( in due cori), which provide a shop-window for his contrapuntal skills and ability to handle large forces. During this decade Vivaldi cultivated assiduously his international connections. He wrote music for foreign embassies in Venice: the imperial ambassador commissioned commission ed his serenata La gara della Giustizia e della Pace , RV 689 (date unkn un know own, n, bu butt no nott lo long ng af afte terr 17 1720 20), ), an and d th thee Fr Fren ench ch am amba bass ssad ador or hi hiss se sere rena nata ta fo forr th thee wed eddi ding ng of Lo Loui uiss XV (R (RV V 68 687) 7) in 17 1725 25 an and d th thee im impr pres essi sive ve La Se Senn nna a festeggiante, RV 693, of 1726. It is revealing that whereas the dedicatees of the two major collections of concertos (Opp. 3 and 4) that he had published in the previous decade were Italians – Grand Prince Ferdinando of Tuscany and the Venetian nobleman (and violin pupil) Vettor Dolfin – those of their counterparts in the 1720s (Opp. 8 and 9) came from German-speaking Europe: Count Wenzel von Morzin and Emperor Charles VI himself. Increasingly, Vivaldi’s dealings with foreign patrons and customers occurred outside the ambit of their visits to Venice. Undou Un doubte btedly dly,, Vi Vival valdi’ di’ss int intern ernati ationa onall rep reputa utatio tion n sto stood od at its hig highes hestt dur during ing thi thiss decade. This can be seen not only indirectly, from the volume of music copied or external commissions commissions obtained, but also from direct testimony. Reporting on the performance of the Wedding Serenata on 12 September 1725, a writer in the Mercure de France for October described Vivaldi (p. 2418) as ‘le plus habile compositeur qui soit à Venise’ – ‘the most able composer in Venice’. This placed him above Lotti, the Primo maestro of S. Marco, and above Albinoni, the most

2

On Girò’s career and vocal qualities, see John Walter Hill, ‘Vivaldi’s Griselda’, Journal of the American Musicologic Musicological al Society, xxxi (1978), 53–82.

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productive composer of operas in the city. 3 In fact, Viva Vivaldi ldi had beco become me more este es teem emed ed ab abro road ad th than an at ho home me.. It wa wass Ve Vene neti tian ans, s, no nott fo fore reig igne ners rs,, wh who o pi pick cked ed ho hole less in his harmony and mocked his parvenu aspirations. Like any successful composer in his later forties and fifties, Vivaldi acquired his share of acolytes. From what we know of his biography, he was more intereste es ted d in pa pass ssin ing g on hi hiss cr craf aftt to we well ll-h -hee eele led d no nobl bles es th than an to im impe pecu cuni niou ouss mu musi sici cian ans, s, and one cannot point to a close musical or personal relationship with any leading figure in Venice. He was more generous, however, howev er, towards composers who were too young or too modest in talent to upstage him, and theirs are the names that appear most often in association with his. Two composers in particular deserve mentio men tion, n, sin since ce the they y hav havee a lik likely ely con connec nectio tion n wit with h his can cantat tatas: as: Gio Giovan vanni ni Francesco Brusa (c.1700–1768) and Mauro D’Alay (c.1690–1757). Brusa came from a Venetian citizen family and originally cultivated music, as a singer and composer, on an amateur basis. 4 He burst on the scene with his opera Il trionfo della della virtù, which was staged at S. Giovanni Grisostomo, with Faustina Bordoni as Cornelia, in the autumn of 1724. 5 This was followed by L’amore eroico at S. Samuele in the Ascension season of 1725 and Medea e Giasone at S. Angelo in the carnival of 1727 (the latter inserted between the autumn opera, Dorilla in Tempe Tempe, and the second carnival opera, Farnace – both by Vivaldi). 6 A German correspondent reported enthusiastically on L’amore eroico to Johann Mattheson, praising it for its musical adventurousness (which included the use of melodic augmented seconds) and singling out for brief analytical commentary two arias that had especially captivated the public. 7 We find a violin concerto by Brusa near the end of a surviving partbook for Anna Maria, principal violinist violinist at the Pietà, which contains the additions to her repertory during a period running from 1723 to 1726; its presence there suggests Vivaldi’s advocacy. 8 Of Brusa’s cantatas more will be said later. After 1727 Brusa’s active interest in music seems to have undergone a steep decline. In 1726 he had been elected ‘fourth’ organist at S. Marco (i.e., he played the second small portable organ), a low-paying and rather undemanding post compatible with his dilettante status, but by 1740, when a successor, Antonio Cortona, was appointed, he had evidently given it up. His operas come to an 3 4

5 6

7

8

Benedetto Marcello, who held aloof from opera, disqualified himself from consideration by that fact. ‘Citizen’ (cittadino) is used here in a technical sense to denote the social stratum intermediate between the patriciate and the populace ( popolo). Dilettanti remained defined by their social rank: Albinoni belonged to the popolo , Marcello to the nobility. I am grateful to Berthold Over, author of the new article on Brusa for Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart , for sharing information on this composer with me. Brusa composed a further opera, Arsace , for the Teatro Ducale, Milan (August 1725). A recitative and two arias for Medea e Giasone composed by Vivaldi, apparently at an earlier date than Brusa’s music, survive as RV 749.11, 13, and 16. Critica ica musi musica ca, 2 vo Johann Mattheson, Crit vols ls,, Ha Hamb mbur urg: g: au auth thor or an and d he heir irss of T. vo von n Wi Wier erin ing, g, 17 1722 22–5 –5,, Handel and Italian Italian vol. 2, pp. 286–7. Strohm’s description of Brusa as ‘insignificant’ ( Essays on Handel Opera, p. 155) is too unkind. Certainly, he was young and relatively untested, but in 1727 he appeared a rising star. See Michael Talbot, ‘Anna Maria’s Partbook’, in Helen Geyer and Wolfgang Osthoff (eds), Musik an den den venezianisch venezianischen en Ospedali/Ko Ospedali/Konservatori nservatorien en vom vom 17. bis zum zum frühen frühen 19. Jahrhundert. Jahrhundert.


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abrupt halt after Medea e Giasone. He became a civil servant, and by 1757 had risen to the position of Sovrintendente al dazio dell’oglio, or Superintendent of the Tax on Oil. In 1756 his musical activity unexpectedly revived, and this time Brusa built himself a flourishing career on the strength of it. Together with his wife and children, he formed a little operatic troupe. His compositions included serious and comic operas, serenatas, and sinfonias. In 1765, when Galuppi left Venice for St Petersburg, Brusa replaced him as Mae Maestr stro o di coro coro at the Incurabili, a post that he filled very competently and diligently until his death in 1768. Maur Ma uro o D’ D’Al Alay ay,, wh whom om we ha have ve al alre read ady y me mett in co conn nnec ecti tion on wi with th hi hiss ca cant ntat ataa Amo was, s, li like ke Vi Viva vald ldi, i, a vi viol olin inis istt-co comp mpos oser er.. Up to ab abou outt 17 1724 24,, hi hiss ca care reer er Daliso, è ver, wa was undistinguished and centred on his home town of Parma. Following Faustina Bordoni’s début there, the two appear to have struck up a partnership that may have ha ve la last sted ed un unti till Fa Faus usti tina na tr tran ansf sfer erre red d he herr af affe fect ctio ions ns to Ha Hass sse. e. It wa wass Fa Faus usti tina na wh who o insisted to the directors of the Royal Academy of Music that D’Alay (popularly known as ‘Mauro’ or ‘Maurino’) accompany her to London in her first season (1726).9 D’Alay returned there on her second (1727) and third (1728) visits. He played solos in the opera orchestra on the second visit; a satirical pamphlet from that year, The Contre Temps, or Rival Queens: A Small Farce , inspired by the famous ‘spat’ between Faustina and Cuzzoni, hints that he and Faustina were lovers. In 1728 he published in London the set of six cantatas and six violin sonatas (the last actually plagiarized from Tartini) listed in Tables 1.2 and 1.3. These were dedicated to Charles Lennox, duke of Richmond, who had been the prime mover in bringing Faustina and D’Alay to England. D’Alay was also the composer of several violin concertos, twelve of which were published by Le Cène in 1727. Two appear alongside those of Brusa, Tartini, and (predominantly) Vivaldi himself in Anna Maria’s Partbook. 10 They seem to have been added to her repertory in 1725 and 1726. Faustina sang in Veni Ve nice ce in th thee ca carn rniv ival al se seas ason on of 17 1725 25,, an and d ve very ry pr prob obab ably ly re retu turn rned ed to he herr Ve Vene neti tian an house, free of engagements, following her appearances in Vienna in the autumn and carnival of 1725–26, so it seems likely that, as her inseparable companion, D’Alay was also frequently in Venice in the middle years of the 1720s. 11 The style of his concertos reveals a definite Vivaldian influence, although D’Alay’s music has an annoying propensity to meander aimlessly in a way quite foreign to its model. It may be a little misleading to speak of a Vivaldi ‘circle’ including Brusa and D’Alay that was active in Venice in the mid-1720s, since this would imply that Vivaldi consciously consciously strove to form a group of acolytes around him – something against which his temperament probably rebelled. More likely, the three men

9

10 11

Symposion vom 4. bis 7. April 2001 Venedig , Rome: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura, 2004, pp. 23–79, at pp. 52–4. For information on D’Alay’s presence in London, see Elizabeth Gibson, The Royal Academy of Music 1719–1728: 1719–1728: The Institution Institution and and its Directors , New York and London: Garland, 1989, pp. 348–82 passim. Venice, Conservatorio di Musica ‘Benedetto Marcello’, fondo Correr, B. 55 n.133. Faus Fa usti tina na’s ’s ho hous usee wa wass by th thee Ri Rio o di S. Po Polo lo,, al almo most st op oppo posi site te th thee Te Teat atro ro S. An Ange gelo lo on th thee fa farr si side de of the Grand Canal.

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were brought together by having, at specific junctures, a common patronage or place of activity.

Cantatas for all Occasions More than two-thirds of Vivaldi’s cantatas have no known connection with Mantua. Nearly all of them fall chronologically between 1720, the year of his retu re turn rn to Ve Veni nice ce,, an and d c. c.17 1733 33,, wh when en he se sent nt a gr grou oup p of ei eigh ghtt ca cant ntat atas as to th thee co cour urtt of Dresden. Just two cantatas lie outside this time-frame: RV 681 probably predates the Mantuan group, while RV 682 postdates the Dresden compilation. Significantly, both are ‘accompanied’ cantatas – therefore more likely to have been comm co mmis issi sion oned ed fo forr on onee sp spec ecia iall oc occa casi sion on th than an to be belo long ng to a gr grou oup p of wo work rkss as asso soci ci-ated with the regular meetings of an accademia. RV 796, too, could be a work composed before 1718, although this is far from certain. Once again, a table is as good a way as any to launch the discussion. In Table 5.1 the non-Mantuan cantatas, with the omission of four cantatas found only in the Dresden compilation (RV 674, 676, 677, and 678), are listed. A bracketed (1) or (2) appended to the RV number in the first column means ‘first manuscript’ or ‘second manuscript’. The sixth column makes a distinction among autograph manuscripts between ‘composition manuscript’, ‘composition copy’, and ‘fair copy co py’. ’. Th Thee fi firs rstt is an or orig igin inal al dr draf aft, t, wh whic ich h in Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss ca case se is li like kely ly to be un unti tidy dy in appearance and to contain numerous corrections and deletions; the second is copied from an exemplar but makes deliberate modifications, premeditated or spontaneous, to it; the third is a simple copy made by the composer himself. The date da tess of co comp mpos osit itio ion n pr prop opos osed ed in th thee la last st co colu lumn mn ca can n be ar arra rang nged ed ch chro rono nolo logi gica call lly y as follows: Definitely before 1718 Possibly before 1718 1721 or later c.1725 Betwee Bet ween n 172 1726 6 and c.1 c.1731 731 1727–28 Before c.1731 c.1731 or earlier c.1731 1734 or later

RV 681 RV 796 RV 663 RV 679 RV 651 and 683 RV 667, 669, 684, and 684a RV 650, 655(1) 1),, 656(1), 657(1), 662(1), and 666 RV 660, 664, 670, and 671 RV 668 RV 682

Note that in every case these are dates inferred from internal evidence evidence (the manuscri sc ript pt)) or ex exte tern rnal al ev evid iden ence ce (t (the he mu musi sic) c),, an and d us usua uall lly y fr from om bo both th.. A de degr gree ee of fu fuzz zziiness is inevitable, given the lack of precise information in the sources. The oldest work, RV 681, is also the only Vivaldi cantata (leaving aside the spurious RV 753) of which an original source survives in Great Britain. This is a copy made in northern Europe: the paper is Dutch, and the hand appears to be English.12 The manuscript formerly belonged to Dr Thomas Bever (1725–91), a 12

See Francesco Degrada’s Critical Notes to the volume in NEC .

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127

notable English collector of music. The volume in which it is included as the second item is a binder’s collection containing works by Purcell, Pepusch, and other musicians domiciled in England. It passed from the library of St Michael’s College, Tenbury, to the Bodleian library in 1985 but has retained its former shelfmark. Ostensibly, this is a cantata for soprano, two violins, and continuo. It is evident, however, that a part for viola, which has to play a bassetto in several voca vo call pe peri riod odss wh wher eree th thee ba bass ss is si sile lent nt,, is mi miss ssin ing. g. Th This is is no nott su such ch a st stra rang ngee oc occu currrenc re nce, e, si sinc ncee if th thee ca cant ntat ataa re reac ache hed d En Engl glan and d as a se sett of pa part rtss ra rath ther er th than an a sc scor ore, e, an and d if th thee vi viol olaa pa part rt th then en be beca came me lo lost st,, an any y sc scor oree ba base sed d on th thee ex exta tant nt pa part rtss wo woul uld d in inev eviitably be defective – without necessarily seeming so at first glance. An exactly parallel case is seen in the motet Carae rosae, respirate , RV 625.13 This, too, has surv su rviv ived ed on only ly in En Engl glan and, d, an and d la lack ckss it itss vi viol olaa pa part rt.. It co coul uld d we well ll be th that at RV 68 681 1 an and d RV 625 belonged to the same consignment of music by Vivaldi, which was brou br ough ghtt ov over er in se sepa para rate te pa part rtss to En Engl glan and d c. c.17 1715 15.. Si Sinc ncee RV 68 681 1 ca cann nnot ot be gi give ven na satisfactory performance performance without a viola part, the volume in NEC contains one, reconstructed by the present writer, in an appendix. The cantata’s early date is revealed most clearly by the faux-naïf style of the second aria, and by the repetition (shown via a repeat sign) of its first vocal period. These are features that in Vivaldi’s vocal music occur only in the arias (including the ‘church’ arias of motets) of the second decade of the eighteenth century. The pastorale-like quality of the first aria (with its long chains of thirds over pedal basses in 12/8 metre) and the self-consciou self-consciously sly inventive string accompaniment for the recitative – which includes a fairly outlandish enharmonic change in the move from bar 23 to bar 24 – support the same conclusion. Nothing in the conventionally Arcadian text of the poem suggests a place of performance. Given the period, Vivaldi could easily have composed the cantata for one of Angioletta Bianchi’s Bianchi’s soirées. As th thee ca cant ntat ata’ a’ss hi high gh RV nu numb mber er im impl plie ies, s, th thee au auth thor orsh ship ip of RV 79 796, 6, Usignoletto bello, has not always been clear. The volume Mus. 1-J-7 in Dresden, which is the principal subject of the next chapter, opens with three works that do not form part of Vivaldi’s ‘Dresden compilation’ compilation’ of c.1733. These are: Antonio Tozzi, Dunque il perfido Enea (s (sop opra rano no an and d in inst stru rume ment nts) s) pp. 1–4 pp. 1–49 9 [Vivaldi], Usignoletto bello, RV 796 (sopran ano o and co con ntinuo) pp. 50 50– –56 Vivaldi, Scherza di fronda in fronda , RV 663 (sopra (soprano no and contin continuo) uo) pp. 57 57–63 –63

Since the manuscript of the second work does not bear the name of a composer, it hass no ha nott al alwa ways ys be been en re rega gard rded ed as au auth then enti tic. c. Or Ortr trun un La Land ndma mann nn pr pres esci cien entl tly y ch chos osee to include it as ‘RV deest ’ in her 1981 catalogue of Vivaldi works in the SLUB, arguing that since its paper and handwriting were exactly the same as those of the work that followed it (RV 663) in the same volume, its composer could reasonably be expected to be the same. 14 In 1991 Karl Heller endorsed Landmann’s conclusion, adding that the cantata’s style was perfectly Vivaldian. Vivaldian. 15 The reward 13 14 15

See the discussion of RV 625 in Talbot, The Sacred Vocal Music , pp. 199–203. Landmann, ‘Katalog’, p. 157. Heller, ‘Zu einigen Incerta’, pp. 52–7.

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for their persistence arrived in 1992, when a second manuscript of the same cant ca ntat ata, a, at attr trib ibut uted ed to Vi Viva vald ldii an and d wr writ itte ten n in th thee ha hand nd of Sc Scri ribe be 4, wa wass au auct ctio ione ned d in London at Sotheby’s. By good fortune, it was the SLUB that acquired it. In this second manuscript the cantata, still for soprano, is in E flat rather than G major. Inte In tern rnal al ev evid iden ence ce – th thee pr pres esen ence ce of ot othe herw rwis isee un unac acco coun unta tabl blee co copy pyin ing g er erro rors rs in th thee E fla latt ve vers rsio ion n – sh show owss tha hatt th this is is no nott th thee or orig igin inal al key ey,, whi hich ch lea eave vess G maj ajor or as the likely original key. 16 A few years earlier, Manfred Fechner had provided enlightenment on the copyist.17 He identified the person responsible for making the copies of RV 796 and RV 663, previously known among students of the Dresden repertory merely by the name of ‘Scribe A’ (‘ Schreiber A’) A’),, as Joh Johann ann Got Gottfr tfried ied Gr Grund undig ig (1706–73), who was employed by the Hofkapelle specifically as a copyist. Grund Gr undig ig pro probab bably ly ini initia tiated ted thi thiss act activi ivity ty no ear earlie lierr tha than n the mi mid-1 d-1720 720ss and possibly as late as 1728, when the death of Jean-Baptiste Volumier allowed Johann Georg Pisendel to assume leadership of the orchestra. Just because Grundig copied both RV 796 and RV 663, one cannot assume a priori that the two works were originally associated. In fact, each may have arrived in Dresden at a separate time and by a different route. As we saw in Chapter 3, RV 663 can date from no earlier than 1721, because of its borrowing from Filippo, re di Macedonia . But RV 796 certainly seems earlier. It is rhythmicall ca lly, y, to tona nall lly, y, an and d st stru ruct ctur ural ally ly ve very ry si simp mple le – ex exac actl tly y th thee so sort rt of ca cant ntat ataa th that at wo woul uld d have struck Burney as ‘very common and quiet’. Could it not have been taken back to Dresden from Venice in 1717 by Pisendel and his companions, about whose activities we will learn more in Chapter 6? It was Francesco Degrada who discovered that Scherza di fronda in fronda , RV 663, was related by text and music to the homonymous aria, scored for soprano, two violins, and bass, attributed to Giuseppe Maria Orlandini in a vast anthol ant hology ogy of ope operat ratic ic ari arias as pre preser served ved at Par Paris is in the Bi Bibli blioth othèqu èquee Nat Nation ionale ale.. 18 The Filip ippo po,, re di Ma Mace cedo doni nia a, wh text of the aria is indeed found in the third act of Fil whic ich, h, on th thee ev evid iden ence ce of th thee li libr bret etto to,, wa wass se sett by Vi Viva vald ldii (G (Giu iuse sepp ppee Bo Boni nive vent ntii co comp mpos osed ed the two preceding acts). Could this aria have been specially written by Orlandini for inclusion in Vivaldi’s otherwise lost portion of the score, or could Vivaldi himself, no stranger to plagiarism, have surreptitiously appropriated it from an existing work by Orlandini? The style of the aria, which Degrada transcribes in ful ulll in an app ppeend ndiix to hi hiss edi diti tion on in NEC , lo look okss pe perf rfec ectl tly y Vi Viva vald ldia ian. n. Th Thee pr prob oble lem, m, however, is that Orlandini’ Orlandini’ss normal style resembles ‘Vivaldi without eccentricities’: the aria contains only faint hints of Vivaldi’s idiolect (the features of his style shared with no other composer). Understandably, Degrada is reluctant to come down firmly on one side or the other.

16 17

18

For this reason, Karl Heller’s edition of RV 796 for NEC is based on the G major version. Manfred Manf red Fech Fechner, ner, ‘Be ‘Bemerk merkunge ungen n zu eini einigen gen Dre Dresdne sdnerr Viva Vivaldildi-Manu Manuskri skripten pten:: Frag Fragen en der Vivaldi-Pflege unter Pisendel, zur Datierung und Schreiberproblematik’, in Antonio Fanna and Giovanni Morelli (eds), Nuovi studi vivaldiani , pp. 775–84, at pp. 779–82. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, Vm. 7 7964, vol. 2, pp. 221–3. See Degrada’s Critical Notes to the NEC volume (1994).


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There is, however, one extra factor to bring into the equation that tips the balance balan ce in favou favourr of Viva Vivaldi’ ldi’ss autho authorship rship.. This This is, simpl simply, y, that that of the sixte sixteen en arias arias besides ‘Scherza di fronda in fronda’ in the group attributed to Orlandini, no fewer than six are revealed to come from operas by other composers. 19 ‘Prende ardire e si conforta’ is from Vinci’s Didone abbandonata (Rome, Teatro Alibert, 1726); ‘Torrente cresciuto’, from Porpora’s Siroe, re di Persia (Rome, Teatro Alibe Al ibert rt,, 172 1727); 7); ‘O ‘Ombr mbraa car cara, a, omb ombra ra ado adorat rata’, a’, fro from m Leo Leo’s ’s Ca Cato tone ne in Ut Utic ica a (Venice, S. Giovanni Grisostomo, 1729); ‘Se al mormorio dell’onde’, from Sarri’s Didone abbandonata (Turin, Teatro Carignano, 1727); ‘Dirle puoi’, from Gasparini’s Nino (Reggio Emilia, Teatro delle Commedie, 1729); ‘Non disperar, cor mio’, from Mancini’s Trajano (Naples, S. Bartolomeo, 1723). This means that no credence whatever should be placed in the heading ‘Aria del signor Orla Or land ndin ini’ i’ pr pref efac aced ed to th thee mo move veme ment nt.. By de defa faul ult, t, th thee pr pres esen ence ce of th thee ar aria ia’s ’s te text xt in the Filippo libretto and the subsequent availability of both text and music to Vivaldi become the strongest evidence for its authorship. To convert an aria with orchestral accompaniment into a continuo aria is no easy task. One cannot simply retain the bass in its original form and jettison the strings. The reason is that the rhythmic activity that propels the music forward, to say nothing of the thematic interest, is concentrated in the upper part or parts. A functional bass part in an orchestral texture has neither the inner vitality nor the shapeliness to survive without alteration in a continuo cantata. In particular, the bass of cantata ritornellos needs to be able to stand alone. By a fortunate happenstance, we are able to see how Vivaldi approached the task of remodelling the bass. On the vacant last page of the score of an early chamber concerto (RV 103), a bass part for this movement has been messily sketched by an unknown scribe. 20 Perhaps this was a student of the composer, and perhaps the purpose of the exercise was to save Vivaldi time while giving this assistant practice in the art of such conversion. In Example 5.1 the violin parts (which are mostly in unison) and the bass of the operatic aria are shown for the first vocal period, and below them both thee sk th sket etch ch an and d th thee ‘f ‘fin inis ishe hed’ d’ ba bass ss as tr tran ansm smit itte ted d by RV 66 663. 3. Th Thee th thre reee so sour urce cess ar aree all in different keys (the operatic aria in F major, the sketch in B flat major, and the cantata aria in E flat major). To facilitate comparison, the sketch and the cantata bass have been transposed to F major. The sketch and the cantata bass have also been displaced by half a bar so as to line up with the model. The original bass moved in crotchets, on occasion introduced by rising tirata figu fi gure ress pr pref efig igur urin ing, g, an and d th then en ec echo hoin ing, g, th thee me meli lism sma, a, ex expr pres essi sive ve of ru runn nnin ing g ( corre), in the vocal part. Vivaldi’s assistant, followed by the composer himself, sacrificed this illustrative detail, preferring instead to have a continuous ‘rocking’

19 20

The att attrib ributi ution onss hav havee bee been n ch check ecked ed wit with h RI RISM SM on on-li -line ne (ac (acce cessi ssible ble via ww www.n w.nisc isc.co .com), m), and I wa wass able also to receive valuable information from Reinhard Strohm. Turin, Biblioteca Nazionale Universitaria, Giordano 31, f. 234v. Degrada both reproduces in facsimile and transcribes this sketch in his edition. On balance, he considers it more likely that it is a subsequent attempt to condense the cantata once written, seeing that its ritornellos are much shorte sho rter, r, an and d bea bearin ring g in min mind d Viv Vivald aldi’s i’s pro prope pensi nsity ty to cu cutt rat rather her th than an to exp expand and.. Ho Howev wever, er, thi thiss do does es nott ex no expl plai ain n th thee co corr rrec ecti tion onss to th thee sk sket etch ch oc occu curr rrin ing g in pa pass ssag ages es id iden enti tica call wi with th th thos osee of th thee fi fini nish shed ed cantata.

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Ex. 5.1 Vivaldi, Scherza di fronda in fronda , RV 663: first vocal period

quaver bass that adds a little extra harmonic content but whose most important function is to retain the continuous quaver movement that – of necessity – was introduced in the ritornello. Vivaldi accepted almost without change the bass sketched for the vocal periods. However, he expanded the ritornellos (which are substitutes for, rather than arrangements of, those in the operatic aria). The opening ritornello grows from a rather over-symmetrical over-symmetrical four bars to six bars; the medial ritornello of the ‘A’ section, from one bar to three bars; the concluding ritornello, from five bars to six. The changes to the vocal part are less far-reaching. Naturally, the imitation by the second violin, which keeps the movement going in the second half of the opening bar, is foregone (this particular ‘tag’ is a topos of the early eighteenth century – Albinoni uses it to open the first concerto of his Op. 5 concertos of 1707). Vivaldi turns the triplet semiquavers in the second and fourth bars of the first vocal period into duplets – not for any deep thematic purpose (triplets are retained in the seventh bar), but merely as a technical simplification. When


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Ex. 5.1 Vivaldi, Scherza di fronda in fronda , RV 663: cont.

drafting the new bass, his assistant must have been told that the melody of the vocal sections would remain essentially the same. 21 How soon after the opera’s production Vivaldi had recourse to this aria is anyone’s guess. In general, he borrowed when music was fresh in his mind, so onee wo on woul uld d ex expe pect ct a da date te no nott mu much ch la late terr th than an 17 1721 21,, or ev even en 17 1721 21 it itse self lf.. Th Thee st styl ylee of the cantata is at any rate indistinguishable from that of the Mantuan group. ‘Che giova il sospirar, povero core’, RV 679, has an interesting German connection, since it survives only in a volume once belonging to a patron of the composer, Duke Anton Ulrich of Saxe-Meiningen (1687–1763). 22 As early as 1723 Anton Ulrich was collecting concertos by Vivaldi, sent to him by the 21 22

This would also explain why the corrections in the sketch are found predominantly in the freely invented ritornellos rather than in the closely derived vocal periods. On Anton Ulrich and his musical collection (which contained over 170 cantatas), see Lawrence Bennett, ‘A Little-Known Collection of Early-Eighteenth-Century Vocal Music at Schloss Elisabethenburg, Meiningen’, Fontes Artis Musicae , xlviii (2001), 250–302.

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Table 5.2 The cantatas contained in Meiningen, Max-Reger-Archiv, Ed 82b Folios

First line

Composer

Scoring

Compass Hand

1–8 9–14 15–24 25–32 33–44 45–5 45 –56 6 57–6 57 –66 6 67–78 79–92 93–106 93– 106 107–16 107 –16 117–21

Movo il pie’, il sguardo giro Dimando al ruscelletto Quel basso vapore Coll’amare e col servire Sotto l’o ’om mbra d’u ’un n faggio Part Pa rto, o, add ddio io:: il mi mio o de dest stin ino o Io no non n so di dirr se pe perr sen sentie tierr na nasc scoso oso So che sospiro, e sento Però che scende in petto Vezzos Vez zosee pup pupille illette tte,, i vost vostri ri sgua sguardi rdi Che gio giova va il sos sospira pirar, r, pov povero ero cor coree Son pellegrino errante

N. Porpora F. Stiparoli F. Stiparoli D. Nanini G. de Majo G. de Ma Majo jo F. Br Brus usaa F. Brusa F. Brusa F. Bru Brusa sa A. Viv Vivald aldii M. D’Alay

Soprano, violin. Soprano So Alto, strings Al Tenor, strings Alt lto o, violins. Alt lto o, st stri ring ngss Sopr So pran ano, o, str strin ings gs Soprano, strings Soprano, strings Sopran Sop rano, o, stri strings ngs Sopran Sop rano, o, stri strings ngs Soprano

'–g'' e – d'–g'' a–e'' e–f#' b–e'' c#'–d'' d'–g#'' d'–g'' d'–g'' d'–a'' c#'–g'' d'–a''

A A A B A A A A A A A C

composer’s patron in Prague, Wenzel von Morzin;23 in 1741, on his ill-fated visit to Vienna, Vivaldi attempted to secure an audience with the duke, but in vain. 24 The volume in question belongs to a large group of such volumes containing music procured during a period spent by Anton Ulrich in Vienna from the end of 1725 to 1728. These volumes all contain music acquired in 1726 and 1727 and boun bo und d in th thee la latt tter er ye year ar.. Al Alll ar aree in insc scri ribe bed d wi with th th thee in init itia ials ls ‘A ‘A.U .U.D .D.S .S.’ .’ (s (sta tand ndin ing g fo forr ‘Ant ‘A nton oniu iuss Ul Ulri ricu cuss Du Dux x Sa Saxo xoni niae ae’) ’) fo foll llow owed ed by ‘1 ‘172 727’ 7’.. Th Thee co cont nten entt of th thee vo volu lume me that interests us (shelfmarked Max-Reger-Archiv, Ed 82 b) is listed in Table 5.2. Not mentioned in the table is the fact that the twelfth and last cantata, the one by Mauro D’Alay, is inscribed to Faustina (‘per la Sig. a Faustina’). This legend confirms, of course, the closeness of the pair. Equally usefully, it defines Faus Fa usti tina na’s ’s co comp mpas asss as it ex exis iste ted d c. c.17 1725 25 (d'–a'').25 Sin Since ce the oth other er sop sopran rano o can cantat tatas as in the volume have very similar compasses, one is led to speculate that they were all composed for Faustina, who was in Vienna in the autumn of 1725 and the carnival of 1726. It is noteworthy that these cantatas all contain very long melismas in which breath control (Faustina’s forte) is paramount, and avoid extra-wide leaps, for which she had no liking. The orchestrally accompanied, outwardly very similar cantatas by Vivaldi and Brusa could even have been performed at Faustina’s house in Venice, with which we know that Vivaldi was acquainted.26 Porpora’s cantata, on the other hand, is unlikely to have been

23 24 25

26

Herta Oesterheld, ‘Autographe, ja oder nein?’, in Wertvolle Objekte und Sammlungen in den Museen des Bezirkes Suhl, Mei Meinin ningen gen:: Sta Staatl atlich ichee Mus Museen een Mei Meinin ningen gen,, 19 1974, 74, pp. 91 91–10 –107, 7, at 107 107.. Ibid., p. 94. On Faustina’s compass, see Michael Talbot, ‘Francesco Conti’s Setting of Pietro Pariati’s Pimpinone ’, in Alberto Colzani and others, Il teatro musicale italiano nel Sacro Romano Impero nei secoli XVII e XVIII. Atti del VII Convegno internazionale sulla musica italiana nei secoli XVII–XVIII, XVII–XV III, Loveno di Menaggio (Como), 15–17 luglio 1997 , Como: A.M.I.S., 1999, pp. 149–66, at pp. 152–3. In a letter written in January 1729 to Prince Carl Ludwig Friedrich of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Vivaldi speaks of rehearsing in Faustina’s house. See Rudolf Eller, ‘Vier Briefe Antonio Vivaldis’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani , x (1989), 5–22, at pp. 10–11.


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performed in Venice, which this composer probably visited for the first time in prep pr epar arat atio ion n fo forr ca carn rniv ival al 17 1726 26,, wh when en hi hiss fi firs rstt op oper eraa fo forr th thee ci city ty,, Siface, wa wass st stag aged ed.. Faustina could still have been the intended singer, however, since she visited Porpora’s home base of Naples in 1723. The identity of the copyist responsible for ten items in the volume (his hand is termed ‘A’ in the table) is unknown. He may have been a professional Viennese copyist or, alternatively, a musician in the employ of Anton Ulrich who travelled with him to Vienna. The cantatas RV 683 and RV 684 are best examined in conjunction. Although they are assigned to different chronological categories in the list on p. 124, their similarities similariti es are so strong that they may be companion works. They are Vivaldi’s only cantatas for alto and strings, and their similarity of vocal compass (respectively, b–d'' and g–f'') suggests that the singer was the same. Given the highly dramatic quality of their texts, one thinks immediately of Anna Girò, whose mezzo-soprano compass would have fitted the ranges. 27 It may be significant that RV 683 comes complete with a set of mostly autograph parts, a sign that Vivaldi organized its performance. It recently came to light that RV 683 is included, together with thirteen thirteen other cantatas for alto and ‘Stromenti’, in an inventory of the portion of the musical coll co llec ecti tion on of Fr Frie iedr dric ich h Car arll vo von n Sc Schö hönb nbor orn n th that at pa pass ssed ed on hi hiss de deat ath h to th thee co cour urtt of Bamberg. 28 This elder brother of the more celebrated Rudolf Franz Erwein von Schönborn (an assiduous collector of Vivaldi’s music) became in 1729 both Prince Pri nce-B -Bish ishop op of Wür Würzbu zburg, rg, in suc succes cessio sion n to his unc uncle le Lot Lothar har Fra Franz, nz, and Prince-Bishop of Bamberg, in succession to his elder brother Johann Philipp Fran Fr anz. z. Si Sinc nce, e, on hi hiss de deat ath h in 17 1746 46,, it be beca came me ne nece cess ssar ary y to di divi vide de th thee mu musi sicc th that at he had collected during his reign between the two principalities, to which two different persons had succeeded, a formula was agreed whereby Würzburg received two thirds, Bamberg one third. 29 Unfortunately, all the music listed in the Bamberg inventory is lost. The likelihood is that Friedrich Carl acquired these cantatas for a specific singer in his service (there is no corresponding collection for soprano voice). Since he visited Venice in the carnival season of 1725–26 (Domenico Lalli dedicated to him the libretto for Antonio Pollarolo’s Turia Lucrezia, performed as the first carnival opera at the S. Angelo theatre), he may have obtained the cantata

27 28

29

The compass in RV 684 is perhaps a little wider than one would expect for Girò, so the idea is advanced very cautiously. The other named composers are Bencini, Broschi, Caldara, Canuti, Cassotti, Hasse, Porta, Romaldi, and Wassmuth. The fourteen cantatas are collectively listed as item 19, which implies that they were collected into a single volume. The inventory abbreviates the title of the cantata to ‘Amor hai vinto’. In fact, its complete first line runs: ‘Amor, hai vinto, hai vinto: ecco il mio seno’, the repetition of ‘hai vinto’ being essential for the metre. For a tran transcri scriptio ption n of the inventory inventory with an intr introduc oductory tory essay, see Die Dieter ter Kirs Kirsch, ch, ‘Das Bamberger Drittel: Zum Repertoire der Würzburger und Bamberger Hofmusik unter Fürstbisch bis chof of Fri Friedr edrich ich Car Carll vo von n Sch Schönb önborn orn (1 (1729 729–17 –1746) 46)’, ’, in Pau Paull Mai (ed (ed.), .), Im Dienst der Quellen zur Musik: Festschri Festschrift ft Gertraut Haberkam Haberkamp p zum 65. Geburtsta Geburtstag g , Tu Tutzi tzing ng:: Han Hanss Sc Schne hneide ider, r, 200 2002, 2, pp. 39–5 39 –55. 5. I am gr grat atef eful ul to Fe Fede deri rico co Ma Mari riaa Sa Sard rdel elli li fo forr al aler erti ting ng me to th this is pu publ blic icat atio ion. n. Th Thee lo loca cati tion on of the inventory is Staatsarchiv Bamberg, Sterbeakte B 84 Nr. 24.

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from Vi from Viva vald ldii du duri ring ng hi hiss st stay ay..30 Th This is wa wass a se seas ason on wh when en Vi Viva vald ldii di dire rect cted ed th thee mu musi sicc at S. Angelo, and it may be no coincidence that, as we saw, the text of Amor, hai vinto, hai vinto: ecco il mio seno includes a couplet borrowed from Metastasio’s drama Siroe, re di Persia , which was performed in Vinci’s setting at the S. Giovanni Grisostomo theatre during the same carnival. Whether RV 651, Vivaldi’s cantata for soprano and continuo on the same text (with some variants), preceded or followed RV 683 is hard to say with confidenc de nce. e. It wo woul uld d be na naïv ïvee to as assu sume me th that at th thee mo more re el elab abor orat atee se sett ttin ing g wa wass ne nece cess ssar aril ily y the later. The character of the textual variants, which were doubtless due to Vivaldi’s usual tinkering, sheds no light on the question. In the case of RV 684, the situation is more complicated. 31 Embedded in the nine folios (Foà 28, ff. 2–3 and 6–12) transmitting the completed cantata are two (ff. 4–5) 4–5) that contai contain n the opening opening two two sides sides of a first aria aria whose whose text text appears appears iden iden-tica ti call wi with th th that at of th thee fi firs rstt ar aria ia of th thee co comp mple lete ted d ve vers rsio ion, n, al alth thou ough gh it itss mu musi sicc is qu quit itee different, and an abandoned sketch, without text or bass, for the opening of the following recitative. 32 The definitive version of the cantata not only has an entirely different first aria but adds an elaborate prefatory recitative to it, transforming the original ARA structure into RARA, matching that of RV 683. 33 Paul Everett’s researches into the chronology of Vivaldi’s works locate the aborted version of the cantata, RV 684a, in the period 1727–28, contemporary with the operas Orlando furioso and L’Atenaide.34 The definitive version was presumably composed very soon afterwards afterwards.. As Luigi Cataldi has commented, the poetic text of the cantata had a clear narrative shape in its original ARA version that was confused, though arguably also al so en enri rich ched ed,, by th thee ad adde ded d re reci cita tati tive ve..35 Th Thee or orig igin inal al ‘s ‘sce cena nari rio’ o’ of th thee ca cant ntat ataa wa wass as follows: Ari riaa 1

The sin The inge gerr de desp spai airs rs of Dor oril illa la’’s no nonn-rrec ecip ipro roca cati tion on of hi hiss lo love ve an and d vo vow ws to kill himself. Recita Rec itativ tivee He calls on the Sha Shades des of Nig Night ht to rec receive eive him more graciou graciously sly than Dorilla did. 30

31

32

33

34 35

The title-page of the libretto names him merely as ‘il Sig. conte di Schëmborn’ [ sic], but we can be qu quit itee ce cert rtai ain n th that at th thee re refe fere renc ncee is to Fr Frie iedr dric ich h Ca Carl rl,, si sinc ncee hi hiss ti titl tlee of ‘v ‘vic icec ecan ance cell llie iero ro [ sic] del S. R. I.’ also is given. For a detailed description of the cantata, see Luigi Cataldi, ‘Da “Ah, ch’infelice sempre” a “Cessate, omai cessate”. Riflessioni sulle varianti della cantata vivaldiana RV 684’, Studi vivaldiani , i (2001), 137–52. Facsimile reproductions of these pages are included in Francesco Degrada’s edition of RV 684 for NEC . Th Thee ap appa pare rent nt no nonn-co comp mple leti tion on of th thee ar aria ia is pr pres esum umab ably ly du duee to th thee lo loss ss of a ne nest sted ed bi bifo foli lio o containing the rest of it. Eleanor Selfridge-Field claims ( The Works of Benedetto and Alessandro Marcello: A Thematic Catalogue with Commentary on the Composers, Repertory, and Sources , Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990, p. 75) that the cantata by Benedetto Marcello (listed as A53) that likewise opens ‘Cessate, omai cessate’ is a setting of the same text. This is rightly disputed by Marco Bizzarini Benedetto Marcello, p. xv), who observes that the similarity does not continue beyond the first ( Benedetto line. Deceptive common openings of this kind abound in the repertory of the Baroque cantata. Paul Everett, ‘Towards a Vivaldi Chronology’, in Antonio Fanna and Giovanni Morelli (eds), Nuovi studi studi vivaldiani vivaldiani , pp. 729–57, at 746–9. Cataldi, ‘Da “Ah, ch’infelice sempre” a “Cessate, omai cessate” ’, 138–40.


Ariaa 2 Ari

135

He ima imagin gines es him himsel selff in Had Hades es as an ave avengin nging g Bac Baccha chante. nte.

The text of the added introductory recitative goes as follows: Cessate, omai cessate, rimembranze crudeli d’un affetto tiranno; già barbare e spietate mi cangiasti i contenti in un immenso affanno. Cessate, omai cessate, di lacerarmi il petto, di trafiggermi l’alma, di toglier al mio cor riposo e calma. Povero cor afflitto e abbandonato,

Cease, henceforth cease, cruel memories of a despotic love; heartless and pitiless, you have already turned my happiness into immense sorrow. Cease, henceforth cease to tear my breast, to pierce my soul, to rob my heart of peace and calm. Wretched, injured and forsaken [you are], my heart, se ti toglie la pace if a tyrannical passion un affetto tiranno, can rob you of peace and tranquillity, perché un volto spietato, un’alma infida, because a pitiless face, a faithless soul, la sola crudeltà pasce e annida. harbours and nurtures nothing but cruelty.

The first six lines of this stanza appear to be taken from the text of an aria, since they observe a rhyme-scheme (ABC | ABC) typical of arias but abnormal in recitatives, which, as Chapter 2 has already commented, prefer to reserve end-rhyme as a sign of closure. Equally unusual is the repetition of the first line as line 7. Stra St rang nger er st stil illl is th thee po poet etic ic co cont nten ent. t. Wi With thou outt kn know owin ing g th thee th thre reee st stan anza zass th that at fo foll llow ow,, one would imagine that this was the opening of a cantata in which the subject, though badly bruised in love, would vow to have one last try, or to forswear love alto al toge geth ther er,, or ev even en to se seek ek an anot othe herr ob obje ject ct fo forr hi hiss af affe fect ctio ions ns.. Th Ther eree is as ye yett no hi hint nt that the crudeltà of the beloved is to be turned back on her, and by implication on the whole world. But that is perhaps the whole point. Instead of winning, forgetting ti ng,, or re repl plac acin ing g Do Dori rill lla, a, as th thee co conv nven enti tion onal al dr dram amat atur urgy gy of ca cant ntat atas as re requ quir ires es,, th thee alma a inf infida ida of th subj su bjec ectt be beco come mess a se seco cond nd,, mo more re te terr rrib ible le Do Dori rill lla: a: th thee alm thee fi firs rstt st stan anza za transmutes into the ombra baccante of the last stanza. Both here and, to some extent, in RV 683 the character of an operatic scena emerges. This quasi-operatic quality operates at all levels: textual, textural, and stylistic. Such music is for the gods and goddesses of the stage to sing to their admirers in the intervals between their stage appearances. Also from 1727–28, according to Everett’s findings, are the two continuo cantatas RV 667 and RV 669. Their manuscripts have a rare paper-type (called ‘#5’ ‘# 5’ by Ev Ever eret ett) t) an and d ra rast stro rogr grap aphy hy in co comm mmon on.. Th Ther eree is ev even en a te text xtua uall co conn nnec ecti tion on:: RV 667 speaks of Sylvia’s unresponsiveness to her lover, while RV 669 celebrates the final victory over her resistance. The clear difference in vocal compass between the two cantatas makes it unlikely that they were written for the same singer, but they may share a reference to topical events in the manner of some of the Mantuan cantatas. Thes Th esee tw two o ca cant ntat atas as ar aree cl clea earl rly y ‘N ‘Nea eapo poli lita tan’ n’ (w (whi hich ch is al almo most st to sa say y ‘post-1725’) in style. In both, the vocal line zigzags exultantly in wide arcs and is awash with trills, slides, and similar confections. Reinhard Strohm distinguishes

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between singers of ‘modern’ training and ‘conservative’ training. 36 Whereas the Mantuan cantatas suit a conservative vocal style, narrower in compass, and less angular in movement, from now on Vivaldi’s cantatas for soprano will predominantly cultivate the modern style. This was an idiom for which Schmitz had little sympathy, as evidenced by his scornful dismissal of the first few bars for the singer in Fonti del pianto, RV 656, as a ‘caricature’ ( Zerrbild ). ).37 We co come me ne next xt to th thee tw twel elve ve (t (thi hirt rtee een n if we in incl clud udee th thee se sepa para rate te al alto to pa part rt fo forr RV 683) works making up what I term the ‘1731 compilation’. These are the cantatas for which the expression ‘c.1731’ appears in the final column of Table 5.1. The date is established in the usual way by concordances of paper and rastrography, which link them to the Turin score of Farnace, representing the new version perf pe rfor orme med d at Pa Pavi viaa in Ma May y 17 1731 31.. Wh What at ar aree le less ss cl clea earr ar aree th thee pu purp rpos osee of th thee co comp mpiilati la tion on an and d th thee cl clos osen enes esss of th thee re resp spec ecti tive ve da date tess of co comp mpos osit itio ion n to 17 1731 31.. Th This is wa wass a year in which Vivaldi was busy re-establishing his position in Venice after his perhaps not wholly successful visit to Bohemia (and probably other parts of central Europe) in 1729–30. From the types of manuscript with which we are dealing, dominated by fair copies, it is possible that several of the cantatas in the group – for example, RV 651 – had been in existence for a number of years. Two of the three copies are of cantatas for alto voice, which raises the possibility that these were arrangements of works originally for soprano. Only one cantata, RV 668, is preserved in the form of a composition manuscript. manuscript. There is also considerable heterogeneity of specification. Two cantatas, RV 657(1) and 662(1), have an identical compass of exceptional range ( c'–c''') and are obviously companion pieces. The compass of RV 656(1) is exceptionally narrow ( f'–a''), while that of RV 667 ( g–b'') embraces the combined alto and sopr so pran ano o re regi gist ster ers. s. Th Thes esee ca cant ntat atas as ma may y ha have ve be been en se sent nt to th thei eirr de dest stin inat atio ion, n, as th thos osee of the Dresden compilation undoubtedly were, as an anthology that deliberately ‘mixed and matched’ different vocal specifications. Naturally, it was not the manuscripts today in Turin that left the composer’s atelier but copies of them, or even, in some cases, the texts from which they were themselves copied (provided that these were sufficiently neat). From 1731 onwards, Vivaldi styles himself in opera ope ra lib libret rettos tos the Maestro di cappella of Fr Fran anci ciss St Step ephe hen, n, du duke ke of Lo Lorr rrai aine ne (l (lat ater er to become Francis I, the consort of Empress Maria Theresia). This was an essentially honorific title, title , but may have entailed the dispatch of some music. Could the 1731 compilation perhaps be connected with the new appointment appointment?? However, the isolated alto (cum bass) part for RV 683 copied on paper of the same type (B48) as most of the rest of the compilation would be puzzling in that light. Its purpose seems to be to replace a missing or damaged part that shared the bibliographical bibliographi cal characteristics of its companion parts rather than to prepare RV 683 for dispatch elsewhere.38 It is just credible that the purpose of making fresh copies of so many works at a single time was not to fulfil an immediate 36 37 38

Lists of singers in both categories are presented in Essays on Handel and Italian Opera , pp. 135–40. Schmitz, Geschichte der weltlichen Solokantate , p. 151. Another possible explanation is given in the separate discussion of RV 683 below.


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commission but to provide a reservoir of cantatas ready for use on various occasions. If so, one of those occasions would have arrived after no more than two years, when Vivaldi drew on the 1731 stock for no fewer than five of the nine cantatas supplied to Dresden. The status of the manuscripts transmitting transmitting the alto cantatas provokes thought. Rema Re mark rkab ably ly,, no nott on onee of th them em (t (the here re ar aree on only ly fi five ve su such ch ca cant ntat atas as:: RV 67 670, 0, 67 671, 1, 67 674, 4, 676, and 677) is a composition manuscript or a fair copy. All appear to be transpose po sed d an and d al alte tere red d ve vers rsio ions ns of so sopr pran ano o ca cant ntat atas as.. Th This is im impl plie iess th that at Vi Viva vald ldii ha had d li litt ttle le occasion to conceive such works in their original form for alto – even for Anna Girò. Bringing up the rear, RV 682, an ‘accompanied’ cantata for soprano, is noteworthy in two respects. First, its date of copying is no earlier than 1734, which makes it the ‘latest’ of the cantatas. 39 Second, it was copied by an unpractised hand ha nd en enco coun unte tere red d no nowh wher eree el else se am amon ong g Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss ma manu nusc scri ript pts. s. Si Sinc ncee th thee comp co mpos oser er hi hims msel elff ma made de a fe few w co corr rrec ecti tion onss to dy dyna nami micc ma mark rks, s, th thee ma manu nusc scri ript pt mu must st origin ori ginate ate fr from om his atelier. The copyist was possibly one of Vivaldi’s two nephews, Pietro and Daniele Mauro, who were sons of his sister Cecilia Maria. Piet Pi etro ro (1 (171 717– 7–af afte terr 17 1780 80)) fi firs rstt tr trie ied d hi hiss ha hand nd at be bein ing g an op oper erat atic ic te teno norr (n (nic ickn knam amed ed ‘il Vivaldi’) and occasional impresario but abandoned the stage after a few years for the more pacific life of a music copyist, in which he achieved greater professional success.40 Daniele (born 1717) appears to have been a music copyist from the start. Its conventional text – the return of a spurned lover to his beloved – provides no hi hint nt of th thee pl plac acee or oc occa casi sion on fo forr wh whic ich h RV 68 682 2 wa wass re requ quir ired ed.. Du Duri ring ng th thee 17 1730 30ss Viva Vi vald ldii tr trav avel elle led d a gr grea eatt de deal al on th thee It Ital alia ian n ma main inla land nd to di dire rect ct pe perf rfor orma manc nces es of hi hiss operas, and this cantata could have been intended just as well for Ferrara or Ancona as for Venice.

Individual Works Works RV 650: Allor che lo sguardo (ARA) The arias of this cantata illustrate the two main approaches to forming the ritornello and accompaniment of a cantata aria. In the first, the ritornello material is strongly instrumental in character and independent of the vocal melody; moti mo tive vess ex extr trac acte ted d fr from om it be beco come me th thee ac acco comp mpan anim imen entt in th thee vo voca call pe peri riod ods. s. So Some me-times there are hints, at least initially, of ground bass treatment, but the ritornello soon dissolves into its fragments: where others use ‘themes’, Vivaldi prefers ‘motives’ or even mere ‘figures’. In the second aria, the ritornello opens with a pre-echo of the first vocal phrase or phrases before moving to a cadence. During the vocal periods the accompani-

39 40

This date, derived from Everett’s findings, is given in the Critical Notes of Francesco Degrada’s edition, but no reason is provided. The manuscript employs varieties of B5 and B47 paper. In 1760 the diarist Pietro Gradenigo identified him as the best music copyist in Venice (Venice, Museo Civico Correr, Ms. Gradenigo 67, vol. 6, f. 91v).

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ment changes to neutral, functional material that sustains the momentum and provides the necessary harmonic underpinning without drawing attention to itse it self lf.. Th This is op opti tion on is pr pref efer erre red d in sw swif iftl tly y mo movi ving ng ar aria iass th that at ha have ve no ti time me to de deve velo lop p material independently independently in the bass part. The first aria uses the mediant minor as a substitute for the dominant in the middle of the ‘A’ section. In fact, the dominant is completely ignored throughout the movement. This particular substitution is very common indeed in Vivaldi’s music, recalling a similar ‘deviation’ in a few of Domenico Scarlatti’s keyboard sonatas. Strangely enough, the tonal structure of the ‘B’ section is not always adju ad just sted ed to ta take ke ac acco coun untt of th thee ea earl rlie ierr ch chan ange ge,, al alth thou ough gh th this is ha happ ppen enss in th thee pr pres esen entt case. Many of the phrases in the second aria are duplicated – that is, presented twice in succession. This is a galant mannerism that began to gain currency in the late 1720s. It is most familiar today from Scarlatti’s sonatas, which cultivate it in an extreme form, but is commonly encountered in Italian music of the 1730s. An almost Scarlattian Scarlattian addiction to it is seen in the first movement of Vivaldi’s very late (1740) concerto concert o ‘con molti istromenti’ RV 558. In RV 650 the repetitions repetition s are less blatant, partly because the phrase-structure is less quadratic, but the shape of things to come is clearly visible. i l mio seno (RARA) RV 651: Amor, hai vinto, hai vinto: ecco il

The first aria of this cantata is truly magnificent. With its use of the passus duriusculus, extravagantly wide leaps and aggressively dotted rhythms, it recalls the tragic grandeur of the sonatas RV 6 (for violin) and RV 53 (for oboe), both likewise in C minor. The agitation represents the tossing of a ship, and the chromaticism chromatici sm is a response to the opening phrase of text, ‘Passo di pena in pena’ (‘I go from one torment to another’), which, in bar 22, is further illustrated by a melodic augmented second. This interval is shown in Example 5.2, which opens three bars earlier at a point where a descending sequence in the bass, characterized by Malagueña Fifths (in bar 20 1, re repr prod oduc ucin ing g ba barr 32 of the ope openin ning g ritornello), is complemented by a freshly devised vocal phrase that, instead of attenuating the effect of parallel fifths, actually intensifies it. Rarely does Vivaldi sound more Hispanic! In the B section, where the poet speaks of thunder and lightning, a new mode of accompaniment takes over, in the shape of oscillating demisemiquavers recalling the rumble of distant thunder depicted by obbligato cello in the slow movement of the ‘Winter’ Concerto, RV 297. 41 The second aria, in the highly contrasted key of A minor, is perhaps less memorable but maintains the high level of invention and craftsmanship.

41

This part is missing from some modern editions, and consequently from some modern performances – but only because some extant examples of the Le Cène edition (1725) lack this part, which was engraved on a separate page.


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Ex. 5.2 Vivaldi, Amor, hai vinto, hai vinto: ecco il mio seno , RV 651: ‘Passo di pena in pena’, bars 19–22

RV 655: Era la notte quando i suoi splendori (RARA) This, in contrast, is one of the weakest of Vivaldi’s cantatas. It is starved of tonal cont co ntra rast st,, co comm mmut utin ing g ba back ck an and d fo fort rth h be betw twee een n E mi mino nor, r, G ma majo jor, r, an and d B mi mino nor. r. Th Thee opening recitative sets the tone by closing in the key of its start: E minor. If one were to look for merit in this cantata, one might find a little comfort in the neat way in which the descending quaver phrase spanning a fifth that opens the first aria in the continuo is later brought back underneath the voice. But the second aria, a never-ending stream of clichés, is irredeemable irredeemable.. RV 656: Fonti del pianto (ARA) The opening line of this cantata was originally ‘Fonti di pianto’, which is how it also appears in the Dresden source. The Turin manuscript carries the instruction to the copyist ‘Un Tuono basso’ (‘A tone lower’). This cannot refer to the copy in Dresden, which is at the same pitch. Possibly, therefore, the alteration from di to del was made by Vivaldi immediately before the no longer extant transposed version was copied. ‘Pianto’ (‘lamentation’) (‘lamentation’) is the keyword of the opening aria. Vivaldi chooses to illustrate it not only with the traditional Neapolitan Sixth but also with the device known in modern musicological parlance as ‘minorization’ – a momentary move across to the parallel minor key. Although it was Neapolitan composers above all who popularized minorization, Vivaldi was an early exponent. As so often in Domenico Scarlatti, the quickfire alternation alternation of major and minor keys sharing a tonic is sometimes the most striking feature of his movements. 42 The closing bars 42

Transmodal modulation, which includes minorization, is discussed with reference to Vivaldi in Michael Talbot, ‘Modal Shifts’, 30–33.

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Ex. 5.3 Vivaldi, Fonti del pianto , RV 656: bars 37–48

of th thee se seco cond nd vo voca call pe peri riod od,, re repr prod oduc uced ed in Ex Exam ampl plee 5. 5.3, 3, sh show ow th this is ki kind nd of mo modu dula la-tion in action. Characteristically for Vivaldi, the reversion to the major occurs with a bump, at the last possible moment (bar 48). The repeated-quaver accompaniment accompaniment in the bass of this example is a form of Trommelbaß extremely common from the 1720s onwards in both slow and quick tempos. It tended to replace the fussier ways of elaborating a single harmony (with chord-inversions, passing notes, auxiliary notes, etc.) inherited from the Corellian tradition. Thee se Th seco cond nd ar aria ia,, fo foll llow owin ing g a pa patt tter ern n of ofte ten n ob obse serv rvab able le in Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss ca cant ntat atas as,, ha hass a weaker ‘personality’. It is perhaps a little too garrulous for its own good, but develops its rather simple material attractively enough. Both arias have their ‘A’ sections hinged on the mediant minor, as remarked earlier for RV 650. RV 657: Geme l’onda che parte dal fonte (ARA) Whereas Vivaldi’s best continuo cantatas from the Mantuan period tend to be the ones on es co cont ntai aini ning ng po popu pula larr el elem emen ents ts,, th thos osee fr from om th thee la late terr pe peri riod od pl plac acee a pr prem emiu ium m on virtuosity and drama. RV 657 is second to none in those qualities.


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Ex. 5.4 Vivaldi, Geme l’onda che parte dal fonte , RV 657: bars 7–21

Its opening aria is breathtakingly rich in illustrative detail. The first vocal period, shown as Example 5.4, depicts in turn the whirling of water (oscillation between adjacent notes) as it issues from a fountain (a downward cascade), the wilting of a flower in the evening (sluggish crotchets in the bass), the depth of valleys and the height of mountains (abrupt leaps between registers), registers), and finally thee la th lame ment nt (a sl slow ow ch chro roma mati ticc pr prog ogre ress ssio ion n in a ‘s ‘sci ciss ssor ors’ s’ mo move veme ment nt cu culm lmin inat atin ing g in an augmented sixth) of a nightingale (piping birdcalls). Here, the old ‘monomotivic’ approach lies dead and buried. In the second vocal period the same motives appear in the same order, attractively varied. The ‘B’ section mixes them with wi th ne new w ma mate teri rial al il illu lust stra rati ting ng a br brok oken en he hear artt (w (wit ith h a ‘b ‘bea eati ting ng’’ mo moti tive ve in th thee ba bass ss). ).

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Ex. 5.4 Vivaldi, Geme l’onda che parte dal fonte , RV 657: cont.

It contains the longest melisma of the aria, which runs without pause for seventy-two triplet triplet semiquavers and a quaver (bars 55–8). But this is not empty display: it is Vivaldi in total control and deploying the full force of his imagination. The second aria, ‘Deh non partir sì presto’, is scarcely less vivid, using a cascading staccato figure in the bass (representing the pouring out of liquid refreshment – the ristoro of which the text speaks?) to provide musical interest and thematic unity. Add to this a thoughtfully contrived contrived central recitative (ending with the unusual final cadence shown as Example 3.2), and we have an exceptional work – which also requires an exceptional singer. RV 660: La farfalletta s’aggira al lume (ARA) The butterfly ( farfalletta) is a very familiar image in the cantata repertory. It stands for the male lover who flits hither and thither, attracted by the ‘lights’ (eyes) of beautiful nymphs. In the opening aria the idea of flight is suggested by soar so arin ing g fi figu gure ress in th thee vo voca call pa part rt,, wh whil ilee th thee ba bass ss co cont ntri ribu bute tess an in inde depe pend nden ent, t, ri rigo gorrously ous ly dev develo eloped ped mot motivi ivicc ide idea. a. The sec second ond voc vocal al per period iod of thi thiss mov moveme ement nt includes a very clear and attractive reprise of the opening theme. In the second aria ar ia th thee do domi mina nant nt mu musi sica call fi figu gure re,, sh shar ared ed by bo both th pa part rts, s, is a de desc scen endi ding ng demisemiquaver scale representing the ‘black veil’ of Night. This is a fine, representative cantata. However, its key, A major, is very individu vi dual al.. Ov Over eral all, l, Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss ca cant ntat atas as sh show ow a ve very ry st stro rong ng bi bias as to towa ward rdss th thee ‘f ‘fla lat’ t’ ke keys ys.. Part of the reason for this preference may be the preponderance of the darker pass pa ssio ions ns.. Ev Even en th thee ca cant ntat atas as wi with th vi viol olin inss ad adhe here re to th this is bi bias as,, wh whic ich h is no nott sh shar ared ed by hiss in hi inst stru rume ment ntal al mu musi sic, c, wh wher eree D ma majo jorr an and d E ma majo jorr ap appe pear ar wi with th gr grea eatt fr freq eque uenc ncy. y. RV 662: Par che tardo oltre il costume (ARA) This is th This thee co comp mpan anio ion n pi piec ecee to RV 66 660, 0, an and d it po poss sses esse sess th thee sa same me ad admi mira rabl blee qu qual al-itie it iess of sp spac acio ious usne ness ss,, ex exub uber eran ance ce,, an and d at atte tent ntio ion n to pi pict ctor oria iall de deta tail il.. In th thee fi firs rstt ar aria ia,,


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the ef the effe fect ct of ac acce cele lera rati tion on pr prod oduc uced ed by st star arti ting ng th thee vo voca call pa part rt wi with th a pa pair ir of mi mini nims ms (for Par che), graduating to crotchets ( tardo), and ending the phrase with two semiquavers followed by a ‘snatched’ minim ( oltre il costume) suggests the release of a coiled spring. This is a Neapolitan feature that Vivaldi employs in some bravura arias of his later operas (e.g., ‘Sorge l’irato nembo’ in Farnace and ‘Tra inospiti rupi’ in La fida ninfa). The asymmetry that the device naturally imparts fits his penchant for non-quadratic phrase structure especially well. Like many of the late cantatas, RV 662 opens with a movement in moderate tempo (the marking in the Turin source is ‘Larghetto’, altered to ‘Andante’ in the Dresden manuscript). The florid style of the Neapolitans, abounding in triplet semiquavers or demisemiquavers, had the general effect of slowing down the pulse at all tempo levels. Without its shortest notes, this aria would have worked well we ll en enou ough gh at or ordi dina nary ry ‘A ‘All lleg egro ro’’ sp spee eed. d. In an im impo port rtan antt bu butt li litt ttle le-k -kno nown wn st stud udy y of tempo in Vivaldi’s concerto allegro movements, Karl Heller showed how the fairly uniform concept of ‘Allegro’ as it existed around 1710 (the time of L’estro armonico) later fractured into slower (‘Allegro non molto’) and faster (‘Allegro molto’) varieties. 43 The slowing down that resulted resulte d from the move to shorter note values sometimes took a tempo out of the ‘Allegro’ category altogether. Hence thee po th popu pula lari rity ty of su such ch ma mark rkss as ‘L ‘Lar argh ghet etto to’’ an and d ‘A ‘And ndan ante te’’ in Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss la late terr ar aria ias, s, and his evident difficulty (expressed through alterations to the tempo indication) in finding terms appropriate to the situation. The bass part is so active and expressive in both arias that this cantata, like RV 657, can be performed successfully with cello alone. There is no evidence that this ever happened at the time, and one cannot infer Vivaldi’s intentions merely from scrutinizing scrutinizing the notes on the page. What one can claim, however, is that the use of cello alone was sanctioned by the performance practice practice of the period and that – at an empirical level – such a solution would ‘work’ very effectively in the present case. RV 663: Scherza di fronda in fronda (ARA) The curious origins of this cantata’s first aria were discussed earlier. It must be acknowledged frankly that neither the original material of the first aria nor its arrangement can elicit much admiration. The never-ending parade of quavers in the bass – reducing to uniformity what had been pleasantly varied in the operatic aria – is wearisome, even crude. How to render a functional bass attractive is show sh own n by th thee se seco cond nd ar aria ia,, ‘V ‘Vor orre rebb bbee am amar ar il cu cuor or’. ’. It Itss ri rito torn rnel ello loss re refe ferr to th thee ma main in theme of the vocal part, but the ‘athematic’ accompaniment to the vocal sections employs five main rhythmic modules: three crotchets, six quavers, minim plus crotchet, crotchet plus minim, and dotted minim. The secret of Vivaldi’s success is to fo form rm th thes esee mo modu dule less in into to un unpr pred edic icta tabl blee pa patt tter erns ns th that at so some meti time mess cu cutt ac acro ross ss th thee 43

Karl He Karl Helle ller, r, ‘Te ‘Tend ndenz enzen en der Te Temp mpo-D o-Diff iffere erenz nzier ierun ung g im Or Orche cheste stera ralle llegro gro Viv Vivald aldis’ is’,, in Blasinstrumente umente und ihre Verwendu Verwendung ng sowie zu Fragen des Eitelfriedrich Thom (ed.), Die Blasinstr Temp Te mpos os in de derr er erst sten en Hä Hälf lfte te de dess 18 18.. Ja Jahr hrhu hund nder erts ts:: Ko Konf nfer eren enzb zber eric icht ht de derr 4. Wi Wiss ssen ensc scha haft ftli lich chen en Arbeitstagung Arbeitstag ung Blankenb Blankenburg/Harz, urg/Harz, 26.–27. Juni 1976 , Magdeburg /Leipzig: Rat des Bezirks/ Zentralhaus für Kulturarbeit, 1977, pp. 79–84.

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vocal phrases. As soon as the listener risks finding a pattern tedious, another comes to replace it. RV 664: Se ben vivono senz’alma (ARA) This cantata, likewise, is not among Vivaldi’s best. Its very title violates Italian prosody, since his setting of the first line makes an ottonario out of what should, for conformity with the rest of the stanza, be a settenario (‘Se ben vivon senz se nz’a ’alm lma’ a’). ). So Some me of th thee me meli lism smas as in th thee fi firs rstt ar aria ia ar aree ob obje ject ct le less sson onss in th thee ki kind nd of fioritura that Marcello (and Berlioz) deplored. Vivaldi subjects the first syllable of moverli in ba bars rs 23 23–6 –6 to an el elab abor orat atee me meli lism smaa in sh shor ortt no note tess th that at on onee wo woul uld d ta take ke to express physical movement. But the ‘moving’ in question is only figurative: the poet is seeking to move the wood, meadow, and stream to pity. Vivaldi’s over-literall interpretation is thus quite inappropriate, even ludicrous. over-litera Things do not improve in the second aria, whose jejune accompaniment, mostly in ‘hopping’ octaves, fails to bring life to a dull vocal line. RV 666: Sì, sì, luci adorate (RARA) This is an efficient but singularly soulless cantata. Both arias suffer somewhat from an excess of repetition. In the first aria, the unrelieved dactyls (quaver plus two tw o sem semiqu iquave avers) rs) in the acc accomp ompani animen mentt eve eventu ntuall ally y pro produc ducee mo monot notony ony,, whi while le the culprit in the second aria is the phrase-structure, which, by its division into predominantly predominant ly one-bar segments, robs the music of fluidity. RV 667: Sorge vermiglia in ciel la bella Aurora (RARA) In its original version, this cantata has the widest vocal compass ( g–b'') of any cont co ntin inuo uo ca cant ntat ataa by Vi Viva vald ldi. i. Th Thee au auth thor or of th thee po poet etic ic te text xt mu must st ha have ve be been en fa fami mili liar ar with the destined singer’s prodigious range, since keywords expressing spatial extremes (literal or figurative) occur in three of the four movements. The first recitative has ciel, dolente, l’ombre, sol, and muore; the first aria, lungi and muore; the second aria, atterra, ciel, and terra. Vivaldi accepts with gusto the invitation to luxuriate in pictorialism. Example 5.5 gives complete the opening recit re citati ative, ve, whi which ch mov moves es ver very y elo eloque quentl ntly y bet betwe ween en con contra trast sted ed reg regist isters ers and tonalities. In the first aria, ‘Nasce il sole, ed io sospiro’, one hears echoes of ‘Passo di pena in pena’ from RV 651 (coincidentally or not, the phrase ‘di pena in pena’ occu oc curs rs in th thee op open enin ing g re reci cita tati tive ve). ). Th Thee us usee of th thee passus duriusculus in conj conjunct unction ion with a ‘self-accompanied’ line (bar 5) is noteworthy; so, too, are Malagueña Fifths Fif ths in ass associ ociati ation on wi with th ext extrav ravaga agant, nt, zig zigzag zaggin ging g lea leaps ps (ba (bars rs 11– 11–14) 14).. Per Perhap hapss the two cantatas are close in date. The second aria, ‘Ardi, svena, impiaga, atterra’, atterra’, is a typical ‘fury’ aria of the kind ki nd fa fami mili liar ar fr from om Va Vaga gaus us’s ’s ‘A ‘Arm rmat atae ae fa face ce et an angu guib ibus us’’ in Juditha triumphans or Cato tone ne in Ut Utic ica a. Unusually, however, it is not Cato’s ‘Dovea svenarti allora’ in Ca the protagonist’s own fury that this aria expresses, but that of his beloved heaped on his head, which will never be strong enough to break his fidelity to her. The


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Ex. 5.5 Vivaldi, Sorge vermiglia in ciel la bella Aurora , RV 667: opening (Turin version)

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Ex. 5.6 Vivaldi, T’intendo, sì, mio cor, bars 5–7

histrionic quality of this splendidly full-blooded aria is enhanced by a few aptly inserted phrases where the voice moves in octaves with the bass. RV 668: T’intendo, sì, mio cor (ARA) This lone setting of a Metastasio text may not be Vivaldi’s most accomplished cantata, but it is not without charm. Strikingly, the first vocal period of the first aria ar ia op open enss wi with th a ch chor ord d th that at is ne neit ithe herr th thee to toni nicc no norr th thee do domi mina nant nt:: th thee subdominant. The phrase in question, shown as Example 5.6, is almost identical in outline to the one that opens the ‘Peccator videbit et irascetur’ movement of Vivaldi’s Beatus vir, RV 597/795. Beginning a section or movement in an ‘off-tonic’ manner, as here, is a typically Vivaldian quirk. Unexpectedly, this phrase reappears in a triple-metre paraphrase in the second aria, three bars after thee st th star artt of th thee fi firs rstt vo voca call pe peri riod od.. Su Such ch in inte terr-ar aria ia re rela lati tion onsh ship ipss ar aree ra rare re in Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss cant ca ntat atas as – fa farr le less ss co comm mmon on,, fo forr in inst stan ance ce,, th than an th thos osee be betw twee een n th thee ou oute terr mo move veme ment ntss of his concertos – and the recurrence looks accidental rather than deliberate. The existence of settings of versions of the same text by at least three other composer comp oserss (Leo, Porpora, Pesc Pescetti etti)) conte contempor mporary ary with Vivaldi provi provides des an opportunity for stylistic comparison. Degrada Degrada has already done this in respect of the setting by Leo.44 Such comparisons comparisons are, of cour course, se, dangerous, dangerous, sinc sincee if the basic specifications (tempo, metre, mode, vocal compass, etc.) of the movements in question differ too much, the basis for a useful comparison shrinks: one is no longer comparing like with like. The Leo setting is perhaps too different in this resp re spec ectt to of offe ferr go good od ma mate teri rial al fo forr co comp mpar aris ison on.. Po Porp rpor ora’ a’ss se sett ttin ing g is mo more re su suit itab able le – especially in its second aria, ‘Placido zeffiretto’, which, like Vivaldi’s aria, is in 3/8 metre and even shares one significant thematic thematic particle (I–II–I in the rhythm dotted quaver, semiquaver, quaver). The ‘B’ section of both arias is quoted up to the first main cadence as Example Examp le 5.7. At first sight, Vivaldi’s setting appears unsophisticated unsophisticated in comparison with Porp Po rpor ora’ a’s. s. It Itss ba bass ss is co cont nten entt to st stri ride de al alon ong g in qu quav aver erss wi with thou outt en enga gagi ging ng th them emat atiically with the voice, and all the phrases except the last are three bars in length. However, this rather brazen approach reaps dividends: the melody, which has a clear thematic relationship to the ‘A’ section, possesses great robustness and shapeliness. Nor is the bass line devoid of artistry: its rhythmic permutations (similar to those described earlier for RV 663) and its repeated use – also in

44

Degrada, ‘In margine all’edizione critica delle cantate di Antonio Vivaldi’, pp. 360–70.


Ex. 5.7 Comparison of settings of the second aria of T’intendo, sì, mio cor by Vivaldi and Porpora

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Ex. 5.7 Comparison of settings of the second aria of T’intendo, sì, mio cor: cont.

inversion – of a broken triad in close position lend it both personality and consistency. Most important, Vivaldi shows his understanding of the usefulness of ‘irregular’ (here, three-bar) musical units. Because the listener is programmed to expect binary designs – these are built into the rhythms of the body and of daily life – the imposition of ternary designs creates ambiguity in the sense that the opening bar of one unit is initially ‘heard’ as the closing bar of its predecessor. This interplay between the ‘actual’ (ternary) and ‘background’ (binary) phrase structures binds the music together and increases its fluidity. Porpora starts promisingly enough. Like Vivaldi, he finds that settenario lines fit naturally into three bars of 3/8 metre. The bass response in bar 70 and its overlap with the next three-bar vocal phrase are nicely contrived. Things start to go wr wron ong, g, ho howe weve ver, r, wh when en Po Porp rpor oraa ne next xt im imit itat ates es th thee vo voic ice. e. Hi Hiss fa fail ilur uree to ma make ke th thee soprano re-enter in bar 78 slackens the tension at the wrong point (in mid-period) by su sudd dden enly ly in intr trod oduc ucin ing g qu quad adra rati ticc ph phra rase se st stru ruct ctur ure. e. Th Thee ch chan ange ge of th thee ba bass ss de desi sign gn in bars 79–81, where one would have expected simple sequential repetition, repetition, may have been been concei conceived ved by Porpo Porpora ra as a subtlety subtlety but but comes comes acros acrosss only as as a needless needless inconsistency. From this point onwards, the passage degenerates into inconsecadenz enza a sfu sfuggi ggita ta in bar 92, where the bass quential note-spinning. The erudite cad takes over with ritornello material, comes too late to rescue the situation. Runn Ru nnin ing g ou outt of st stea eam m ea earl rly y is a cl clas assi sicc ch char arac acte teri rist stic ic of th thee we weak aker er co comp mpos oser er – and sometimes also of good composers in their weaker moments, Vivaldi not excepted. On other occasions, Porpora can do far better than this, but he never seeks to go beyond a well-mannered blandness. He was massively popular and influential in Venice after he settled in the city – the first of many eminent Neapolitan musicians musicians of the generation following Vivaldi to do so. The theatrical agent Owen Swiney, in his letters to the Duke of Richmond reporting on his search for singers in Venice, described the success of Porpora’s first Venetian opera, Siface (‘The Musick is excellent; and commended by every body of a True Taste’) but noted the chagrin of the local musicians (‘The Masters of Musick,


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Their Protectors & adherents [. . .] are sworn Enemies to it; or, rather, to the composer of it, who is look’d upon, by ’em, as a Foreigner, or an interloper’ interloper’). ). 45 Supported by the Grimani family, proprietors of the S. Giovanni Grisostomo theatre, and enjoying a high profile throughout the whole year by virtue of his tenure of the post of Maestro di coro at the Ospedale degli Incurabili, Porpora went from strength to strength. Incredibly, it was he, rather than a native comp co mpos oser er,, wh who o wa wass ch chos osen en to wr writ itee th thee ga gala la op oper eraa Imeneo in Atene that cele celebrat brated ed the return of Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni from a long exile in the autumn of 1726. To end up by joining what one cannot beat is a universal human tendency, and it is certain that Venetian composers studied Porpora’s music carefully, appropriating those elements that seemed to contribute to its public success. In Vivaldi’s case, there was little of a strictly compositional compositional nature to learn from his Neapolitan it an ri riva val. l. Ho Howe weve ver, r, th thee galant in infl flec ecti tion onss of th thee vo voca call li line nes, s, th thee cantabile writing for violins, the simple but sturdy accompanimental patterns, perhaps even the provision of formal stopping points for a vocal cadenza: all these may have left a mark ma rk on hi him. m. In mu musi sica call hi hist stor ory y on onee is so ac accu cust stom omed ed to ex exam amin inee th thee in infl flue uenc ncee of older composers on younger ones that it is easy to forget that, in a world where fashions change quickly, the reverse may equally take place. Even in the domain whe herre he ha had d le led d th thee fi fiel eld, d, th thee co conc nceert rto, o, Viv ival aldi di was no nott ash shaamed to pi pick ck up a few ideas from Tartini in later life. 46 RV 669: Tra l’erbe i zeffiri (ARA) The first aria of this unassuming cantata shows a remarkably single-minded application of the modular principle of construction. The germinal motive for the whole movement, vocal part as well as bass, is a short figure announced in the first bar:

This little idea seems laughably plain: a pattern of even, repeated notes with a little ‘flick of the tail’ that propels it into the next bar. However, Vivaldi knows that the simplest motives are the most malleable, therefore capable of being the most pervasive. This figure is used in one form or another (also in inversion) in the great majority of bars in the bass. Wherever its termination will not fit, he simplifies the figure to six repeated semiquavers. In the vocal line, the figure is used for long melismas on the mor- of mormorio, revealing (six bars into the first vocal period) that it is not wholly abstract in intention but aims to depict the murmuring of a brook. Many of Vivaldi’s aria ritornellos give the impression of being afterthoughts, created only after the essentials of the vocal line have beco be come me fi fixe xed d in th thee co comp mpos oser er’s ’s mi mind nd.. Th Ther eree is no sh sham amee in th this is:: ex exac actl tly y th thee sa same me could be said of many piano introductions to Schubert songs. Here, however, the obje jett tr trou ouvé vé that just happened to voice fastens on to the motive as if it were an ob 45 46

Letter of 28 December 1725, transcribed in Gibson, The Royal Academy of Music , pp. 361–2. Such as the use of the orchestral violins, playing in two parts, to accompany the principal violin. Earlier, Vivaldi had preferred to use violins and viola, or unison upper strings.

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suit the purpose. This probably illusory impression arises from the fact that the motive is introduced not at the head of the first vocal period but mid-way through it. Art conceals art once again in the second aria, ‘Nel mar la navicella’, whose ritornello is a sinuous unbroken series of quavers. Vivaldi’s obvious intention here is to represent a ship ploughing slowly and evenly through calm waters. In a different metre and rhythm, this movement might be a barcarole. Here, however, one senses the regular movement of a galley’s oars. The vocal line has just enough variety to preserve the aria from monotony. RV 670: Alla caccia dell’alme e de’ cori (ARA) A comparison between Vivaldi’s and Porpora’s setting of this text reveals differences similar to those found earlier in RV 668. Vivaldi is boldly direct, careful to maintain momentum and always focused on the next cadence. Porpora tends to drift and lose himself in flaccid passage-work. It is interesting how much more economical Vivaldi is than Porpora in his choice of keywords to highlight through melismatic treatment. In the first aria he limits himself to va (‘goes’); in the second, to volo (‘flight’) (‘flight’).. In each case, the choice is both poetically and musicall ca lly y ap apt: t: th thee dy dyna nami mism sm of th thee hu hunt ntre ress ss Cl Clor ori, i, on th thee pr prow owll to en ensn snar aree ma male le lo love vers rs,, receives emphasis, and pre-cadential tension is generated in just the right place. (Va and volo are the final words of their respective semistrophes, but Vivaldi takes the melismas back into the body of the period by repeating the close of the text non-melismatically in a concluding phrase.) By comparison, Porpora is indiscriminate in his melismatic emphasis of keywords, none of which coincides with wi th Viv Vivald aldi’s i’s tw two. o. He has barbara (‘barbarous’), amanti (‘lovers’), alme (‘souls’), beltà (‘be (‘beauty auty’), ’), and stende (‘ (‘ext extend ends’) s’) in the fir first st ari aria, a, spiegar (‘unfurls’) and solo (‘alone’) in the second. The result is that, although the bell can anto to, they confuse melismas display clearly enough Porpora’s mastery of be rather than clarify the poetic expression and musical structure. Vivaldi’s word-setting is on occasion not supple enough to fit the words comfortably. comfortabl y. The ottonario opening the second aria, ‘Preso sei, mio cor piagato’) is st stra rait it-j -jac acke kete ted d in into to fo four ur st stat atem emen ents ts of th thee rh rhyt ythm hmic ic mo modu dule le qu quav aver er + cr crot otch chet et in 3/8 3/ 8 me metr tre, e, ea each ch qu quav aver er br brok oken en in into to tw two o se semi miqu quav aver erss pl plac aced ed on th thee fi firs rstt be beat at of th thee bar. This brutal iambic formula destroys the natural links between syllables and words, chopping the line up into the four segments Preso; se sei, i, mi mio o; co corr pi piaa-; and -gato. Sung insensitively, these four bars can easily sound grotesque. This is one of the many instances where Vivaldi’s drive for motivic regularity overrides the legitimate demands of word-setting. RV 671: Care selve, amici prati (ARA) This one of Vivaldi’s weaker cantatas. The first aria lacks unity: its ritornello material has no obvious connection, apart from the use of triplet semiquavers, with wi th th thee vo voca call ma mate teri rial al,, an and d th thee wh whol olee co cons nsis ists ts of em empt pty y ro rout utin ines es.. Th Thee se seco cond nd ar aria ia is marginally better. Rather oddly, the sinuous figure that obviously represents the flowing brook is applied indiscriminately, and therefore confusingly, to more


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than one keyword – a fault similar to the one to which Porpora fell victim in his settin set ting g of Alla caccia. It ap appe pear arss in as asso soci ciat atio ion n wi with th placido (‘peaceful’), obje ct, ombroso (‘shady’) and accorderò (‘I will tune’), as well as with its proper object, l’onda (‘the wave’). RV 679: Che giova il sospirar, povero core (RARA) This is a superb composition. If Faustina was, as suggested above, the intended perf pe rfor orme mer, r, sh shee wi will ll ha have ve be been en we well ll sa sati tisf sfie ied. d. Bo Both th re reci cita tati tive vess ar aree si simp mple le,, as ar aree al alll the recitatives in the Meiningen volume. In the first aria, which expresses bitterness at Irene’s rejection of the lover’s advances, Vivaldi achieves a marvellous ‘mixed’ affetto, where tenderness and anger mingle. Example 5.8 shows the end of the ‘A’ section. The tenderness is expressed at the start by the limpid diatonicism and the ‘stroking’ figures in the violins. Towards the end of the ritornello, however, the mood darkens as Vivaldi first shifts abruptly from F major to F minor and then modulates successively to G and A minor, as if to depict mounting anger, before falling back meekly into F major. The wellcontrasted second aria, ‘Cupido, tu vedi’, is bittersweet in a different way. Its mode is minor, but it has a raciness that belies the presence of such words as pena (‘pain’) and affanno (‘horror’) in the text. In fact, Vivaldi anticipates already in the ‘A’ section the inner contentment that he asks Cupid in the ‘B’ section to restore. Bar 29 of the example contains the only instance in Vivaldi’s cantatas where a fermata appears over the notes of the dominant chord preceding a cadence as an invi in vita tati tion on to th thee si sing nger er to in inse sert rt a ca cade denz nza. a. Wi With th th this is ad addi diti tion on,, th thee la last st ba barr rrie ierr se sepa pa-rating the cantata aria from the operatic aria is crossed. Such cadenzas were short (their accommodati accommodation on within a single breath breath was recommended by contemporary contemporary theorists) and non-thematic: the idea that, in addition to demonstrating technical skill, the performer should refer back to material heard in the course of the movement had yet to take root. In the second aria the first violin doubles the voice throughout. This is very normal for arias of the 1720s and later. Vivaldi very rarely asks the violins to provide a counter-melody to the vocal line, although independent accompanimental phrases, as illustrated in Example 5.8, are common. The main preoccupation, it seems, is that the vocal line should be heard clearly. In this aria the accompaniment during the vocal periods is senza basso throughout. RV 681: Perché son molli (ARA) Equally impressive in its own way is this early cantata. Its poetic theme is unusual. The singer describes in the first aria how his tears are bringing unhappiness to Arcadia. The recitative describes his resolve to leave the fields and forests and seek a solitary cave in which to continue his lamentations without without troubling others. In the second aria he presents his vision of an Arcadia restored to happiness – in his absence. Could this be an allusion to some real event? The tone of the first aria is predominantly pastoral in the blissful vein that one knows so well from Vivaldi (for example, in the chamber concerto aptly titled La

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Ex. 5.8 Vivaldi, Che giova il sospirar, povero core , RV 679: bars 26–34


Ex. 5.8 Vivaldi, Che giova il sospirar, povero core , RV 679: cont.

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disruptive touches – syncopa pastorella, RV 95). Here and there, however, little disruptive tion in the vocal line, Neapolitan Sixths, chromatic inflections – are used to express disquiet. The recitative, whose opening is illustrated illustrated as Example 5.9, is a catalogue of special effects that seem tailor-made to establish Vivaldi’s credentials credentials as a proficient composer of vocal music. 47 The movement opens with ordinary ‘accompanied’ recitative, then switches, in bar 5, to ‘obbligato’ recitative. The phrases punctuating the lines or hemistiches of the text employ, at first, repeated notes in various rhythmicizations, rhythmicizations, then broken chords all’unisono. To mark the climax of the rising harmonic sequence, there is one bar of ‘measured’ recitative (bar 15), followed by a descending tirata to depict the desolate wails of the forest beasts. The ninth added (as the fourth note in the soprano part) to the leading-note seventh in bar 2 is a Vivaldian trademark. trademark. If nothing else had survived from this cantata, that bar would have sufficed to confirm his authorship. In contrast, the second aria conjures up an image of nymphs and swains dancing on the Arcadian equivalent equival ent of a village green. Its off-tonic opening (with subdominant harmony) and ‘sawing’ rhythms propel it on its merry course. The scoring in the vocal periods is once again senza basso . RV 682: Vengo a voi, luci adorate (ARA) This very late cantata has a slightly tedious first movement filled with rather obvious galant effects (inverted dotting, slides, triplet semiquavers, etc.) and a perf pe rfun unct ctor ory y ce cent ntra rall re reci cita tati tive ve.. It sp spri ring ngss to li life fe,, ho howe weve ver, r, in th thee se seco cond nd ar aria ia,, wh whic ich h is ex exce cept ptio iona nall am amon ong g Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss ca cant ntat atas as in fe feat atur urin ing g a ma main in th them emee em empl ploy oyed ed el else se-where in his music. The works sharing it are the violin concerto RV 213 (third movement) and a newly discovered flute concerto in G major. 48 The theme is based on a jeu d’esprit : a second violin part consisting merely of a gently syncopated monotone at the top of the texture. In harmonic terms, this is an ‘inverted peda pe dal’ l’ th that at,, li like ke al alll pe peda dall-no note tes, s, ha hass th thee pr priv ivil ileg egee of gr grat atin ing g ag agai ains nstt th thee ot othe herr no note tess witho wi thout ut apo apolog logy. y. Vi Vival valdi di mai mainta ntains ins the ped pedal al thr throug oughou houtt the mov moveme ement, nt, alt althou hough gh he has to al altter its pi pitc tch h fro rom m tim imee to ti tim me in st step ep with ch chaang ngees of ke key. y. Th Thee gr grea eate test st dissonance occurs during the tailpiece to the second vocal period, which unexpectedly moves to the parallel minor key, where it remains until the final cadential phrase. As Example 5.10 illustrates, the clash of the dominant minor ninth (ab'') against the pedal note ( g'') is a very apt way of expressing the ‘tormento’ that is the subject of the voice’s melisma. RV 683: Amor, hai vinto, hai vinto: ecco il seno (RARA) This is the queen of Vivaldi’s cantatas: the cantata to which one would bring a sceptic full of received ideas about our composer’s ‘flight from counterpoint’, ‘lac ‘l ack k of fe feel elin ing g fo forr th thee vo voic ice’ e’,, ‘o ‘ove verr-us usee of se sequ quen ence ce’, ’, ‘d ‘dis isre rega gard rd fo forr th thee te text xt’, ’, an and d

47 48

In the example, the lowest notes of the upper stave are those of the reconstructed viola part. On this flute concerto, see Michael Talbot, ‘Miscellany’, Studi vivaldiani , iv (2004), p. 120.


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Ex. 5.9 Vivaldi, Perché son molli , RV 681: ‘Dunque, già ch’il mio duolo’, opening

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Ex. 5.9 Vivaldi, Perché son molli , RV 681: cont.


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Ex. 5.10 Vival Vivaldi, di, Vengo a voi, luci adorate , RV 682: ‘Sempre penare’, bars 32–41

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Ex. 5.10 Vivaldi, Vengo a voi, luci adorate , RV 682: cont.

the other strictures that, while they may on occasion find justification, fall far short of a complete and fair picture. Its opening simple recitative, which begins brightly and unassumingly, soon cadenza nza sfugg sfuggita ita)inbar11isespecially take ta kess on da dark rker er hu hues es;; a de dece cept ptiv ivee ca cade denc ncee (cade fine. Generally speaking, Vivaldi avoids ‘learned’ – as opposed to vivid – effects in his cantatas, but when he strikes, he chooses his moments well. The first aria, marked ‘Larghetto Andante’, is the only instance in Vivaldi’s cantatas of fugal treatment. The first and second entries (the subject and its answer) occur in the ritornello. The third and fourth entries of the exposition arrive in the first vocal period. Middle entries are heard during the second vocal period, which includes a striking passage (bars 34–7) in which the head of the subject is treated in stretto imitation. The ‘B’ section is given over to contrasting material dominated by a rumble in the continuo part signifying thunder (as in the equivalent section of RV 651) but preserves a motivic connection with the ‘A’ section by continuing to use a figure employed there as a second countersubject countersubject (thi (t hiss fi figu gure re,, co cons nsis isti ting ng of fo four ur se semi miqu quav aver ers, s, be begi gins ns on a lo low w no note te an and d th then en le leap apss to a twice-repeated higher note). The subject and the main countersubject countersubject,, shown in Example 5.11, initially perform a typically Vivaldian ‘scissors’ motion: the subject, progressing slowly by step (to express the word passo) but including a prominent augmented second (for pena), moves in contrary motion with the quicker, more conventionally shaped countersubject. countersubject. This is exactly the formula – right down to to the prominent augmented second second – used at the start start of Vivaldi’s Vivaldi’s Sin info foni nia a al San anto to Se Sep pol olcr cro o, RV 169. When the two subjects come together in parallel thirds just after the start of the second bar, the effect is wonderfully poignant. The second countersubject (both violins, bars 4–5) – really just a little tag – contributes greatly to the effect by its gentle abrasion, as a pedal-note, against the C natural of the subject. There is much to admire in this movement besides the fugal devices. The passage-work is fresh and sparkling, and there is a good admixture of simple homophonic effects that gain in power from their alternation with contrapuntal


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Ex. 5.11 Vival Vivaldi, di, Amor, hai vinto, vinto, hai vinto: ecco il mio seno seno, RV 683: ‘Passo di pena in pena’, opening

passages. In the vocal periods, the alto is doubled by the first violin an octave higher. This is the conventional way of doubling an alto part instrumentally and lends the music an attractive sheen. Viva Vi vald ldii pr prov ovid ided ed tw two o in inde depe pend nden entt se sett ttin ings gs of th thee se seco cond nd re reci cita tati tive ve.. Th Thee fi firs rstt to appear in the autograph score is a simple recitative. The second is orchestrally acco ac comp mpan anie ied; d; th this is is th thee ve vers rsio ion n ap appe pear arin ing g in th thee se sepa para rate te pa part rt fo forr al alto to (w (wit ith h ba bass ss), ), which, employing different paper from the rest of the parts and the score, may have been substituted for an earlier part that included the simple recitative. There is no hint, however, that the accompanied recitative was composed at a later date than its companion movements. Rather oddly, the tonal design of these two recitatives is quite different. The simp si mple le se sett ttin ing g be begi gins ns in C ma majo jorr an and d en ends ds wi with th a ha half lf-c -clo lose se in E mi mino nor; r; th thee ac acco commpanied setting starts with a dominant seventh in A minor and closes on the

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dominant of D minor. Both settings conform to Vivaldi’s principle, described in Chapter 2, of avoiding a ‘zero’ progression between adjoining recitatives and arias, but it is hard to discern an underlying reason for the difference. The setting with wi th str string ingss mix mixes es ‘ac ‘accom compan panied ied’’ and ‘ob ‘obbli bligat gato’ o’ rec recita itati tive ve in the man manner ner described for RV 679, but with greater spaciousness and material of more individual character. Tempo contrasts between ‘Presto’ and ‘Adagio’ sections are prescribed. The second aria, ‘Se a me rivolge il ciglio’, makes no attempt to scale the emotional heights of its predecessor. In the narrative of the poem, the first aria expresses the descent into desperation; the second aria, the stirrings of hope. Light and bubbly though it is, there is nothing facile about the second aria. Viva Vi vald ldi’ i’ss wr writ itin ing g fo forr th thee st stri ring ngss is pa part rtic icul ular arly ly ap appe peal alin ing: g: th thee co cons nsta tant nt cr cros ossi sing ng of the two violin parts, which allows each to operate over a wider range than is normal in Italian music of the time (compare, for example, Albinoni and Torelli), Torelli ), creates fascinating textural patterns, often entailing incidental dissonance, that stand alone in the literature of the late Baroque. RV 684: Cessate, omai cessate (RARA) This cantata opens in maestoso fashion with a stately accompanied recitative head he aded ed by si six x ba bars rs fo forr st stri ring ngss al alon onee th that at fo form rm a ki kind nd of pr prel elud ude. e. Th This is minimi ni-sin sinfon fonia ia bea bears rs a str strong ong res resem embla blance nce to the int introd roduct uctory ory rit ritorn ornell ello o to Vivaldi’s Beatus vir in C major, RV 597, with its saccadé (‘alla francese’) rhyt rh ythm hmss an and d sh shor ortt tirate. The po poiint of thi hiss pr pref efac acee is re reve veal aled ed whe hen n the al alto to op open enss with wi th th thee wo word rd Cessate (‘ (‘Ce Ceas ase’ e’). ). Fo Forr so some meth thin ing g to st stop op,, it mu must st ob obvi viou ousl sly y al alre read ady y have started. The original first aria (the one belonging to the incomplete variant known as RV 684a) was conventional and, to judge from its opening, uninspired. Its replacement reveals the experimental streak in Vivaldi’s handling of the string orchestra. The accompaniment to the ‘A’ section is in three strands. The highest strand, for united violins, is to be played pizzicato – except for one instrument, presumably the principal violin, which is directed to play with the bow. The middle strand, for violas, is played pizzicato. The lowest strand has the cellos playing arco, the double basses pizzicato. The closest parallel is found in Vivaldi’s aria ‘Sento in seno ch’in pioggia di lagrime’ ( Giustino, II.1), where, amid a sea of pizzicato pizzicato, one first violin, one second violin, and one double bass reta re tain in th thei eirr bo bows ws.. Du Duri ring ng th thee ta tail ilpi piec ecee to th thee se seco cond nd vo voca call pe peri riod od in th thee ca cant ntat ata, a, al alll the strings use their bows, but the initial scoring returns for the final ritornello. The vocal line is finely chiselled and full of rhythmic artifice. artifice. One so often finds in Vivaldi that rhythmic variety in one part (or group of parts) is compensated for by uniformity in the other parts. This is what occurs here. The regularity and evenness of the string accompanimen accompanimentt act as a foil to the ever-changing rhythmic patterns in the alto part. For the ‘B’ section, Vivaldi switches to 3/8 metre and changes the tempo from ‘Larghetto’ to the slightly faster ‘Andante molto’. At a surface level, this section is quite different, although a search for significant musical shapes reveals that the descending third is prominent in both sections. In his earlier vocal music, Vivaldi


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is le less ss fo fond nd th than an ma many ny of hi hiss co cont ntem empo pora rari ries es of po poin inti ting ng up a co cont ntra rast st be betw twee een n th thee text of the two semistrophes of an aria stanza by creating a comparable musical contrast. His natural inclination is towards monomotivic treatment, treatment, as practised in his instrumental music. After c.1720 he shows greater readiness to introduce contrast of this kind. It was, of course, especially favoured by the Neapolitan compos com posers ers wh who o wer weree sim simult ultane aneous ously ly his com compet petito itors rs and mod models els.. Wha Whatt is remarkable, perhaps, per haps, is that this is the only cantata aria by him to differentiate differen tiate the two sections by metre and tempo. In th thee ‘B ‘B’’ se sect ctio ion, n, wh wher eree th thee vi viol olaa pr prov ovid ides es a bassetto, th thee ac aco ous usti ticc pit itch ch of the alto frequently dips beneath the bass part, creating six-four chords. However, the ‘heard’ pitch stays above and no harmonic solecism is apparent. This is a peculiarity of instrumentally accompanied song that is observable just as clearly in a Schubert song if, for example, it is sung by a tenor instead of a soprano. A single, acco ac comp mpan anie ied d vo voic icee al alwa ways ys so soun unds ds li like ke an up uppe perr pa part rt,, re rega gard rdle less ss of it itss tr true ue pi pitc tch. h. Another recitative with strings follows, mingling ‘accompanied’, ‘measured’, and an d ‘o ‘obb bbli liga gato to’’ st styl yles es fr free eely ly.. Th Thee se seco cond nd ar aria ia is a su supe perb rb ari kind nd aria a d’a d’azio zione ne of the ki Anna Girò liked to sing. Particularly admirable is the way Vivaldi stitches together the motives making up the vocal part. In Example 5.12, the alto part of thee en th enti tire re ‘A ‘A’’ se sect ctio ion, n, th thee fi firs rstt vo voca call pe peri riod od co comp mpri rise sess fi five ve se segm gmen ents ts,, id iden enti tifi fied ed in the example by letters from A to E. There are the usual subtleties of phrase structure (segment A has a three-bar antecedent followed by a four-bar consequent) and textual illustration (segment C felicitously represents represents alta not only as ‘loud’ but also as ‘high’). The second vocal section, ending in bar 74, repeats the sequence of events but replaces segment B by a new one, F, and omits segment D. Segment A, somewhat modified, replaces the tonic key by the dominant; segment C is unaltered in pitch and key; segment E is transposed from dominant to tonic. The tailpiece is unusually elaborate. It begins in bar 75 with a return of the earlier omitted segment D (now set to the text of A). This is followed by new versions of C and B. Segment D then returns (its words borrowed this time from C), and segment E, in a double statement (the second of which is elaborated), brings up the rear. Every thematic element has the opportunity to undergo development and variation – and in the ‘B’ section segments B and E, preserving the continuity, appear alongside new material. It is difficult to know what to admire more in this aria: the systematic approach taken to its construction, or the little deviations from regularity that create surprise. The two aspects, at any rate, are in perfect balance. RV 796: Usignoletto bello (ARA) Unpretentious yet stylish, this continuo cantata has a lot in common with the lighter cantatas of the Mantuan period, to which, as was explained earlier, it is probably very close in date. The main reason why the G major anonymous version is likely to be earlier than the E flat major version is given by Francesco Degrada in the Critical Notes to his edition: it is that certain accidentals notated correctly as sharps in the first version appear incorrectly as sharps (where they should be naturals) in the second. Scribe 4 presumably transposed his copy at sight and failed to make the necessary adjustment. Of course, both versions could

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Ex. 5.12 Vivaldi, Cessate, omai cessate , RV 684: ‘Nell’orrido albergo’, bars 22–102, vocal line


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Ex. 5.13 Vival Vivaldi, di, Usignoletto bello, RV 796: ‘Come te cantando anch’io’, opening

be transpositions of a primitive version in a third key: unless an autograph source turns up, there is no way of knowing for sure. Among the most attractive features of this cantata are the ritornellos of its arias, which reassemble elements of both the vocal melody and its bass. If one examines the first seven bars of the second aria, ‘Come te cantando anch’io’ (the whole passage is shown as Example 5.13), one notes first of all a short phrase of decidedly ‘bass-like’ character. The purpose of this phrase might be found puzzling – until one recognizes it as a suitable accompaniment to the opening voca vo call ph phra rase se,, wh whic ich h on onee is pr pres esum umab ably ly ex expe pect cted ed to an anti tici cipa pate te in th thee co cont ntin inuo uo re real al-ization. The next phrase is a paraphrase, one octave lower, of the second vocal phrase. Bars 3–6 develop sequentially in a syncopated rhythm the motive occurring as notes 2–5 of the vocal part and take it to a cadence. This is yet another demonstra demo nstration tion of the ‘logical ‘logical yet unpredi unpredictab ctable’ le’ natu nature re of Viva Vivaldi’ ldi’ss insp inspirat iration. ion. It is ironic that he should have earned from many modern commentators the reputation of always seeking easy solutions, whereas the reality is that he is sometimes almost perverse in his avoidance of them!

CHAPTER SIX

The Dresden Cantatas

Vivaldi and Dresden After the Ospedale della Pietà in Venice, the institution with which Vivaldi enjo en joye yed d th thee lo long nges estt pr prof ofes essi sion onal al re rela lati tion onsh ship ip wa wass th thee co cour urtt of Dr Dres esde den, n, se seat at of th thee Saxon electors, who, during the same period (1712–40), were also kings of Poland. The seeds for this association were sown by the accession, in 1694, of Friedrich August I (1670–1733), known as ‘Augustus the Strong’. 1 In 1696 the Polish throne became vacant. This monarchy was elective, and in a disputed contest Friedrich August emerged as the winner, being crowned as Augustus II at Cracow on 15 September 1697. A condition of becoming king of Poland was that he should embrace Catholicism. Saxony was staunchly Lutheran, and the elector initially made his conversion a merely personal matter. The electress, Christiane Eberhardine, and most of the court remained true to Protestantism. In 17 1704 04 a Ru Russ ssia ian– n–Sw Swed edis ish h al alli lian ance ce ou oust sted ed Fr Frie iedr dric ich h Au Augu gust st as ki kin ng of Po Pola land nd in fa favo vour ur of hi hiss ri riva val, l, St Stan anis is³aw Les Leszcz zczyñs yñski ki (fa (fathe therr of the pri prince ncess ss who whose se marriage to Louis XV Vivaldi was later to celebrate in RV 687). The elector did not, no t, ho howe weve ver, r, lo lose se ho hope pe of re rega gain inin ing g hi hiss th thro rone ne.. He re refu fuse sed d to re retu turn rn to 1708 8 enr enrage aged d his cou court rt and sub subjec jects ts by tra transf nsform orming ing Lutheranis Luthe ranism, m, and in 170 Dres Dr esde den’ n’ss fo form rmer er op oper eraa ho hous usee in into to a Ca Cath thol olic ic co cour urtt ch chap apel el ( katholische Hofkirche). His patience was rewarded, for in 1709 the Russians and Swedes fell out, so that in the following year Friedrich August was able to reclaim the Polish throne. To make it more likely that the Polish crown would remain in the hands of his dynasty (the Wettins), Friedrich August had to ensure that his similarly named son, born in 1698, also became a Catholic. This entailed removing him for a number of years from the influence of Christiane Eberhardine and the court. The solution was to send him on a prolonged, ostensibly educational, tour of Europe. The prince travelled incognito – that is, with an assumed rank lower than his real 1

Good sources of information on the electors of Saxony and their cultivation of music in the early eighteenth century are Fürstenau, Zur Geschichte der Musik und des Theaters am Hofe zu Dresden, vol. 2, and Wolfgang Horn, Die Dresdner Hofkir Hofkirchenmusi chenmusikk 1720–174 1720–1745: 5: Studien zu ihren ihr en Vor Vorauss aussetz etzunge ungenn und ihre ihrem m Repe Reperto rtoire ire, Ka Kasse ssel, l, etc etc.: .: Bä Bären renrei reiter ter,, 198 1987. 7. A use useful ful ac accou count nt in English is contained in Janice B. Stockigt, Jan Dismas Zelenka: A Bohemian Musician at the Court of Dresden, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.

THE DRESDEN CANTATAS

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one – in order to avoid problems of protocol, and his retinue, which included Catholic priests, was kept very small. The tour started with his journey to Frankfurt fu rt in la late te 17 1711 11 fo forr th thee co coro rona nati tion on of Ch Char arle less VI as Ge Germ rman an em empe pero ror. r. Fo Forr re reas ason onss both bo th re reli ligi giou ouss an and d cu cult ltur ural al,, It Ital aly y wa wass th thee pr prin ince ce’s ’s ma main in de dest stin inat atio ion. n. He ma made de th thre reee separate sojourns in Venice. The first ran from 5 February to 17 March 1712; the seco se cond nd,, fr from om 21 Ma May y to th thee en end d of No Nove vemb mber er 17 1713 13;; th thee th thir ird d an and d lo long nges est, t, fr from om 13 February 1716 to 20 July 1717. 2 Between the first and second visits the prince was officially received into the Catholic Church (at Bologna, on 27 November 1712). The news was kept secret from the court until the prince’s return to Dresden in 1717. Some time in February 1712 the young Friedrich August visited the Pietà. In the Pietà’s vacchette (account-books recording daily transactions) there is an entry for 29 February noting the expenses relating to this visit. Under the same date, there is a separate entry for 35 lire and 10 soldi paid to Vivaldi for ‘un libro di suonate’ (‘a book of sonatas’). This payment cannot relate to compositions supplied by Vivaldi directly to the Pietà, for these were always copied free of charge by the figlie di coro themselves. The payment must refer instead to instrumental compositions presented by the Pietà to Friedrich August as a gift. ‘Suonate’ might even be used here in a generic sense to refer to concertos as well as, or even instead of, sonatas, in which case L’estro armonico (of which the publi pub lishe sherr Est Estien ienne ne Rog Roger er dou doubtl btless ess sen sentt Vi Vival valdi di com compli plimen mentar tary y exa exampl mples) es) mig might ht provide the answer. The SLUB possesses an example of Vivaldi’s Op. 2 violin sona so nata tass in th thee ed edit itio ion n en engr grav aved ed in 17 1712 12 by Ro Roge ger, r, to wh whic ich h th thee en entr try y co coul uld d eq equa uall lly y welll ref wel refer. er.3 If so so,, th thee so sona nata tass mu must st ha have ve be been en ve very ry ha hand ndso some mely ly bo boun und d to ha have ve co cost st so much. Otherwise, the compositions were probably a set resembling the ‘Manchester’ violin sonatas of c.1726 presented in manuscript to Cardinal Ottoboni. 4 Ther Th eree ar aree no re repo port rtss of a vi visi sitt to th thee Pi Piet etàà by th thee pr prin ince ce du duri ring ng hi hiss se seco cond nd Ven eneetian sojourn. He is likely, however, to have attended services with music there with wi thou outt fa fanf nfar are. e. Re Rega gard rdin ing g th thee th thir ird d vi visi sit, t, we le lear arn n of hi hiss at atte tend ndan ance ce at an or orat ator orio io presented by the figlie di coro on 5 March 1716.5 The identity of this oratorio and itss co it comp mpos oser er is un unce cert rtai ain; n; it co coul uld d pe perh rhap apss ha have ve be been en Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss Juditha triumphans, which may, however, have been performed later in the same year. By the time of his third visit, the prince was in late teenage, and it was thought fit to enlarge his retinue by sending a select group of musicians to join him in

2

3

4

5

Some minor discrepancies in the dates exist in the primary literature. The diary of Antonio Benigna (Venice, Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, It. VII-1620 (7846), f. 8r) claims that the third visit began on 9 February 1716 and ended on 24 July 1717. The dates for the same visit given above are taken from Venice, Archivio di Stato, Cerimoniali, Reg. 4, ff. 26r and 27v. On the date of this publication, see Rudolf Rasch, ‘La famosa mano di Monsieur Roger: Antonio Vivaldi and his Dutch Publishers’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani, xvii (1996), 89–135, at 114–15. Since mentioning the volume, which was first brought to my attention by Micky White, in my ‘Miscellany’’ column in Informazioni e studi vivaldiani, xx (1999), 135–9, at 138, I have come ‘Miscellany roun ro und d to th thee vi view ew th that at th this is wa wass mo most st pr prob obab ably ly th thee pu publ blis ishe hed d Op Op.. 2 (w (whi hich ch is pr pres eser erve ved d in Dr Dres esde den) n) rather than a manuscript volume (of which no trace survives there). Venice, Archivio di Stato, Inquisitori di Stato, Avvisi, Busta 706, 7 March 1716 (Francesco Alvisi), f. 2v.

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Venice Veni ce.. Fo Fore remo most st am amon ong g th them em wa wass Jo Joha hann nn Ge Geor org g Pi Pise send ndel el (1 (168 687– 7–17 1755 55), ), a pr prom om-ising violinist who had briefly studied under Giuseppe Torelli in Ansbach and was a keen partisan of the Italian style in preference to the French style that the players of the Hofkapelle at that time favoured. Pisendel became a pupil and intimate of Vivaldi. In the SLUB there exists, in fact, a manuscript of a concerto movement in A minor by Pisendel containing corrections in Vivaldi’s hand. 6 Whil Wh ilee in It Ital aly, y, Pi Pise send ndel el ma made de it hi hiss bu busi sine ness ss to am amas asss as mu much ch in inst stru rume ment ntal al mu musi sicc by local composers as possible. He succeeded both in persuading composers to donate or sell compositions to him and in gaining access to their scores, which he then th en co copi pied ed on sm smal alll-fo form rmat at ma manu nusc scri ript pt pa pape perr (G (Ger erma man n sc scho hola lars rs ca call ll th thes esee co copi pies es his Reisepartituren, or ‘travelling scores’), suitable for bringing or posting back to Dresden.7 Today the SLUB possesses manuscripts of fifteen sonatas, twelve indepe ind epende ndent nt sin sinfon fonias ias,, and nin ninety ety-on -onee con concer certos tos by Vi Vival valdi. di.8 Mos ostt of the hese se ar aree of work wo rkss co coll llec ecte ted d by Pi Pise send ndel el in 17 1716 16–1 –17 7 in Ve Veni nice ce,, al alth thou ough gh se seve vera rall ar aree pr pres eser erve ved d only on ly in th thee fo form rm of sc scor ores es or pa part rtss pr prep epar ared ed su subs bseq eque uent ntly ly in Dre resd sden en by as assi sist stan ants ts of Pisendel (who included the young Quantz) or by copyists working for the Hofkapelle. At least two other musicians came from Dresden as members of the prince’s chambe cha mberr ens ensemb emble le (Kammermusik ). ). On Onee wa wass th thee ob oboi oist st Jo Joha hann nn Ch Chri rist stia ian n Ri Rich chte terr (1689–1744), for whom Vivaldi must have written the oboe sonata RV 53 and perhaps also RV 28 and RV 34, if it is true that these have been misidentified as violin sonatas. Another was the keyboard player Christian Petzold (1677–1733). The double-bassist Jan Dismas Zelenka (1679–1745) may have joined the group at some stage, although much of the time he appears to have been in Vienna, studying composition with Johann Joseph Fux. There is considerable evidence that Vivaldi composed music for the prince’s indivi ividua duall mem member berss dur during ing the their ir sta stay. y. Esp Especi eciall ally y not notewo ewort rthy hy Kammermusik or its ind are some early chamber concertos – works written for a small group of players without orchestra.9 This experience prepared the way for the Vivaldi ‘cult’ that grew up subsequently in Dresden. Only a few months after his arrival in Venice, Friedrich August, acting on behalf of his father, engaged Heinichen as a ‘second’ Kapellmeister (the existing Kapellmeister being Johann Christoph Schmidt, who thenceforth would take a back seat). This appointment confirmed the new orientation, towards Italian music, that the Hofkapelle was destined to take. More significant still was the recruitmentt of Antonio Lotti, then serving as first organist of S. Marco, to lead a recruitmen troupe of Italian singers who were to revive opera at the court. Lotti and the other 6 7

8 9

Shelfmark: Mus. 2421-0-14. Albinoni and Vivaldi both inscribed autograph manuscripts of compositions to Pisendel. Other compose com posers rs with whom Pise Pisendel ndel had pers personal onal contact were Ben Benedet edetto to Marc Marcello ello,, Anto Antonio nio Montanari, and Giuseppe Valentini (the last two during his visit to Rome in 1717). These figures are based on Landmann Landmann’s ’s catalogue, discounting variants of the same work, lost compositions and spurious items. See Michael Talbot, ‘Vivaldi’s Quadro? The Case of RV Anh. 66 Reconsidered’, in Enrico Careri and Markus Engelhardt (eds), Italienische Instrumentalmusik des 18. Jahrhunderts: Alte und neue Protagonisten (‘Analecta musicologica’, xxxii), Laaber: Laaber-Verlag, 2002, pp. 9–32, at pp. 28–30.


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members of the company belonging to the Cappella ducale received leave of absence at the elector’s request and arrived arr ived in Dresden in September 1717. They were to remain there for more than two years, making a major contribution to the celebrations surrounding the wedding of the prince to Habsburg princess Maria Jose Jo seph phaa in 17 1719 19.. In 17 1720 20,, wh when en th thei eirr mo most st im impo port rtan antt ta task sk ha hadd be been en co comp mple lete ted, d, th thee Italian company was dismissed: their inflated salaries had aroused jealousy among the regular members of the Hofkapelle, and their arrogant behaviour had caused dissension. It appears that after the return of Pisendel and his companions Vivaldi was solicited independently for compositions by the Saxon court. Two concertos in particular – RV 576 and 577 (coincidentally, both in G minor) – bear inscriptions connecting them not with individual members of the orchestra but with the court itsel its elf. f. Th Thee fir first st is he head aded ed,, in th thee pa partl rtlyy au auto togr grap aphh ma manu nusc scrip riptt to toda dayy in Tu Turi rin, n, ‘p ‘p[e [er] r] S[ua] A[ltezza] R[eale] di Sas[soni]a’; the second, ‘p[er] l’Orchestra di Dresda’. RV 576 has a very unusual scoring that includes five ‘treble’ wind instruments: a princ pri ncip ipal al ob oboe oe (p (par artn tner erin ingg a pr prin inci cipa pall vi viol olin in), ), tw twoo ot othe herr ob oboe oes, s, an andd two re reco cord rder ers. s. It may have been performed as Tafelmusik during a Türkischer Fest held (appropriately) at the Turkish Palace on 1 September 1719, as part of the wedding celebrations.10 In 172 7255 th thee co cour urtt eng ngaage gedd a fr freesh se sett of It Itaali lian an si sing ngeers fo forr use bot othh in op oper eraa an andd in the concertante church music that Heinichen and others were now providing. Concurrently, however, it pursued a longer-range strategy aimed at providing the Hofkapelle with a cheaper, more compliant and more permanent vocal group. In 1724 Count Ämilius Villio, the Saxon ambassador to Venice, was instructed to select three young female and four young male singers for training in preparation for their eventual engagement in Dresden.11 Lotti assisted the ambassador in his choice. The boys, all castratos, were trained first f irst in Bologna and later in i n Venice. They comprised the sopranos Venturio Rocchetti and Giovanni Bindi, and the altos Domenico Annibali and Casimiro Pignotti. Bindi, whose compass was unusually high, reaching at least d''', received lessons from Porpora. All the castratos were trained at the conclusion of their studies by the famous alto Antonio Campioli. The female singers remained throughout in Venice. The soprano Maria Sant Sa ntin inaa Ca Catta ttane neaa wa wass tra train ined ed by Pie Pietro tro Sc Scar arpa pari, ri, Maestro di canto at th thee Pie ietà tà an andd at other ospedali. Like the male singers, she was accommodated in the ambassador’s house. In contrast, the sisters Rosa and Anna Negri in September 1724 figlie a spese) at th beca be came me bo boar arde ders rs ( figlie thee Pi Piet età, à, fo forr wh whic ichh pri rivi vile lege ge th thee co cour urtt pai aidd th thee Pietà 300 ducats per annum.12 As usual, each boarder was entrusted to a figlia 10

11 12

See Irmgard Becker-Glauch, Die Bedeutung der Musik für die Dresdener Hoffeste bis in die Zeit Augusts des Starken, Kas Kassel sel and Bas Basel: el: Bär Bärenr enreit eiter, er, 1951 1951,, p. 105. In Bec Becker ker-Gl -Glauch auch’s ’s des descri cripti ption on of the instruments, based on a contemporary ink drawing by Carl Heinrich Jakob Fehling, a principal violinist and principal oboist (featured in the score) stand in the doorway adjoining the banqueting room. The ma main in so sour urce ce of in info form rmat atio ionn on th thee si singe ngers rs and th thei eirr tr trai aini ning ng is Für Fürst stena enau, u, Zur Zur Geschich Geschichte te der Musik und des des Theaters Theaters am Hofe zu Dresden, 2, pp. 159–60 and 166. Venice, Archivio di Stato, Ospedali e luoghi pii diversi, Busta 658, Parti, and ibid., Reg. 1005, Quaderno cassa, f. 551.

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privilegiataa , an older member of the coro (usually a maestra, aged at least 40). privilegiat Rosa, her name augmented to ‘Maria Rosa’, was assigned initially to Maestra Maddalenaa ‘dal Soprano’ (1676 Maddalen (1676/77–1 /77–1728) 728),, Anna (as ‘Ann ‘Annaa Bolo Bolognese gnese’) ’) to Meneghina ‘dalla Viola’ (1688/89–1761). During their training in Venice all these singers, especially the Negri sisters, must have become acquainted with Vivaldi. When, fully trained, they arrived in Dresden in the spring of 1730, they formed yet another ‘bridge’ between the composer and the Saxon capital. Mean Me anwh whil ile, e, th thee de deat ath h of Konzertmeister Vo Volu lumi mier er in 17 1728 28 al allo lowe wed d Pi Pise send ndel el to step st ep in into to hi hiss sh shoe oess an and d in inte tens nsif ify y th thee cu cult ltiv ivat atio ion n of Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss in inst stru rume ment ntal al mu musi sic. c. It is from this period – the late 1720s – that the regular copyists of the Hofkapelle appear to have devoted their attention to his works, many of which, under Pisendel’s guidance, were ‘customized’ for the orchestra, receiving extra wind parts and sometimes even compositional modifications. So far, however, Vivaldi’s vocal music had been all but ignored by the Hofkapelle. It may well be that his Magnificat (RV 610 or one of its variants), which is listed in inventories of the sacred repertory of the Hofkapelle, had already arrived – and the case of the two cantatas RV 663 and RV 796, which do not belong to the main Dresden group, has already been discussed in Chapter 5. Then there are miscellaneous pre-1733 operatic arias: sixteen arias from Arsilda, regina di Ponto (autumn 1716) – presumably a souvenir of Friedrich August’s last la st vi visi sit; t; on onee ar aria ia fr from om Orl (aut utum umn n 17 1714 14); ); an and d th thre reee Orland andoo fin finto to paz pazzo zo (a unplaceable arias.13 All are notated in two-stave score and perhaps originated as sing si nger ers’ s’ pa part rtss (w (whi hich ch we were re al alwa ways ys no nota tate ted d to toge geth ther er wi with th th thee ba bass ss pa part rt). ). Ot Othe herw rwis ise, e, Vivaldi was represented only by his instrumental music. The catalyst for change was the death of Augustus the Strong on 1 February 1733 17 33.. Hi Hiss so son’ n’ss ac acce cess ssio ion n as Fr Frie iedr dric ich h Au Augu gust st II ga gave ve ho hope pe fo forr ne new w ap appo poin intm tmen ents ts to, and promotions within, the Hofkapelle. The successor to Heinichen, who had died di ed in 17 1729 29,, wa wass al alre read ady y ch chos osen en.. Th This is wa wass Jo Joha hann nn Ad Adol olff Ha Hass sse, e, wh who o is de desc scri ribe bed d as ‘Primo maestro di cap[p]ella’ to the king of Poland and elector of Saxony already in the libretto of his opera Dalisa, which opened in Venice (with Anna Girò in the cast) in May 1730. The expression ‘Primo’, however, betrays the fact that the Saxon-Polish court, divided, as it was, between two sites (Dresden and Warsaw), needed more than a single Kapellmeister to attend to its musical needs. Already during Heinichen’s régime (leaving aside the marginalized Schmidt), there had been room for Lotti to provide operas, and for Ristori and Zelenka to prov pr ovid idee sa sacr cred ed mu musi sic. c. Th Ther eree wa was, s, in th theo eory ry,, al almo most st un unli limi mite ted d sc scop opee fo forr composers from outside Dresden to be recognized as ‘purveyors of music’ to the court under a suitable title. Bach’s reaction to the succession of Friedrich August II is well known. He composed a ‘short’ Mass (a Kyrie in B minor and a Gloria in D major that are the star st arti ting ng po poin intt of th thee fu futu ture re Mass in B minor, BWV 23 232 2), whi hich ch he se sent nt to th thee cou ourrt in 17 1733 33.. Th Thiis ca cann nny y gi gifft ev even enttua uall lly, y, in 17 1736 36,, ea earn rneed hi him m the titl tlee of Hofcompositeur. Zelenka, deeply disappointed at not succeeding Heinichen,

13

Mus. 1-F-30, pp. 37-70; Mus. 1-F-30, pp. 195–201; Mus. 2389-J-1, pp. 1–7.


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whose de facto replacement he had become during the latter’s declining years, tried a new strategy to attract the incoming elector’s attention: he composed a series of eight ‘demonstration’ arias (ZWV 176) designed to prove his suitability for operatic composition, a task not previously entrusted to him. (Sadly, these arias by a normally excellent composer show exactly why such a commission would have been hazardous: they are overlong and insensitive in their wordsetting.) Vivaldi appears to have attempted something more ambitious than Zelenka: a portfolio of music for solo voice (soprano and alto) embracing several genres. There are four components in this portfolio: 1.

2. 3. 4.

Twenty-fo Twenty -four ur arias arias and a ter terzet zet in full score score taken taken from five five recent operat operatic ic productions ( La La fede tradita e vendicata, 1726; L’Atenaide, 1729; Farnace, 1731; Semiramide, 1732; La fida ninfa, 1732).14 Nine chambe chamberr cantatas cantatas (inclu (including ding one, RV 678, 678, with with obbliga obbligato to flute). flute).15 Two motet motetss (RV (RV 627 and 632) 632) for sopran soprano o and and strings strings..16 A settin setting g for sopra soprano, no, flut flute, e, and stri strings ngs of the the psalm psalm Laudate pueri Dominum 17 (RV 601).

The coherence as a group of the thirty-seven items listed above – the Dresden compilation – is established by various factors. First, there is the evidence of paper and rastrography.18 Second, all the pieces originate from the composer’s domestic atelier, the assistants being Scribes 4, 14, and 16. Third, there are notable similarities of musical style and working methods. Significantly, the eight continuo cantatas belonging to the group in Mus. 1-J-7 (but not RV 796 and RV 663, which precede them in the volume) are numbered from 1 to 8 in Zele Zelenka’ nka’ss handw handwriti riting. ng. This impl implies ies that they reached reached Dres Dresden den together.19 Zelenka’s custody of the court’s vocal music (with Heinichen dead, Hasse itinerant and Ristori resident in Warsaw, he was the senior composer in Dresden, however inadequately recognized) was probably inimical to Vivaldi’s cause. Unlike Pisendel, he had no ties of friendship binding him to the Venetian, whom wh om he ma may y we well ll ha have ve co cons nsid ider ered ed an un unde dese serv rvin ing g in inte terl rlop oper er.. No None ne of th thee ma manu nu-scripts making up the Dresden compilation shows any sign of having seen active use in performance. The vocal specifications of the items are highly variable. One composition – the Laudate pueri Dominum – appears to be tailored to Bindi’s ultra-high compass. It is noticeable, however, that three cantatas also belonging to the 1731 compilation (RV 657, 662, and 667) have had the upper end of their compass 14 15 16 17 18 19

SLUB, Mus. 2389-J-1, pp. 8–169. Mus. 1-J-7, pp. 72–113. Mus. 2389-E-1 (RV 632) and Mus. 2389-E-2 (RV 627). Mus. 2389-E-3. As discussed in the Critical Notes of the works published in NEC . See also note 22. Similarly, RV 627 and 632 are included as consecutive items (14 and 15) in Zelenka’s inventory of th thee sa sacr cred ed mu musi sicc in hi hiss cu cust stod ody y ( Inventarium rerum musicalium variorum authorium ecclesiae serventium quas possidet Joannes Dismas Zelenka), reproduced in facsimile in Wolfgang Horn, Thomas Kohlhase, Ortrun Landmann, and Wolfgang Reich, Zelenka-Dokumentation: Quellen und Materialien, 2 vols, Wiesbaden: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1989, 2, pp. 169–218, at p. 215.

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taken down a note or two. Clearly, Vivaldi was aiming for diversity, perhaps following the ‘scatter-gun’ principle (according to which a range of different products is more likely to find favour, even if only in part, than a collection of unif un ifor orm m pr prod oduc ucts ts). ). Th Thee ab abse senc ncee of an any y me ment ntio ion n of sp spec ecif ific ic si sing nger erss in th thee gr grou oup p of manuscripts suggests that the Dresden compilation was despatched to Saxony without a prior commission and without suggestions regarding performance, even though Vivaldi must have had a good idea of who was available. Vivaldi’s connection with the court was renewed in 1740 when the new electoral prince, Friedrich Christian, visited Venice. At the Pietà, on 21 March, the prin pr ince ce wa wass tr trea eate ted d to a se sere rena nata ta,, Il coro delle Muse, on a text by Carlo Goldoni set to old music by the Pietà’s inactive Maestro di coro, Gennaro D’Alessandro. At four strategic points in this composition a sinfonia and three concertos with ‘novelty’ scoring purchased especially from Vivaldi were inserted. The prince liked what he heard, especially Vivaldi’s concerto with ‘echo’ violin, RV 552. 20 Strange to relate, Vivaldi’s relationship with the Saxon court persisted even beyond the grave. In the 1750s the Venetian copying shop of Iseppo Baldan supp su ppli lied ed hu huge ge qu quan anti titi ties es of os oste tens nsib ibly ly up up-t -too-da date te It Ital alia ian n sa sacr cred ed vo voca call mu musi sicc to th thee Hofkapelle, which was seeking to renew its repertory. Most of the works were by Baldassarree Galuppi, who had by then become the doyen of Venetian composers. Baldassarr Perhaps Perh aps enco encounter untering ing a shor shortage tage of genui genuine ne Galu Galuppi ppi comp composit ositions ions,, Bald Baldan an slip sl ippe ped d in a co coup uple le of Vi Viva vald ldii wo work rkss fr from om th thee co comp mpos oser er’s ’s fi fina nall cy cycl clee of ps psal alms ms fo forr thee Pi th Piet etàà (1 (173 739) 9),, wh whic ich h he ma may y ha have ve ac acqu quir ired ed vi viaa th thee co comp mpos oser er’s ’s ne neph phew ew Da Dani niel elee Mauro, one of his employees. Only in recent years have these two works falsely attributed to Galuppi, the Beatus vir RV 795 and the Nisi Dominus RV 803, been restored to their true composer. 21

The Cantatas of the Dresden Compilation Table 6.1 lists the nine cantatas forming the group. As the first column shows, all five continuo cantatas for soprano are copies, three with significant revisions, based on the manuscripts of existing works preserved in Turin. RV 657 is a special case. Its paper-type, B48, links it to the 1731 compilation, and the hand is that th at of a pr prof ofes essi sion onal al Ve Vene neti tian an co copy pyis ist, t, Sc Scri ribe be 14 14,, wh who o is kn know own n to ha have ve pr prep epar ared ed manuscripts of music by several composers of the time, including Cervetto, Giacomelli, Hasse, Martinelli (Vivaldi’s successor at the Pietà as Maestro de’ concerti), and Porta.22 Everett’s view that it was prepared soon after the other 20

21 22

Dresden, Staatsarchiv, Geh. Kabinett. Loc. 355, Journal der Reise des Kurprinzen Friedrich 263. 3. Th Thee fo four ur wor orks ks by Vi Viva vald ldii we were re ta take ken n ba back ck to Dr Dres esde den n in a Chri Ch rist stia iann von Ro Rom m nac nachh Wi Wien en, f. 26 souvenir volume, today shelfmarked Mus. 2389-O-4. The story is recounted in detail in Michael Talbot, ‘Recovering Vivaldi’s Lost Psalm’, Eighteenth-Century Music, i (2004), 61–77. Paul Everett, ‘Vivaldi’s Italian Copyists’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani, xi (1990), 27–86, at 56–7. I must acknowledge here my indebtedness to extracts from an unpublished essay, ‘The Manuscripts of Vivaldi’s Cantatas’, prepared by Paul Everett in 1995. In particular, Everett’s essa es say y di dist stin ingu guis ishe hess fo forr th thee fi firs rstt ti time me wh what at I de desc scri ribe be in th this is bo book ok as th thee ’1 ’173 731 1 co comp mpil ilat atio ion’ n’ an and d th thee ‘Dresden compilation’. It also suggests for the first time that the Dresden manuscript of RV 657 was not intended originally for inclusion in the group.

. o N 2

2 1 – 4 . p p , 7 J 1 . s u M , B U L S n i d e n i a t n o c 3 3 7 1 . c f o ’ n o i t a l i p m o c n e d s e r D ‘ e h t f o s a t a t n a c e h T 1 . 6 e l b a T

3 1

5 4 6

7

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d n a H

e n n n n e b i e e e n r h h h e t c h t t t h , s , , h + h h h h , t 6 p 4 p p p p n 6 h 6 h , h p p 1 a 4 1 a a a a w 1 p 1 4 a a r r r r r r r r e g e e g g g g o e g e g e a g b b b b b b n i o i o t o i o i o t o t o k i o r t r i r t r t r t r t c u c c u u u u n c u c u c u S a S S a a a a u S a S a S a

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) ) 2 ( 1 ( 2 . 9 . 3 6 8 8 1 / 1 . 0 0 1 1

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) 2 ( 2 . 3 8 1 / 0 1

) 4 ( 6 . 0 9 1 / 0 1

r e p 9 a P B

8 9 4 B B

5 5 9 B B B

9 B

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) ) 2 ( 2 ( 6 7 5 5 6 6

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6 7 6

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b

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172


(Turin) manuscript for a purpose unconnected with Dresden fits the evidence well: only the later autograph alterations to it, resulting in the lowering of its compass at the top end, relate directly to the Dresden compilation. And the inclusion in the Turin score, as afterthoughts, of the modifications subsequently subsequently introduced to the Dresden score (a unique occurrence) provides added proof of the lateness of the conversion. Vivaldi’s use of assistants – the practised Scribe 4 and the inexperienced Scribe 16 – seems to have been motivated by a need to work very quickly. The general principle adopted was that when the music was taken without alteration from fr om an ex exem empl plar ar,, th thee wo work rk wa wass en entr trus uste ted d to a co copy pyis ist. t. Wh When en co comp mpos osit itio iona nall al alte terrations were anticipated, Vivaldi copied the score himself. Thus RV 662 and RV 667, which both required a compression of the vocal compass, are entirely in his han and d. Th Thee sa same me is tru ruee of the alt lto o ca cant ntat ataa RV 67 674 4 up to ba barr 18 of th thee se seco cond nd ar aria ia,, at which point Vivaldi entrusted the copying of the notes to an unidentified assistant. In seven instances (RV 655, 656, 667, 674, 676, 677, and 678) the composer rese re serv rved ed fo forr hi hims msel elff th thee wr writ itin ing g of th thee un unde derl rlai aid d te text xt an and d ot othe herr ve verb rbal al in inst stru ruct ctio ions ns.. This follows a pattern familiar from his sacred vocal music and dramatic music, which was also one widely practised in copying shops, where a senior copyist ofte of ten n to took ok so sole le ch char arge ge of ti titl tles es an and d wo word rds. s. Th Ther eree is pr prob obab ably ly mo more re th than an on onee re reas ason on why Vivaldi chose to add the verbal text himself. First, it provided a convenient opportunity to check the accuracy of the notes as he went through the score. Second, he was undoubtedly proud of the fluency and clarity of his handwriting, whic wh ich, h, at it itss mo most st ca call llig igra raph phic ic (a (ass in th thee ti titl tlee-pa page ge of th thee ‘M ‘Man anch ches este ter’ r’ so sona nata tas) s),, is aesthetically very pleasing and expressive of his artistic personality. Third, and perhap per hapss mo most st imp import ortant ant,, the pre presen sence ce of his han handw dwrit riting ing on a man manusc uscrip riptt provided ‘brand identity’: irrefutable evidence of his authorship and his personal involvement in the preparation of a manuscript. Of th thee fi five ve co cont ntin inuo uo ca cant ntat atas as fo forr so sopr pran ano, o, tw two o (R (RV V 65 655 5 an and d 65 656) 6) ar aree es esse sent ntia iall lly y unchanged from their earlier state. The other three (RV 657, 662, and 667), howe ho weve ver, r, ha have ve ha had d th thei eirr vo voca call li line ne am amen ende ded d so th that at it st stay ayss wi with thin in th thee ra rang ngee b–b''. In RV 662 this is coupled with some light cutting; in RV 657, with rhythmic simplification. simplifica tion. In every case, the bass remains exactly the same; in fact, Vivaldi shows remarkable skill in making the alterations without needing to change it. Thee na Th natu ture re of th thee re revi visi sion onss ca can n be il illu lust stra rate ted d by co comp mpar arin ing g th thre reee ba bars rs ne near ar th thee en end d of the ‘B’ section in the original Turin version of RV 657 with their Dresden counterpart (Example 6.1). RV 674, 676, and 677 – all large-scale continuo cantatas for alto preserved nowhere else – seem to form a coherent subgroup. The literary quality of their texts is higher than average and pays especial attention to the recitative stanzas, none of which is shorter than ten lines. The structure is RARA in each case. All the texts have vivid, dramatic qualities crying out for musical illustration. The collective compass of the three cantatas, a–e'', would have suited the voice of Anna Girò excellently, and one wonders whether she was their original singer. The discussion of individual works that follows is limited to the four cantatas of the Dresden compilation unique to that source.


173

Ex. 6.1 Vivaldi, Geme l’onda che parte dal fonte, RV 657: ‘Deh non partir sì presto’, bars 49–51

Individual Works RV 674: Perfidissimo cor! Iniquo fato! (RARA) The bo The bold ldne ness ss an and d el eloq oque uenc ncee of th this is ca cant ntat ata’ a’ss op open enin ing g re reci cita tati tive ve ha have ve al alre read ady y be been en illustrated in Example 2.1. The first aria, ‘Nel torbido mio petto’, has one of Vivaldi’s ‘obsessive’ basses. It remains in semiquavers practically throughout, and an d th thee se seco cond nd,, th thir ird, d, an and d fo four urth th se semi miqu quav aver erss – a ki kind nd of tr trip iple le up upbe beat at – ar aree ne near arly ly everywhere set to the same note. 23 The result is a clear impression of ostinato treatment, even though only short fragments recur in unaltered shape. Predictably ab ly,, th thee mo mono noli lith thic ic rh rhyt ythm hm of th thee ba bass ss is of offs fset et by a sp sple lend ndid id pl plas asti tici city ty of rh rhyt ythm hm in the vocal part. Here, the keyword is sdegno (‘scorn’), on which Vivaldi lavishes a wealth of rolling melismas. The second recitative is notable for its elegant tonal design. Starting in B flat major, Vivaldi moves sharpwards along the circle of fifths from C minor to F sharp minor (with ellipsis occurring between C minor and D minor, and between E minor and F sharp minor); he then moves back from F sharp minor to D, where he effects an instant shift from major to minor, and ends the movement in G minor, close to his starting point. The second aria, ‘Più amar non spero, no’, is the epitome of Vivaldi’s habit of basing a movement on the smallest imaginable musical particle. Here, this is a rising semitone starting on the weak second or fourth quaver of a 2/4 bar and concluding on the first or second beat. The bass and the voice take turns in treating this motive intensively. A glorious moment arrives at the end of the second period (to which there is no separate tailpiece), where a close paraphrase of the ritornello theme supplies the bass to a vocal line that at various points reinforces for ces the for former mer’s ’s upw upward ard sem semito itonal nal thr thrust ust wit with h par parall allel el mov movem ement ent.. Thi Thiss pass pa ssag agee is sh show own n as Ex Exam ampl plee 6. 6.2. 2. Th Thee ‘B ‘B’’ se sect ctio ion n of th this is ar aria ia ha hass a sp sple lend ndid idly ly rh rheetorical conclusion: a threefold statement of the single word svanì (‘vanished’) set to the semitonal motive and separated by rests.

23

An extract from the bass is quoted as Example 3.5.

174


Ex. 6.2 Vivaldi, Perfidissimo cor! Iniquo fato!, RV 674: ‘Più amar non spero’, bars 38–50

RV 676: Pianti, sospiri e dimandar mercede (RARA) This cantata begins strikingly with a dominant seventh chord, the seventh being placed in the vocal part. Similarly dissonant opening chords are commonplace in inte in tern rnal al re reci cita tati tive ves, s, bu butt th this is is th thee on only ly su such ch ex exam ampl plee fr from om an op open enin ing g re reci cita tati tive ve of a Vivaldi cantata. It heralds the intensely dramatic nature of the work to follow. The ‘A’ section of the first aria, ‘Lusinga è del nocchier’, is dominated by a vigorous but not violent bass line that makes copious use of dotted rhythms. When the voice enters, it soon becomes clear that this rhythm is an illustration of the phrase venticel legger (‘light breeze’). Very soon, the voice applies the same rhythm to a melisma on the ‘l’on-’ of l’onde (the waves), making it clear that the motion of the winds is transferred to the waters. If the ‘A’ section relates how a steersman ( nocchier) is persuaded to set sail because of the apparently favourable weather (a metaphor for a lover’s hopes at the start of a new romantic attachment), the ‘B’ section tells us that, scarcely out of port, he is assailed by strong, dangerous winds. The new situation calls for a different, more vigorous, style of accompaniment, which in Vivaldi’s hands becomes a figure in demisemiquavers resembling an Alberti Bass. Cleverly, Vivaldi does not introduce it immediately, beginning the ‘B’ section as if (as happ ha ppen enss so of ofte ten n in hi hiss ca cant ntat ataa ar aria ias) s) it we were re a ki kind nd of de deve velo lopm pmen entt se sect ctio ion n fo forr th thee


175

Ex. 6.3 Vivaldi, Pianti, sospiri e dimandar mercede, RV 676: ‘Lusinga è del nocchier’, bars 24–9

earlier material. When the demisemiquavers begin, the surprise is total. Example 6.3 shows the end of the ‘A’ section and the start of the ‘B’ section. 24 In the second aria, ‘Cor ingrato, dispietato’, Vivaldi subtly expresses the lover’s indignation at the rebuffs to his advances by employing a ‘stamping’ moti mo tive ve in ev even en qu quav aver ers. s. Wh What at is re rema mark rkab able le an and d ad admi mira rabl blee in Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss te tech chni niqu quee of word-painting is his willingness to go beyond simple pictorialism relating to surface details in order to capture background moods. The most celebrated inst in stan ance ce of th this is in hi hiss mu musi sicc is pe perh rhap apss th thee de depi pict ctio ion n of Ju Judi dith th’s ’s ra raci cing ng he hear artb tbea eatt in

24

In the example, the ‘dotted’ groups (dotted semiquaver plus demisemiquaver) are notated in the source as even semiquavers; the alteration is made by analogy with earlier passages.

176


her aria ‘Veni, veni me sequere fide’ from Juditha triumphans , which, unusually, offe of fers rs an ‘i ‘int nter erpr pret etat atio ion’ n’ on th thee co comp mpos oser er’s ’s pa part rt of a si situ tuat atio ion n no nott de desc scri ribe bed d in th thee 25 text. In th thee pr pres esen entt ar aria ia,, th thee ‘s ‘sta tamp mpin ing’ g’ mo moti tive ve is al alll th thee mo more re ef effe fect ctiv ivee fo forr re refe ferrring obliquely, rather than directly, to the content of the poem. RV 677: Qual per ignoto calle (RARA) This cantata is set to the most interesting poem of any among Vivaldi’s cantatas. Thee te Th text xt is ba base sed d on a si simp mple le si simi mile le,, in wh whic ich h th thee lo love verr is li like kene ned d to a pi pilg lgri rim m tr trav av-elling at night along an unfamiliar path. He is beset by fears, both rational and irrational, and prays for the advent of daylight: the reciprocation of his love. A brief arioso in the first recitative (bars 10–12) introduces us to a ‘lightning’ motive (a rapid scale) in the vocal part and a ‘thunder’ motive (a broken chord moving first up and then down) in the bass. These two motives are remembered and an d re requ quot oted ed in th thee ar aria iass th that at fo foll llow ow.. Th Thee ‘t ‘thu hund nder er’’ mo moti tive ve pe perv rvad ades es th thee ba bass ss pa part rt,, and an d ma make kess pe peri riod odic ic ap appe pear aran ance cess in th thee vo voca call pa part rt,, of th thee fi firs rstt ar aria ia,, ‘Q ‘Que uell pa pass ssag agie ierr son io’. Arguably, the recurrence is here musically rather than textually motivated, for the placid ‘Andante’ tempo makes the rising and falling of the motive more graceful than threatening. In the second, faster aria, ‘Qual dopo lampi e turbini’, the significance of the motives is most definitely textual as well as musical: the lampi (‘flashes of lightning’) are represented, as before, by scales, though now both falling and rising, while the turbini (‘squalls’) become rapid semiquaver oscillations between two notes. There is an interesting oddity in the text of this aria. Its two semistrophes each consist of six lines: five settenari sdruccioli plus one settenario tronco . The only rhyme present is the ‘key’ rhyme linking the two final lines. lines . However, this otherwise perfect symmetry is contradicted by the imagery of the text. The first four line li ness of th thee fi firs rstt se semi mist stro roph phee de deal al wi with th th thee ho horr rror orss of th thee ni nigh ght; t; th thee jo joys ys of da dayt ytim imee emerge in the fifth line and continue without interruption into the second semistrophe. A composer setting the text has, therefore, to recognize the dual nature of the first semistrophe and respect the bridge that its last two lines form to the second semistrophe. Qual dopo lampi e turbini appar l’Aurora fulgida a dissipar le tenebre d’oscura notte orribile e il pellegrino timido ritorna a consolar;

Just as, after lightning and squalls, the bright dawn appears, banishing the gloom of a dark and dreadful night, and returning to cheer the timid pilgrim;

così men fiero e rigido, se volgi a me l’amabile ciglio, ridente e placido, pieno d’amor, di giubilo, scordato di mie lacrime, benedirò il penar.

so, too, if the adorable eyes of my beloved turn once more to me and become less hostile and unyielding, happy, calm, full of love and rejoicing, forgetting all my tears, I will bless my former suffering.

25

Sacred red Vo Vocal cal Mu Musi sicc of An Anto toni nioo Vi Viva vald ldii, pp Seee th Se thee di disc scus ussi sion on of th this is ar aria ia in Ta Talb lbot ot,, The Sac pp.. 43 430– 0–31 31..


177

Ex. 6.4 Vivaldi, Qual per ignoto calle, RV 677: ‘Qual dopo lampi e turbini’, bars 10–18

Vivaldi’s solution is exemplary. When the fifth line is reached, the ‘lightning’ and ‘squall’ figures disappear, being replaced by a simple bass motive (quaver rest, quaver, crotchet) that expresses the hesitancy of timido. This motive carries over into the ‘B’ section. Example 6.4 shows the point of transition during the first vocal section. It is interesting that this aria, like the one preceding it, has no detached tailpiece following the second vocal period. This ‘modern’ feature has the effect of broadening the sweep of both movements. ‘Qual dopo lampi e turbini’ shows Vivaldi at the height of his powers: alert to the nuances of the text and displaying genius (no weaker word is fitting) in the invention and controlled development of memorable motives. Sinc Si ncee an anot othe herr se sett ttin ing g of th thee sa same me te text xt ex exis ists ts,, a co comp mpar aris ison on is in or orde der. r. Th Thee so sole le source for the second, anonymous setting is a volume in the British Library contai con tainin ning g tw twent enty-f y-four our ite items: ms: twe twenty nty-on -onee can cantat tatas as (tw (two o wit with h ins instru trume ments nts), ), a due duet, t, an ar aria ia,, an and d an in inco comp mple lete te mo move veme ment nt..26 Th Thee ca cant ntat atas as co comp mpri rise se si six x by Ha Hass sse, e, th thre reee by A. Scarlatti, two each by Arrigoni, G. Bononcini, and Mancini, and single examples by Bigaglia, D’Astorga, Lotti, and Porpora. Of the two unattributed cantatas, one is by Gasparini. This leaves unclaimed the cantata Qual per ignoto calle, wh whic ich h oc occu cupi pies es ff ff.. 63 63–7 –70. 0. Li Like ke te ten n ot othe herr it item emss in th thee co coll llec ecti tion on,, it is wr writ itte ten n 26

London, British Library, Add. Ms. 4,213.

178


in a hand, probably Neapolitan, identified by Josephine Wright as that of ‘Scribe A’.27 In the volume, cantatas by a named composer are invariably placed consecutively. tive ly. Since Qu preced ceded ed and fol follow lowed ed by can canta tatas tas att attri ribut buted ed Qual al pe perr ig igno noto to ca call llee is pre to Carlo Arrigoni, both similarly for alto and copied out by ‘Scribe A’, his poss po ssib ible le au auth thor orsh ship ip is th thee fi firs rstt we ne need ed to ex exam amin ine. e.28 Ar Arrig rigoni oni (16 (1697– 97–174 1744) 4) wa wass a Florentine lutenist, tenor, and composer. From 1731 to 1736 he worked in Lond Lo ndon on,, wh wher ere, e, in 17 1732 32,, he pu publ blis ishe hed d a se sett of te ten n Can John hn Wa Walt lter er Cantat tatee da cam camera era. Jo Hill’s article on him in the New Grove (2001) is uncomplimentary, describing him as a composer of ‘modest ability’ and perceiving a lack of ‘directional flow’ in his music. The two Arrigoni cantatas in the same volume and the ten published ones provide useful comparators. The anonymous cantata certainly possesses notational features linking it to his practice. Both of its recitatives end with an effective 2/4 ba bar: r: th that at is is,, a bar in whi hich ch,, aft fter er the con oncl clus usiion of th thee mus usic ic on th thee sec econ ond d beat, no minim rest is appended in order to ‘complete’ the 4/4 bar. This rather unusual manner of notation is encountered often in Arrigoni’s cantatas. Some of the appoggiaturas, which include several rising from below, are fully written out: this is a feature that Arrigoni shares with Hasse. The cut time (2/2) of the second aria of Qual per ignoto calle is encountered many times in Arrigoni’s cantatas. It is a typically Neapolitan feature originating originating from church music but successfully tran tr ansf sfer erre red d to se secu cula larr mu musi sicc in a galant ve vein in (V (Viv ival aldi di em empl ploy oyss cu cutt ti time me ve very ry ra rare rely ly indeed, and then mostly in borrowed movements). movements). Styli Sty listi sticc fea featur tures es lin linkin king g the ano anonym nymous ous can cantat tataa to Ar Arrig rigoni oni inc includ ludee beg beginn inning ing the second vocal section exactly as the first, making extensive use of the Trommelbaß and fitting three syllables to a group of four semiquavers in the pattern 1 + 2 + 1. The evidence is not quite strong enough for the cantata to be assigned with cert ce rtai aint nty y to Ar Arri rigo goni ni,, bu butt it ce cert rtai ainl nly y fa favo vour urss hi hiss au auth thor orsh ship ip.. Wi With th th this is pr prov ovis iso, o, th thee remaining discussion will assume that he was indeed the composer. It is obvious from a first glance that Arrigoni’s aesthetic, like that of Leo in T’intendo, sì, mio cor , is poles apart from Vivaldi’s. The emphasis is on vocal display, not expression of the passions. Consequently, word-painting and moodpainting are optional extras – not part of the essence of the work. The major-key brightness of the two arias is not a response to the character of the text but simply the ‘default’ choice of the period among up-and-coming composers. As Sir John Hawk Ha wkin inss la lame ment nted ed in hi hiss pr pref efac acee to th thee se seco cond nd ed edit itio ion n (1 (178 788) 8) of Wi Will llia iam m Bo Boyc yce’ e’ss Cathedral Music, ‘the sweet modulation of the keys with the minor third’ had almost become become a thing of the past. Vivaldi Vivaldi was born too early to to lose interest interest altogether in minor keys (although the incidence of minor-key works decreases somewhat in his later music), but Arrigoni, almost a whole generation younger, exemplifies perfectly the new taste.

27 28

Wright, ‘The Secular Cantatas of Francesco Mancini’, pp. 85–9. Perhaps significantly, the succeeding cantata, Ti sento, Amor, ti sento (ff. 71–6), has a vocal compass (g–d’’) identical with that of the anonymous Qual per ignoto calle.


179

Ex. 6.5 6.5 Carlo Arigo Arigoni ni (?), (?), Qual per ignoto calle: ‘Qual dopo lampi e folgori’, opening

Example 6.5 shows the opening of Arrigoni’s second aria, which has no initial ritornello. The theme resembles the soggetto of a fugue in the strict style, but its contrapuntal promise evaporates soon enough. For lampi and folgori (replacing the turbini of Vivaldi’s text) we have the tamest, most fleeting word-painting. The chosen way of representing timido – starting with repeated notes and graduatin at ing g to se semi mito tone nes, s, th then ence ce to to tone ness an and d wi wide derr in inte terv rval alss – is fi fine ne as a co comp mpos osit itio iona nall conceit: the only problem is that the result is so ineffectual in musical terms. Arrig igon onii dr driift fts: s: he se seem emss to be un unab ablle to tak akee ho hold ld of a st stro rong ng ide deaa and ru run n with it. In contrast, Vivaldi rarely drifts: he may choose to play with a single chord interminably, milking milking it for its sonority, but he always keeps sight of his next goal.

180


RV 678: All’ombra di sospetto (RARA) This cantata with a single obbligato instrument is the lone successor to RV 680. Itss ch It choi oice ce of pa part rtne neri ring ng in inst stru rume ment nt,, th thee tr tran ansv sver erse se fl flut ute, e, ma make kess it pe perh rhap apss th thee mo most st endearing of Vivaldi’s cantatas. cantatas. Around 1730 the flute was just entering the most glorious period of its entire history. Its soft tone, capacity for dynamic shading, and agility made it the perfect vehicle for civilized, galant music-making music-making,, while its portability and kindness to the player’s posture and facial expression made it the ideal instrument for a gentleman. Frederick the Great’s choice was not accidental. Vivaldi was the earliest major composer in Italy to write obbligato parts for the flute – some appear in his chamber concertos of the mid-1710s – and his Op. 10 (Amsterdam, 1729) was the first-ever published collection to consist entirely of concertos for flute and strings.29 Vivaldi Viva ldi will have known that the Saxon Hofkapelle boasted three excellent flautists, all of them also active as composers: Pierre Gabriel Buffardin, Johann Joachim Quantz, and Johann Martin Blochwitz. It is idle, in our present state of know kn owle ledg dge, e, to sp spec ecul ulat atee on wh whic ich h pa part rtic icul ular ar fl flau auti tist st,, if an any, y, he ha had d in mi mind nd fo forr th thee cantata’s baptism. Although Quantz knew Vivaldi’s music well and had copied some of it out for Pisendel, Vivaldi may not have known him personally – even Quan Qu antz tz’s ’s au auto tobi biog ogra raph phy y do does es no nott cl clai aim m th that at th thee tw two o me men n ca came me in into to di dire rect ct co cont ntac act. t. As the senior flautist, Buffardin probably had priority in any performance at court. (But, as observed earlier, there is no sign that RV 678 ever entered the active repertory of the Hofkapelle.) All’ombra di sospetto sospetto is all about arias. Its two recitatives are merely efficient, and the first is exceedingly short: four lines of poetry occupying five bars. From its opening note, the first aria, ‘Avvezzo non è il core’, is a hymn of praise to the galant style. It oozes slides, appoggiaturas, Lombardic rhythms, trills, and fussy ornaments. The superabundance of these features is there for a special purpose – to illustrate the words finti vezzi (‘false charms’) and, later on, (‘flattering’) g’) – although one suspects Vivaldi of revelling in them for lusinghiero (‘flatterin their own sake. The ornate style of writing for the flute resembles very strongly that of Pietro Locatelli in his Op. 2 sonatas (1732). The point is not that Vivaldi imitated Locatelli, or the reverse, but that both composers appreciated around the same time the way in which a flute could embody the galant aesthetic more successfully than a violin, their own instrument, ever could. The way in which Vivaldi gradually draws the partners, voice and flute, into co-operation is as methodical as in RV 680. The first vocal period (bars 7–11) is entrusted to the sopr so pran ano o al alon one. e. Th Thee se seco cond nd be begi gins ns wi with th th thee vo voic icee al alon onee (b (bar arss 13 13–1 –14) 4);; in ba barr 15 th thee flute joins in, discreetly accompanying; in bar 17 the two enter into an imitative seq eque uen nce ce;; in bar 20 the hey y mov ovee int nto o pa para rall lleel six ixth ths, s, in the man ann ner of a lo love ve du dueet, to prepare for the cadence in bar 24. The third vocal period is constructed similarly. Its five-stage plan is: voice alone – imitation – ritornello for flute – voice alone – para pa rall llel el mo moti tion on.. Ex Exam ampl plee 6. 6.6 6 sh show owss th thee fi firs rstt ei eigh ghtt ba bars rs of th thee se seco cond nd vo voca call pe peri riod od..

29

On Vivaldi’s cultivation of the flute and recorder, see Federico Maria Sardelli, La musica per flauto di Antonio Vivaldi, Florence: Olschki, 2000.


Ex. 6.6 Vivaldi, All’ombra di sospetto, RV 678: ‘Avvezzo non è il core’, bars 13–20

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182


Ex. 6.6 Vivaldi, All’ombra di sospetto, RV 678: cont.

The br The bris isk k se seco cond nd ar aria ia,, ‘M ‘Men enti titi ti co cont nten enti ti’, ’, is a to touc uch h di disa sapp ppoi oint ntin ing. g. Be Bein ing g in th thee same key as the first, it goes over much of the same ground, and its phrase structure and rhythm are perhaps a little too four-square. However, the fluent interaction between the upper parts and the methodical development of the ideas are as good go od as be befo fore re.. Th Thee st stro rong ng pr pres esen ence ce of tr trip iple lett se semi miqu quav aver erss (a (all ll bu butt ab abse sent nt fr from om th thee first aria) injects an attractive new element.

Postscript: The Spurious Works The work-list of every major composer of cantatas from Vivaldi’s period has its due quota of spurious compositions. Among the main musical genres, cantatas were especially liable to anonymous or misattributed transmission. As Chapter 1 showed, cantatas circulated by Vivaldi’s time almost entirely in manuscript; the publications that in the case of the sonata and concerto provided, up to a point, a deterrent to wilful misattribution and a means of correcting accidental error were thin on the ground (not that publication was in itself proof of authenticity). Moreover, cantatas circulated singly rather than in groups. They tended to be collected not in volumes dedicated to music by a single composer but in ones holding a variety of works associated with a single singer or patron – or even merely whatever individual pieces a music-lover searching for cantatas was able to obtain. Amon Am ong g su such ch vo volu lume mess on onee ma may y di dist stin ingu guis ish h be betw twee een n al albu bums ms,, in into to wh whic ich h th thee wo work rkss are cop copied ied con consec secuti utivel vely, y, and bin binder der’s ’s col collec lectio tions, ns, in wh which ich the sep separa arate te fas fascic cicles les containing each work are ordered by the collector and then bound. Missing and erroneous attributions attributions are equally common in the two types. Discussi Disc ussions ons of autho authorshi rship p conce concerning rning earl early y eigh eighteen teenth-c th-centur entury y musi musicc in manus ma nuscri cript pt pro probab bably ly und unders erstat tatee the rôl rôlee of del delibe iberat ratee fal falsif sifica icatio tion n by pro profes fessio sional nal copyists. The case of RV 795 and 803 – sacred works by Vivaldi marketed under the name of Galuppi – may be more typical than we realize. Buyers, especially foreigners who were not professional musicians, were not in a strong position to challenge attributions made by copyists. This was especially true of the cantata genre, where there was an exceptionally high degree of conformity, among poets and composers, to established norms, and therefore less opportunity to use a simple rule of thumb (for example, a preference for a given movement-plan) for


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the determination of authorship. Asked by a customer to supply a given number of ca cant ntat atas as by a sp spec ecif ifie ied d co comp mpos oser er,, co copy pyin ing g sh shop opss pr prob obab ably ly ac acte ted d ho hone nest stly ly wh when en their stocks permitted, but when they ran short, they must often have substituted the desired name surreptitiously. In any case, among ordinary music-lovers authorship was less of a ‘big issue’ in the eighteenth century than it has become since the nineteenth century. Pieces were either liked or disliked, irrespective irrespective of whose name stood at the head of the score. So copyists could rest assured that, unle un less ss th thei eirr cu cust stom omer er wa wass a pr prof ofes essi sion onal al mu musi sici cian an or a co conn nnoi oiss sseu eurr (a (and nd pr prob obab ably ly not even then), their guilty secret would remain safe. 30 Other misattributions were more innocent, arising from an attempt to provide an author for an anonymous work existing alongside attributed works, the name of wh whos osee co comp mpos oser er co coul uld d be ap appr prop opri riat ated ed.. In at attr trib ibut utin ing g th thee an anon onym ymou ouss se sett ttin ing g of Qual per ignoto calle to Arrigoni initially on the basis of the two cantatas surrounding it, I acted in exactly the same way as countless collectors and librarians have done before me. But whereas I sought to strengthen the attribution attribution by considering evidence of other kinds, bibliographical and stylistic, most people in the same position have not. The Anhang of the Ryom catalogue is so large precisely because the anonymous sacred works in Vivaldi’s collection collection were once widely believed to be his – simply by virtue of being contained in the same volumes as ones genuinely composed by him. Before examining each of the four continuo cantatas that I believe to be misa mi satt ttri ribu bute ted d in th thei eirr or orig igin inal al so sour urce cess to Vi Viva vald ldi, i, it wi will ll be us usef eful ul to co cons nsid ider er wh what at they th ey wo woul uld d lo look ok li like ke if ge genu nuin ine. e. Th Thee so sour urce cess al alll da date te fr from om ar arou ound nd 17 1710 10,, an and d th ther ereefore cannot be expected to transmit works of the same level of maturity as the Mantuan group or the slightly earlier RV 681 and (possibly) RV 796. Onee wo On woul uld d ex expe pect ct a Vi Viva vald ldii ca cant ntat ataa of c. c.17 1710 10 – ro roug ughl hly y co cont ntem empo pora rary ry wi with th th thee Op.. 2 vi Op viol olin in so sona nata tass – to be co comp mpac actt in it itss di dime mens nsio ions ns an and d ve very ry mo mode dera rate te in it itss us usee of fioritura. There would be a higher incidence of contrapuntal interaction betw be twee een n th thee vo voic icee an and d th thee ba bass ss th than an in hi hiss la late terr ca cant ntat atas as.. Th Thee un unde derl rlai aid d te text xt wo woul uld d be org organi anized zed rat rather her inf inform ormall ally, y, wi with th muc much h rep repeti etitio tion n of phr phrase asess and som somee jumbling (as in the early sacred vocal works). The ‘A’ section would always contain two vocal periods, although the ritornello connecting them would probably abl y be bri brief. ef. Da Dance nce-li -like ke rhy rhythm thmss (si (sicil cilian iana, a, gig giga, a, gav gavott otta, a, etc etc.) .) wo would uld be favoured. The harmony would use Neapolitan Sixths and diminished sevenths abundantly. The first cantata, Prendea con man di latte , RV 753, was already in 1985 the subject of an article by Colin Timms that questions its authenticity. 31 Its sole sour so urce ce is a vo volu lume me in th thee Bo Bodl dlei eian an Li Libr brar ary, y, Ox Oxfo ford rd,, wh whic ich h co cont ntai ains ns an as asso sort rtme ment nt of cantatas and duets ascribed to sixteen composers active either side of 1700. 32 The hand that attributed RV 753 to Vivaldi (its heading is ‘Cantata d’Antonio Vivaldi’) penned the ascriptions of fifteen further cantatas, whose authors are 30

31 32

I discuss the rise of concern with authorship author ship in the nineteenth century in ‘The Work-Concept Work- Concept and Composer-Centredness’, in Michael Talbot (ed.), The Musical Work: Reality or Invention?, Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2000, pp. 168–86. Timms, ‘ “Prendea con man di latte”: a Vivaldi Spuriosity?’. Oxford, Bodleian Library, Mus. Sch. D. 223; the cantata appears on pp. 80–86.

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named as Ariosti (twice), Benati, Bononcini (three times), Caldara (twice), Ceruta, Mancia, Mancini, A. Scarlatti (twice), Steffani, Steffan i, and Stradella. The covers of the volume bear the name of its earliest known owner, Isabella Aubert, and a date, 1711. The title written inside confirms Isabella’s ownership but gives the volume the date of 1714. Timms suggests that the discrepancy arose when an old binding was used for newly acquired music. 33 Isabella Aubert was possibly related to John Aubert, a French musician in the service of Ann of Denmark in London. A later owner was the organist and composer Raphael Courteville (c.1690–1772). A date of composition before 1711 would accord very easily with the fact that the text of RV 753 was also set by Francesco Bartolomeo Conti, Conti, who – perhaps not coincidentally – visited London on at least two occasions during the first decade of the eighteenth century. (Conti’s birth date, 1682, is quite late, but we know that he was already writing cantatas by 1706.) 34 As an argument against Vivaldi’s authorship, Timms mentions the tonal pove po vert rty y of th thee ca cant ntat ata. a. Th Thee tw two o re reci cita tati tive vess bo both th st star artt an and d fi fini nish sh in th thee sa same me ke key y (C minor and G minor, respectively). Both arias are in C minor, and the first, by creating a ‘zero’ progression after the preceding recitative, violates Vivaldi’s normal tonal principles. Internal modulation is minimal in all movements. Other counter-indications counter-indications highlighted by Timms are the extreme concision of all the movements and the short-winded short-windedness ness of the phrases. Indeed, there are no meli me lism smat atic ic ph phra rase sess ex exte tend ndin ing g fu furt rthe herr th than an th thre reee no note tess in th thee wh whol olee of th thee wo work rk.. At a more technical level, one could raise the fact that the ‘A’ sections of both arias consist only of a single vocal period, a sure sign of early date. The first aria emplo em ploys ys a Devise – very fashionable around 1700 but not employed in any known Vivaldi cantata. The harmony is bland throughout and includes some extended passages in parallel motion (such as bars 46–8 in the second aria) that seem at odds with Vivaldi’s habit of making the bass relatively independent in contrapuntal and melodic respects. Not a whiff of Vivaldi’s idiolect emerges from this insipid cantata. canta ta. Because of the numerous uncharacteristic features in it, one is probably safe to exclude it from the canon of his works. The three cantatas RV 672, 673, and 675, all for alto and continuo, are no longer regarded as authentic works by the community of Vivaldi scholars, although – irritatingly – they are still occasionally performed from modern editions under his name. 35 They are preserved in the same hand in the same anthology: Ms. 772 of the Conservatorio Statale di Musica ‘Luigi Cherubini’, Florence.36 All three copies identify the composer simply as ‘Vivaldi’. The other compos com posers ers rep repres resent ented ed (at lea least st by nam name) e) inc includ ludee Alb Albino inoni, ni, Al Aldro drovan vandin dini, i,

33 34 35 36

Timms, ‘ “Prendea con man di latte” ’, p. 65. Hermine Weigel Williams, Francesco Bartolomeo Conti: His Life and Music, Aldershot: Ashgate, 1999, pp. 104–5. See Chapter 1, pp. 22–3. The anthology comprises comprises two volumes. The three cantatas are nos. 11 (RV 675), 13 (RV 673), and 14 (RV 672) in the second volume.


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Ex. 6.7 Filli, di gioia vuoi farmi morir, RV 672: opening

Benati, Bononcini, Pistocchi, Pistocchi, Sabadini, and Tosi. Once again, the date of compilation appears to be close to 1710. Common stylistic traits suggest that the composer of the three cantatas, whatever his true identity, is the same person. All employ for the arias a rigidly quadratic phrase structure, which is occasionally disguised by overlapping, so that a new phrase begins in the final bar of its predecessor. The opening of RV 672, Filli, di gioia vuoi farmi morir , shown as Example 6.7, illustrates the point. Melisma is used in the three cantatas almost as sparingly as in RV 753. Harmonic asperities are not shunned. RV 673, Ingrata Lidia, ha vinto il tuo rigore , opens with a 7-4-2 chord (bolder than anything Vivaldi ever attempted at the start of a work), while RV 672 even takes a leaf out of Vivaldi’s book by adding a ninth to the diminished seventh opening its second recitative. A concordance not mentioned, to my knowledge, in previous literature may hold the vital clue to the authorship of RV 673 and, by extension, of all three cantatas. Giovanni Bononcini’s Bononcini’s setting of the same text was mentioned earlier. 37 But there is also a version of RV 673, transposed to A flat major for soprano, in Berlin.38 This manuscript is attributed to Giuseppe Boniventi. 37 38

See Chapter 3, p. 71. Berlin, Staatsbibliothek ‘Preußischer Kulturbesitz’, Mus. ms. 30266, pp. 47–56. The bass of the Berlin version is a little more elaborate in places than that of the Florence version, suggesting

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Bonive Boni vent ntii re rema main inss a sh shad adow owy y fi figu gure re.. He wa wass bo born rn,, pr prob obab ably ly in Ve Veni nice ce,, in 16 1670 70 or slightly later, and came to the public’s attention as a composer of operas in 1690. In 1712 he became Kapellmeister to Margrave Karl III Wilhelm of Baden-Durlach, although he returned permanently to Italy in 1717. Vivaldi collaborated with him, as we saw, on Filippo, re di Macedonia in 1721. His last known opera, Bertarido, re dei Longobardi , dates from 1727, at which point he fades into total obscurity. Only one other cantata by Boniventi is known: the continuo cantata for alto Infelice Dorinda.39 The present state of knowledge does not allow one to assert that Ingrata Lidia conforms to his style, but the old-fashioned features present in all three cantatas make him a far more likely candidate than Vivaldi. Thee ar Th aria ia in F mi mino norr wi with th wh whic ich h RV 67 672 2 op open ens, s, il illu lust stra rate ted d in Ex Exam ampl plee 6. 6.7, 7, en ends ds itss ‘B it ‘B’’ se sect ctio ion n wi with th a ca cade denc ncee in th thee su supe pert rton onic ic,, G mi mino nor. r. Th This is is an ac actt of bo bold ldne ness ss (or crudity?) foreign to Vivaldi. The ‘A’ section of the same aria consists of only onee vo on voca call pe peri riod od;; th that at of th thee se seco cond nd ar aria ia ha hass a fi firs rstt vo voca call pe peri riod od ma mark rked ed fo forr re repe peat at.. Neither feature occurs in Vivaldi’s continuo cantatas. In RV 673, the strongly deviant features in relation to Vivaldi’s style all occur in the second aria. They are (a) the single vocal period in the ‘A’ section; (b) the appearance of a Devise; and (c) the commencement by the alto of the ‘B’ section over ov er th thee fi fina nall no note te of th thee ri rito torn rnel ello lo en endi ding ng th thee ‘A ‘A’’ se sect ctio ion n (V (Viv ival aldi di pr pref efer erss to ke keep ep the ‘A’ and ‘B’ sections discrete). RV 675, Piango, gemo, sospiro e peno, employs a strict basso ostinato in its firs fi rstt ar aria ia.. Th Thee ‘A ‘A’’ se sect ctio ion n is fo form rmed ed fr from om fo four ur st stat atem emen ents ts of th thee fo four ur-b -bar ar th them emee (i (in n the familiar lamento design), framed by single ritornello statements of the same theme; the ‘B’ section contains another four statements, transposed transposed to the dominant. This formula is exactly the same (except for the number of repetitions) as that used by Albinoni in ‘Pianger lungi dal nume che s’ama’, the final aria of Lontananza crudel (Op. 4 no. 5). It suggests the late seventeenth century rather than th an th thee pe peri riod od (n (not ot mu much ch be befo fore re 17 1705 05)) of Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss fi firs rstt at atte temp mpts ts at co comp mpos osit itio ion. n. Example 6.8 shows the first two, not very imaginative, vocal phrases over this bass. There is an ironic twist to the story of this aria. In 1966 Bernhard Paumgartner Paumgartner proposed it as the model for J. S. Bach’s great chorus ‘Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen’ (from the homonymous cantata, BWV 12), of which the ‘Crucifixu ‘Crucifixus’ s’ of the B minor Mass is an elaborated contrafactum. His theory stemmed from similarities in the openings of their texts ( Piango/Weinen, gemo/Klagen, sospiro/ Sorgen, (e) peno/Zagen) and in their common employment, in 3/2 metre, of a

39

partial recomposition recomposition either at the time of the transposition or independently. independently. Which version is the earlier is impossible to judge on the basis of the two manuscripts alone. What appears to be a later lat er cop copy y of the Be Berli rlin n ve versi rsion on is pre preser serve ved d in Bru Brusse ssels, ls, Bib Biblio liothè thèqu quee du Co Conse nserva rvatoi toire, re, 15. 15.153 153.. Venice, Biblioteca Querini-Stampalia, Miscellanea Ms. 1128, ff. 40–3. The parallelism between the openings ‘Ingrata Lidia’ and ‘Infelice Dorinda’ makes one wonder whether the two cantatas belonged to the same cycle. Johann Sigismund Kusser’s commonplace book in Yale University, Beinecke Rare Books and Manuscript Library, Osborn Music MS. 16, lists (p. 184) a further Ferm rmaa pur l’ l’in incau cauto to vot votoo (wit continu con tinuo o cant cantata ata attr attribut ibuted ed to Boni Bonivent venti, i, Fe (with h than thanks ks to Rash Rashid-S id-Sasch aschaa Pegah for informing me).


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Ex. 6.8 Piango, gemo sospiro e peno, RV 675: bars 9–16

passus duriusculus duriusculus articulated in crotchets over four bars as an ostinato theme. 40 The problem with the claim is that not only Bach himself but also his librettist, Salomo Franck, would have had to be familiar with this very obscure piece in order to unite the textual parallelism with the musical one. Since both the segmented treatment of the tetrameter (an ottonario in Italian terms) and the use of the passus duriusculus for a ‘chaconne’ bass were commonplace, it is hardly necessary to look beyond coincidence. Recent Bach scholarship tends to reject the theory.41 Thee re Th rest st of RV 67 675 5 re rema main inss si simi mila larl rly y re remo mote te fr from om Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss mu musi sica call la lang ngua uage ge.. Its second aria reintroduces the passus duriusculus , this time continued freely. In its melodic line a few notes échappées , uncharacteristic of early Vivaldi, appear before cadences.

40 41

Bernhard Paumgartner, ‘Zum “Crucifixus” der H-moll-Messe J. S. Bachs’, Österreichische Musikzeitschrift , xxi (1966), 500–3. John Butt ( Bach Mass in B Minor, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 54) states: ‘It is perhaps foolish to look for a single model’.

CHAPTER SEVEN

Vivaldi’s Cantatas in Perspective

The Cantata within Vivaldi’s Oeuvre The cantata stands a little apart from the other domains that Vivaldi cultivated. One symptom of this is the rarity with which the material of his cantatas – and, abov ab ovee al all, l, of hi hiss co cont ntin inuo uo ca cant ntat atas as – re recu curs rs in hi hiss wo work rkss be belo long ngin ing g to ot othe herr ge genr nres es.. Whereas a slow movement of a violin sonata sona ta may pop up as that of a concerto, or the theme of a concerto ritornello reappear in an operatic aria, such specific links involving themes in the fullest sense (as opposed to motives and figures) are hardly ever encountered between his cantatas and his other music. Since Vivaldi was in general such an inveterate self-borrower, self-borrower, we need to consider why. Part of the reason lies in simple statistics. The great majority of Vivaldi’s cantatas are for voice and continuo. Vivaldi began to compose them in quantity (dur (d urin ing g th thee Ma Mant ntua ua ye year ars) s) at a po poin intt wh when en co cont ntin inuo uo ar aria iass we were re be begi ginn nnin ing g to di disa sapppearr ent pea entire irely ly fro from m his (an (and d oth other er com compos poser’ er’s) s) ope operas ras.. The opp opport ortuni unity ty for exchange in bulk between cantata arias and operatic arias was therefore lost. In any case, Vivaldi had developed a sensitivity for the text–music relationship relationship that prevented him from making such exchanges too freely. Most cantata aria texts differ from most operatic aria texts in style and content. The elegiac, pastorally tinged tone of a typical cantata aria corresponds to that of only a very small subtype of operatic aria. It is significant that in those instances where there has been exchange of material between the cantata and another domain, the cantata text is either borrowed from that domain (as in the first aria of RV 663) or the domain is instrumental (as in the second aria of RV 682). Closee them Clos thematic atic affi affiniti nities es betw between een Viva Vivaldi’ ldi’ss conti continuo nuo canta cantatas tas and ‘sol ‘solo’ o’ sonatas are minimal. There are of course remoter affinities based on common phrase structure or harmonic progression, but one would have expected these in any case. The composer seems to have respected to an extraordinary degree Mattheson’s injunction to keep vocal and instrumental styles separate. Two Vivaldi sonatas, RV 2 for violin and RV 53 for oboe, show the influence of the cantata in an unexpected way: by prefacing the opening slow movement with a continuo ritornello – something very unusual for that genre. A handful of concertos do likewise in their central slow movement. The world of Vivaldi’s cantatas is therefore surprisingly surprisingly self-contained. But it is far from narrow. Within it, one discovers by turns cantatas that are simple or complex; easy or difficult; concise or expansive; cool or impassioned; insipid or inspired. The vast difference in quality between a masterpiece such as RV 677

VIVALDI’S CANTATAS IN PERSPECTIVE

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and a pot-boiler such as RV 664 has several possible causes. One is certainly the rush to meet deadlines. Some of the cantatas surviving in composition manuscripts already betray their ephemerality through a chaotic appearance, the result of haste, while others, more neatly presented, suggest greater calmness and reflection in the act of composition. The degree of stimulation Vivaldi received from the text would also have varied. It was not necessarily the best poetry, in conven con ventio tional nal li liter terary ary ter terms, ms, tha thatt ins inspir pired ed him him,, but the mos mostt pic pictur turesq esque ue – containing the vital keywords capable of firing his musical imagination. imagination. Finally, the qualities, not only vocal but also dramatic, of the singer must have played an important part. It is no accident that the most difficult among the cantatas contain a di disp spro ropo port rtio iona nate tely ly hi high gh nu numb mber er of th thee mo most st su succ cces essf sful ul.. In a nu nuts tshe hell ll:: to el elic icit it th thee best from Vivaldi, one needed a relaxed schedule, a vivid text, and a superlative singer. It is a little meaningless to say that the best of Vivaldi’s cantatas are the equal of his best sonatas and concertos, since the canons by which one has to judge are so different. A sonata is ‘pure’ music, while a cantata is ‘applied’ music. It is not enou en ough gh fo forr a ca cant ntat ataa to be me melo lodi diou ous, s, at attr trac acti tive vely ly ha harm rmon oniz ized ed,, an and d we well ll constructed: it also has to express something lying beyond the sphere of music. A better comparison can be made with Vivaldi’s motets. Here, too, one notes the uneven quality and the similar reasons that cause it. Excellent though some of the motets mot ets and introduzioni are re,, eve ven n th thee be besst of th them em – In furore iustissimae irae, RV 626, and Nulla in mundo pax sincera, RV 630, are two examples – fail to achieve the psychological penetration of a cantata such as Qual per ignoto calle. If the mote mo tets ts ar aree mo more re fr freq eque uent ntly ly he hear ard d in mo mode dern rn pe perf rfor orma manc ncee th than an th thee ca cant ntat atas as,, th this is is beca be caus usee of th thee ge gene nera rall mo mode dern rn bi bias as to towa ward rdss or orch ches estr tral al te text xtur ures es an and d th thee ‘a ‘aur ura’ a’ th that at any sacred work enjoys (in Vivaldi’s case amplified by the prestige of his choral works, to which they are ancillary). How do Vivaldi’s best cantatas rank alongside those of his major contemporaries? In most instances, one can find some quality or other in which he plainly comes off second-best. He has neither the grand sweep nor the human warmth of Handel. He lacks the contrapuntal finesse of Stradella and Scarlatti. He does not have the zest for quirky experimentation experimentation of Gasparini or Marcello. The smoothness of Bononcini and Hasse eludes him. He does not begin to approach the tunefulness of Albinoni. What he does possess in greater measure than most of them, however, is a superb command of musical imagery, a tight control of musical flow, and a real gift for the intensive treatment of musical material – the incipient thematische Arbeit accurately perceived by Wörner. His fondness for thematic economy is, of course, double-edged: when the material is strong, the piece springs to life; when it is weak, its repetition only drags the music down. The mention of Albinoni brings one back to the polar opposition of the two great Venetians – so often misleadingly ‘twinned’ – on which Schmitz insisted. Thee qu Th quot otat atio ion, n, as Ex Exam ampl plee 7. 7.1, 1, of th thee op open enin ing g of an ea earl rly y ca cant ntat ataa by Al Albi bino noni ni wi will ll demonstrate a style of melody that Vivaldi could easily have imitated but chose not to cultivate.1 It is unproductive to break down such a melody into constituent 1

Allor che il il mondo in letargo profondo profondo (Ostiglia, Biblioteca Greggiati Mss. Musiche B 260, pp. 35–42). This cantata, which is preserved anonymously within a group of cantatas ascribed to

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Ex. 7.1 [Albinoni], Allor che il mondo in letargo profondo : ‘Vaghe stelle, deh venite’, opening

Albinoni (or ascribable to him on the basis of concordances), is surely by him as well, since it bears clear marks of his idiolect.


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motives: one appreciates it, rather, as an unbroken, sinuous line, of which one takes the full measure only when it is completed. The melody flows effortlessly from one peak to another, and the three peaks in the example are organized in a logical and satisfying progression. The note e'' flat arrives already in bar 3; f'' in bar 9; and a'', just before the end, in bar 12. This is the method of composition described in Chapter 2 as ‘top down’. In contrast, as any example taken from a Vivaldi aria will show, our composer flaunts, rather than conceals, his building blocks. Loss as well as gain is inherent in the modular approach. In the whole of Vivaldi’s cantatas there is no melody suitable for humming in the bath. For him, melody is the end-product of notes in motion, not a Gestalt in the process of realization. On the credit side, Vivaldi’s liberation from conventional approaches to melo me lodi dicc fo form rmat atio ion n al allo lows ws hi him m gr grea eate terr la lati titu tude de in th thee ex expr pres essi sion on of th thee te text xt.. By th thee late Baroque, most composers were rationing word-painting in vocal parts quite seve se vere rely ly so as no nott to in inte terf rfer eree to too o mu much ch wi with th th thee na natu tura rall me melo lodi dicc fl flow ow.. Th Thee un unus usuually high density of word-painting in Vivaldi’s cantatas could be viewed almost as a throwback to the principles of Monteverdi’s seconda pratica: ‘Prima le parole, poi la musica’. In Vivaldi’s case, however, one should perhaps speak of the primacy not of the word itself, but of the image underlying the word. It is reve re veal alin ing g th that at th thee so sonn nnet etss at atta tach ched ed to Le quattro stagioni wh when en th thee co conc ncer erto toss we were re eventually published, published, in 1725, as Op. 8 nos. 1–4 were not the actual germ of the programme but an afterthought based on the musical depictions. It is understandabl understandablee that Vivaldi’s cantatas elicited little appreciation in their time. Today, with our composer-centred approach, we can value them for the qualities they have in common with his music in general and especially for their original features. In contrast, the early eighteenth century was, if anything, genre-centred. genre-centre d. Each educated listener had an ideal concept of what a genre was like li ke (t (the hese se id idea eals ls ar aree en ensh shri rine ned d in th thee mi minu nute te de desc scri ript ptio ions ns of ea each ch ge genr nree pe penn nned ed by Matth Ma ttheso eson, n, Sch Scheib eibe, e, and Qua Quantz ntz), ), and com compos positi itions ons wer weree val valued ued for the their ir suc succes cesss in conforming to that concept. The evident success of anonymous compositions in reaching performance and achieving wider circulation through copying and even (though rarely) publication proves the point that the ability to associate a piec pi ecee se secu cure rely ly wi with th a co comp mpos oser er,, al alth thou ough gh gr grow owin ing g in im impo port rtan ance ce du duri ring ng th thee ei eigh ghtteenth century, had not yet become the sine qua non that it is today. Their very ‘average’ qualities, coupled with their huge number, account for the exemplary status in their day of Giovanni Bononcini’s Bononcini’s cantatas. It was precisely their ‘deviant’ an t’ qu qual alit itie iess th that at ba barr rred ed th thee wa way y to a wi wide derr ap appr prec ecia iati tion on of Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss ca cant ntat atas as an and d limited their circulation. circulation. Had we not had the good fortune to recover a large part of his musical archive (something that has happened to few composers of his time), they might well have remained almost as marginal to our concerns as they were for Schmitz almost a century ago. To a great extent, the fortunes of Vivaldi’s cantatas are bound up with those of the late Baroque cantata in general. In other words, where the performance of cantatas flourishes, those of Vivaldi will flourish too.

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Approaches to to Performance We ha have ve al alre read ady y br broa oach ched ed,, in Ch Chap apte terr 1, th thee pr prob oble lem m of fi find ndin ing g a su suit itab able le pe perf rfor or-mance context for cantatas in modern conditions. In an ideal world, one might think of recreating the eighteenth-century conversazione – not so very different from the nineteenth-century soirée – and have cantatas performed in the atmosphere of something like a Schubertiad among friends. This is unlikely to happen on a significant scale for a number of reasons, all obvious. The intimacy of the surroundings would reduce the likelihood of raising sufficient ticket income to offset the cost of paying professional musicians to participate. More fundamentally, such a gathering would fall between two stools: it would be too planned to achieve credibility as an informal event, too spontaneous to be successful as a formal event. The clock cannot, alas, be put back. However, there is much that can be done, and is being done, to make the traditional concert format friendlier to Baroque cantatas. Items can be introduced oral or ally ly by th thee pe perf rfor orme mers rs.. Ex Expl plan anat atio ions ns ca can n be pr prov ovid ided ed of hi hist stor oric ical al or my myth thol olog og-ical characters. The texts can be printed in programmes with parallel translations into in to th thee ve vern rnac acul ular ar.. Si Sing nger erss ca can n ‘d ‘dra rama mati tize ze’’ th thei eirr pe perf rfor orma manc ncee an and d be beco come me a li litt ttle le less statuesque than their counterparts in Lieder. Most obviously, variety can be sought in the accompaniment in order to characterize individual compositions more strongly and delight the ear. Thir Th irty ty ye year arss ag ago, o, ca cant ntat atas as we were re al almo most st un unif ifor orml mly y pe perf rfor orme med d wi with th an ac acco comp mpaaniment nim ent of har harpsi psicho chord rd and cel cello. lo. The har harpsi psicho chordi rdist st rea read d fro from m a car carefu efull lly y prepared realization realizat ion that not infrequently was far too elaborate for its own good – slowing down the pace and drawing too much attention to itself. The voicing of chords was often unfortunate, leaving too large a gap between the bass and the fistful of notes in the right hand. 2 In part, the fussiness of harpsichord realizations was the consequence of a lack of ornamentation by the singer. Someone had to keep ke ep th thee mo move veme ment nt go goin ing, g, an and d th this is be beca came me th thee ke keyb yboa oard rd pl play ayer er’s ’s ta task sk by de defa faul ult. t. Since those days, the introduction of plucked instruments (lute, theorbo, and guitar), of genuine improvisation (or performance in a manner suggestive of real impro im provis visati ation) on) and of sty styles les of key keyboa board rd acc accomp ompani animen mentt con conson sonant ant wi with th des descri cripptions of the time (short attacks, full participation of the left hand in chords, the addition of acciaccaturas, etc.) have worked wonders. There is still, however, a reluctance to pare down the accompanime accompaniment nt to the minimum. Performance Performance with harpsichord or spinet alone is not rare, but the use of cello alone has not yet taken root. Doubtless, it will do so before long, since it is already becoming established as a valid mode of performing chamber sonatas for one instrument and bass. 3 The last frontier to cross is that of self-accom self-accompanied panied performance by a singer2

3

This defect probably arose both from a subconscio subconscious us desire to avoid leger lines underneath the treble stave and from a more deliberate decision to keep the left hand free for the bass line alone (thus separating the composer’s contribution in the clearest possible manner from the editor’s), although I suspect that an unthinking transference of typical piano textures was also to blame. David Watkins’s accompaniments to Corelli violin sonatas, which use multiple-stopping to produce intermittent chords, are a case in point.


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harpsichordist, which we know was extremely common at the time, especially among amateur musicians. In truth, it is the very unfamiliarity of the idea, within the tradition of classical concert music, that acts as the greatest barrier. There must already be countless specialist singers who rehearse in private, as Farinelli and Faustina once did, to their own keyboard accompaniment. Of course, not every Vivaldi cantata – perhaps only a minority of his cantatas – is suited to such treatment. Both the vocal line and the accompaniment need to be simple enough forr pe fo perf rfor orme mers rs to be ab able le to di divi vide de th thei eirr at atte tent ntio ion. n. An ex exam ampl plee of a ca cant ntat ataa th that at fi fits ts this description perfectly is Usignoletto bello, RV 796. Example 7.2 illustrates – as mu much ch as an any y mu musi sica call no nota tati tion on ca can n co conv nvey ey wh what at is su supp ppos osed ed to be an im impr prov ovis ised ed element – the type of realization that can be handled easily by a singer seated at thee ke th keyb yboa oard rd.. Th Thee te text xtur uree is fr free ee-v -voi oice ced, d, ly lyin ing g co comf mfor orta tabl bly y un unde derr th thee fi fing nger ers. s. Th Thee activity is greatest when the voice is silent, since the performer’s concentration is then undivided. At all times, the bass line remains paramount. When the voice sings, the realization reduces its independent rhythmic activity almost to zero, replicating the rhythm of either the bass or the voice. In a way, it is rather fortunate that we are so ignorant about the circumstances of the first performances of Vivaldi’s cantatas. In recent years, great attention has been be en pa paid id to wh what at th thee Ba Baro roqu quee co comp mpos oser er ‘i ‘int nten ende ded’ d’ as th thee pe perf rfor ormi ming ng fo forc rces es fo forr a given composition, and this intention has been equated – quite illegitimately, in my op opin inio ion n – wi with th th thee fo forc rces es us used ed fo forr th thee fi firs rstt pe perf rfor orma manc nce. e. So if we di disc scov over er th that at when a vocal work by Bach was given its first outing without ripieni (the extra singers who made up a supporting choir) or a concerto a cinque by Albinoni was introduced to the world with precisely five players plus continuo, we are invited to think that this was precisely the ensemble ‘for which the composer wrote’. But Baroque composers were not so blinkered as to put all their eggs in the basket of the first performance. They hoped for later performances, many of which would be gi give ven n un unde derr ch chan ange ged d co cond ndit itio ions ns,, in incl clud udin ing g di diff ffer eren ence cess in th thee si size ze an and d ma make ke-u -up p of the performing ensemble. A great amount of elasticity is built into the composition from the start. If we are talking about authenticity in relationship to eighteen te enth th-c -cen entu tury ry mu musi sic, c, th thee fi firs rstt th thin ing g to re reme memb mber er is th that at pr prag agma mati tism sm wa wass th thee mo most st ‘authentic’ quality of all during that period. Instead of looking for single ‘right’ ways to perform Baroque music, we should be seeking to maximize the number of admissible ways. Naturally, there need to be limits; but these limits must be credible within the world in which eighteenth-century music actually operated, not ones imperiously imposed today in a spirit of musicological one-upmanship. one-upmanship. What would we think of a musicologist of the twenty-second century who agoniz ago nized ed ove overr wh wheth ether er Hin Hindem demit ith h con concei ceived ved his Ludus tonalis for a Ste tein inw way or a Bechstein? Nowhere is it more desirable to tolerate experimentation at the marg ma rgin inss of th thee po poss ssib ible le th than an in th thee Ba Baro roqu quee ca cant ntat ata, a, gi give ven n th thee re rela lati tive vely ly un unfa favo vour ur-able modern environment. The one-instrument-per-part debate is highly germane to Vivaldi’s cantatas with string accompaniment. Richard Maunder’s recent book on the Baroque concerto is a radical reassessment reassess ment that – in my view, too dogmatically – states the case for regarding ‘single’ strings as the norm. 4 My recommendation would be to 4

Richard Maunder, The Scoring of Baroque Concertos , Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2004.

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Ex. 7.2 Vivaldi, Usignoletto bello, RV 796: opening with realized continuo


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Ex. 7.2 Vivaldi, Usignoletto bello, RV 796: cont.

adopt an entirely pragmatic position on the issue. As Quantz makes clear in his Versuch, what is important is not the absolute size of the ensemble (little account was taken in the eighteenth century of the difference in tone-colour between a single instrument and a group of like instruments playing in unison) but the relative size of its components.5 If the balance is right and the volume of sound fills thee au th audi dito tori rium um wi with thou outt sw swam ampi ping ng it it,, th thee mo mode de of pe perf rfor orma manc ncee wil illl be satisfactory. Thee qu Th ques esti tion on of vo voca call or orna name ment ntat atio ion n al also so po pose sess a ch chal alle leng nge. e. In Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss da day y it was mandatory to ornament reprised ‘A’ sections in da capo arias heavily, and lighter ornamentation ornamentation was permissible in the other sections as well. Forty years ago it was not uncommon for the more enlightened editions of Baroque cantatas to propose ornamentation to the performer, much as an editorial continuo realization was set before the accompanist. This one-size-fits-all approach had its alltoo-evident weaknesses, although one must give it credit for having introduced singers to the concept of ‘improvised’ embellishment and for having provided concrete specimens. Such editorial assistance is naturally double-edged: in the short term, it provides ready solutions and has a heuristic value; in the long term, howe ho weve ver, r, it ca can n cr crea eate te a ki kind nd of de depe pend nden ence ce th that at ca caus uses es a si sing nger er to de dela lay y ge gett ttin ing g to grips with ornamental practice. Direct involvement by the singer is very necessary, since eighteenth-century performers were expected to forge a personal style 5

Quantz, Versuch einer Anweisung, p. 185.

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of embe embellis llishmen hmentt that fore foregrou grounded nded thei theirr stre strengths ngths and ‘tra ‘tradema demark’ rk’ spec special ial effects, while disguising their weaknesses. Such ornamentation needs to become second nature to the singer in order to give the effect of genuine improvisation rather than simply ‘written-out’ embellishment à la Bach. It is easy enough to view samples of embellishment by leading eighteenth-century singers. 6 The problem is that such examples need to be imitated, if at all, only at a very generic level, since what suits one voice will not suit another. I know of no evidence that vocal embellishment was more restrained in cantatas than in operas, but common sense suggests that it was so, in keeping with the more intimate and refined refin ed world of the chamber cantata. However, one should always keep the issue of extempore ornamentation in prop pr opor orti tion on.. It is no nott a ca cata tast stro roph phee if a si sing nger er ch choo oose sess to fo fore rego go it th thro roug ugh h in inex expe peri ri-ence en ce,, in inse secu curi rity ty,, or pe pers rson onal al ta tast ste, e, al alth thou ough gh,, as re rema mark rked ed ea earl rlie ier, r, th thee re resu sult lt ma may y be to transfer the responsibilit responsibility y for creating variety to the accompanist( accompanist(s). s). Vivaldi’s tempo directions should be taken as broadly indicative rather than narrowly prescriptive. Some interesting details emerge from Table 7.1, which gives the tempo markings for all the arias in Vivaldi’s thirty-seven thirty-seven authenticated cant ca ntat atas as (o (omi mitt ttin ing g th thee un unfi fini nish shed ed RV 68 684a 4a). ). Wh Wher eree tw two o te temp mpo o ma mark rkin ings gs ar aree se sepa pa-rated in the same column by an oblique, the second is a later substitution by the composer. Tempi in square brackets are ones supplied by Degrada in NEC in the absence of original markings. Although the RARA and ARA plans were likened in Chapter 2 to the SFSF and an d FS FSF F pl plan anss in so sona nata tas, s, re reci cita tati tive ve sh shou ould ld no nott be eq equa uate ted d wi with th ‘s ‘slo low w mo move veme ment nt’, ’, or aria with ‘fast movement’. The pace of a recitative is entirely dependent on the mood and the choice of note-values, while arias are almost as likely to be slow (marked ‘Grave’, ‘Largo’, and their variants) as fast (‘Allegro’, ‘Andante’, and their variants). In three instances (RV 659, 661, and 799) both arias are slow; in eleven instances they are both fast. In almost two thirds of the cantatas the first aria is slow, the second fast. Moreover, even when both are classed as ‘generically’ slow or fast, the faster tempo – Allegro as compared with Andante, or Larghetto as compared with Adagio – is usually placed second. This progression from slower to faster correlates with the general tendency of cantata texts to end more brightly than they begin. This is true for all chamber cantatas of Vivaldi’s period. There are some interesting differences between cantatas of the pre-Neapoli pre-Neapolitan tan period (‘pre-1725’ in the table) and those of the post-Neapolitan (‘post-1725’) period. An attenuated ‘Allegro’ (‘Allegro (ma) non molto’, ‘Allegro ma poco’) appears in six post-1725 arias but in only one pre-1725 aria. Similarly, Similarly, an attenuated ‘Largo’ (‘Larghetto’) appears as the original marking of seven post-1725 arias but only two pre-1725 ones. It would almost be appropriate to regard ‘Larghetto’ as a slow ‘Andante’ rather than a fast ‘Largo’, as Vivaldi’s vacillation between the two terms in RV 662 and 683 seems to imply. There is a clear conn co nnec ecti tion on be betw twee een n th thee sl slow owin ing g do down wn of th thee be beat at as a re resu sult lt of th thee mo move ve to sh shor orte terr 6

For example, Robert Donington ( The Interpretation of Early Music , revised version, London: Fabe Fa berr an and d Fa Fabe ber, r, 19 1974 74,, p. 17 175) 5) qu quot otes es fr from om a ma manu nusc scri ript pt in Vi Vien enna na a pa pass ssag agee sh show owin ing g Fa Fari rine nell lli’ i’ss extravagant ornamentation of an aria by Giacomelli.


Table 7.1 Tempo markings in the arias of Vivaldi’s cantatas RV

Period

Aria 1

Aria 2

649 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668 669 670 671 674 676 677 678 679 680 681 682 683 68 3 684 685 686 796 799

pre-1725 post-1725 post-1725 pre-1725 pre-1725 pre-1725 post-1725 post-1725 post-1725 pre-1725 pre-1725 post-1725 pre-1725 post-1725 pre-1725 post-1725 pre-1725 post-1725 post-1725 post-1725 post-1725 post-1725 post-1725 post-1725 post-1725 post-1725 post-1725 post-1725 pre-1725 pre-1725 post-1725 post po st-1 -172 725 5 post-1725 pre-1725 pre-1725 pre-1725 pre-1725

Largo Larghetto Largo Andante/Andante molto Andante Largo/Larghetto Largo/Larghetto Andante Andante Adagio/Largo Adagio Andante molto Largo Andante/Larghetto Andante Allegro Largo Largo Largo [Andante] Andante Allegro Allegro non molto Larghetto Larghetto Andante Larghetto Largo Largo Largo Larghetto Larg La rghe hett tto/ o/La Larg rghe hett tto o An Anda dant ntee Larghetto Allegro Allegro Andante Andante

Allegro Allegro Andante Allegro Allegro Allegro non molto Allegro ma non molto Allegro Allegro Allegro Larghetto Largo Largo Allegro Allegro Allegro Allegro Allegro Allegro Allegro non molto Allegro Allegro Allegro ma poco Allegro non molto Allegro molto Allegro Allegro [Allegro] Allegro Allegro Allegro Allegr Alle gro o Allegro [Andante] Allegro Larghetto/Largo Grave

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note-values in the Neapolitan style and Vivaldi’s option for ‘intermediate’ tempo markings. His wavering between ‘Largo’ and ‘Larghetto’ suggests to me an uncertainty over the significance of the two terms for the performer during a period of transition rather than a change of mind over the actual tempo, as Degrada has proposed.7 Dynamic marks are all but non-existent in the continuo cantatas and very sparse in the ‘accompanied’ ones. This was an area where performers were expected to work things out for themselves. Most dynamic contrasts are sharp, but since Vivaldi’s instrumental music shows that he sometimes employed multi-stage dynamic change (e.g., from forte to piano and then to più piano) and even, perhaps, crescendo and diminuendo (whose existence in Italian music of the 1730s is attested by Charles de Brosses), performers should not hesitate to vary the dynamic level in subtle ways. Most important is to ensure that the voice at all times emerges clearly from the texture. One thing to remember is that forte (in the sense of a full-bodied, if not always literally loud, sound) is the ‘default’ dynamic at the start of a movement unless expressly contradicted. Rhythmic assimilation, vertical and horizontal, is a matter that has to exercise the minds of performers of a good many Vivaldi cantatas. Fortunately, NEC is very alert to the question, which receives ample discussion in the Critical Notes and Critical Commentary of the volumes affected. The reconciliation of triplet and duplet division of the beat-note is rarely the issue. More common is the cont co ntra rast st be betw twee een n do dott tted ed an and d ev even en tw twoo-no note te gr grou oups ps.. Qu Quit itee of ofte ten, n, Vi Viva vald ldii be begi gins ns by nota no tati ting ng do dott tted ed rh rhyt ythm hms. s. Wh When en he fe feel elss th that at th they ey ar aree fi firm rmly ly es esta tabl blis ishe hed, d, he su subs bsti ti-tutes even rhythms, expecting performers to continue in the same manner. The horizontal assimilation that results is simple and mostly uncontroversial. Where divergent rhythms occur simultaneously in different parts, however, thee so th solu luti tion on is no nott al alwa ways ys so cl clea earr-cu cut. t. Ta Take ke,, fo forr ex exam ampl ple, e, th thee fi firs rstt vo voca call pe peri riod od of the first aria of Tremori al braccio e lagrime sul ciglio , RV 799, shown as Example 7.3. Here, the soprano, after bar 5, never dots a three-note group occupying a beat, whereas the continuo always does. At the start of bar 6 the two rhythmic styles come into conflict. Degrada’s edition recommends assimilating assimilating the soprano’s rhythm to that of the bass, as a result of which the parallel octaves between the notes A and G become more palpable. But perhaps there is a better case for allowing the two parts to follow their separate paths. This kind of rhythmic heterophony heterophony is well known from Lieder. It is a strange fact that whenever ev er a vo voic icee co comb mbin ines es wi with th an in inst stru rume ment nt,, ea each ch pr pres eser erve vess it itss se sepa para rate te au aura rall sp spac ace. e. This allows rhythmic discrepancies to occur that would be intolerable between two instruments or between two voices. In the example the small difference of rhythm even succeeds in mitigating the effect of the parallel octaves. And so to a few final remarks. There is every prospect that Vivaldi’s chamber cantatas will maintain the steady progress that they have made in recent years towards full recognition by performers and audiences. My additional hope is that they the y wil willl spe spearh arhead ead a gro growt wth h of int intere erest st by mu music sician ians, s, mus musico icolog logis ists, ts, and music-lovers in the Baroque cantata in general. As a composer of cantatas, 7

In the Critical Commentary for RV 655 he writes: wri tes: ‘It is a common practice of Vivaldi Viva ldi to opt for a livelier tempo when revising a work from an earlier period.’


199

Ex. 7.3 Vivaldi, Tremori al braccio e lagrime sul ciglio , RV 799: ‘Quello che senti, o bella’, bars 5–8

Vivaldi has an advantage not shared by any other major composer of his time exce ex cept pt Ha Hand ndel el:: hi hiss wo work rkss in se seve vera rall ot othe herr ge genr nres es ha have ve an un unas assa sail ilab able le pl plac acee in th thee modern performing repertory. These form a permanent bridgehead from which thee cu th curi riou ouss ca can n st stri rike ke ou outt at an any y ti time me to ex expl plor oree fu furt rthe her. r. Th Ther eree is ne neve verr go goin ing g to be a problem with defending his status as a composer or gaining access to his cant ca ntat atas as.. Lu Luck ckil ily, y, to too, o, hi hiss ca cant ntat atas as ar aree ju just st th thee ri righ ghtt nu numb mber er fo forr ea easy sy as assi simi mila lati tion on:: not so few as to be discountable; not so many as to be forbidding. They are the perf pe rfec ectt ve vehi hicl clee fo forr fa fami mili liar ariz izin ing g mo mode dern rn au audi dien ence cess wi with th th thee ba basi sicc fe feat atur ures es of th thei eirr once flourishing genre. Will they remain at thirty-seven? The spate of Vivaldi discoveries in recent years suggests, by the law of averages, that their number will grow. There are, after all, so many possible routes to discovery. The music from private, unpublicized coll collecti ections ons that turn turnss up at at aucti auction on never fail failss to surpr surprise. ise. As the case of RV 799 proved as recently as 1999, there are still several major libraries whose collections of older musical manuscripts are not yet adequately catalogued. 8 This generally means, also, that the authorship of individual items has not been thorough ou ghly ly re rese sear arch ched ed.. So Some mewh wher ere, e, on onee fe feel els, s, th ther eree ar aree ma manu nusc scri ript ptss of ca cant ntat atas as in th thee hand ha nd of ei eith ther er Vi Viva vald ldii or hi hiss fa fath ther er th that at do no nott na name me th thee co comp mpos oser er an and d ha have ve th ther ereefore been listed as anonymous or even ascribed arbitrarily to another composer. Equa Eq uall lly, y, th ther eree ar aree li like kely ly to be ca cant ntat atas as th that at ev even en in th thei eirr ow own n da day y we were re tr tran ansf sfer erre red, d, by er erro rorr or de desi sign gn,, fr from om Vi Viva vald ldii to an anot othe herr co comp mpos oser er an and d ne need ed me mere rely ly an at atte tent ntiv ivee eye to reveal their secret. Or perhaps an old catalogue entry will mention the title of an unknown Vivaldi cantata, which could be enough to lead scholars immediately to the right source. But even if not another note of a Vivaldi cantata is discovered in the future, we already have more than enough to keep us busy for a very long time. 8

These include the libraries of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna and the Paris Conservatoire, both extremely rich in cantatas.

Glossary The name given, variously, to a teaching institution, a learned society, a music club, and a private concert or recitation of poetry. acciaccatura A non-harmonic note added to sharpen the ‘bite’ of a chord and quickly released after being struck. Gasparini discusses the device at length. accompa acco mpagna gnato to A reci recitat tative ive acco accompa mpanied nied by one or mor moree ins instru trumen ments ts in add addiition to continuo. accompanied cantata A cantata with an accompanying instrument or instruments in addition to a continuo bass. The prevalent mood of a movement or section. affetto The group of closely related keys that have modern key signaambitus tures differing by no more than one accidental from each other. The term originates from Heinichen. ario ar iosso An ep epis isod odee or se sect ctio ion n in ar aria ia sty tyle le bu butt set to rec ecit itat ativ ivee ve verrse se.. A bass part played an octave above the normal bass register by bassetto treble or middle-register instruments such as the violin and viola. basso ostinato See ground bass. The cult, in Italian music, of the strange or perverse for its own bizzarria sake. Thee im Th impr prov ovis ised ed an and d in info form rmal al as asse semb mbly ly of th thee un unit its, s, of ofte ten n ta take ken n bricolage from diverse sources or invented on the spot, making up a whole. (A bricoleur , in French, is a handyman.) A ‘deceptive’ cadence falling outside conventional categories cadenza sfuggita (such as the ordinary ‘interrupted’ cadence, V–VI). A ‘foreshortened’ cadence in which the voice closes its phrase cadenza tronca over the penultimate note of the accompaniment. A te term rm (‘ (‘do doub uble le’’ ca cant ntat ata) a) us used ed by Ir Iren eneo eo Af Affò fò fo forr ca cant ntat atas as wi with th cantata doppia the structure RARA. A cantata with an edifying or didactic textual content. cantata morale A term (‘single’ cantata) used by Ireneo Affò for cantatas with cantata semplice the structure RA. An old Italian term for plainsong. canto fermo An old Italian term for ‘figural’ (i.e., composed) music. canto figurato cavata An extended contrapuntal section for voice and accompaniment set to a short passage of recitative verse, usually the closing words of a stanza. chal ch alum umea eau u A si sing ngle le-r -ree eed d wi wind nd in inst stru rume ment nt in inve vent nted ed ju just st be befo fore re 17 1700 00 an and d made in several sizes. Its close relative, which eventually supplanted it, was the clarinet. church aria A type of aria following the plan of the ‘A’ section of a da ca capo po accademia

202

compos com positi ition on cop copy y composition manuscript concertato contin con tinuo uo cant cantata ata coro

aria ia da capo ar Devise

diaeresis (dieresi ) dialoepha (dialefe) ‘dra ‘d rama mati tic’ c’ voi voice ce endecasillabi ‘epi ‘e pic’ c’ vo voic icee extended binary form fer erm mat ataa

figlie di coro fioritura galant

grou gr ound nd ba bass ss

harm ha rmon onic ic el elli lips psis is harmonic harmon ic rhy rhythm thm homo ho mome metr tric ic hom ho mot oton onal alit ity y

GLOSSARY

aria but lacking a ‘B’ section. This is the standard form used in church music for settings of verses of psalms, etc.: hence the term. A copy, copy, norm normall ally y by the the origi original nal comp compose oser, r, that that at the same same time adapts its exemplar. A score representing a composer’s first draft of a piece. Most such scores contain evidence of alteration. As applied to church music, describes a vocal work with sections for solo voice(s) as well as choir. A can cantata tata in whi which ch the voi voice ce is acco accompa mpanie nied d onl only y by an ins instru tru-mental bass part. Used in a specialized sense for the body of singers and instrumentalists performing, and receiving musical tuition, at one of the Venetian ospedali (q.v.). An ar aria ia in ABA fo form rm,, th thee ‘da ca capo po’’ be bein ing g th thee re retu turrn to th thee beginning at the end of the ‘B’ section. A ‘m ‘mot otto to’’ op open enin ing g fo forr th thee vo voic ice. e. Th This is mo mott tto o is us usua uall lly y id iden enti tica call with the start of the first vocal period, which begins after an instrumental interlude. The term originates from Riemann. The sep separa arate te pro pronun nunciat ciation ion of adj adjacen acentt vow vowels els wit within hin the sam samee word. The separ separate ate pron pronunci unciati ation on of adjac adjacent ent vowe vowels ls belon belongin ging g to different words. Thee ‘voi Th ‘voice ce’’ in whi which ch the the poet poet ass assum umes es the the ide ident ntit ity y of the the protagonist, speaking in the first person. Hendecasyllables, lines with eleven syllables. Thee ‘v Th ‘voi oice ce’’ in wh whic ich h th thee po poet et na narr rrat ates es ev even ents ts.. A type of binary form, common in seventeenth-century arias, that follows the plan ABB or ABB'. A si sign gn (in th thee sh shap apee of an in inve vert rted ed bo bow wl wit ith h a ce cent ntra rall do dot) t) tha hatt today signifies a pause. Used in Vivaldi’s day also to mark a point for an improvised cadenza. A member (always female) of the coro (q.v.) in one of the Venetian ospedali (q.v.). Florid embellishment (referring to a melody). Describes the musical style that dominated Italian music from the mid-1720s until well into the second half of the eighteenth century. Its characteristics include treble–bass polarity, symmetrical phrase structure, and elaborate melodic decoration. A fo form rm of co cont ntin inuo uous us va vari riat atio ion n es espe peci cial ally ly po popu pula larr in th thee la late te seventeenth century. The repeated bass figure is usually identical in melody and rhythm on all its statements, except that some so me co comp mpos oser erss pe perm rmit it it to mo modu dula late te an and/ d/or or ap appe pear ar in different keys. Thee proces Th processs where whereby by a chord chord usual usually ly pres presen entt as a ‘brid ‘bridge ge’’ between two other chords is omitted. The rat ratee of chor chord d chan change. ge. Desc De scri ribe bess th thee us usee of th thee sa same me mu musi sical cal me metr tree fo forr all th thee mo movevements of a work. Thee pr Th pres eser erva vati tion on of th thee sa sam me to tona nall ce cent ntre re th thrrou ough ghou outt th thee mov oveements of a work.

GLOSSARY

hyper hyp erme metr tric ic

203

Descri Desc ribe bess a li line ne of ve vers rsee th that at ha hass a su surp rplu luss of sy syll llabl ables es in re relalation to the chosen metre. iamb ia mbic ic pr prim imee Joac Jo achi him m Br Brau aun’ n’ss ter term m fo forr th thee ‘s ‘stu tutt tter er’’ ef effe fect ct pr prod oduce uced d wh when en an accented note is immediately preceded by the same note in an unaccented position. inve in vert rted ed pe pedal dal A ped pedal al-n -not otee in a mi middl ddlee or hi high gh pa part rt.. keyword Used in the presen entt study to denote an em emb blematic word to which wh ich a co comp mpos oser er le lend ndss sp speci ecial al em emph phas asis is in hi hiss mu musi sica call setting. bass ss A ba bass ss fa fall llin ing g st step epwi wise se (d (dia iato toni nica call lly y or ch chro roma mati tica call lly) y) fr from om lamento ba tonic to dominant, used as an emblem of lament. Literally, a ‘lesson in love’: a cantata in which the singer gives lezione amorosa advi ad vice ce on ho how w to co cond nduc uctt on ones esel elff wi wise sely ly in af affa fair irss of th thee he hear art. t. Lombardic Lomb ardic rhythm rhythmss ‘Inver ‘Inverted’ ted’ dotted dotted groups in which which the shorter shorter note (or pair pair of notes) precedes the dotted note. lyri ly ricc vo voic icee Thee ‘v Th ‘voi oice ce’’ in wh whic ich h th thee po poet et ut utte ters rs hi hiss or he herr ow own n th thou ough ghts ts or feelings. Malague Malag ueña ña Fi Fift fths hs Step St epwi wise se des descen cendi ding ng per perfe fect ct fi fift fths hs (t (the he ba bass ss pr proce oceed edin ing g I–VII–VI–V), whose parallelism is emphasized rather than disguised. melisma A group of notes set to the same syllable. mino mi nori rizat zatio ion n A mo moda dall sh shif iftt (q (q.v .v.) .) ent entail ailin ing g a te temp mpor orar ary y mo move ve fr from om ma majo jorr to minor. moda mo dall sh shif iftt A mo move veme ment nt to th thee pa para rall llel el ma majo jorr or mi mino norr ke key. y. modu mo dula lati tion on ch chain ain A sequen sequence ce of modul modulati ation onss in which which each each ‘link ‘link’’ moves moves in exactly the same way (e.g., to the major key a whole tone higher) as its predecessor. mono mo nome metr tric ic Desc De scri ribe bess a un unit it of ver verse se,, su such ch as a st stanz anza, a, tha thatt re rema main inss in th thee same metre throughout. mono mo nomo moti tivi vicc Desc De scri ribe bess a se sect ctio ion n or mo move veme ment nt ba base sed d on a si sing ngle le mo moti tive. ve. mon onot othe hem mat atic ic Des escr crib ibes es mus usic ic in wh whic ich h on onee th them emee is mai aint ntai aine ned d th thro roug ugho hout ut.. Neapolitan Neapo litan Second The flatte flattened ned super supertonic tonic degree degree.. Neap Ne apol olit itan an Si Sixt xth h A first first-i -inv nver ersi sion on chor chord d on the flat flatte tene ned d super superto toni nic, c, used used to express poignancy or bizzarria (q.v.). A short ‘inessential’ note that differs from a passing note in note échappée movi mo ving ng by st step ep aw away ay fr from om,, ra rath ther er th than an to towa ward rds, s, it itss de dest stina inati tion on.. Such notes are characteristic of the French style of Vivaldi’s day. obbl ob blig igat ato o Des escr crib ibes es an any y pr prom omin inen entt, no nonn-op opti tion onal al mus usic ical al pa part rt.. Undulating (in imitation of onde, waves). ondeggiando Thee na Th name me gi give ven n in Ve Veni nice ce to ch char arit itab able le in inst stit itut utio ions ns ca cari ring ng fo forr a ospedali specific category, or to specific categories, of needy persons. Thee mi Th miss ssio ion n of th thee Pi Piet età, à, th thee in inst stit itut utio ion n wi with th wh whic ich h Vi Viva valdi ldi wa wass associated, was to care for foundlings (children abandoned in infancy by their parents). para pa rata tact ctic ic Des escr crib ibes es a fo form rm of or orga gani niza zati tion on whe here re the un unit itss ar aree pl plac aced ed side by side but are not interdependent. passus duriusculus duriusculus A passage descending by chromatic steps, most commonly taking the form of a descent from tonic to dominant, as in a common form of lamento bass (q.v.). A repeat, often echo-style, of the last phrase of a section. petite reprise reprise

204

GLOSSARY

Describes a line of Italian verse in which the penultimate syllable carries the last stress. Poetry written expressly for setting to music. poesia per per musica poly po lyme metr tric ic Desc De scri ribe bess a un unit it of ve vers rse, e, su such ch as a st stan anza za,, th that at em empl ploy oyss mo more re than one metre. polymotivic Des esccribes a section or movement based on two or more motives. poly po lyth them emat atic ic Desc De scri ribe bess mu musi sicc in wh whic ich h se sever veral al th them emes es ap appe pear ar.. ‘privileged’ key Thee au Th auth thor or’s ’s te term rm fo forr a cl clos osee re rela lati tion onsh ship ip be betw twee een n tw two o ke keys ys (i (in n relationship Vivaldi’s case, E minor and C major, and E flat major and G minor, form such pairs) that occurs with a frequency not explainable by their ordinary harmonic or tonal function in relation to each other. quad qu adra rati ticc Des escr crib ibes es a ph phra rase se str truc uctu ture re who hose se un unit itss ar aree sym ymm met etrric ical ally ly balanced at all levels. rast ra stro rogr grap aphy hy thee ch th char arac acte teri rist stic icss of th thee st stav aves es ru rule led d on mu musi sicc pap paper er.. ‘quoti ‘qu oting’ ng’ voi voice ce The ‘vo ‘voice’ ice’ in whi which ch the poe poett rel relays ays in dir direct ect spe speech ech the wor words ds of a person described in the poem. récitatif accompagné Rousseau’s term for an accompagnato (q.v.) in which the inst in stru rume ment ntss pla play y co cont ntin inuou uousl sly y and ha have ve no in indep depen ende dent nt thematic ideas. Rousseau’s term for a type of recitative that has to be sung in récitatif mesuré strict time. Rousseau’s term for an accompagnato (q.v.) in which the récitatif obligé instruments alternate or dialogue with the voice. retr re trans ansit itio ion n A co conne nnect ctiv ivee pa pass ssage age mo movi ving ng sm smoo ooth thly ly ba back ck to th thee to toni nicc fr from om the last main key visited. rhythmic The practice of perfor performing ming rhythms rhythms not exactly as notated in assimilation order to bring them into line with ones heard simultaneously in other parts (vertical assimilation) or at another point in the movement (horizontal assimilation). An end-rhyme linking the last lines of the two semistrophes of rima chiave (key rhyme) an aria text. Rarely absent from aria verse. Rhymes following the pattern ABAB. rime alternate Rhymes following the pattern AABB. rime baciate Rhymes following the pattern ABA BCB CDC. rime incatenate Rhymes following the pattern ABBA. rime intrecciate rito ri torn rnel ello lo A re recu curr rren entt in inst stru rume ment ntal al id idea ea em empl ploy oyed ed in ar aria iass to in intr trod oduc uce, e, conclude, or punctuate the vocal periods. rounding The process whereby any feature present at the start of a musical structure returns, after an absence, at its end. Describes a line of Italian verse in which the antepenultimate sdrucciolo syllable carries the last stress. The metre of a sdrucciolo line corresponds to the number of actual syllables minus one. self-accompanied A melodic line that, through frequent changes of register, line creates the effect of an upper part accompanied by a bass. semistrophe ‘Half’ of a stan anzza of text that is divided into two portions. These portions correspond to the ‘A’ and ‘B’ sections of an aria in binary or da capo form. serenat ataa A dramatic cantat ataa for upwards of two vo voiices, usually with orchestral accompaniment. piano

GLOSSARY

205

A metre, or a line of verse, with seven syllables. Similarly, quaternario , quinario , senario , ottonario, etc. A ‘sighing’ figure taking the form of a series of appoggiaturas Seufzer and their downward resolution, often separated by rests. simp si mple le re reci cita tati tive ve Reci Re cita tati tive ve ac acco comp mpan anie ied d on only ly by co cont ntin inuo uo.. Of Ofte ten n ma made de sy syno nony ny-mous with recitativo secco, although it is possible for a recitative to be ‘simple’ without being ‘dry’. solo so lo can canta tata ta A ca cant ntata ata fo forr a si singl nglee vo voice ice.. Of Often ten us used ed lo loos osel ely y as a sy syno nony nym m for ‘continuo cantata’ (q.v.). stretto A form of imitation between two or more parts in which the imitation begins before the theme has concluded. The device is often used for climactic effect. str trop ophi hicc ba basss A fo forrm of co cont ntin inuo uous us va vari riat atio ion n po popu pula larr in th thee ea earl rly y sev even ente teen enth th century. The repetitions of the bass figure preserve its melodic outline but are treated freely in respect of rhythm. Schmitz’s term for an extended cantata on a historical or mythSujetkantate ological theme. synaeresis (sineresi ) The coalesc coalescence ence of two or mor moree adjacent adjacent vowels vowels within within the same word. synaloepha (sinalefe) The coalescence of two or more adjacent vowels belonging to different words. syn ynta tact ctic ic Des escr crib ibes es a fo forrm of or orga gani niza zati tion on whe herre th thee un unit itss ar aree in inte terrde de-pendent and hierarchically ordered. thematische Arbeit The intensive use of thematic material, which is allowed, in a vari va riet ety y of fo form rms, s, to pe perm rmea eate te th thee te text xtur ure. e. A hal hallm lmar ark k of Viennese Classical music. A rapid, scalewise ‘sweep’ of notes (tirade in French). tirata tona to nall cl clos osur uree Thee st Th stat atee th that at ex exis ists ts wh when en a mu musi sica call un unit it en ends ds in th thee ke key y in which it began. tonicization the temporary treatment of any chord as a tonic in its own right. A ba bass ss li live vely ly in rh rhyt ythm hm bu butt sl slug uggi gish sh in me melo lodi dicc mo move veme ment nt.. Th Thee Trommelbaß ‘drumming’ refers to the multiple repetition of a single note. Describes a line of Italian verse in which the final syllable tronco carries a stress. The metre of a tronco line corresponds to the number of actual syllables plus one. Unrhymed lines, usually of varying length. Refers in particular versi sciolti to th thee fre reee mix ixtu turre of settenari (q.v .v.) .) and endecasillabi (q (q.v .v.) .) in settenari (q recitative stanzas. ‘zero’ progre progression ssion The harmo harmonic nic progre progression ssion (or lack of one) that result resultss when a new ne w se sect ctio ion n or mo move veme ment nt op open enss on th thee ve very ry ch chor ord d th that at concluded its predecessor. settenario

List of Vivaldi’s Cantatas Published in the New Critical Edition ‘PR’ numbers are the catalogue numbers assigned to volumes of the New Critical Edition ( Nuova Nuova Edizione Critica) by the publisher, Ricordi. Following their original appearance in individual volumes, all the cantatas except RV 799 have been collected into larger volumes by the same publisher. Karl Heller is the editor of RV 796; the remainder are edited by Francesco Degrada. RV

Title

PR no.

year

649 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668 669 670 671 674 676 677

All’ombra d’un d’un bel faggio faggio Allor che lo sguardo Amor, hai vinto vinto Aure, voi più più non siete Del suo natio natio rigore Elvira, anima anima mia Era la notte quando i suoi suoi splendori splendori Fonti del pianto Geme l’onda che parte dal fonte Il povero mio mio cor Indarno cerca la tortorella tortorella La farfalletta s’aggira al al lume Nel partir da te, mio caro Par che tardo oltre il costume Scherza di fronda in fronda Se ben vivono senz’alma Si levi dal pensier Sì, sì, luci adorate Sorge vermiglia in ciel la bella Aurora T’intendo, sì, mio cor Tra l’erbe i zeffiri Alla caccia dell’alme e de’ de’ cori Care selve, amici prati Perfidissimo cor! Iniquo fato! Pianti, sospiri e dimandar mercede Qual per ignoto calle

1260 1258 1287 1297 1329 1296 1323 1309 1310 1327 1330 1257 1259 1314 1332 1263 1331 1325 1313 1265 1324 1264 1288 1315 1316 1326

1984 1984 1988 1990 1994 1989 1993 1991 1991 1993 1994 1984 1984 1992 1994 1985 1994 1993 1992 1985 1993 1985 1988 1992 1992 1993

207

CANTATAS PUBLISHED IN THE NEW CRITICAL EDITION

RV

Title

678 All’ombra di sospetto sospetto 679 Che giova il sospirar, povero core 680 Lungi dal vago vago volto 681 Perché son molli 682 Vengo a voi, luci adorate 683 Amor, hai vinto vinto 684(a) Cessate, omai cessate 685 O mie porpore più belle 686 Qual in pioggia dorata i dolci rai 796 Usignoletto bello 799 Tremori al braccio e lagrime sul ciglio

PR no.

year

1322 1337 1298 1336 1317 1275 1274 1289 1299 1338 1360

1993 1995 1990 1995 1992 1987 1987 1988 1990 1995 2002

Spurious Works For discussion of the cantatas believed to be misattrib misattributed uted to Vivaldi, refer to pp. 182–7. The so The sour urce ce ma manu nusc scri ript pt fo forr RV 67 672, 2, RV 67 673, 3, an and d RV 67 675 5 is Fl Flor oren ence ce,, Conservatorio Conservator io Statale di Musica ‘Luigi Cherubini’, Ms 772, date c.1710; that for RV 753 is Oxford, Bodleian Library, Mus. Sch. D. 223, pp. 80–6, date c.1711. RV

Title

672 Filli, di gioia vuoi farmi morir 673 Ingrata Lidia, Lidia, ha vinto il tuo tuo rigore 675 Piango, gemo, sospiro e peno 753 Prendea con man di latte

Publication Franco Floris (ed.), Padua: Zanibon, 1958 Virgilio Mortari (ed.), Milan: Carisch, c.1947 Franco Floris (ed.), Padua: Zanibon, 1958 Meneve Dunham (ed.), Madison, WI: A-R Editions, 1979

Bibliography Affò, Ireneo. Dizionario precettivo, critico ed istorico della poesia volgare, Parma: Carmignani, 1777. Agricola, Johann Friedrich. Anleitung zur Singkunst , Berlin: Winter, 1757. Antoniotto, Giorgio. L’arte armonica, 2 vols, London: Johnson, 1760. Baretti, Joseph [Giuseppe]. An Account of the Manners and Customs of Italy, 2 vols, London: Davies, 1769 Becker-Glauch, Irmgard. Die Bedeutung der Musik für die Dresdener Hoffeste bis in die Zeit Augusts des Starken, Kassel and Basel: Bärenreiter, 1951. Bennett, Lawrence. ‘A Little-Known Collection of Early-Eighteenth-Century Vocal Music at Schlos Schlosss Elisa Elisabethenb bethenburg, urg, Meini Meiningen’, ngen’, Fontes Artis Musicae, xlviii (2001), 250–302. Besutti, Paola. La corte musicale di Ferdinando Carlo Gonzaga ultimo duca di Mantova. Musici, cantanti e teatro d’opera tra tra il 1665 e il 1707 , Mantua: Arcari, 1989. Bianconi, Biancon i, Lorenz Lorenzo, o, and Giova Giovanni nni Morell Morellii (eds) (eds).. Antonio Vivaldi. Teatro musicale, cultura e società, Florence: Olschki, 1982. Bizzarini, Marco. Benedetto Marcello. Le cantate profane. I testi poetici, Venice: Edizioni Fondazione Levi, 2003. Boyd, Malcolm. ‘Form and Style in Scarlatti’s Chamber Cantatas’, Music Review, xxv (1964), 17–26. Braun, Joachim. ‘The Double Meaning of Jewish Elements in Dmitri Shostakovich’s Music’, Musical Quarterly, lxxi (1985), 68–80. Brosse Bro sses, s, Cha Charle rless de. Lettres historiques et critiques sur l’Italie, 3 vols, Paris: Ponthieu, 1799. Burney, Charles. A General History of Music from the Earliest Ages to the Present Period , 4 vols, London: Becket and others, 1776–89. Burney, Charles. The Present State of Music in France and Italy, London London:: Becket, 1771. Burrows, David. ‘Style in Culture: Vivaldi, Zeno and Ricci’, The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, iv (1973–74), 1–23. Burrow Bur rows, s, Dav David id L. ‘Th ‘Thee Can Cantat tatas as of Ant Antoni onio o Ces Cesti’ ti’,, unp unpubli ublishe shed d dis disser sertat tation ion,, Brandeis University, 1961. Butt, John. Bach Mass in B Minor, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Careri, Enrico, and Markus Engelhardt (eds). Italienische Instrumentalmusik des 18. Jahrhunderts: Alte und neue Protagonisten (‘Analecta musicologica’, xxxii), Laaber: Laaber-Verlag, 2002. Cataldi, Catal di, Luigi. ‘Alcun ‘Alcunii docume documenti nti relativi alla perma permanenza nenza di Vival Vivaldi di a Mantov Mantova’, a’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani, viii (1987), 13–22. Cataldi, Luigi. ‘Da “Ah, ch’infelice sempre” a “Cessate, omai cessate”. Riflessioni sull su llee va vari riant antii de dell llaa ca cant ntat ataa vi viva vald ldia iana na RV 68 684’ 4’,, Studi vival (200 001) 1),, 13 137– 7–52 52.. vivaldiani diani, i (2 Cataldi, Luigi. ‘I rapporti di Vivaldi con il “Teatro detto il Comico” di Mantova’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani, vi (1985), 88–109.

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der 4. Wissenschaftlichen Arbeitstagung Blankenburg/Harz, 26.–27. Juni 1976 , Magdeburg /Leipzig: Rat des Bezirks/Zentralhaus für Kulturarbeit, 1977. Timms, Colin. ‘“Prendea con man di latte”: A Vivaldi Spuriosity?’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani, vi (1985), 64–73. Timms, Colin. ‘The Cavata at the Time of Vivaldi’, in Antonio Fanna and Giovanni Morelli (eds), Nuovi studi vivaldiani. Edizione e cronologia critica delle opere, Florence: Olschki, 1988, pp. 451–77. Timms, Colin. ‘The Dramatic in Vivaldi’s Cantatas’, in Lorenzo Bianconi and Giovanni Morelli (eds), Antonio Vivaldi. Teatro musicale, cultura e società, Florence: Olschki, 1982, pp. 97–129. Timm Ti mms, s, Co Coli lin. n. ‘T ‘The he It Ital alia ian n Ca Cant ntat ataa si since nce 19 1945 45:: Pr Prog ogre ress ss an and d Pr Pros ospec pects ts’, ’, in Fr Fran ances cesco co Fanna and Michael Talbot (eds), Cinquant’anni di produzioni e consumi della musica dell’età di Vivaldi, 1947–1997 , Florence: Olschki, 1991, pp. 75–94. Tosi, Pier Francesco. Observations on the Florid Song [translated J. E. Galliard], London: Wilcox, 1742. Tosi, Pier Francesco. Opinioni de’ cantori antichi e moderni, Bologna: Lelio della Volpe, 1723. Travers, Roger-Claude. ‘Discographie vivaldienne’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani and Studi vivaldiani, i (1980) onwards. [Villeneuve, Josse de.] Lettre sur le méchanisme de l’opéra italien, Naples, 1756. Vio, Gastone. ‘Antonio Vivaldi violinista in San Marco?’, Informazioni e studi vivaldiani, ii (1981), 51–9. Williams, Hermine Weigel. Francesco Bartolomeo Conti: His Life and Music, Aldershot: Ashgate, 1999. Wörner, Karl H. Das Zeitalter der thematischen Prozesse in der Geschichte der Musik , Regensburg: Gustav Bosse Verlag, 1969. Wright, Edward. Some Observations made in Travelling through France, Italy [. . .] in the Years 1720, 1721, and 1722, 2 vols, London: Ward and Wicksteed, 1730. Wright, Josephine R. B. ‘The Secular Cantatas of Francesco Mancini (1672–1736)’, unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York University, 1975. Zanetti, Emilia. ‘Giorgio Antoniotto, il suo trattato “L’arte armonica” (London, 1760) e l’Opera V di Corelli’, in Pierluigi Petrobelli and Gloria Staffieri (eds), Studi corelliani IV , Florence: Olschki, 1990, pp. 381–404.

Index to Musical Works Colle Col lect ctio ions ns by th thee sam amee com omppos oser er bea eari rinng opu puss nu numb mber erss ar aree li list sted ed in th thee ord rder er of th thos osee numb nu mber ers, s, re rega gard rdle less ss of th thee al alph phab abet etic ical al se sequ quen ence ce of th thei eirr ti titl tles es.. Al Alll ot othe herr co coll llec ecti tion ons, s, an andd alll in al indi divi vidu dual al wo work rkss (w (wit ithh th thee ex exce cept ptio ionn of Vi Viva vald ldi’ i’ss co conc ncer erto toss an andd so sona nata tas, s, wh whic ichh fo foll llow ow thee seq th equuen ence ce of th thei eirr RV num umbber ers) s),, ar aree ord rder ered ed al alppha habbet etic ical ally ly fi firs rstt by gen enre re (i (iff ne need eded ed)) and then by title or incipit. For further references to composers, see the General Index. Albergati, P.

Arrigoni, C.

Collections

Cantatas

Cantate morali a voce sola , Op. 3 3, 5 Cantate a voce sola , Op. 6 3, 5 Cantate spirituali , Op Op. 9 4, 6 Cantate e oratorii a 1, 2 e 3 voci , Op. 10 4,

6 . , Op Op.. 13 13 4, 6 Corona de preggi di M.V ., Albinoni, T. Cantatas Allor che il mondo mondo in letargo letargo profondo profondo

(provisional (provi sional attri attribution bution)) 189–91 Op. 4 no. no. 5 18 1866 Lontananza Lontananz a crudel, Op. Collections Cantate a voce sola , Op. Op. 4 xi xii, i, 4, 7, 7, 58n 58n Concerti a cinque , Op. 5 130 Trattenimenti armonici per camera , Op. 6 7 ‘Berli ‘Be rlin’ n’ cant cantata atass 14n Opera Statira 60

Qual per ignoto calle (provisional

attrib att ributi ution) on) 70, 177–9 177–9,, 183 Ti sento, Amor, ti sento 178n Collection Cantate da camera 4, 6, 178 Bach, J. S. First Brandenburg Concerto , BWV 1046

117 BWV 23 2322 16 168, 8, 18 1866 Mass in B minor minor, BWV St Matthew Passion , BW BWV 244 244 50 Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen , BWV 12 186–7 Badia, C. A. Collection Tributi armonici 4, 6 Bassani, G. B.

Collections Cantate a voce sola , Op Op. 2 3, 5 Cantate a voce sola, Op. 2 3, 5 Madrigali Madriga li e cantate spirituali spirituali a 2 e 3 voci ,

Aldrovandini, G. Collection Cantate a voce sola , Op. 2 4, 6 Alghisi, P. Collection Cantate 3, 6 Altogiri (Abate) Collection Cantate a voce sola 4, 7 Alveri, G. B. Collection Cantate a voce sola , Op. 1 3, 5 Amodei, C. Collection Cantate a voce sola 3, 6 Anon. Cantata pastorale fatta per Calen di Maggio 26 Cantata Vieni all’ombra di quel faggio 103 Opera Alessandr Alessandro o cognominato cognominato Severo Severo

Bassani, P. A. Collection Cantate a voce sola , Op. 1 4, 6 Beethoven, L. van

(pasti (pas ticc ccio io)) 91 Pastoral Amore sul monte overo overo Gli amori di di

String quartet in C minor, Op. 18 no. 4 112

Diana e d’Endimione d’Endimione nel monte Lamo Lamo di Paria 93 Ariosti, A.

Bigaglia, D.

[Sixx cantata [Si cantatass and six six lessons lessons]] 4, 6

Op. 4 3, 5 Cantate a voce sola , Op Op. 6 3, 5 Op. 7 3, 5 Cantate a voce sola , Op Op. 14 14 3, 6 Cantate a voce sola , Op Op. 15 15 3, 7 Cantate a voce sola , Op Cantate a voce sola , Op Op. 16 16 3, 6 Cantate a voce sola , Op Op. 17 17 4, 7 Cantate a voce sola , Op. 19 4, 6 Op. 28 28 4, 7 Cantate a voce sola , Op Cantate a voce sola con violini unisoni , Op.

31 4, 6

Cantatas All’ombra di sospetto 70–1 All’ombra T’intendo, sì, mio cor 67

218

INDEX TO MUSICAL WORKS

Boniventi, G.

Corelli, A.

Cantatas

Collections Sonate , Op. 5 7 Concerti grossi , Op. 6 7

Ferma pur l’incauto voto 186n Infelice Dorinda Dorinda 186 Ingrata Lidia, Lidia, ha vinto il tuo tuo rigor 185

Operas Bertarido, re re dei Longobardi Longobardi 186 Filippo, re di Macedonia (w (wit ithh Vival Vivaldi di)) 72,

128, 129, 186 Il Climene 91, 93n, 102n Bononcini, G. Cantata Ingrata Lidia, Lidia, ha vinto il tuo rigor 71,

185 Collection Cantate e duetti 4, 6 Opera Il trionfo di Camilla 100n Bononcini, G. M.

Collections Cantate a voce sola , Op. Op. 10 3, 5 Op. 13 3, 5 Cantate a voce sola , Op. Boyce, W. Cathedral Music 178 Braibanzi, F. Collection Cantate a voce sola , Op Op. 2 4, 6 Brevi, G. B.

Collections Cantate a voce sola , Op. 1 3, 5 I deliri d’amor d’amor divino, Op. Op. 5 3, 6, 98 98nn Cantate a voce sola , Op. 7 3, 6 Brusa, G. F.

Cantatas Io non so dir se per sentier sentier nascosto 132 Però che scende in petto 132 So che sospiro, e sento 132 Vezzose pupillette, i vostri sguardi 132

Operas Arsace 122n Il trionfo della della virtù 122 L’amore eroico eroico 122 Medea e Giasone Giasone 122, 123 Caldara, A. Collection Cantate a voce sola , Op Op. 3 4, 7, 7,

9 Canuti, G. A. Collection Cantate da camera a voce sola 4,

6 Cazzati, M.

Collections 28nn Canzoni a tre, Op. 2 28 Op. 20 3, 5 Cantate morali e spirituali , Op. Op. 41 3, 5 Arie e cantate cantate a voce sola sola , Op. Cherici, S. Collection Ariete o cantate cantate, Op. 5 4, 6 Coletti, A. B. Collection Cantate a voce sola 4, 6 Conti, F. B. Cantata Prendea con man di latte 71, 184

Coya, S.

Collection L’amante impazzito, Op. 1 3, 6 D’Alay, M.

Cantatas Amo Daliso, Daliso, è ver 100–1, 123 Son pellegrino errante 132

Collections Op. 1 123 XII Concerti Concerti, Op Cantate e suonate 4, 6, 123 D’Alessandro, G. Serenata Il coro delle delle Muse 63n, 170 D’Astorga, E. Collection Cantate a voce sola 4, 6 Degli Antonii, P. Collection Cantate a voce sola, Op. 6 3, 5 Del Ricco, A. Collection Cantate a voce sola 3, 6 Della Ciaia, A. B. Collection Cantate da camera a voce sola 4, 6 Duni, A. Collection Cantate da camera 5, 6 Ernst Ludwig, Landgrave of HesseDarmstadt Collection Douze suites suites et symphonies symphonies 91 Farina, A. ‘Duetto fatto per commando di due dame all’im all ’impro provis visoo a cavallo cavallo . . .’ 66 Gabrielli, D. Collection Cantate a voce sola, Op. 2 3, 5 Gaffi, B. Collection Cantate da camera a voce sola 4,

6, 98n Galuppi, B. Opera Gl’odii delusi dal sangue (with

Pesc Pe scet etti ti)) 88 Gasparini, F. Collection Ca Cant ntat atee a vo voce ce so sola la, Op. 1 3, 6, 7, 55 Opera Nino 129 Serenata Qui di natura a scorno 99 Grandi, A. Collection Cantade et arie 26 Gregori, G. L. Collection Cantate a voce sola, Op. 3 4, 6 Grossi, C.

Collections La cetra d’Apollo d’Apollo, Op. 6 3, 6 L’Anfionee, Op. 7 3, 6 L’Anfion Op. 19 19 3, 6 Il divertimento divertimento de grandi grandi, Op Handel, G. F.

Serenatas Amarilli vezzosa vezzosa, HWV 82 99 Oh, come chiare e belle , HW HWV 14 143 99


219

Hasse, J. A. Opera Dalisa 168 Haydn, F. J. Cantata Arianna a Naxos Naxos 13

Montuoli, C.

Symphony no. 49 in F minor, La Passione Passione 112

Collection Cantate a voce sola , Op. 2 4, 6

Heinichen, J. D. Cantata Alla caccia dell’alme e de’ cori 68–70 Hindemith, P. Ludus tonalis tonalis 193 Keiser, R. Collection Divertim Divertimenti enti serenissimi serenissimi 4, 6 Kelleri, F. Collection Cantate e arie con strumenti 4, 6 Kuhnau, J. Biblische Historien Historien 116 Le Grand, N. F.

Mozart, W.A. Opera Don Giovanni Giovanni 81, 102 Nanini, D. Cantata Coll’amare e col servire 132 Parisotti, A. Collection (edited or composed) Arie antiche antiche

Collections Cantate e ariette a voce solo, libro 1 4, 5 Cantate e ariette a voce solo, libro 2 4, 5 Legrenzi, G.

Collections Cantate e canzonette a voce sola , Op. 12 3,

5, 98n Op. 14 14 3, 5 Cantate e canzoni a voce sola , Op Leo, L. Cantata T’intendo, sì, mio cor 67–8, 146 Operas Catone in Utica 129 Timocrate 64 Locatelli, P. Collection XII Sonate Sonate a flauto traversiere traversiere e basso , Op. 2 180 Majo, G. de

Cantatas Parto, addio: il mio destino 132 Sotto l’ombra d’un faggio 103, 132 Mancini, F. Cantata Sotto l’ombra d’un faggio 103 Opera Trajano 129 Marcello, A. Collection Cantate da camera a voce sola 4,

Collection (edited) Cantate a voce sola e basso continuo 4, 6 Motta, A.

21 Paulato, A. Collection Cantate a voce sola Op. 1, 3, 6 Pergolesi, G. B. Stabat Mater 2 Perti, G. A. Collection Cantate morali a 1 e 2 voci , Op.

1 3, 5 Pescetti, G. B.

Cantatas Di sì bel faggio faggio all’ombra all’ombra 87–8, 103 Questo è il platano 67n T’intendo, sì, mio cor 67–8 Opera Gl’odii delusi dal sangue (with

Galu Ga lupp ppii) 88 Petrobelli, F. Collection Cantate a 2, 3, e 4 voci Op. 9, 3,

5 Pisendel, J. G.

Concer Con certo to for for violin violin in in A minor minor 166 Pistocchi, F. A. Cantata Dolorosa partenza, partenza, oh Dio, Dio, che l’alma 52–3

Collections Cantate , Op. 1 4, 6 Op. [2 [2]] 4, 5, Scherzi musicali . . . cantate , Op. 52

Marcello, B.

Pollarolo, A. Opera Turia Lucrezia 133 Porfirii, P. Collection Cantate a voce sola , Op Op. 1 3, 5 Porpora, N.

Cantatas

Cantatas

7 Cassandra 44 Cessate, omai cessate 134n

Collections Recorde Reco rderr sonat sonatas, as, Op. 2 27 Canzoni madrigalesche , Op. 4 7 Marino, C. A. Collection Cantate a voce sola, Op. 4 3, 7 Mazzaferrata, G. B.

Collections Cantate e canzonette a 2 voci , Op. 3 3, 5 Cantate a voce sola , Op. 4 3, 5 Cantate morali e spirituali , Op. 7 3, 5

Alla caccia dell’alme e de’ cori 68–70, 150,

151 Movo il pie’, pie’, il sguardo giro giro 132, 132–3 Questo è il platano 67n T’intendo, sì, mio cor 67–8, 146–8 Collection Cantate , Op. 1 5, 6

Operas Imeneo in Atene Atene 149 Siface 133, 148 Siroe, re di Persia 129 Porta, G. Serenata Il ritratto dell’eroe dell’eroe 63n

220


Predieri, G. C. Collection Cantate morali a 2 e 3 voci , Op. 1

3, 6

Cantatas RV 649 649 18 18,, 24n 24n,, All’ombra All’ombr a d’un bel faggio faggio , RV

Belve, se mai mai provaste 57–8 Là, nelle verdi verdi spiagge 33 Collection Il consiglio degli amanti amanti , Op. 3 3, 6 Vinci, L.

43n, 66, 77–9, 84–5, 95, 97, 98, 99, 101, 103, 180–2, 197 All’ombra All’ombr a di sospetto, RV RV 678 678 22 22–3 –3,, 23, 23, 37, 43, 45, 59, 70–1, 88, 124, 169, 171, 172, 197 Alla caccia caccia dell’alme e de’ cori, RV 670 22, 23, 23, 35–6, 35–6, 43, 43, 66, 68–70 68–70,, 124, 124, 125, 137, 150, 197 Allor che lo lo sguardo, RV RV 650 650 23, 24n 24n,, 43n, 43n, 124, 125, 137–8, 140, 197 Amor, hai vinto vinto, hai vinto: ecco il mio seno , RV 651 22, 23, 23, 43n, 71–2, 71–2, 124, 124, 125, 125, 134, 134, 138–9, 144, 158, 197 Amor, hai vinto vinto, hai vinto: ecco il mio seno , RV 683 23, 43n, 71–2, 88, 116, 124, 133– 13 3–5, 5, 13 136, 6, 13 136– 6–7, 7, 15 154, 4, 15 158– 8–60 60,, 19 196, 6, 19 1977 Aure, voi più più non siete, RV 652 43n, 59, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 104–7, 107, 115n, 197 Care selve, amici prati, RV 67 6711 23 23,, 43, 43, 44, 44, 124, 125, 137, 150–1, 197 684/ 4/RV RV 684 684aa 16, Cessate, omai cessate, RV 68 23, 43n, 88, 116, 124, 126, 133–5, 160–1, 162, 196, 197 Che giova il sospirar, povero core , RV 679 43n, 88, 103, 124, 125, 131–3, 151, 152–3, 160, 197 RV 653 653 17 17n, n, 43, 43, 95, Del suo natio natio rigore, RV 96n, 97, 98, 101, 107–9, 197 Elvira, anima anima mia, RV 65 6544 22 22,, 23, 23, 43n, 43n, 84, 84, 95, 97, 98, 99, 102, 107–10, 197 Era la notte notte quando i suoi suoi splendori splendori , RV 655 35, 43n, 43n, 124, 124, 125, 125, 139, 139, 171, 171, 172, 172, 197 Filli, di gioia vuoi farmi morir (spurious), RV 672 672 8n, 22, 23, 18 184–5 4–5 Fonti del pianto, RV 656 23, 43n, 124, 125, 136, 139–40, 171, 172, 197 Geme l’onda che parte dal fonte , RV 657 22, 23, 43n, 82–3, 124, 125, 136, 140–2, 143, 169–70, 171, 172, 173, 197 RV 658 658 17n 17n,, 43n, 43n, 95, Il povero mio mio cor, RV 96n, 97, 98, 99n, 110, 197 Indarno cerca cerca la tortorella tortorella , RV RV 659 659 22 22,, 23, 23, 43n, 95, 97, 98, 99, 101, 110–11, 115n, 196, 197

Operas

Ingrata Lidia, Lidia, ha vinto il tuo tuo rigor

Didone abbandonata abbandonata 129 Siroe, re di Persia 71, 134 Vivaldi, A.

(spurious) (spur ious),, RV 673 8n, 22, 22, 37, 71, 184–6 184–6 La farfalletta farfalletta s’aggira al al lume, RV RV 660 660 22, 23, 43, 124, 125, 142, 197 RV 680 680 23, 43n 43n,, 51, 51, Lungi dal vago vago volto, RV 84, 88, 95, 96, 97, 99, 102, 113–15, 116, 180, 197 Nel partir da te, mio caro, RV RV 661 661 19 19,, 43n 43n,, 73–4, 95, 96n, 97, 111–12, 196, 197

Riemann, H.

Collection (edited) Auserwäh Auserwählte lte KammerKammerKantaten der Zeit um 1700 21 Roseingrave, T. Collection VI Italian cantatas 5, 6 Rossi, G. B. Opera La fedeltà sfortunata sfortunata 61 Ruggieri, G. M. Collection Cantate a voce sola , Op Op. 5 4, 7 Sandoni, P. G. Collection Cantate da camera 4, 6 Sarri, D. Opera Didone abbandonata abbandonata 129 Scarlatti, A.

Cantatas Sotto l’ombra d’un faggio, piangente e sospirante 103 Sotto l’ombra d’un faggio, sul margine d’un rivo 103 Collection Cantate a 1 e 2 voci, Op. Op. 1 4, 5, 7 Silvani, G. A. Collection Cantate morali a 1, 2, e 3 voci , Op.

5 4, 6 Steffani, A.

Chamber duet D’un faggio faggio a l’ombra assiso 103 Stiparoli, F.

Cantatas Dimando al al ruscelletto ruscelletto 132 Quel basso vapore 132 Stricker, A. R. Collection Cantate a voce sola, Op. 1 4, 6 Telemann, G. P. Cantata Ino 26n, 44 Tosi, G. F. Collection Cantate a voce sola, Op. 2 3, 5 Tozzi, A. Cantata Dunque il perfido perfido Enea Enea 127 Vinaccesi, B.

Cantatas

Arias ‘La pastorell pastorellaa sul primo albore albore’’ RV 749.7, 749.7, 97 movements in Medea e Giasone Giasone, RV 749.1 74 9.11, 1, 13, 13, and and 16 16 122 122nn

INDEX TO MUSICAL WORKS O mie porpore più belle , RV RV 685 685 23, 43, 88,

95, 96, 97, 99, 101, 116, 197 Par che tardo oltre il costume , RV RV 66 662 23 23,, 43n, 79–82, 82–3, 124, 125, 136, 142–3, 169–70, 171, 172, 196, 197 Perché son molli , RV 681 681 37 37,, 43n, 43n, 88, 88, 124 124,, 126, 126–7, 151, 154, 155–6, 183, 197 Perfidissimo cor! Iniquo fato! , RV RV 674 674 43 43n, n, 47–8, 85, 124, 137, 171, 172, 173–4, 197 Piango, gemo, sospiro e peno (spurious), RV 675 675 8n, 22 22,, 23, 23, 184– 184–77 Pianti, sospiri e dimandar mercede , RV 676 23, 43, 59, 124, 137, 171, 172, 173–4, 197 Prendea con man di latte (spurious), RV 753 8n, 18, 18, 20, 20, 71, 124, 124, 183–4 183–4,, 185 Qual in pioggia dorata i dolci rai , RV 686 18, 23, 43, 59, 88, 95, 96, 97, 98, 116–18, 197 RV 677 677 23, 43n 43n,, 45, 45, Qual per ignoto calle , RV 51, 66, 70, 84, 124, 137, 171, 172, 176–9, 189, 197 Scherza di fronda in fronda , RV RV 663 663 24 24n, n, 43n, 71, 72–3, 115n, 124, 125, 127, 128, 128–31, 143–4, 146, 168, 169, 188, 197 Se ben vivono senz’alma , RV RV 664 664 43 43n, n, 12 124, 4, 125, 144, 189, 197 Si levi dal pensier , RV RV 665 665 43n 43n,, 95, 95, 97, 97, 99–100, 197, 198n 24n,, 43n, 43n, 124 124,, Sì, sì, luci adorate, RV 666 24n 144, 197 Sorge vermiglia in ciel la bella Aurora , RV 667 23, 43n, 43n, 46, 115n, 115n, 124, 124, 125, 125, 135–6, 135–6, 136, 144–6, 169–70, 171, 172, 197 RV 668 668 19 19,, 43n 43n,, T’intendo, sì, mio cor , RV 66–8, 115n, 124, 125, 146–9, 150, 197 Tra l’erbe i zeffiri , RV RV 669 669 35 35,, 43, 43, 124, 124, 125, 135–6, 149–50, 197 Tremori al braccio e lagrime sul ciglio , RV 799 18, 20, 20, 24n, 43n, 43n, 84, 84, 95, 96, 96, 98, 99, 99, 102, 118–19, 196, 197, 198, 199 Usignoletto bello , RV 79 7966 8, 12n 12n,, 18, 18, 20, 20, 43n, 98, 124, 126, 127–8, 161, 163, 168, 169, 183, 193, 194–5, 197 RV 682 682 23, Vengo a voi, luci adorate , RV 34–5, 43n, 88, 124, 126, 137, 154, 157–8, 188, 197 Collections Op. 2 16 165, 5, 18 1833 Sonate a violino e basso , Op. Op. 3 7, 11, 11, 121, 121, 143 143,, L’estro armonico armonico, Op. 165 La stravaganza stravaganza, Op. 4 121 Il cimento dell’armon dell’armonia ia e dell’inventione dell’inventione , Op. 8 121 Op. 8 nos nos.. 1–4 1–4 74, 90, Le quattro stagioni stagioni, Op. 191

221

La cetra, Op Op. 9 121 Op. 10 10 180 VI Concerti a flauto traverso , Op

‘Manchester’’ violin ‘Manchester violin sonatas 165, 172 Concertos RV 95 for recorder, oboe, violin, and bass ( La La pastorella pastorella) 154 RV 103 for recorder, oboe, and bassoon without wit hout orc orches hestra tra 129 RV 121 121 for str strings ings in D majo majorr 97 RV 151 for strings in G major ( Concerto alla rustica) 97 RV 160 160 for str strings ings in A majo majorr 97 RV 210 for violin in D major, Op. 8 no. 11 97 RV 213 213 for vio violin lin in in D major major 154 RV 229 229 for vio violin lin in in D major major 97 RV 231 231 for vio violin lin in in D major major 97 RV 249 for violin in D minor, Op. 4 no. 8 86 RV 250 250 for viol violin in in E flat flat majo majorr 97 RV 269 for violin in E major, Op. 8 no. 1 ( La La primavera primavera) 107 RV 293 for violin in F major, Op. 8 no. 3 ( L’autunno L’autunno) 86 RV 297 for violin in F minor, ( L’inverno L’inverno), Op. 8 no. 4 138 RV 299 for violin in G major, Op. 7 no. 8 11 RV 332 for violin in G minor, Op. 8 no. 8 97 RV 355 for violin in A major (‘The Cuck Cu ckow ow’) ’) 11 RV 533 533 for two two flute flutess in C major major 59 RV 534 534 for two oboes oboes in C majo majorr 97 RV 536 536 for two oboes oboes in A mino minorr 97 RV 552 for violin and ‘echo’ violin in A maj ajoor 170 RV 558 for several instruments in C major 138 RV 565 for two violins and cello in D mino mi nor, r, Op. Op. 3 no. 11 11 1188 RV 576 for several instruments in G minor (‘per Sua Altezza Reale di Sassonia’) 167 RV 577 for several instruments in G minor (‘p[er] (‘p[e r] l’Orche l’Orchestra stra di Dresda’ Dresda’)) 167 RV 580 for four violins in B minor, Op. 3 no. 10 11 RV 780 (withdrawn number) for harpsichord (correctly, violin and violoncello all’inglese) in in A ma majo jorr 86 RV deest for flu flute te in in G majo majorr 154 Operas RV 699 699 63 63,, 90 90 Armida al campo d’Egitto d’Egitto , RV Arsilda, regina regina di Ponto Ponto , RV 700 63, 86, 168

222


Catone in Utica , RV RV 70 705 14 1444 La costanza trionfante degl’amor degl’amorii e de gl’odii, RV RV 706 706 60 60n, n, 63 RV 70 709 122 Dorilla in Tempe Tempe, RV RV 71 710 21n Ercole su’l Termondo Termondonte nte , RV Farnace , RV 711 711 82, 91, 91, 117, 117, 120, 120, 122, 122,

136, 143, 169 Filippo, re di Macedonia (with Boniventi),

RV 715 72, 128 128,, 186 186 RV 717 717 86 86,, 160 160 Giustino , RV Griselda , RV 718 74 L’Artabano L’Artaban o , RV 701 91 L’Atenaidee , RV L’Atenaid RV 702 702 13 134, 4, 16 1699 RV 719 719 58 58,, 63, 63, L’incoronazione L’incoron azione di Dario Dario , RV 76n L’Olimpiade L’Olimpia de, RV RV 725 725 22 22,, 79 79 La Candace Candace o siano Li veri veri amici, RV 704 91 RV 71 712 169 La fede tradita tradita e vendicata vendicata , RV RV 714 714 14 143, 3, 16 1699 La fida ninfa, RV La verità in cimento cimento, RV RV 73 739 12 1200 Orlando finto pazzo , RV RV 727 727 56, 63 63,, 86, 86, 168 RV 728 728 23 23,, 86, 86, 134 Orlando furioso , RV RV 729 729 56 56,, 107 107 Ottone in villa, RV Scanderbeg , RV 732 90 Semiramide , RV RV 733 733 91 91,, 92, 92, 169 Siroe, re di Persia , RV 735 71 RV 736 736 91 91,, 92, 92, 97 97 Teuzzone , RV RV 73 737 63 Tieteberga , RV Tito Manlio, RV RV 738 738 91 91,, 97 97 Oratorio Juditha triumphans triumphans, RV RV 644 644 15 15,, 63, 63, 65, 101, 116, 144, 175–6 Sacred vocal music Ascende laeta laeta, RV 635 63 Beatus vir, RV 597/ 597/RV RV 795 795 146, 160, 170, 182 RV 624 624 63 63,, 127 127 Carae rosae, respirate , RV RV 62 625 63 Clarae stellae, scintillate , RV RV 63 638 63 Filiae maestae Jerusalem , RV Gloria , RV RV 589 589 63 63,, 118 118 In furore iustissimae iustissimae irae irae , RV RV 62 626 18 1899 RV 62 627 169 In turbato mare mare irato, RV RV 62 628 63 Invicti, bellate bellate, RV Jubilate, o amoeni amoeni chori, RV 639/RV 639a 63, 97 Laudate pueri pueri Dominum Dominum in C minor, RV 600 63, 64 64

Laudate pueri pueri Dominum Dominum in G major, RV

601 169 Magnificat Magnific at , RV RV 61 610 168 RV 61 611 112 Magnificat Magnific at , RV 803 17 1700, Nisi Dominus Dominus in A major, RV 80 182 Nisi Dominus Dominus in G min minor or,, RV RV 608 608 63 RV 64 641 63 Non in pratis pratis aut in hortis hortis , RV Nulla in mundo mundo pax sincera sincera, RV 630 63, 65, 189 Ostro picta, armata spina , RV 642 63 majo jor, r, RV RV 617 617 11 1166 Salve Regina in F ma Stabat Mater, RV RV 621 621 56 56,, 63, 63, 65 Sum in medio tempestatum , RV RV 63 632 169 RV 63 633 63 Vestro principi divino , RV Serenatas RV 69 691 63 63nn Il Mopso, RV La gara della della Giustizia Giustizia e della Pace Pace , RV 689 121 RV 693 693 121 La Senna festeggiant festeggiantee , RV RV 688 688 10 10,, 63 63 Le gare del del dovere, RV 6922 91 91,, 93–4 93–4,, Serenata a quattro voci , RV 69 99 Wedding Serenata (Gloria e Himeneo), RV 6877 12 68 121, 1, 16 1644 RV 169 169 158 Sinfonia al Santo Sepolcro , RV Sonatas RV 2 for vio violin lin in C major major 188 RV 6 for for violi violinn in C minor minor 112, 138 RV 16 for violin violin in in E minor, minor, Op. Op. 2 no. 9 51 RV 28 for violin violin (or (or oboe?) oboe?) in G minor minor 166 RV 34 for violin (or oboe?) in B flat major 166 RV 53 for for oboe oboe in C minor minor 138, 166, 166, 188 188 RV 779 for violin, oboe, organ and chalu cha lume meau au in C maj major or 87 Viviani, G. B.

Collections Cantate a voce sola , Op. 1 3, 5 Veglie armoniche , Op. 7 3, 6 Zanata, D.

Collections Cantate a voce sola , Op. 2 3, 7 Cantate a voce sola , Op. 4 4, 7 Zelenka, J. D.

eight eig ht ari arias, as, ZWV 176 169

General Index Word by wo Word word rd al alph phab abet etiz izat atio ionn is us used ed fo forr th this is in inde dex. x. Te Term rmss ma mark rked ed wi with th an as aste teri risk sk ha have ve a related entry in the Glossary. ‘A’ and ‘B’ sections, how related them th emat atic ical ally ly 53 53–4 –4 Accademiaa degli Accademi degli Animosi Animosi,, of Venice 40n Accademi Acca demiaa dei Timidi Timidi,, of Mantua Mantua 94 Accademiaa della Accademi della Crusca, Crusca, of Florence Florence 39 accademia * general defini definition tion and descripti description on of 38–41 social soc ial equa equalit lityy withi withinn 41 acciacca acci accatur tura* a* 39, 49, 192 accompagnato* see accompanied recitative accompanied accompan ied cantatas cantatas,, preferre preferredd today today 23, 189 189 accompanied accompan ied recitat recitative ive 15, 29, 50, 65, 65, 84, 117, 154, 159, 160, 161 accompanied voice, always sounds like an uppe up perr par partt 16 1611 Adorn Ado rno, o, The Theod odor or 20 Adria, Adr ia, Arcadi Arcadian an name name for Venice Venice 99 affetto* 45, 59– 59–60 60,, 60, 60, 88, 88, 111 111 ‘mixed’, 151 Affò Af fò,, Ire Irene neoo 30 Agrico Agr icola, la, Johann Johann Fried Friedric richh 48n Alberg Alb ergati ati,, Pirro Pirro 3, 4, 5, 6 Alber Al berti ti Bas Basss 17 1744 Albinoni, Albino ni, Tomaso Tomaso xii, 1, 1, 4, 7, 13, 14, 51, 56, 60, 81, 82, 108, 120, 121–2, 130, 160, 166n, 184, 186, 189, 189–91, 193 as ‘top ‘top down’ down’ compo composer ser 58, 191 191 his cant cantata ata arias arias used used as son songs gs 7n Aldric Ald rich, h, Henr Henryy 9, 10, 18 Aldrov Ald rovandi andini, ni, Giuse Giuseppe ppe 4, 6, 184 Alghi Al ghisi si,, Pari Pariss 3, 6 1600 see also French alla francese rhythm 16 style alle al lema mand ndaa 53 Alto Al togi giri ri (Aba (Abate te)) 4, 7 Alveri Alv eri,, Giovan Giovanni ni Battis Battista ta 3, 5 Alvisi Alv isi,, Fra Frances ncesco co 165n Amade Am adei, i, Fede Federi rico co 93 ambitus *, accord according ing to to Heinich Heinichen en 45, 110 110 Amode Am odei, i, Cat Catal aldo do 3, 6 Amst Am ster erdam dam 2, 4, 4, 5, 180 180 Ancona 82 Anfus Anf uso, o, Nel Nella la 23

Angeli, Angel i, And Andre reaa d’ 53 53nn Annn of An of Denm Denmar arkk 18 1844 Annaa Maria, Ann Maria, of the Pietà Pietà 122, 123 123 Anniba Ann ibali, li, Dom Domeni enico co 167 Anssba An bach ch 16 1666 Anton Ulric Ulrich, h, duke duke of Saxe-M Saxe-Meining einingen en 131–2, 133 Antoni Ant oniott otto, o, Giorgi Giorgioo 38–9 38–9,, 49n Apel Ap el,, Will Willii 28 28nn appoggi appo ggiatu atura ra 48, 49, 49, 65, 79, 79, 178, 180 180 A-R Edi Editio tions, ns, publ publish isher er 23 ARA scheme scheme 30–3, 44, 58–9, 58–9, 63, 67, 137, 137, 196 ARAR AR ARA A sc sche heme me 31 31–2 –2 Arcadia Arc adiann Academy, Academy, of of Rome 39– 39–41, 41, 99 Arcadia Arc adiann aesth aestheti etics cs 39–4 39–422 Arcadian Arcadi an names, names, represent representing ing real real persons persons 94, 99–102 Arcadian Arcadi an verse, verse, narrow narrow range of 42–3, 103 arcate lunghe, musica musicall direct direction ion 86, 117–18 117–18 aria all’unisono 98, 118 aria d’azione 161 aria ar ia ve vers rsee 25 arias displa dis place ce cantat cantatas as 7, 13, 13, 31 in dan dance ce styl stylee 55 55,, 56–7 56–7 withh strophi wit strophicc repetit repetition ion 34n arioso* arios o* 15, 29, 30, 44, 50, 50–1, 50–1, 65, 84, 84, 108, 114, 176 Ariost Ari osti, i, Attil Attilio io 4, 6, 15, 118, 118, 184 Aris Ar isto totl tlee 26 Arrigoni, Arri goni, Carlo 4, 6, 70, 177, 177, 178–9, 178–9, 183 Atkins Atk ins,, publi publishe sherr 4, 6 Auber Au bert, t, Isab Isabel ella la 184 Auber Au bert, t, Jo John hn 184 Augs Au gsbu burg rg 92 Augustus the Strong see Friedrich August I, elector of Saxony Bach, Carl Bach, Carl Philip Philippp Emanuel Emanuel 112 Bach, Johann Sebast Sebastian ian 9, 11, 17, 29–30, 29–30, 50, 50, 59, 64, 117, 168, 186–7, 193, 196 Bach-G Bac h-Gese esells llschaf chaftt 11 Badia, Bad ia, Car Carlo lo Agos Agostin tinoo 4, 6

224

GENERAL INDEX

Baldan Bald an,, Ise Isepp ppoo 170 ballad bal lade, e, old old poetic poetic for form m 29 Bamb Ba mber ergg 13 1333 Staat St aatsa sarc rchi hivv 133 133nn Barett Bar etti, i, Joseph Joseph (Giusep (Giuseppe) pe) 39– 39–41 41 Baro Ba rocc ccoo Venezi Veneziano ano 24 Bassani, Bassa ni, Giovanni Giovanni Batti Battista sta 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Bassan Bas sani, i, Paolo Paolo Ant Antoni onioo 4, 6 basses, basse s, reperto repertory ry of of cantatas cantatas for 98 accompanim niment ent 116, 127, 161 bassetto * accompa basso continuo , def defiine nedd 27 basso ba sso ost ostina inato to see ground bass Becker Bec ker-Gl -Glauch auch,, Irmgard Irmgard 167n Beetho Bee thoven, ven, Ludw Ludwig ig van van 67n, 112 Beli Be lisa sani ni,, Cecili Ceciliaa 76 Benati Ben ati,, Carlo Carlo Anton Antonio io 184, 185 185 Bencin Ben cini, i, Piet Pietro ro Paol Paoloo 133n Beni Be nign gna, a, Anton Antonio io 165 165nn Bennet Ben nett, t, Lawr Lawrence ence 131 131nn Bentiv Ben tivogl oglio io d’Aragon d’Aragona, a, Guido Guido 75, 82 Berlin, Staatsbibliothek ‘Preußischer Kultur Kul turbes besitz itz’’ 14n 14n,, 71n, 71n, 185 Berl Be rlio ioz, z, Hect Hector or 81 Besu Be sutt tti, i, Paol Paolaa 76 76nn Bever Be ver,, Thoma Thomass 12 124, 4, 127 127 Bianch Bia nchi, i, Angiol Angiolett ettaa 62, 68, 76, 76, 127 Bianco Bia nconi, ni, Lor Lorenzo enzo 19n, 63n Biffi, Bif fi, Ant Antoni onino no 51, 113 Bigagl Big aglia, ia, Diogen Diogenio io 67, 70–1, 70–1, 177 177 binary bin ary for form m 51, 56–7, 56–7, 77, 111 111 exte ex tend nded ed** 51 51–2 –2 roun ro unde dedd 79 79,, 111 111 binder bin der’s ’s colle collecti ction on 10, 127, 127, 182 Bindi, Bin di, Gio Giovann vannii 167, 169 Bizzar Biz zarini ini Mar Marco, co, xii, xii, 102n, 102n, 134n bizzarria * 49 Blanch Bla nchard ard,, Roger Roger 22, 23 Blochw Blo chwitz itz,, Johann Johann Mart Martin in 180 Bois, Boi s, Mari Mario, o, publi publishe sherr 22 Bologn Bol ognaa 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 165, 167 Civico Museo Bibli Bibliografi ografico co Musical Musicalee 69n Boniventi, Bonive nti, Giusep Giuseppe pe 72n, 91, 91, 93n, 93n, 102n, 128, 185–6 Bononcini, Bononci ni, Giovanni Giovanni 1, 4, 6, 6, 7, 10, 10, 15, 55, 55, 70, 71, 99n, 100n, 177, 184, 185, 189, 191 Bononci Bon oncini, ni, Giov Giovanni anni Mar Maria ia 3, 5 Bordonii (-Hasse Bordon (-Hasse), ), Faustina Faustina 77, 122, 122, 123, 132–3, 151, 193 Bore Bo rell lli, i, Gianc Giancol olaa 23 Bortol Bor toli, i, publ publish isher er 2, 4, 4, 7 Bowe Bo wers rs,, Gar Garry ry 11n Boyce Bo yce,, Will Willia iam m 17 1788 Boyd, Boy d, Mal Malcolm colm xii xii,, 32–3 32–3 Braiban Bra ibanzi, zi, Fra Frances ncesco co 4, 6 Braun Br aun,, Joach Joachim im 10 107n 7n Breitk Bre itkopf opf & Härtel Härtel,, publishe publisherr 12

Breitkopf Breitk opf,, pub publis lisher her 2 Brennei Bre nneis, s, Cle Clemen menss xii Bresci Bre scia, a, Chies Chiesaa della della Pace Pace 63 Brevi, Bre vi, Giova Giovanni nni Batti Battista sta 3, 6, 98n Brosch Bro schi, i, Ric Riccar cardo do 133 133nn Brossa Bro ssard, rd, Séba Sébasti stien en de de 27 Brosse Bro sses, s, Charl Charles es de 9, 104, 104, 198 Brun Br unel elli li,, Bruno Bruno 32n Brusa, Giovan Giovanni ni Francesco Francesco 122–3, 123, 132 Brus Br usse sels ls 92 Conser Con servat vatoir oiree Royal de Musiqu Musiquee 186n Buffar Buf fardin din,, Pierre Pierre Gabriel Gabriel 180 Burn Bu rney, ey, Ch Char arle less 38 his vie view w of the cant cantata ata 13n his view view of Viv Vivald aldii 9–10 9–10,, 11, 128 128 Burr Bu rrow ows, s, Davi Davidd 16 16n, n, 31 Busc Bu sca, a, Lod Lodovi ovico co 113 Butt Bu tt,, Joh Johnn 18 187n 7n butterfly ( farfalla farfalla), representing a male lover 142 cadences,, as forms cadences forms of punctuat punctuation ion 49 Caden Ca denti tial al Six-Fou Six-Fourr 49 46–7 –7,, 148 148,, 158 158 cadenza sfuggita * 46 cadenza tronca * 48–9 cadenzas,, in arias cadenzas arias 52, 56, 65, 76, 103, 149, 149, 151 Caldara, Caldar a, Antonio Antonio 4, 7, 9, 51, 99n, 102, 102, 133n, 133n, 184 Calzabi Cal zabigi, gi, Ran Ranier ierii de’ de’ 31 Camagni Cam agni,, publ publish isher er 3, 6 Campi Ca mpiol oli, i, Anton Antonio io 167 cantata circ ci rcul ulat atio ionn of 2, 7–8 7–8 contempo cont emporar raryy view view of xi, 13 its Blütezeit xi, 2, 13, 15, 30 its dec declin linee xii xii,, 12–13, 12–13, 30, 30, 31 itss defin it definit itio ionn 25– 25–77 its histo historic rical al developm development ent 25–3 25–333 itss ori it origi gins ns xi xi,, 26 26 loses los es generic generic distinc distinctiv tivenes enesss 13 modern mod ern view of xi, 15, 21, 21, 24 tends towar towards ds uniform uniformity ity 9–10, 13, 29, 182–3 cantata doppia * 30 cantata morale * 25, 43, 44 44 cantata semplice * 30 cantatas accompaniment accompa niment for 27, 38–9, 84–8, 192–3, 195 avoided avoi ded by by modern modern sin singer gerss xi displa dis playy feature featuress of rhetor rhetoric ic 49 exclude excl ude mal malee sing singers ers xi fit awkward awkwardly ly into into recital recital programm programmes es 20–1 forr two fo two voi voices ces 26 26–7 –7 not mem memori orized zed by by singer singerss 49 poetic poet ic them themes es in in 37–8 37–8,, 41–4 41–4

GENERAL INDEX

reluctance reluct ance to publi publish sh them them 2, 7 their collec collectors tors and purchas purchasers ers 2, 8 their the ir mass-p mass-prod roduced uced quali quality ty 29 thei th eirr mus music ic 44– 44–60 60 thei th eirr poe poets ts 29 29,, 66 66 their stru structure cture (sel (selected ected refer references) ences) 25, 27–8, 30–3 their the ir tex texts ts 28–9 28–9,, 33–4 33–444 their the ir unfa unfashi shionab onabili ility ty 31 tonal ton al organiz organizati ation on of 44–7 44–7,, 50–9 transpositi trans position on of 75, 98–9, 98–9, 128, 128, 137, 139, 161, 163 venuee for perfor venu performanc mancee of 2, 29, 38–41, 38–41, 61–3, 66, 192 withh doubled wit doubled string string parts parts 193, 195 195 with editor editorially ially reali realized zed continuo continuo 192, 195 195 with wi th thr three ee ari arias as 32 with wi th tw twoo ari arias as 32 canto fermo* 61 canto figurato * 61 Canuti, Canu ti, Giovan Giovanni ni Antoni Antonioo 4, 6, 133n 133n canzone , poet poetic ic for form m 29 29,, 30–1 30–1 Capilup Capi lupii Biondi, Biondi, Maria Maria Caterin Caterinaa 94 Capistr Capi stron, on, Jean Jean Galbe Galbert rt de de 93 Carboni Car boni,, Giovanni Giovanni Batt Battist istaa 76 Careri Car eri,, Enrico Enrico xii xii,, 70n, 70n, 166n 166n Carisc Car isch, h, publi publishe sherr 22, 22 Cariss Car issimi imi,, Giacom Giacomoo 9, 26, 28, 28, 51 Carl Ludwig Friedrich, prince of MecklenburgStre St reli litz tz 13 132n 2n Cart Ca rter er,, Tim Tim 64 64nn Casset Cas setti, ti, Gia Giacom comoo 101 Cassotti (= Agostino Casotti?), composer 133n Castelbarco, Castel barco, Giovan Giovanni ni Battis Battista ta di 92 castrat cast ratoo singer singerss 56, 75, 75, 167 167 Cataldi,, Luigi Cataldi Luigi xii, 89n, 93n, 93n, 102n, 102n, 117, 134 Cattane Cat tanea, a, Mari Mariaa Santin Santinaa 167 cavat cav ata* a* 29, 30 30,, 44, 44, 51 Cazzati Cazz ati,, Mauri Maurizio zio 3, 5, 5, 28n 28n cello, accompa accompanying nying cantata cantatass 38–9, 55, 84–5, 84–5, 87, 143, 192 Ceruta (= Roque Ceruti Ceruti?) ?) compos composer, er, 184 Cervet Cer vetto, to, Giacob Giacobbe be Basevi Basevi 170n Cesti Ces ti,, Ant Anton onio io 51 chac ch acon onne ne 58 58,, 187 187 Chaikin Chai kin,, Kath Kathlee leenn Ann Ann 16n chal ch alum umea eau* u* 10 1011 chamber cham ber duet 1n, 25, 88, 114 Charless VI, Charle VI, emperor emperor 89, 91, 91, 93, 121, 165 165 Cherici Cher ici,, Seba Sebasti stiano ano 4, 6 Christiane Eberhardine, electress of Saxo xonny 164 churc chu rchh aria aria** 64 64,, 127 127 churc chu rchh can canta tata tass 30 cicisbei 41

225

co-evolution, of music and poesia per musica musica 29 Colett Col etti, i, Agostin Agostinoo Bonaventu Bonaventura ra 4, 6 Colloredo-Wa Collor edo-Waldsee, ldsee, Johann Baptis Baptistt von von 91 Colo Co lonn nna, a, Gian Gian Paol Paoloo 20 Colz Co lzani ani,, Al Alber berto to 132 132nn compar com pariso isonn aria aria 72, 100 compos com poserer-cent centred red approach approach 183n 183n,, 191 comp co mpos osit itio ionn co copy* py* 124 composition compos ition manusc manuscript* ript* 97, 124, 136 composizione , meaning a literary composition 74n concerto a quattro 51 concertoo (selected concert (selected refere references) nces) xi, 1, 2, 9, 10, 10, 11, 14, 31, 182 concerto sacro 12, 30 Conti, Con ti, Frances Francesco co Bartolo Bartolomeo meo 71, 184 continuo contin uo cantata* cantata* 23, 25, 25, 27, 56, 70, 129, 161, 161, 169, 172, 188 continuo contin uo realizat realizations, ions, writt written-out en-out 21n, 192 192 Cooke Co oke,, publi publish sher er 5, 6 (copyi pying ng shops) shops) 2, 170, 170, 172, 182–3 182–3 copisterie (co copyist copy ists, s, the their ir habi habits ts 2 Corell Cor elli, i, Arcang Arcangelo elo 7, 9n, 10, 10, 192n Cornei Cor neille lle,, Pie Pierre rre 93 Corn Co rnei eill lle, e, Thoma Thomass 93 corr co rren entte 53 Corton Cor tona, a, Ant Antoni onioo 122– 122–33 Courte Cou rtevil ville, le, Raph Raphael ael 184 Coya Co ya,, Simo Simone ne 3, 6 Cresci Cre scimbe mbeni, ni, Pie Pietro tro 90 Croy und Havre, Havre, Maria Theres Theresia ia von von 92, 100 100 cult cu ltur ural al st styl ylee 31 cutt titime 17 cu 1788 Cuzzoni Cuz zoni,, Fra Frances ncesca ca 123 D’Alay, Mauro D’Alay, Mauro 4, 6, 77, 100–1, 100–1, 122, 122, 123–4, 123–4, 132 D’Ales D’A lessan sandro dro,, Gennaro Gennaro 63n, 170 170 D’Astorga, D’Ast orga, Emanuel Emanuelee 4, 6, 10, 70, 70, 118, 177 da capo aria* form (selected references) 12–13, 52–9 dal segno aria 54 Daliso Dal iso,, its its etymo etymolog logyy 99 Dall’A Dal l’Abac baco, o, Evarist Evaristoo Felice Felice 81 Darm Da rmst stad adtt 91 Hessische Landes- und Hochschulbibliothek 100 De Boni Bonis, s, publ publish isher er 3, 6 Dean De an,, Win Winto tonn 48 decasillabo 34, 69 deceptive cadence see cadenza sfuggita Degli Deg li Anto Antonii nii,, Pietr Pietroo 3, 5 Degrada, Degrad a, Francesco Francesco xii, 19, 60n, 60n, 67n, 67n, 68n, 71, 73, 74, 89n, 99n, 101n, 104, 124n, 128, 129n, 134n, 137n, 146, 161, 196, 198

226

GENERAL INDEX

Del Ric Del Ricco co,, A. A. 3, 6 Dell’A Del l’Anton ntonio, io, And Andrea rea 27n Della Ciaia Ciaia,, Azzolino Azzolino Bernar Bernardino dino 4, 6 Dent De nt,, Edw Edwar ardd J. J. 42 Deut De utsc schh numbe numbers rs 18 Deutscher Deuts cher Verlag Verlag für für Musik, Musik, publisher publisher 22–3 Devise* 56 56,, 184 184,, 186 186 favour fav oured ed by Alb Albino inoni ni 56 little lit tle culti cultivat vated ed by Vivald Vivaldii 56 diaeresis (dieresi )* )*,, def defin ined ed 36 dialoepha (dialefe)* )*,, def defin ined ed 36 dial di alogu oguee genr genree 25 25,, 26 diminished dimin ished sevent seventhh chord chord 60, 65, 65, 183, 185 divide div idedd accompa accompanim niment ent 39, 55 55 dodecasillabo 34 Dolf Do lfin in,, Vett Vettor or 12 1211 Doning Don ington ton,, Rob Robert ert 196n dramatic, dramat ic, as applie appliedd to musica musicall genres genres 25, 26 ‘drama ‘dr amatic tic’’ voice*, voice*, in poetry poetry 26, 44 Dresde Dre sdenn 70, 76, 124, 164 164–82 –82 Hofkapelle 12, 128, 166–8, 170, 180 katholische Hofkirche 164 Sächsische Landesbibliothek – Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek (SLUB), 8, 12, 68n, 127–8, 165, 166 Staat St aatsa sarc rchi hivv 170 170nn Turki Tur kish sh Pa Pala lace ce 167 Vivald Viv aldii ‘cult ‘cult’’ in 166, 168 Dunham, Dun ham, (Mar (Mary) y) Meneve Meneve 16, 23, 23, 23–4, 73 73 Duni Du ni,, Ant Anton onio io 5, 6 Dura Du razz zzo, o, Gia Giaco como mo 14 Early Musi Early Musicc Movem Movement ent 20, 22 22 Editio Edi tionn HH, HH, publi publishe sherr 58n Edizio Edi zioni ni Curci, Curci, publi publishe sherr 22n Edmo Ed monds nds,, Jo John hn 22 Eins Ei nste tein in,, Alfre Alfredd 11 Eisl Ei sley, ey, Irv Irvin ingg R. 16n Eitn Ei tner er,, Rober Robertt 12 12,, 67 elasticity, in Baroque performance practice 193 elision, elisi on, between between adjacent adjacent words, define definedd 36 elis el isio ionn slu slurs rs 36 Elle El ler, r, Rudo Rudolf lf 132 132nn endecasillabo * 30 30,, 33–4, 33–4, 35, 47 47,, 69, 69, 74 end-rhyme, end-r hyme, as sign of closur closuree in recitative recitativess 36, 135 Engelh Eng elhard ardt, t, Mar Markus kus 166n enharm enh armoni onicc chang changee 82, 127 Ense En semb mble le Conce Concert rtoo 24 Ephr Ep hrik ikia ian, n, Angel Angeloo 23 ‘epic’ ‘ep ic’ voi voice*, ce*, in poetr poetryy 26, 44 44 Ernst Ludwig, landgrave of Hess He ssee-Da Darm rmst stad adtt 91 Everett, Everet t, Paul Paul xii–xi xii–xiii, ii, 96, 134, 134, 137n, 137n, 170–1

Fabri,, Annib Fabri Annibal alee Pio 76 Fanna, Antonio Antonio xii, 17, 17, 18, 19n, 20n, 20n, 51n, 89n, 89n, 128n, 134n Fanna, Fann a, Fran Frances cesco co xii xii,, 16n 16n Farin Far ina, a, Ang Angel eloo 66 Farinelli Farine lli (Carl (Carloo Broschi) Broschi) 193, 196 Farme Far mer, r, He Henr nryy 11 Fasch, Fas ch, Johan Johannn Friedr Friedrich ich 117 Faustina see Bordoni (-Hasse), Faustina Fechner Fech ner,, Manfr Manfred ed 22– 22–3, 3, 128 128 Fehling, Fehl ing, Carl Carl Heinri Heinrich ch Jakob Jakob 167n Fenl Fe nlon on,, Iain Iain 64 64nn Ferdin Fer dinand and Maria, Maria, duke duke of Bavaria Bavaria 63n Ferrar Fer rarini ini,, Cla Claudi udioo 24 figlie di coro coro, at the Venetian ospedali 62–3, 75, 165, 167–8 Fiorè, Fio rè, Andr Andrea ea Ste Stefan fanoo 10 firstt violin, firs violin, doubles doubles alto alto an octave higher 159 Flem Fl emmi ming, ng, Wi Will llii 30 Floren Flo rence ce 2, 3, 6, 6, 90, 90, 120 120 Conservatorio Statale di Musica ‘Luigi Cherubi Cher ubini’ ni’ 8n, 22, 184– 184–55 Flor Fl oris is,, Fra Franc ncoo 22 flute, flu te, tra transv nsvers ersee 88, 180 Foàà dona Fo donati tion on 14 Fole Fo lena, na, Gian Gianfr franc ancoo 19 Fondazi Fond azione one Giorg Giorgio io Cini Cini xii xii,, 19 foreshortened cadence see cadenza tronca Forkel For kel,, Johann Johann Nik Nikola olaus us 11 formes fixes fixes 28–9 Fourés, Four és, Oliv Olivier ier 20, 99n, 99n, 118n 118n Franci Fra nciss Stephen, Stephen, duke duke of Lorrai Lorraine ne 136 Fran Fr anck, ck, Sal Salom omoo 18 1877 Fran Fr anko ko,, Sa Sam m 11 Frederick Freder ick the the Great, Great, king king of of Prussia Prussia 180 Fregio Fre giotti tti,, Dio Dionig nigio io 99n Fren Fr ench ch st styl ylee 166 Freund, Cecili Ceciliaa Kathryn Kathryn Van de de Kamp Kamp 16n Friedrich Friedr ich August August I,I, elector elector of Saxony 164, 168 Friedrich August II, prince (later, elector) of Saxony Sax ony 63n 63n,, 164, 164, 165–9 165–9 his Kammermusik 166 his sojo sojourn urnss in Venic Venicee 62, 165–6 165–6 Friedrich Christian, Kurprinz of Sa Saxo xony ny 17 1700 FSF scheme, scheme, in concertos concertos and sonatas sonatas 31, 196 196 Fürste Für stenau, nau, Mori Moritz tz 12, 164n, 164n, 167n 167n Fux, Joh Johann ann Jose Joseph ph 47, 49, 49, 166 166 Gabrielli Gabrie lli,, Dome Domenic nicoo 3, 5 Gaffi, Gaf fi, Ber Bernar nardo do 4, 6, 6, 98n 98n galant * style style 14, 88, 88, 100, 138, 138, 149, 149, 154, 154, 178, 180 Gallia Gal liard, rd, Joh Johnn Ernes Ernestt 48n Gall Ga llic ico, o, Claud Claudio io 89n Galuppi,, Baldassar Galuppi Baldassarre re 88, 123, 170, 170, 182 182 Gardan Gar dano, o, publ publish isher er 3, 6

GENERAL INDEX

Gasdia, Gasdi a, Cec Cecil ilia ia 24 Gasparini, Gaspar ini, Frances Francesco co 3, 6, 7, 7, 10, 49n, 49n, 55, 62, 63, 70, 85, 99, 129, 177, 189 Gassma Gas smann, nn, Flo Floria riann 67n gavo ga vottta 18 1833 Geck Ge ck,, Kar Karll xi xiii genre-c genr e-cent entred red appr approac oachh 191 Gentili Gent ili,, Alb Albert ertoo 14–1 14–155 Geyer Gey er,, He Hele lenn 12 122n 2n Giacome Gia comelli lli,, Geminia Geminiano no 170, 196n 196n Gialdr Gia ldroni oni,, Tere Teresa sa M. 16n Giazo Gi azott tto, o, Remo Remo 62, 86 86 Gibson Gib son,, Elizabet Elizabethh xii xii,, 123n, 123n, 149n Giegl Gi eglin ing, g, Fra Franz nz 22n giga 183 Gill Gi llen, en, Ge Gera rard rd 96n Gini Gi ni,, Ro Rober berto to 24 Gior Gi orda dano no donat donatio ionn 14 Girò, Gir ò, Anna Anna 42, 120–1, 120–1, 133, 133, 161, 161, 168, 172 172 Girò Gi rò,, Pao Paola la 42 Gleim, Gle im, Johan Johannn Wilhel Wilhelm m Ludwig Ludwig 13n Gluck, Chris Christoph toph Willi Willibald bald (von) 14 Goldon Gol doni, i, Carl Carloo 74 74,, 170 Gonzaga, Antonio Ferdinando, duke of Guas Gu asta tall llaa 92 Gonzaga, Ferdinando Carlo, duke of Mant Ma ntua ua 76 76n, n, 91 Gradeni Gra denigo, go, Piet Pietro ro 137n Grandi Gra ndi,, Ale Alessa ssandr ndroo 26 Gran Gr ant, t, Ker Kerry ry S. 11 11nn Graun, Gra un, Car Carll Heinr Heinrich ich 31 Grav Gr avin ina, a, Vince Vincenzo nzo 40 Grefli Gre flinger nger,, publis publisher her 4, 6 Gregor Gre gori, i, publ publish isher er 2, 4, 4, 6 Gregor Gre gori, i, Giova Giovanni nni Loren Lorenzo zo 4, 6 Grim Gr imani ani fa fami mily ly 149 Gros Gr ossi si,, Car Carlo lo 3, 6 ground gro und bass* bass* 57–8 57–8,, 137, 173, 186 modu mo dula lati ting ng 57 57–8 –8 Grou Gr out, t, Dona Donald ld Jay Jay 30n Grundi Gru ndig, g, Johann Johann Gottf Gottfrie riedd 128 Gualand Gual andi, i, Mar Margher gherita ita 76 Guidi di Bagno, Bagno, Antonio Antonio dei Conti Conti 101, 116 116 guitar, guit ar, accompan accompanyin yingg cantatas cantatas 84, 192 Habsburg, Leopold von, archduke of Austria 93 Habsbur Habs burg, g, Maria Maria Josep Josepha ha von 167 Hamb Ha mbur urgg 4, 6 Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek ‘Carl von Ossiet Oss ietsky sky’’ 67, 69n, 87 Handel, George Frider Frideric ic 9, 13, 33, 59, 64, 99, 189, 199 his fondnes fondnesss for for dotted dotted rhythm rhythmss 112 Hanle Han ley, y, Edw Edwin in 16 16nn harmonic harm onic elli ellipsi psis* s* 82, 103, 103, 173

227

harmonic harmon ic rhy rhythm thm** 47, 65 harpsichord, harpsi chord, accompan accompanying ying cantat cantatas as 55, 84–8, 84–8, 192–3 Harris Har ris,, Ellen Ellen T. 41–2 41–2,, 54, 99 99 Hasse,, Johann Hasse Johann Adolf Adolf 54, 67n, 67n, 70, 77, 133n, 133n, 168, 169, 170, 177, 178, 189 Hawkin Haw kins, s, Joh Johnn (Sir (Sir)) 178 Haydn, Hay dn, Fran Franzz Joseph Joseph 13, 17, 17, 112 112 Heinichen, Heinic hen, Johann David 45, 61–2, 68–70, 166, 168, 169 Heller Hel ler,, Karl xii xii,, 20, 127, 127, 128n, 143 143 Henry, prince of Hesse Hesse-Darm -Darmstadt stadt 93 Hill, Hil l, John John Walt Walter er 121n 121n,, 178 Hiller Hil ler,, Johan Johannn Adam Adam 61–2 Hinde Hi ndemi mith th,, Paul Paul 19 1933 Hobok Ho boken en,, Anthon Anthonyy van 17 Holz Ho lzer er,, Rober Robertt R. 26 26nn Homer 41 homoer hom oeroti oticis cism, m, in cantatas cantatas 41–2 homometric* movement scheme, employed by Vivaldi 59 homotonality homoto nality*, *, favoured favoured by Vivaldi Vivaldi 59 horn ho rn fi fift fthh 11 1177 Horn Ho rn,, Wolf Wolfgan gangg 169 169nn horns, hor ns, their their sym symbol bolism ism 117 Hutc Hu tchi hing ngs, s, Arth Arthur ur 14 hyperme hype rmetri tric* c* lines lines 36, 144 iambic iamb ic pr prim ime* e* 107 instrumental instr umental music music,, declines declines in Italy Italy 2n introduzione , musical musical genr genree 51, 63, 63, 65, 65, 97, 189 Invern Inv ernizz izzi, i, Robe Roberta rta 24 invert inv erted ed peda pedal* l* 82, 154 invert inv ertibl iblee counter counterpoi point nt 51 Istituto Isti tuto Italian Italianoo Antonio Antonio Vivaldi Vivaldi (IIAV) (IIAV) xii, 19, 70 Italy,, decline Italy decline of music music publis publishing hing in in 2, 7 Jacobs Jaco bs,, Ren Renéé 23 Jens Je nsen, en, Gu Gust stav av 11 Joseph,, prince Joseph prince of HesseHesse-Darms Darmstadt tadt 92, 93, 94 Karl III Wilhelm, margrave of BadenBad en-Du Durl rlach ach 186 Keis Ke iser er,, Reinha Reinhard rd 4, 6 Keller Kel leri, i, For Fortun tunato ato 4, 6 keyy rhym ke rhymee 36 36,, 176 176 keywords* keywor ds* (selec (selected ted refer references) ences) 43, 53, 59–60, 107, 144 contradict the prevailing affetto 59–60 in ar aria iass 53 53,, 59 59 King, Ki ng, Al Alec ec Hya Hyatt tt 10 Kirs Ki rsch, ch, Die Diete terr 13 133n 3n Klemenčič, Iv Ivan 96n Klim Kl ima, a, Sl Slava ava 11n

228

GENERAL INDEX

Knetsc Knet sch, h, Ca Carl rl 91 91nn Köch Kö chel el num numbe bers rs 18 Kohl Ko hlha hase se,, Thomas Thomas 16 169n 9n Koln Ko lned eder er,, Walte Walterr 16 Köthe henn 4, 6 Krause Kra use,, Christia Christiann Gottfrie Gottfriedd 44n Krezts Kre ztschm chmar, ar, Her Herman mannn 12 Kuhn Ku hnau, au, Jo Joha hann nn 116 Kusser Kus ser,, Johann Johann Sigism Sigismund und 186n Lalli, Lal li, Dom Domeni enico co 72–3 72–3,, 133 133 lamento bas bass* s* 107– 107–8, 8, 110, 110, 111 111,, 186–7 186–7 Landman Lan dmann, n, Ortrun Ortrun 19, 127, 127, 166n, 166n, 169n Lateinschule Lateinsch ule 49 Le Cène, Cène, Michel-C Michel-Charles harles,, publisher publisher 123, 138n 138n Le Grand Grand,, Nicolas Nicolas Fer Ferdin dinand and 4, 5 leger leg er lines lines,, avoidanc avoidancee of 192n Legren Leg renzi, zi, Gio Giovann vannii 3, 6 Lennox, Charle Charles, s, duke duke of Richmon Richmondd 123, 148 148 Leo,, Leonardo Leo Leonardo 14, 64, 64, 67–8, 67–8, 129, 146 146 Leopold, Leopol d, prince prince of HesseHesse-Darms Darmstadt tadt 92, 93 Leszczyński, Stanisław 164 lezione amorosa * 25, 43 Lindgr Lin dgren, en, Lowe Lowell ll xii xii,, 100n 100n Lisbon 4, 6 Locatel Loc atelli, li, Pie Pietro tro 59, 180 Loehr Lo ehrer er,, Ed Edwi winn 23 Lombar Lom bardic dic rhy rhythm thms* s* 65, 180 180 London Lon don 2, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 13, 128, 128, 178, 178, 184 184 Britis Bri tishh Library Library 66n, 70n, 70n, 177n 177n Guildh Gui ldhall all Lib Librar raryy 71n Royal Academy of Music (opera company) 123 Royall Colle Roya College ge of of Musi Musicc 69n themee for cant cantata atass 43, 51, 51, lontananza , as them 113–14 Lotti,, Antonio Lotti Antonio 9n, 60n, 60n, 70, 120, 121, 121, 166–7, 166–7, 167, 168, 177 Louis Lou is XV, XV, French French king king 121, 164 Lucc Lu ccaa 2, 4, 6 Lucian Luc iani, i, Seba Sebasti stiano ano A. 17n lute, lut e, accompa accompanyi nying ng cantata cantatass 84, 192 ‘lyric ‘ly ric’’ voice*, voice*, in in poetry poetry 26, 44 Maddalena ‘dal Maddalena ‘dal Soprano’ Soprano’,, of the Pietà Pietà 168 madr ma drig igal al 13 13,, 25, 29, 29, 66 madr ma drig igal al com comedy edy 102 Mai, Ma i, Pa Paul ul 13 133n 3n Majo, Maj o, Giuse Giuseppe ppe de 103, 132, 144 major keys, preferred in the galant per eriiod 178 Malague Mal agueña ña Fift Fifths* hs* 138, 144 Mala Ma lagu guti ti,, Laert Laertee 23 Manches Man chester ter,, Central Central Library Library 74n Manc Ma ncia ia,, Lui Luigi gi 18 1844 Mancini, Mancin i, Frances Francesco co 70, 99n, 99n, 103, 103, 129, 129, 177, 177, 184

Mantua Mant ua 89 89–11 –119, 9, 12 1200 Habs Ha bsbu burg rg rul rulee over over 92 La Fa Favo vori rita ta 94 Regia Reg ia Ducal Ducal Capp Cappell ellaa 90, 117 117 S. Barb Barbara ara,, ducal ducal chu church rch 76 S. Pie Pietro tro,, cathe cathedra drall 76 Teatro Tea tro Arc Arcidu iducal calee 90, 91, 92 92 Marcel Mar cello, lo, Ales Alessan sandro dro 4, 7, 33 33 Marcello, Marcel lo, Benedetto Benedetto xi, 7, 8, 10, 13, 27, 44, 49, 52–3, 55, 74, 99n, 102, 118, 120, 122n, 134n, 144, 166n, 189 Marc Ma rche hesi sini ni,, Santa Santa 62 Maria Friederica, princess of HesseHes se-Dar Darmst mstadt adt 92, 93 Maria Josepha see Habsburg, Maria Josepha von Maria Theodora see Theodora, princess of Hesse-Darmstadt Maria Mar ia Theres Theresia, ia, empre empress ss 136 Marino, Mar ino, Car Carlo lo Anto Antonio nio 3, 7 Marpur Mar purg, g, Friedri Friedrich ch Wilhelm Wilhelm 74n Martin Mar tinell elli, i, Ant Antoni onioo 170 Martin Mar tinell elli, i, Vinc Vincenzo enzo 55–6 Mascar Mas cardi, di, publ publish isher er 2, 3, 4, 4, 6 Matthe Mat theson son,, Johann Johann 49, 122, 122, 188, 191 191 his vie view w of Viva Vivaldi ldi 8, 9, 44n, 44n, 77 77 Maun Ma under der,, Richa Richard rd 193 Mauro, Mau ro, Dani Daniele ele 137, 170 Maur Ma uro, o, Pi Piet etro ro 137 Maximilian II Emanuel, elector of Bava Ba vari riaa 89 89–9 –900 Mayo Ma yo,, Joh Johnn 16 16nn Mazzaferrata Mazzaf errata,, Giovanni Giovanni Batti Battista sta 3, 5 Medici, Anna Maria de’, dowager electress of thee Pal th Palat atin inat atee 90 Medici, Eleonora Luisa de’, princess of Guast Gua stal alla la 92, 10 1011 Medici, Ferdinando de’, grand prince of Tussca Tu cany ny 12 1211 Medici Med ici,, Frances Francesco co Maria Maria de’ de’ 92 Meiningen, Meini ngen, Staatl Staatliche iche Museen 8, 12n, 12n, 132, 132, 151 melismatic melis matic** writing, writing, in in arias arias 52–3, 59, 59, 60 see also Vivaldi, Antonio, applies melisma to keywords abus ab uses es of 52 52–3 –3 Meneghina Meneghi na ‘dalla ‘dalla Viola’ Viola’,, of the Pietà Pietà 168 Meri Me righ ghi, i, Anto Antoni niaa 90 Metastasio Metas tasio,, Pietro Pietro 29, 31, 32–3, 36, 66–8, 66–8, 71–2, 87, 134, 146 Michele Mic heletti tti,, publish publisher er 2, 3, 5 ‘middl ‘mi ddlee eight eight’’ secti section on 52 Mila Mi la,, Ma Mass ssim imoo 23 Mila Mi lann 3, 6, 6, 102n, 102n, 120 Conservatorio di Musica ‘Giuseppe Verdi’ 67

GENERAL INDEX

Teatro (Ar Teatro (Arci) ci)duca ducale le 122n Millner Mil lner,, Fred Fredric rickk L. L. 54 Minell Min elli, i, Giovann Giovannii Battist Battistaa 76 mino mi nori riza zati tion* on* 139 139–40 –40 minuet min uets, s, express express rejoi rejoicin cingg 116 Mira Mi rand nda, a, Ana-Ma Ana-Mari riaa 23 misattribut misat tributed ed works, works, reasons for 182–3 modall shif moda shifts* ts* 46, 139– 139–40 40 Mode Mo dena na 2, 3, 4, 6 prince pri nce and pri princes ncesss of 93 Modo Mo do Ant Antiq iquo uo 24 modulat modu lation ion chain chains* s* 45– 45–6, 6, 104, 106 106 Moff Mo ffat at,, Alf Alfre redd 11 monometric* monomet ric* struc structure, ture, of stanzas stanzas 34, 37 monomotivic monomot ivic and monothem monothematic atic struct structure ure 54, 77, 103, 141 Montanar Mont anari, i, Ant Antoni onioo 166n Montever Mont everdi, di, Cla Claudi udioo 191 Monti, Mont i, publi publishe sherr 2, 3, 3, 5, 6 Montuol Mont uoli, i, publ publish isher er 4, 6 Morei, Mor ei, Mic Michel hel Giu Giusep seppe pe 40 Morelli, Morell i, Giovanni Giovanni 19n, 20n, 20n, 51n, 51n, 63n, 89n, 128n, 134n Mori Mo rigi gi,, Pie Pietr troo 76 Mortar Mor tari, i, Vir Virgil gilio io 22 Morzin Mor zin,, Wenzel Wenzel von von 90, 121, 121, 132 132 motet, for solo solo voice voice 1n, 54, 57, 63, 65, 121, 121, 127, 169, 189 Mott Mo tta, a, Art Artem emio io 4, 6 movements differentia diffe rentiated ted from sectio sections ns 27–8 emergenc emer gencee of, in cant cantatas atas 28 Mozart, Moza rt, Wolf Wolfgang gang Amadé Amadé 18, 81, 81, 102 Muni Mu nich ch 89 89–9 –900 Bayerisches Bayeri sches Haupts Hauptstaats taatsarchiv archiv 90n Bayeris Baye rische che Sta Staats atsbib biblio liothe thekk 69n Musket Mus keta, a, Kon Konsta stanze nze 90n Muss Mu ssol olin ini, i, Benit Benitoo 15 Nachez,, Tid Nachez Tidava avarr 11 Nanin Nan ini, i, Dome Domeni nico co 13 1322 Naples Napl es 3, 6, 6, 67, 67, 92, 92, 100, 100, 133 133 Conservatorio di Musica ‘S. Pietro a Maje Ma jell lla’ a’ 69n 69n,, 70 Teatro Teat ro S. Bar Bartol tolomeo omeo 129 Naumann, Naum ann, Joh Johann ann Gott Gottlie liebb 67n Neapolitan Neapoli tan school 13–14, 64, 67, 67, 139, 139, 148 148 Neapol Nea polit itan an Second* Second* 107 Neapoli Neap olitan tan Sixth Sixth** chord 139, 154, 154, 183 Neapolitan style its charact characteris eristics tics 64–5, 81, 135, 135, 143, 161, 178, 198 its inf influen luence ce in Ital Italyy 14, 81 81 its inf influen luence ce in Venic Venicee 64, 149 149 Negri Neg ri,, An Anna na 167 167–8 –8 Negri Neg ri,, Ros Rosaa 16 167–8 7–8

229

Negri, Negr i, Vitt Vittor orio io 22n Nemeit Nem eitz, z, Joachim Joachim Christ Christoph oph 85–6 Neuburg, Neubur g, Eleonora Eleonora Magdal Magdalena ena Theresa Theresa von 91 Newman New man,, Willi William am S. S. 16, 25, 87 87 ninth, inter interval val of, of, as Vivaldian Vivaldian tradem trademark ark 154 noble titl titles, es, in in Italy Italy and and Germany Germany 92 187 note échappée * 118, 18 novenario 34 Nuova Edizioni Edizioni Critica Critica delle Opere Opere di Antonio Antonio Vivaldi ( NEC NEC ) 19, 20, 124n 124n,, 127, 127, 128, 128,

134n, 169n, 196, 198 Nure Nu remb mber ergg 4, 6 O’Donnell, O’Donne ll, Kat Kathry hrynn Jane Jane 16 octa oc tave, ve, poet poetic ic form form 29 Oester Oes terhel held, d, Her Herta ta 132 132nn opera, oper a, rec recita itativ tivee in in 49 orator ora torio, io, reci recitat tative ive in in 49 Orlandi Orl andini, ni, Giusep Giuseppe pe Maria Maria 10, 128–9 128–9 ornamentation, of da capo re repr pris ises es 54 54,, 76 76,, 195–6 Venice ce 55, 62–3, 62–3, 63, 63, 67n, 75, 75, 86, ospedali *, in Veni 88, 91, 121, 122, 123, 149, 164, 165, 167–8, 170 Osthof Ost hoff, f, Wol Wolfga fgang ng 122n Osti Os tigl glia ia 94 94nn Biblio Bib liotec tecaa Greggi Greggiati ati 189n Ottobon Ott oboni, i, Anton Antonio io 29, 32, 32, 36, 61, 61, 66 Ottobon Ott oboni, i, Pietro Pietro 38, 63n, 63n, 149, 149, 165 ottonario 34, 68, 144, 150, 187 Over, Ove r, Berth Berthold old xii xii,, 90n, 90n, 122 Oxford Bodlei Bod leian an Librar Libraryy 8, 12n, 12n, 127, 183–4 183–4 Chri Ch rist st Ch Chur urch ch 9, 10 10 Paër,, Ferdi Paër Ferdinan nando do 67 67nn Pait Pa ita, a, Gi Giov ovann annii 62 Pamphi Pam philij lij,, Bene Benedett dettoo 38 paratactic* parata ctic* organi organization, zation, define definedd 28 Paris 2 Biblio Bib liothè thèque que Nation Nationale ale 128 128–9 –9 Conservatoire National Supérieur de Musi Mu sique que 58n 58n,, 199 199nn Pariso Par isotti tti,, Aless Alessandr androo 21 Parma 123 Pasq Pa squi uini ni,, Be Bern rnar ardo do 42 passus duriusculus duriusculus* 10 107–8 7–8,, 138, 138, 144, 144, 186–7 186–7 pastor pas toral al conv convent ention ion 37–4 37–422 patent pat ents, s, conferr conferred ed on musician musicianss 76 Paul Pa ulat ato, o, And Andre reaa 3, 6 Paumgar Paum gartner tner,, Bernhar Bernhardd 186– 186–77 Pavesi Furlan Furlani, i, Margheri Margherita ta ‘Facipecor ‘Facipecora’ a’ 93, 94, 99, 101 Pavi viaa 136 Pegah, Pega h, Rashid Rashid-Sa -Sasch schaa xii xii,, 186n Pent Pe nte, e, Em Emil ilio io 11

230

GENERAL INDEX

Pepusch, Pepusc h, John John Christo Christopher pher 127 perf pe rfor orma mance nces, s, dep depend end on pub publi lish shed ed edi editi tions ons 21 performers perfo rmers,, play from their own editions editions 21–2 Pergol Per golesi esi,, Giovanni Giovanni Battis Battista ta 2 Perti, Per ti, Gia Giacom comoo Antoni Antonioo 3, 5 Pescet Pes cetti, ti, Gia Giacin cinto to 88 Pescetti, Pescet ti, Giovann Giovannii Battist Battistaa 67–8, 87–8, 103 petite reprise reprise* 56 Petrar Pet rarch ch (Frances (Francesco co Petrarc Petrarca) a) 33 Petrob Pet robell elli, i, France Francesco sco 3, 5, 38n 38n Petrob Pet robell elli, i, Pierl Pierluigi uigi 38n pettine, instru instrumen mentt for rulin rulingg staves staves 96 Petzol Pet zold, d, Chr Christ istian ian 166 Philip, Phili p, prince prince of Hesse Hesse-Darm -Darmstadt stadt 76, 89–94, 89–94, 98, 99, 100 Phry Ph rygi gian an cadenc cadence* e* 47– 47–88 piano* lines lines of vers verse, e, defin defined ed 35 Pietra Pie tragru grua, a, Carlo Carlo Luig Luigii 121 Pignot Pig notti, ti, Cas Casimi imiro ro 167 Pincher Pin cherle, le, Marc Marc 15–1 15–16, 6, 17, 17, 18 Pirc Pi rcher her,, Giusep Giuseppa pa 76 Pirr Pi rrot otta ta,, Nino Nino 32 32nn Pisendel, Pisen del, Johann Johann Georg Georg 128, 166, 166, 167, 167, 168, 169, 180 Pistocchi, Pisto cchi, France Francesco sco Antonio Antonio 4, 5, 6, 52–3, 52–3, 56n, 185 Plat Pl ato, o, of of Athen Athenss 41 poesia per per musica* 28–9, 66 66 poetry,, Italian, poetry Italian, governed governed by syllable syllable count 34 Pollar Pol larolo olo,, Ant Antoni onioo 133 polymetric* polyme tric* stru structure, cture, of stanzas stanzas 34, 37 polyth pol ythema ematic tic** struct structure ure 54 Pomp Po mponn onne, e, Henr Henrii de 62 Porfir Por firii, ii, Pie Pietro tro 3, 5 Porpora, Porpor a, Nicola Nicola 4, 6, 10, 14, 14, 55, 64, 67–70, 67–70, 129, 132, 132–3, 146–9, 150, 151, 167, 177 Porta, Por ta, Giovan Giovanni ni 60n 60n,, 63n, 133n, 133n, 170 Pound Po und,, Ezr Ezraa 15 15,, 17 17 Pragma Pra gmatic tic Sanc Sanctio tion, n, the the 93 pragmatism, an ‘authentic’ Baroque quality 193 Predie Pre dieri, ri, Gia Giacom comoo Cesare Cesare 3, 6 Pritch Pri tchard ard,, Brian Brian xii xii,, 102n 102n ‘privileged ‘pri vileged’’ key relat relationshi ionship* p* 115 prosod pro sody, y, in Ita Italia liann 35– 35–66 Purc Pu rcel ell, l, He Henr nryy 57

R. D. Row Row Music Music Co. publ publish isher er 22 Ramler Ram ler,, Carl Carl Wil Wilhel helm m 13n RARA scheme 30–3, 44, 59, 67, 134, 134, 172, 172, 196 RARA RA RAR R sc sche heme me 30 30–2 –2 Rasc Ra sch, h, Ru Rudo dolf lf 16 165n 5n Rasp Ra spé, é, Pau Paull xi xiii rast ra stro rogr graph aphy* y* 96– 96–77 * , de defi fine nedd 50 récitatif accompagné *, * , de defi fine nedd 11 1144 récitatif mesuré *, récitatif obligé *, * , def defin ined ed 50 recitative forr the fo the cham chamber ber 49 49,, 50 forr th fo thee chu churc rchh 49 forr the fo the th theat eatre re 49 its rela relatio tionsh nship ip to the the aria aria 30 paci pa cing ng of 49 49–50 –50,, 65 65 useful use ful to star startt a canta cantata ta 33 recita rec itativ tivee verse verse 25, 33–4 recitatives as view viewed ed by audi audienc ences es 21, 31 31 chordd progr chor progress essions ions in 47 in sa sacr cred ed mu musi sicc 65 like corrid corridors ors between between railway railway carri carriages ages 28, 44 modu mo dula lati tion on in 44– 44–77 thei th eirr len lengt gthh 31 31,, 33 Reggi Re ggioo Emil Emilia ia 71, 120 120 Teatro Tea tro del delle le Com Commedi mediee 129 Reich, Rei ch, Wol Wolfga fgang ng 19n, 169n Reisepartituren Reisepart ituren 166 Répertoire International des Sources Musicales (RI RISM SM)) 12 129n 9n retr re tran ansi siti tion on** 29 29,, 57 rhym rh ymin ingg coupl couplet etss 36 rhythm rhy thmic ic assimi assimilat lation ion** 198 rhythmic heterophony. between voice and accom ac compa pani nime ment nt 198 Ricc Ri cci, i, Mar Marco co 31 Richmond, duke of see Lennox, Charles, duke of Richmond Ricord Ric ordi, i, publish publisher er xii xii,, 101n, 110 110 Richte Ric hter, r, Johann Johann Chris Christia tiann 166 Riem Ri eman ann, n, Hug Hugoo 21 21,, 56 rime alternate* 36 rime baciate* 36 rima chiave* see key rhyme rime incatenate * 36 rime intrecciate * 36 quadratic* quadrat ic* phrase stru structure cture 65, 148, 185 185 Rinald Rin aldi, i, Mari Marioo 15, 17, 18 Quadri Qua drio, o, Frances Francesco co Saverio Saverio 31, 33, 70 Ristor Ris tori, i, Giovanni Giovanni Alber Alberto to 168 168,, 169 Quantz,, Johann Quantz Johann Joachim Joachim 65, 74, 74, 112, 166, 1180, 80, ritornello* 191, 195 as aft aftert erthoug hought ht 149 149–50 –50 quaternario 34 as indep independe endent nt them themee 55, 104 104 Quilla Qui llau, u, publ publish isher er 66 as ‘pre-ech ‘pre-echo’ o’ of the voice voice 55, 87, 106, 110, 110, quinario 34, 74 137 ‘quoti ‘qu oting’ ng’ voice voice** in poetr poetry, y, 44 in cant cantata ata ari arias as 29, 54, 55

GENERAL INDEX

interm inte rmedi ediat atee 54, 56 56 introd int roduci ucing ng sonata sonata movemen movements ts 188 Rocchett Rocc hetti, i, Vent Venturi urioo 167 Roger, Estie Estienne, nne, publish publisher er 2, 4, 5, 7, 165 Romal Rom aldi di,, Nicol Nicolaa 133 133nn Roman Rom ano, o, Gi Giul ulio io 93 Rome 2, 3, 4, 4, 6, 38, 38, 39–40, 39–40, 65, 65, 120, 120, 121 121 Teatr Tea troo Alib Aliber ertt 129 rondeau ron deau,, old old poetic poetic for form m 29 Rosati Ros ati,, publis publisher her 2, 4, 5, 6 Rosee Donin Ros Doningto gton, n, Glor Gloria ia 16n Rosein Ros eingra grave, ve, Thom Thomas as 5, 6 Rossi Ros si,, Giova Giovann nnii 41n Rossi, Giambattista see Vivaldi, Giovanni Battista Rossi Ros si,, Luig Luigii 26 26,, 28 Rossin Ros sini, i, Gio Gioacch acchino ino 106 Roussea Rous seau, u, Jean-J Jean-Jacqu acques es 50, 86 Rudg Ru dge, e, Ol Olga ga 17 Ruggier Rugg ieri, i, Giova Giovanni nni Mari Mariaa 4, 7 Rühlm Rüh lmann ann,, Juli Julius us 12 Ruspol Rus poli, i, Bar Bartol tolomeo omeo 99 Ruspol Rus poli, i, France Francesco sco Mari Mariaa 38, 99 RV numbers numbers,, their their organi organization zation 18–19, 96, 97n Ryom cat catalo alogue gue 17–1 17–19, 9, 96, 96, 183 183 Ryom,, Peter Ryom Peter xii xii,, 17–19 17–19,, 73 Sabadini,, Ber Sabadini Bernar nardo do 185 sacred concerto see concerto sacro sacred sac red musi music, c, ‘aur ‘aura’ a’ of of 189 Sala,, publis Sala publisher her 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 Sandoni, Sand oni, Pie Pietro tro Giu Giusep seppe pe 4, 6 Sannazar Sann azaro, o, Jac Jacopo opo 39–4 39–400 De partu Virginis Virginis 40 L’Arcadia 39 Sardelli, Sardell i, Federico Federico Maria xii, 24, 133n, 133n, 180n 180n Sarri Sar ri,, Domen Domenic icoo 12 1299 Sarto Sar tori ri,, Claudi Claudioo 93n Scarlatti, Scarlat ti, Alessand Alessandro ro xi, 1, 4, 5, 7, 7, 10, 13, 13, 33n, 52, 70, 74, 99n, 103, 113, 177, 184, 189 Scarlat Scar latti, ti, Domen Domenico ico 99n, 138, 138, 139 139 Scarp Sca rpar ari, i, Piet Pietro ro 167 dramat atic ic 13, 32, 13 1355 scena, dram Scheibe, Sche ibe, Joh Johann ann Adol Adolph ph 44n, 191 Schei Sch eiwi will ller er,, Va Vanni nni 23 Scher Sch erin ing, g, Arn Arnol oldd 12 Schmidt Schm idt,, Johann Johann Christo Christoph ph 166, 168 168 Schmied Schm ieder, er, Wol Wolfga fgang ng 17 Schmitz, Schmit z, Eugen Eugen xi, xii, xii, 2, 12–14, 28, 42–3, 42–3, 82n, 100n, 108, 113n, 136, 189, 191 Schönbor Schö nborn, n, Friedr Friedrich ich Carl Carl von 133 133–4 –4 Schönbor Schö nborn, n, Johann Johann Philip Philippp Franz Franz 133 Schönbor Schö nborn, n, Lotha Lotharr Franz Franz von von 133 Schönbor Schö nborn, n, Rudolf Rudolf Franz Franz Erwein Erwein von 133 Schuber Schu bert, t, Franz Franz 18, 21, 21, 149, 149, 161 161

231

Scimon Scim one, e, Cla Claud udio io 23 Scribe 4 (G. B. Vivaldi) Vivaldi) 97, 104, 104, 128, 128, 161, 172 Scri Sc ribe be 14 16 169, 9, 17 1700 Scri Sc ribe be 16 16 169, 9, 17 1722 sdrucciolo * lines lines of vers verse, e, defin defined ed 35 sections, secti ons, differe differentiate ntiatedd from moveme movements nts 27–8 self-a sel f-accom ccompani panied ed line* line* 108 108,, 110 self-accompan selfaccompanied ied perfor performance mance 79, 192–3 Selfri Sel fridgedge-Fie Field, ld, Eleanor Eleanor 134 134nn semantic semant ic approach, approach, to history history of genres genres 25 semist sem istrop rophe* he* def define ined, d, 34 34 senario 34, 35, 37, 68 serenata* serena ta* (selected (selected refer references) ences) xi, 1, 10, 13n, 19, 25, 26, 49, 62, 63, 76, 93–4, 170 settenario * 30, 33–4, 33–4, 35, 35, 47, 47, 51, 68, 68, 72, 72, 74, 144, 176 (sighing ing fig figure) ure) 107, 110 Seufzer * (sigh ‘sewin ‘se wingg machin machine’ e’ styl stylee 65 SFSF SFS F scheme, scheme, in in sonatas sonatas 31, 59, 59, 196 sicili sic iliana ana rhyth rhythm m 118– 118–19, 19, 183 183 Sidney, Sid ney, Phi Philip lip (Si (Sir) r) 40 Sien Si enaa 15 15,, 26n 26n Accadem Acc ademia ia Musica Musicale le Chigian Chigianaa 15 Silvani Sil vani,, Giusep Giuseppe pe Antoni Antonioo 4, 6 Silvani Sil vani,, publi publishe sherr 3, 4, 4, 6 simple sim ple recit recitati ative*, ve*, defin defined ed 50 sinfon sin fonia, ia, in cant cantata atass 44 singer sin gers, s, as couri couriers ers of of music music 66 Sites, Sit es, Car Caroli oline ne O. 16n six-four chord, 161 see also Cadential Six-Four Smith, Smi th, pub publis lisher her 4, 5, 5, 6 soloo motet, sol motet, reci recitat tative ive in in 51, 65 sonata (sele (selected cted referen references) ces) xi, 1, 2, 11, 14, 20, 27, 31, 182, 188, 189 sonat so nataa form form 54, 57, 57, 106 106 sonat so nataa idea idea,, the 16, 25 25 sonata son atas, s, stru structur cturee of 27–8 sonat so natin inaa for form m 106 Sondershausen, Stadt- und Kreisbibliothek ‘J.. K. ‘J K. Weze Wezel’ l’ 71n sonne so nnett 29, 74 74,, 191 191 soprano sopra no voice, voice, its domina dominance nce in cantata cantatass 97–8 Sora So ranzo nzo,, Jaco Jacopo po 14 Spanishh Successio Spanis Succession, n, War of the the 89, 94, 94, 101 spinet spi net,, accompanyi accompanying ng cantatas cantatas 84, 192 Spri Sp ringe nger, r, Herm Hermann ann 67 Squinci Squ inciano, ano, pri prince nce of 93 Stade, Sta de, Fre Freder derica ica von 23 Staffi Sta ffieri eri,, Glo Gloria ria 38n Stampi Sta mpigli glia, a, Sil Silvio vio 100n Steffa Ste ffani, ni, Agos Agostin tinoo 103 Stipar Sti paroli oli,, Fran Frances cesco co 132 Stocki Sto ckigt, gt, Jan Janice ice B. 164n Stradel Str adella, la, Aless Alessandr androo 28, 184, 184, 189

232

GENERAL INDEX

Stricker, Strick er, Augus Augustin tin Reinh Reinhard ard 4, 6 Strohm, Stroh m, Reinhard Reinhard xii, 64, 120n, 120n, 122n, 122n, 129n, 129n, 135–6 stro st rophi phicc bass bass** 57n Stro St rozzi zzi,, Barba Barbara ra 28 ‘stutt ‘st utter’ er’ fig figure ure 79, 107 Sujetkantaten *, of of Marc Marcel ello lo 13 13n, n, 29 29 Sutcli Sut cliffe ffe,, W. Dea Deann 12n Swin Sw iney ey,, Owen Owen 14 1488 symp sy mphon honic ic poe poem m 13 synaeresis (sineresi )* )*,, def defin ined ed 35 synaloepha (sinalefe )* )*,, def defin ined ed 35 syncop syn copated ated slu slurri rring ng 108 syntactic* syntac tic* organi organization zation,, define definedd 28 tailpiece, tailp iece, in in vocal secti sections ons 56, 57, 58, 154, 154, 160, 161, 173, 177 Talbot,, Michael Talbot Michael 14n, 16n, 16n, 19, 20, 27, 28n, 32n, 38n, 41n, 43n, 46n, 55n, 60n, 65n, 90n, 94n, 96n, 99n, 115n, 118n, 120n, 122n, 127, 132n, 139n, 154n, 166n, 170n, 183n Tanebau Tan ebaum m Tied Tiedge, ge, Fau Faunn 60n Tartin Tar tini, i, Giu Giusep seppe pe 123 hiss view hi view of of Vival Vivaldi di 9 influe inf luences nces Viv Vivald aldii 149 Tayl Ta ylor or,, Caro Carole le xi xiii Telemann, Telema nn, Georg Georg Philipp Philipp 20, 26n, 26n, 31, 44, 117 117 Tenbury, Tenbur y, St Michae Michael’s l’s Colleg Collegee 12n, 127 tenors,, sing cantat tenors cantatas as for sopra soprano no voice voice 98 ternario 34 tern te rnar aryy form form 52 52,, 53 ter erzzet 25 Tessieri, Anna see Girò, Anna thematische Arbeit * 77, 189 Theodora, Theodor a, princess princess of Hesse-D Hesse-Darmst armstadt adt 92, 93, 94, 99, 101 theorbo, theorb o, accompan accompanying ying cantat cantatas as 84, 192 Therese Kunigunde, electress of Bava Ba vari riaa 89 89–9 –900 Thom, Tho m, Eitel Eitelfri friedr edrich ich 143 143nn timidd lover, timi lover, as subject subject of cantatas cantatas 43, 72 Timms,, Colin Timms Colin xii, 16, 16, 19–20, 19–20, 32n, 44n, 51, 59, 84, 183, 184 Tip. U. U. Allegrett Allegrettii di Campi, Campi, publis publisher her 23 tirata* 154, 16 160 tonal disjunction, between recitatives and aria ar iass 44 44–5 –5,, 57 57 tonal to nal clo closu sure re** 27, 33 33 cantat ataa texts texts 42– 42–33 topoi, in cant Torell Tor elli, i, Gius Giuseppe eppe 160 160,, 166 Torr To rri, i, Pi Piet etro ro 90 Tosi, Tos i, Pier Pier Frances Francesco co 3, 5, 48, 49, 49, 185 Tozzi To zzi,, Ant Antoni onioo 12 1277 Traver Tra vers, s, RogerRoger-Cla Claude ude xii xii,, 23n tromba da caccia 117

tromba lunga 117 (drum bass) bass) 12– 12–13, 13, 114, 114, 140, 140, Trommelbaß * (drum

178 lines of vers verse, e, defin defined ed 35 tronco * lines trumpet tru mpets, s, their their symbol symbolism ism 117 tuoni, as for foreru erunner nnerss of keys 116 Turin Biblioteca Bibli oteca Naziona Nazionale le Univers Universaria aria 8, 12, 12, 14–15, 96, 136 Teat Te atro ro Cari Carigna gnano no 129 Univ Un iver ersi sity ty of 15 Turin manusc manuscripts ripts (sele (selected cted referen references) ces) 8, 14–15, 63, 167 thei th eirr acquis acquisit itio ionn 14 turtlee dove, turtl dove, as emblem of fideli fidelity ty 101 two-beat two-be at bars bars in common common time 103, 178 (‘en entr try’ y’ ar aria ia)) 30 uscita (‘ Valentini Valent ini,, Giuse Giuseppe ppe 59, 166n 166n Venice Veni ce 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 7, 14, 61, 61, 123, 123, 132–3, 132–3, 133–4, 136, 148–9, 166, 167, 168 Archivi Arc hivioo di Stato Stato 86n, 165n, 165n, 167n 167n Biblio Bib liotec tecaa Naz Naziona ionale le Marciana Marciana 165n Biblioteca Bibli oteca Queri Querini-Sta ni-Stampalia mpalia 186n Conservatorio di Musica ‘Benedetto Marc Ma rcel ello lo’’ 12 123n 3n Museo Mus eo Civic Civicoo Correr Correr 66, 66, 66, 137 Ospedale* Ospeda le* degli degli Incura Incurabili bili 62, 67n, 67n, 123, 123, 149 Ospedale* Ospeda le* della della Pietà Pietà 55, 62–3, 62–3, 63, 67n, 75, 75, 86, 88, 91, 121, 122, 123, 164, 165, 167–8, 170 Ospedaletto Ospeda letto (Ospe (Ospedale* dale* dei Derelit Derelitti) ti) 67n S. Gior Giorgi gioo Maggi Maggior oree 70 S. Gir Girola olamo, mo, conv convent ent 62 S. Marco, Marco, ducal ducal church 61, 90, 90, 121, 122–3, 166–7 Teatro Tea tro S. S. Angelo Angelo 64, 72n, 72n, 88, 120, 120, 122, 122, 123n, 133, 134 Teatro S. Giovanni Giovanni Griso Grisostomo stomo 71, 122, 129, 134, 149 Teat Te atro ro S. Mo Mois isèè 90 Teat Te atro ro S. S. Samue Samuele le 12 1222 Vent Ve ntur urin ini, i, Ros Rosaa 90 versatility versat ility,, not require requiredd of composer composerss 8–9 versi sciolti *, def defin ined ed 36 Vett Ve ttor ore, e, Vitt Vittor oree 94 Vice Vi cenz nzaa 12 1200 Vienna 14, 67, 67, 89, 93, 94, 96, 120, 120, 123, 132, 133, 166 Gesellschaf Gesel lschaftt der der Musikf Musikfreunde reunde 12n, 20, 199n Villen Vil leneuve euve,, Joss Jossee de de 52 Vill Vi llio io,, Ämili Ämilius us 16 1677 Vinaccesi, Vinacce si, Benedet Benedetto to xii, 3, 6, 33, 57–8 57–8

GENERAL INDEX

Vinci, Leonar Vinci, Leonardo do 14, 64, 64, 71, 129, 129, 134 Vio, Vi o, Ga Gast ston onee 61 61nn violin,, used violin used to double the voice voice 56n, 151 151 virrelai 29 vi Virgill (Publius Virgi (Publius Virgi Virgilius lius Maro) 41 Aeneid 93 Vitali Vit ali,, Car Carlo lo xii xii,, 99n Vivaldi, Antonio applies melisma to keywords (selected refere ref erences nces)) 59–6 59–60, 0, 77, 79–80, 79–80, 81, 103, 103, 111–12, 129–30, 141–2, 144, 150, 150–1, 173, 174 as ‘bott ‘bottom om up’ comp compose oserr 58, 65, 65, 104 as maestro de’ concerti 86, 121 as maestro di cappella 89, 90, 136 as maestro di spineta 86 as maestro di violino 62, 91 as pr prie iest st 61, 12 1200 as self self-bo -borro rrower wer 154, 188 as ‘uni ‘univer versal sal’’ compos composer er 9 as viol violini inist st 61, 75n, 116 as writ writer er for for the the voice voice 8, 9 atelier of 8, 74n, 74n, 97, 136, 137, 169 attitude attit ude towards towards Metast Metastasio’ asio’ss verse verse 68 bias towards towards ‘flat ‘flat’’ keys, keys, in cantatas cantatas 142 comparedd with compare with Albinon Albinonii 1, 14, 14, 82n, 82n, 108, 108, 121–2, 189–91 compare comp aredd with with Arrigo Arrigoni ni 178– 178–99 compare comp aredd with with Bach 9, 11 compare comp aredd with with Bononc Bononcini ini 1, 189 189 compare comp aredd with with Gaspar Gasparini ini 1, 189 compare comp aredd with with Handel Handel 9, 112, 112, 189 189 compare comp aredd with with Has Hasse se 189 compa com pare redd with with Leo Leo 14 1466 compare comp aredd with with Lot Lotti ti 60n compare comp aredd with with Marcell Marcelloo 1, 189 189 compare comp aredd with with Porpor Porporaa 146 146–9, –9, 150 150 compare comp aredd wit withh Por Porta ta 60n compare comp aredd with with Scarlat Scarlatti ti 1, 189 compare comp aredd with with Stradel Stradella la 189 compo com pose sess hastil hastilyy 18 1899 composess in compose in modular modular fashi fashion on 103, 143–4, 149, 191 contemporary contemp orary view of his his cantata cantatass 1–10, 191 conveys conv eys backgr background ound moods moods 175– 175–66 conveys the affetto in ar aria iass 59 59–6 –600 cultivates asymmetrical phrase struct str ucture ure 77–8 77–8,, 81, 104, 104, 143, 143, 148 discovery discov ery of new works works by by 118, 170, 170, 199 dissem dis semina inatio tionn of his canta cantatas tas 2, 8 divers div ersifi ifies es his his tempos tempos 143 favour fav ourss ‘drum ‘drum basses basses’’ 112– 112–13 13 favour fav ourss monothema monothematic ticism ism 54, 77, 189 hiss acol hi acolyt ytes es 122 122–4 –4 hiss ch hi cham ambe berr co conc ncer erto toss 58 58,, 12 129, 9, 15 151, 1, 15 153, 3, 16 1666

233

his cre creati ative ve pro proces cesss 19 his ear early ly vocal vocal mus music ic 63–4 his faux-naïf sty tyle le 77 77,, 127 127 his forei foreign gn patrons patrons 75, 121, 121, 131–2, 131–2, 136 his hand handwri writin tingg 19, 172 hiss idio hi idiole lect ct 12 128, 8, 184 184 hiss illn hi illnes esss 12 1200 his inf influen luence ce on J. S. S. Bach Bach 11 his literary bricolage * 66–74 his not notati ational onal habi habits ts 19 his pion pioneeri eering ng qualit qualities ies xi his pos posthu thumous mous obl oblivi ivion on 10 his ‘produ ‘productionction-line’ line’ mental mentality ity 57 his recit recitatives atives (sele (selected cted referen references) ces) 65, 81–3, 108, 114, 118 his ‘ri ‘ripie pieno’ no’ conce concerto rtoss 58 his tem tempo po marki markings ngs 143, 196– 196–88 jumbles the poetic text 63–4, 111, 183 lostt cant los cantata atass by by 10, 98 makes mak es cuts cuts in his his works works 104, 129n 129n Mantuann period Mantua period of 10, 63, 63, 73, 76, 89–119, 89–119, 188 mixes pizzicato wi with th norm normal al bowi bowing ng 16 1600 modern reviva revivall of his cantata cantatass 15, 20–4 20–4 modern view of his his cantatas cantatas 11–20, 191 most convent conventional ional in his his cantatas cantatas xi–xii xi–xii,, 9–10 number of cantatas, in comparison with othe ot herr ge genr nres es 1 original origi nal sources sources of his cantata cantatass 8, 11, 12 perfor per forman mance ce of his cantat cantatas as 192– 192–66 practi pra ctises ses pla plagia giaris rism m 128 publication and recording of his cantatas 22–4 receiv rec eived ed ideas ideas about about 154 154,, 158, 163 163 recyc re cycle less his wor works ks 75 rediscovery redis covery of his his cantatas cantatas 12, 14–15, 14–15, 16, 16, 18, 20 revises revis es earlie earlierr works works 104, 107–8, 107–8, 159, 171–2 spurious spuri ous cantatas cantatas attri attributed buted to to 8n, 10, 16, 17, 18, 20, 22, 37, 71, 124, 182–7 stimulated stim ulated by the the picture picturesque sque 65, 189 189 underlays the text in copies prepared by othe ot herrs 172 usess ‘off-to use ‘off-tonic nic’’ openings openings 146, 154 uses few dynamic dynamic markin markings, gs, in in cantatas cantatas 198 uses us es fu fugu guee 15 1588 uses imita imitative tive counter counterpoint point 51, 65, 65, 103, 107, 119, 183 uses the melodic melodic augment augmented ed second second 107, 138, 140 uses unconven unconventional tional tonal designs 59, 107, 107, 110, 138, 140 varietyy displayed variet displayed by his his cantatas cantatas 188–9 works in due cori 121

234

GENERAL INDEX

Vivaldi, Antonio (cont.) writes wri tes no no solo solo keyboar keyboardd music music 9 Vivaldi Viv aldi,, Cecili Ceciliaa Maria Maria 137 Vivaldi, Vival di, Giovann Giovannii Battist Battistaa 61, 90, 90, 199 199 see also Scribe 4 Viviani Viv iani,, Giovanni Giovanni Batt Battist istaa 3, 5, 6 Volumi Vol umier, er, Jean-B Jean-Bapt aptist istee 128, 168 Waldersee Walder see,, Paul Paul Gra Graff 11 Wals Wa lsh, h, Jo John hn 11 Wars Wa rsaw aw 16 168, 8, 169 169 Washington, Washi ngton, Libra Library ry of Congres Congresss 69n Wassmu Was smuth, th, Georg Georg Fra Franz nz 133n Watk Wa tkin ins, s, Davi Davidd 19 192n 2n canta tata ta tex texts ts 43 Weltschmerz , in can Whenh Wh enham am,, John John xi xiii Whit Wh ite, e, Ha Harr rryy 96 96nn White, Whi te, Mic Micky ky xii xii,, 165n Willia Wil liams, ms, Herm Hermine ine Weige Weigell 184 Will Wi llia iams ms,, Josep Josephh 11 Wolf Wo lf,, Hu Hugo go 21

Woodcoc Wood cock, k, Rob Rober ertt 11 Wood Wo odcoc cock, k, Tho Thomas mas 11 word-setti wordsetting, ng, in Baroqu Baroquee cantatas cantatas 59 Wörner Wör ner,, Karl Karl Heinri Heinrich ch 77, 189 189 Wrig Wr ight ht,, Dan Danie iell 11 Wrig Wr ight ht,, Edw Edwar ardd 38 Wright Wri ght,, Josephi Josephine ne R. B. 16n, 178 178 written-out writt en-out repris reprise, e, of the the ‘A’ section section 52, 57 Wür ürzb zbur urgg 13 1333 Yale Ya le Univer Universi sity ty 186 186nn Zanata, Dom Zanata, Domeni enico co 3, 4, 7 Zanet Za netti ti,, Emili Emiliaa 38n Zani Za nibon bon,, pub publi lish sher er 22 Zanoni, Zano ni, Ang Angelo elo Mar Maria ia 76 Zelenka,, Jan Zelenka Jan Dismas Dismas 166, 168, 168–9, 169 Zeno, Ze no, Apos Aposto tolo lo 31, 74 74 ‘zero’ ‘ze ro’ progr progress ession ion** 45, 160, 160, 184 Ziin Zi ino, o, Agos Agosti tino no 31 31nn Zipo Zi poli li,, Domeni Domenico co 99 99nn

Michael Talbot Vivaldi

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