Worklife Worklife balance: Lubna Riz V has done research on “An Empirical Study On The Effectiveness Of WorkLife Balance In Bankin Industry!" This paper is aimed at the theme of work-life balance,
and to explain the significance of the said subect !Work-life balance is a ke" area for #ualit" concern gurus, who belie$es that balance between work and life is of $ital importance when it comes comes to perfor performan mance ce of the workfo workforce! rce!Th Thee paper paper conduc conducted ted stud" stud" on effecti effecti$en $eness ess of workforce in the banking sector in %akistan where the aim was to find out whether the emplo"ees are able to practice a sense of control! &oes the emplo"ee sta" prolific and producti$e for his team, while sustaining contented $igorous $igorous famil" life'
Work life Then Then &r! &r!(nsh (nshu uaa Tiwari iwari and and )rs! )rs! %une %uneet et *!&u *!&ugg ggal al ha$e ha$e done done resear research ch on Work Balance# A study of employee $ell %ein and performance of employees in %ankin sector ! The purpose of this paper is to explore the work-life practices of emplo"ees in banks
and the $arious problems faced b" them while working in this sector! With this in mind, this paper seeks to examine the emplo"ee wellbeing and performance in the organization! organization!
(nd also &r! &r!R!(nit R!(nitha ha has done research research on A Study on &o% Satisfaction of 'aper (ill Employees $ith Special )eference to *dumalpet and 'alani Taluk ! +ob satisfaction is a
general attitude towards ones ob, the difference between the amount of reward workers recei$e and the amount the" belie$e the" should recei$e! mplo"ee is a back bone of e$er" organization, without emplo"ee no work can be done! *o emplo"ees satisfaction is $er" important! important! mplo"ees mplo"ees will be more satisfied if the" get what the" expected, ob satisfaction satisfaction relates to inner feelings of workers! (s .dumalpet and %alani Taluk are famous for paper industries, the main aim of this stud" is to anal"ze the satisfaction le$el of paper mill emplo"ees!
Then later on *ameer (hmad *halla and &r (sif /#bal 0azili has worked on +uality of Work Life and Employee &o% Satisfaction- a ,imensional Analysis Analysis and concluded that #ualit" of
work work life life and and ob ob sati satisfa sfact ctio ion n is $er" $er" sign signifi ifica cant nt for for ensu ensurin ring g sust sustai aine ned d comm commitm itmen entt andproducti$it" from the emplo"ees of an organisation! The sustainabilit" of organisational success is primaril" based on the emplo"ee emplo"ee satisfaction satisfaction and the latter is contingent contingent upon the nature nature and le$el of #ualit" #ualit" of work life of an organisation organisation!! This paper attempts attempts to bring fore the perception of emplo"ees about #ualit" of work life and ob satisfaction across gender and
nature of ob! The results of the stud" depict a strong association between #ualit" of work life and ob satisfaction! 0urthermore, the findings also point out a strong di$ergence in the perception of emplo"ees towards #ualit" of work life and ob ob satisfaction satis faction across gender and nature of ob! Which is remarkable as it reflects the different re#uirements and priorities of emplo"ees based on their gender and the kind of ob the" hold! 0or more precision in this research res earch 0arah )ukhtar has worked on Work life %alance and o% satisfaction amon faculty at Io$a State *niversity ! This research sought to determine if:
1a2 work life differs b" academic discipline group: 1b2 ob satisfaction differs b" academic discipline, and 1c2 there is a relationship between facult" work life and ob satisfaction and whether this relationship differs b" academic discipline group, and 1d2 if academic discipline has a uni#ue effect on facult" work and life balance! Results indicated that the work life balance and ob satisfaction has no significant among academic disciplines disc iplines at /*.! 3owe$er, the results indicated that there is a significant relationship 1r 4 !5652 between work life and ob satisfaction! When controlling for demographic and professional experience, the result also indicated that age and climate, and culture were significant predicators for work life balance! The results also showed that female facult" has lower ob satisfaction! The findings of this stud" pro$ide pro$ide $aluable $aluable insight for educators educators and polic" makers makers who are interested interested in factors that contribute to work life and o$erall ob satisfaction among academic disciplines at a large research institution in )idwest! To o$ercome the limitation of the abo$e research R!7a"athiri and &r! Lalitha Ramakrishnan has worked on +uality of Work Life Linkae $ith &o% Satisfaction and 'erformance" The The pape paperr state statess that that the the incr increas eased ed comp comple lexit xit" " of toda toda" "s en$i en$iro ronm nment ent poses poses se$er se$eral al challe challenge ngess to hospit hospital al manage managemen mentt during during the next next decade decade!! Trend Trendss such such as changi changing ng orga organi nizat zatio ional nal
struc structu tures res,,
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inte interd rdis iscip cipli lina nar" r"
collaboration, ad$ancement of technolog", new health problems and health care polic", and sophistication in medical education ha$e a part to pla"! (ll these affect the nursing profession and skill re#uirements as well as their commitment to performance in hospitals! /n $iew of this, hospital management has to ensure #ualit" of life for nurses that can pro$ide satisfaction and enhance ob performance! /n this paper, an attempt is made to re$iew the literature on #ualit" of life to identif" the concept and measurement $ariables as well its linkage with satisfaction and performance!
Then lastl" stud" on work of *obia *huat, 0aroo#--(zam 8heema and 0ar"al 9hutto has Work Life Balance on Employee &o% Satisfaction in been done which is base on /mpact of Work 'rivate Bankin Sector of .arachi" The core purpose of this stud" is to anal"ze the impact
of work life balance on emplo"ee ob satisfaction in pri$ate banking sector of arachi! The data were collected keeping in consideration features such as gender, age, managerial position and tenure of ob! 0actors in$ol$ed are ob satisfaction and work life balance with respect to flexible working conditions, work life balance programs, emplo"ee intention to change;lea$e ob, work pressure;stress and long working hours! hours!
)E/E)E01ES#
(dams, 7!(!, ing, L!(!, < ing, &!W! 1=66>2! 1=66>2! Relationships of ob and famil"
in$ol$ement, famil" social support, and work-famil" conflict with ob and life satisfaction! +ournal of (pplied %s"cholog", %s"cholog", ?=1@2, @==-@AB! @==-@AB!
(lam, )!*!, 9iswas, !, < 3assan, ! 1ABB62! ( Test Test of association between working hour
and and work work famil" famil" conf confli lict: ct: ( glim glimps psee on &hak &haka ass female female whit whitee coll collar ar prof profes essio siona nals ls!! /nternational +ournal of 9usiness and )anagement, @152, AC-D5!
(r"ee, (r"ee, *! 1=66A2! (ntecedent (ntecedentss and outcomes of work-famil" work-famil" conflict among married
professional women: $idence from *ingapore! 3uman 3uman Relations, @51?2, ?=D-?D5!
(r"ee, *!, 2! 9alancing two maor parts of adult life experience: work and
famil" identit" among dual-earner couples! 3uman Relations, @61@2, @>5-@?C!
(r"ee, *!, 0ields, &!,
interface! +ournal of )anagement, A51@2, @6=-5==!
(r"ee, *!, Luk, V!, Leung, (! < Lo, *! 1=666b2! Role stressors, interrole conflict and well
being: the moderating influence of spousal support and coping beha$iors among emplo"ed parents in 3ong ong! +ournal +ournal of Vo Vocational 9eha$ior, 5@, 5@, A56-AC?!
9agger, +!, Li, (!, <7utek, 9!(! 1ABB?2! 3ow much do "ou $alue "our famil" anddoes it
matter' matter' The oint effects effects of famil" identit" salience, famil"-interfacewit famil"-interfacewith-work h-work and gender! gender! 3uman Relations, >=1A2, =?C-A==!
9aral, R! 1AB=B2! Work-fa rk-fami mily ly enric enrichm hmen ent: t: Bene Benefit fitss of comb combin inin ing g work work and and
family!Retrie$ed family!Retrie$ed Ectober C, AB=B, from http:;;www!pa"check!in;main;work-andpa";women pa"check;articles;work-famil"-enrichment-benefits-of-combiningwork-and-famil"!
9ardoel, !( !, 8ieri, 3!&!, < *antos, 8! 1ABB?2! ( re$iew of work-life research in(ustralia and Few Gealand! Asia Gealand! Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, Resources, !"#$,D=>-DDD! !"#$,D=>-DDD!
9har 9harg ga$a, a$a, *! <9ar <9aral al,,
R!
1AB 1ABB62! B62! (ntec nteced eden ents ts and and
cons conse# e#u uence encess
of work workH H
famil"enrichment among /ndian managers! Psychological managers! Psychological %tudies, &, &, A=D-AA5!
9utler, (!9!, (!9!, 7rz"wacz, +!7!, 9ass, 9!L!,
demands control model: a dail" diar" stud" of ob characteristics, work famil" conflict and work- famil" facilitation! Journal facilitation! Journal of 'ccu(ational and'rgani)ational and'rgani)ational Psychology, *+, =55=>6!
8arlson, 8arlson, &!*! 1=6662! 1=6662! %ersonalit" and role $ariables as predictors predictors of three forms ofwork-
famil" conflict! Journal conflict! Journal of o ocational Behaior, Behaior, &&, &&, AD>-A5D!
8arlson, &!*! and acmar! !)! 1ABBB2! Work-famil" conflict in the organization: &olife
role $alues make a difference' Journal difference' Journal of .anagement /! "&$, "&$, =BD=-=B5@!
8armeli, (! 1ABBD2! The relationship between emotional intelligence and work
attitu attitudes, des, beha$i beha$ior or and outcom outcomesH esH(n (n examina examinatio tion n among among senior senior manage managers! rs! Journal of .anagerial Psychology, Psychology, 0+"+$, C??-?=D! 2reenhaus 2reenhaus and Beutell3456789 Beutell3456789 4 defined work-famil" conflict as a form of inter-role conflict
in which the role pressures from the two domains, that is work and famil", are mutuall" noncompatible so that meeting demands in one domain makes it difficult to meet demands in the other! That is, participation in the work role is made more difficult b" $irtue of participation 1
3Greenhaus
J.H., “Sources of conflict between work and family roles”, Academy of Manaement !e"iew, #olume$%, $&'(, )).*+''.
in the famil" and $ice-$ersa! The maor concern in this most widel" used definition of workfamil" conflict is that role conflicts are due to problems of role participation and emotional intelligence!
)ice 345678: emphasized the relationship between work satisfaction and Iualit" of peoples
li$es! The stud" contended that work experiences and outcomes can affect persons general Iualit" of life, both directl" and indirectl" which effects on their famil" interactions, leisure acti$ities and le$els of health and energ"!
2alinsky et al 345548 9 discussed on work life balance policies which are the $alues, which
attract prospecti$e emplo"ees and are tools for emplo"ee retention and moti$ation! The stud" found that one should also keep in mind that new generation emplo"ees e$aluate their career progress not onl" in terms of lucrati$e ob assignments but also in terms of their abilit" to maintain health" balance between their work and non-work life!
/riedman and 2reenhaus 3:;;;8 <, two leaders expressed on work;life balance, and bring
forth new e$idence to help us understand choices we make as emplo"ers and indi$iduals regarding work and famil"! The" had studied more than ?BB business professionals considered $alues, work, and famil" li$es and found that Jwork and famil", the dominant life roles for most emplo"ed women and men in contemporar" societ", can either help or hurt each other! To handle work;life balance, the" emphasize that working adults learn to build networks of support at home, at work, and in the communit"! 8onflict between work and famil" has real conse#uences and significantl" affects #ualit" of famil" life and career attainment of both men and women! The conse#uences for women ma" include serious constraints on career choices, limited opportunit" for career ad$ancement and success in their work role, and the need to choose between two apparent oppositesKan acti$e and satisf"ing career or marriage and children! )an" men ha$e to trade off personal and career $alues while the" search for wa"s to make dual career families work, often re#uiring them to embrace famil" roles that are far different, and more egalitarian than those the" learned as children! 2
!ice, !. -., “Organizational Work and the Perceived Quality of Life towards a Conceptual Model” , Academy of Manaement !e"iew, A)ril, #ol. $%/0, $&'(, )) /&+3$%. 3 Galinsky,1., et al “2he or)orate !eference Guide to -ork4amily 5rorammes, 4amilies and -ork 6nstitute7 8ew 9ork, $&&$. 4
4riedman, S. :. and Greenhaus, J. H., “-ork and family;Allies or enemies< -hat ha))ens when business )rofessionals confront lifechoices”, 8ew 9ork7 =>ford ?ni"ersity 5ress,/%%%.
This research re$eals a compensator" effect between two forms of ps"chological interference i!e! work-to-famil" and famil"-to-work! *pecificall", support from two domains 1%artner and emplo"er2 has a significant impact on one another! The impact of partner support is greater when business professionals feel their emplo"ers are unsupporti$e of their li$es be"ond work! 8on$ersel", for emplo"ees with relati$el" unsupporti$e partners, the emplo"er famil"friendliness reduces role conflicts more than partners! Thus, one source of support compensates for the lack of the other! Looking at beha$ioral interference of work on famil", the picture changes! /n this case, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts: the combined impact of emplo"er and partner support leads to a greater reduction in conflict than does independent emplo"er or partner support!
=om and .inicki 3:;;487 examined that organizations take into consideration and appl"
policies that manage a balance between emplo"ees work and their li$es! Therefore the organizations are gi$ing an increased intention to adopt those policies which can reduce the turno$er of emplo"ees (ark Tausi and )udy /en$ick 3:;;48 >:stressed that alternate work schedules affect
percei$ed work-life imbalance the Jtime bind! 3owe$er, percei$ed control of work schedules increases work-life balance net of famil" and work characteristics! The most consistent famil" characteristic predicting imbalance is being a parent! The most consistent work characteristic predicting imbalance is hours worked! Ence we control for hours worked, women and part timers are shown to percei$e more imbalance! Mounger and better educated persons also percei$e more work-life imbalance! 3owe$er, the" also report higher le$els of schedule control and since schedule control impro$es work-life balance, it ma" be more important for unbinding time than schedule alternati$es!
)oehlin 3:;;48? conducted an empirical research and suggested a direct relation-ship
between work life balance programs and retention which helps the emplo"ees to achie$e a meaningful balance between work and personal life, these programs ma" onl" hold benefits 5
Hom, 5.-., and @inicki, A.J., “2oward a reater understandin of how dissatisfaction dri"es, em)loyee turno"er”, 2he Academy of Manaement Journal, #olume 8o.(0, /%%$, )).&*( &'*. 6 Mark 2ausi and !udy4enwic, “?nbindin 2ime7 Alternate -ork Schedules -orkBife Calance”, Journal of 4amily and 1conomic 6ssues, #olume 8o.///0, Human Sciences 5ress, /%%$, )).$%$$$& 7 !oehlin, 5.#., and Moen, 5., “2he relationshi) between worklife )olicies and )ractices and )ractices and em)loyee loyalty7 A life course )ers)ecti"e. Journal of 4amily and economic issues, /%%$
for the emplo"ers rather than emplo"ees! The complexities exists in balancing work and personal life and the importance of balance for indi$iduals well-being should be in$estigated b" an organization to pro$ide work life balance programs which are related to retention strategies through the positi$e impact of these programs on indi$iduals perceptions of balance!
Burke 3:;;:8 6 has identified that is a gender differences regarding the work life balance that
is men feel more satisfied when the" achie$e more on the ob e$en at the cost of ignoring the famil"! En the other hand, women stress that work and famil" are both e#uall" important and both are the sources of their satisfaction! 0or them the former is more important when the work does not permit women to take care of their famil", the" feel unhapp", disappointed and frustrated!
,u@%ury et al 3:;;:85 discussed on work-related stress consists of working conditions
in$ol$ing hea$" workloads, lack of participation in decision making, health and safet" hazards, ob insecurit", and tight deadlines! mplo"ees 1with high le$els of work-life conflict2 are three times more likel" to suffer from certain heart problems, back pain and mental health problems! The" also indicated that workers are more likel" to experience poor health, experience negati$e impacts on relationships with children and their spouse, less committed to the organization, less satisfied with the ob, ha$e poor #ualit" of relationship outside the work!
,u@%ury and =iins 3:;;98 4; in their seminal report on work-life conflict demonstrated
that the respondents with high le$els of work to famil" interference reported: lower le$els of ob satisfaction and high le$els of obs stress the intent to turno$er of the emplo"ees!
8
Curke, !.J., “=raniDational "alues, Eob e>)erience and satisfaction amon manaerial and )rofessional women and men”, Manaement !e"iew, #olume 8o.$*(0, )).(+. 9 :u>bury.B.,”2he 8ational worklife conflict study”, 4inal re)ort , 5ublic Health Aency of anada, /%%/. 10 :u>bury, B., and Hiins, ., “-ork life conflict in anada in the 8ew Millenium7 A status re)ort”, =ttawa7 Health anada,/%%3
/isher and Layte 3:;;98 448onsidered three distinct sets of measures of work life balance,
$iz!, proportion of free time, the o$er-lap of work and other dimensions of life, and the time spent with other people helps the emplo"ees to balance both work and life! =iins 1" 3:;;<84: anal"sed the gap between need for work-life balance and the realit" in
most workplaces remains disturbingl" wide! mplo"ers across 8anada do not pro$ide sufficient or ade#uate work-life balance programs for their emplo"ees! /t indicates that the factor has the association with emplo"ee commitment is managers recognition of their emplo"ees needs for work-life balance! 3ence emplo"ers need to create supporti$e work place en$ironments, as work life balance is the ke" to emplo"ee well-being and hence organisations producti$it"!
as%ek 3:;;<2=D found that work life balance policies are positi$el" associated with the ob
tenure of the female emplo"ees, and moreo$er the practices of such policies ha$e a great effect on the turno$er rate of emplo"ees! Work-life balance policies help in reducing the stress and pro$ide a good work place where, there is less chance of accidents in the working and also pro$ide a fair platform for e$er" emplo"ee, ultimatel" enhancing producti$it"!
.eene and )enolds 3:;;78 4< used the =66A Fational *tud" on the 8hanging Workforce to
conclude that ob characteristics are more salient than famil" factors for predicting the likelihood that famil" will detract from ob performance and for explaining the gender gap in negati$e famil"-to-work spillo$er! Working in a demanding ob or ha$ing little ob autonom", the authors assert, was associated with more nati$e famil"-to-work spillo$er regardless of gender, while greater scheduling flexibilit" mitigated the gender gap
11
4isher, @., and Bayfe M., “Measurin worklife balance and derees of sociability7 A focus on the "alue of time use data in the assessment of Fuality of life”, -orkin 5a)er of the 1uro)ean 5anel Analysis Grou), #olume 8o.3/, /%%3. 12 Hiins., et al, “1>)lorin the link between worklife conflict and demands on anadas healthcare system, Health anada, !e)ort 3, /%%. 13 9asbek, 5., “2he business case for firmle"el worklife balance )olicies7 a re"iew of the Biterature, Babour Market 5olicy Grou)”, :e)artment of Babour, /%% 14 @eene,Jennifer !eid and John !. !enolds, “2he Eob costs of family demands7Gender differences in neati"e familytowork s)illo"er”, Journal of 4amily 6ssues, #olume 8o./+30,/%%(,))./*(/&&
'ocock and 1larke3:;;78 47explored that spill -o$er of work into famil" life showed that
both men and women did not ha$e enough time to spend with families and moreo$er work pressures affected #ualit" of the famil" life!
Thompson Andreassi and 'rottas 1ABB52=> has identified work life policies which are $er"
important and defined as the base le$el indicators of an organization, prioritizing work o$er famil" or famil" o$er work and these policies include flexible work scheduling and lea$e of emplo"ees from work!
/orsyth and 'olCer,e%ruyne 3:;;?8 4? ha$e studied that the organizational pa"-offs for
$isible work-life balance support the workers for the reduced intention of lea$ing the ob through increased ob satisfaction and also the reduction of work pressure and also reported about the emplo"ees that the" feel organization is supporti$e and pro$iding them work life balance it enhances ob satisfaction and reduces work pressure leading to reduction in turno$er intention!
Anup .umar Sinh and )ichaa$asthy 3:;;58 46discuss different causes and conse#uences
of Work-Life 9alance, where societal, organizational and indi$idual causes are maor responsible for Work-Life 9alance! )anagers ha$e to take the challenge of work life balance seriousl" as it affects their professional success and personal well-being! The" also need to hone certain skills that conduci$e to better work life balance! *ome of these skills are: time management, delegation, coping with stress, negotiation, caring, listening, empath", trust etc help in managing things both at work and in famil"
BilalDia-ur-)ahman and )aCa 3:;4;8 45 examined the significant impact of famil" friendl"
policies on emplo"ees ob satisfaction and turno$er intention in the banking industr"! Long 15
5ocock, C., and larke, J., “2ime, money and Eobs s)ill o"er7 How )arentss Eobs affect youn )eo)le”, 2he Journal of 6ndustrial !elations, #olume 8o.* $0, /%%(, )).+/*+. 16 5 2hom)son, . A., Andreassi, J., and 5rottas, :., ”-orkfamily culture7 @ey to reducin workforcework)lace mismatch”, Bawrence 1rlbaum 5ublications, /%%(,)).$$*$3/. 17 4orsyth,Stewart and 5olDer:ebruyne, Andrea”, 2he =raniDational 5ayoffs for 5ercei"ed -orklife Calance Su))ort”, Asia 5acific Journal of Human !esources,($0,/%%*,)).$$37$/3. 18 Anu)@umar Sinh and !ichaAwasthy,”-orkBife Calance7 causes, conseFuences and inter"entions”,8H!: 8etwork Journal,/%%&,)).(&+* 19
Cilal,Muhammad,iaur!ahman,Muhammad and !aDa6rfan, ”6m)act of 4amily 4riendly 5olicies on 1m)loyees Job Satisfaction and 2urno"er 6ntention7A study on worklife balance at work)lace”, 6nterdisci)linary Journal of ontem)orary !esearch in Cusiness, #olume 8o./*0, /%$%, )).3*'&(
and inflexible work hours are the most consistent predictor of work-life conflict among banking emplo"ees! The e$aluation pro$ided prima facie e$idence that alternati$e work schedules can impro$e banking emplo"ees work-life balance, creating benefits for banking emplo"ees and corporate organizations!
,ivya Suanthi and Samuel 3:;4;8 :; illustrated the current workplace conditions and some
of the reasons causing imbalances in work and life in the /T industr" in /ndia! Their stud" mainl" focused on the working women in the age group AB-D5 and the problems the" face at work and famil" life! Results obtained from using factor anal"sis suggest that organizations ma" mitigate $oluntar" turno$er among women belonging to /T sector and increase workforce di$ersit"!
(alik Saleem and Ahmad 3:;4;8 :4 examined the relationship of ob satisfaction with the
concept of work-life balance, turno$er intentions and burnout le$el of teachers in %akistan! The purpose of the stud" was to pro$ide empirical e$idence to pro$e the relationship! The" concluded that higher the work life balance higher will be the ob satisfaction of the teachers!
Shankar and Bhatnaar 3:;4;8 :: looked at the literature of work life balance exhausti$el"
and accentuated the importance of broadening the narrow focus to broader one be"ond work and famil"! The" ha$e proposed a conceptual model of work life balance to be tested empiricall"! This model focused on the work life balance construct and its relationship with emplo"ee engagement, emotional dissonance and turno$er intention and re$iewed the antecedents of Work-0amil" 8onflict from the perspecti$e of indi$idual, work and famil"! 0indings re$ealed the effects of indi$idual $ariables like stress influences, famil" $ariables like famil" demands and spousal interactions!
The recent explosion of interest in the workHfamil" interface has produced a number of concepts to explain the relation between these two dominant spheres of life: accommodation, 20
:i"ya :, Suanthi B. and Samuel Anand A., ”-ork life Calance of 62 -omen 5rofessionals Celonins to the Ae Grou) /%3( in 6ndia, ”Ad"ance in Manaement #olume 8o.3$0,/%$%,)).3*+ 21 Malik,Muhammad6mran,Sallem, 4arida Ahmad and Mehboob,”-orklife Calance and Job Satisfaction 5rofessionals Celonins to the Ae Grou) /%3( in 6ndia”, Ad"ance in Manaement #olume 8o.3$0, /%$%, )).3*+ 22
Shankar, 2ara and ChatnaarJyotsna, “-orklife balance, 1m)loyee, 1naement, 1motional onsonanceI :ossonance turno"er intention”, 2he 6ndian Journal of 6ndian !elations, #olume 8o.+$0,/%$%,)).*'*.
compensation, resource drain, segmentation, spillo$er, workHfamil" conflict, workHfamil" enrichment, and workHfamil" integration 19arnett, =66?N dwards < Rothbard, ABBBN 0riedman < 7reenhaus, ABBBN 7reenhaus < 9eutell, =6?5N 7reenhaus < %arasuraman, =666N Lambert, =66B2! Ene term widel" cited in the popular press is workHfamil" balance! *ometimes used as a noun 1when, for example, one is encouraged to achie$e balance2, and other times as a $erb 1to balance work and famil" demands2 or an adecti$e 1as in a balanced life2, workHfamil" balance often implies cutting back on work to spend more time with the famil"! )oreo$er, it is thought to be in an indi$iduals best interest to li$e a balanced life 1ofodimos, =66D2! &espite the presumed $irtue of workHfamil" balance, the concept has not undergone extensi$e scrutin"! )ost of the maor re$iews of workHfamil" relations either do not mention workHfamil" balance or mention balance but do not explicitl" define the concept! )oreo$er, empirical studies that discuss balance between work and famil" roles generall" do not distinguish balance from other concepts in the workHfamil" literature 1Fielson, 8arlson, < Lankau, ABB=N *altzstein, Ting, < *altzstein, ABB=N *umer < night, ABB=N Thompson, 9eau$ais, < L"ness, =6662! 0or empirical research on balance to contribute to understanding workHfamil" d"namics, further de$elopment of the construct is essential! *e$eral scholars ha$e recentl" proposed definitions of balance that distinguish it from other related concepts 18lark, ABBBN 3ill, 3awkins, 0erris, < Weitzman, ABB=N irchme"er, ABBBN ofodimos, =66B, =66DN )arks, 3uston, +ohnson, < )ac&ermid, ABB=N )arks < )ac&ermid, =66>2! Fe$ertheless, the definitions of balance are not entirel" consistent with one another, the measurement of balance is problematic, and the impact of workHfamil" balance on indi$idual well-being has not been firml" established! The present stud" addressed these gaps in the literature! *pecificall", the research: 1=2 proposed a comprehensi$e definition of workHfamil" balance that is distinguishable from other workHfamil" conceptsN 1A2 de$eloped a measure of workHfamil" balance that is consistent with this definitionN and 1D2 examined relations between workHfamil" balance and #ualit" of life, a prominent indicator of well-being! /n subse#uent sections of this article, we discuss the concept and measurement of workHfamil" balance, propose relations between workHfamil" balance and #ualit" of life, and report the results of a stud" designed to examine these relations!
A! The meaning of workHfamil" balance, we do not consider balance to be a workHfamil" linking mechanism because it does not specif" how conditions or experiences in one role are causall" related to conditions or experiences in the other role 1dwards < Rothbard, ABBB2! /nstead, workHfamil" balance reflects an indi$iduals orientation across different life roles, an interrole phenomenon 1)arks < )ac&ermid, =66>2! /n contrast to the pre$ailing $iew that indi$iduals ine$itabl" organize their roles in a hierarch" of prominence, )arks and )ac&ermid 1=66>2, drawing on )ead 1=6>@2, suggest that indi$idual scanKand shouldK demonstrate e#uall" positi$e commitments to different life rolesN that is, the" should hold a balanced orientation to multiple roles! )arks and )ac&ermid define role balance as OOthe tendenc" to become full" engaged in the performance of e$er" role in onePs total role s"stem, to approach e$er" t"pical role and role partner with an attitude of attenti$eness and care! %ut differentl", it is the practice of that e$enhanded alertness known sometimes as mindfulness 1)arks < )ac&ermid, =66>, p! @A=2! 3owe$er, the" also note that this expression of full engagement reflects a condition of OOpositi$e role balance, in contrast to negati$e role balance in which indi$iduals are full" disengaged in e$er" role! (lthough )arks and )ac&ermid 1=66>2 are understandabl" more concerned with positi$e role balance than negati$e role balance, the" acknowledge that it is important to distinguish the two concepts! Ether scholars ha$e defined workHfamil" balance or work-life balance in a manner similar to )arks and )ac&ermidPs 1=66>2 conception of positi$e role balance! 0or example, irchme"er $iews li$ing a balanced life as OOachie$ing satisf"ing experiences in all life domains, and to do so re#uires personal resources such as energ", time, and commitment to be well distributed across domains 1irchme"er, ABBB, p! ?=, italics added2! /n a similar $ein, 8lark $iews workHfamil" balance as OOsatisfaction and good functioning at work and at home with a minimum of role conflict 18lark, ABBB, p! D@62! (ccording to ofodimos, balance refers to OOa satisf"ing, health", and producti$e life that includes work, pla", and lo$e! 1ofodimos, =66DN p! xiii2! These definitions of balance share a number of common elements! 0irst is the notion of e#ualit", or near-e#ualit", between experiences in the work role and experiences in the famil" role! 8lark 1ABBB2, irchme"er 1ABBB2, and ofodimos 1=66D2 impl" similarl" high le$els of satisfaction, functioning, health, or effecti$eness across multiple roles! %erhaps, )arks and )ac&ermidPs 1=66>2 notion of OOe$en handed alertness as a characteristic of positi$e balance is most explicit with regard to e#ualit" of role commitments! $en negati$e balance, to use )arks and )ac&ermidPs 1=66>2 term, implies an e$enhanded lack of alertness in
different roles! To draw an analog" from e$er"da" life, a measuring scale is balanced when there are e#ual weights on both sides of the fulcrum, whether the weights are e#uall" hea$" or e#uall" light! )oreo$er, the definitions of workHfamil" balance implicitl" consider two components of e#ualit": inputs and outcomes! The inputs are the personal resources 1irchme"er, ABBB2 that are applied to each role! To be balanced is to approach each roleKwork and famil"Kwith an approximatel" e#ual le$el of attention, time, in$ol$ement, or commitment! %ositi$e balance suggests an e#uall" high le$el of attention, time, in$ol$ement, or commitment, whereas negati$e balance refers to an e#uall" low le$el of attention, time, in$ol$ement, or commitment! These inputs reflect an indi$idualPs le$el of role engagementKin terms of time de$oted to each role or ps"chological in$ol$ement in each role! /t is difficult to imagine a balanced indi$idual who is substantiall" more or less engaged in the work role than the famil" role! The other component of balance refers to the resultant outcomes that are experienced in work and famil" roles! Ene outcome fre#uentl" included in definitions of balance is satisfaction 18lark, ABBBN irchme"er, ABBBN ofodimos, =66D2! %ositi$e balance implies an e#uall" high le$el of satisfaction with work and famil" roles, and negati$e balance suggests an e#uall" low le$el of satisfaction with each role! (gain, it is difficult to picture indi$iduals as ha$ing achie$ed workHfamil" balance if the" are substantiall" more satisfied with one role than the other! /n fact, one of )arks and )ac&ermidPs 1=66>2 measures of positi$e role balance 1discussed shortl"2 assesses the extent to which an indi$idual is e#uall" satisfied in all life roles! We offer the following definition of workHfamil" balance: the extent to which an indi$idual is e#uall" engaged inKand e#uall" satisfied withKhis or her work role and famil" role! 8onsistent with )arks and )ac&ermid 1=66>2, our definition is broad enough to include positi$e balance and negati$e balance! 9ecause role engagement can be further di$ided into elements of time and ps"chological in$ol$ement, we propose three components of workH famil" balance: Q Time balance: an e#ual amount of time de$oted to work and famil" roles! Q /n$ol$ement balance: an e#ual le$el of ps"chological in$ol$ement in work and famil" roles! Q *atisfaction balance: an e#ual le$el of satisfaction with work and famil" roles! ach component of workHfamil" balance can represent positi$e balance or negati$e balance depending on whether the le$els of time, in$ol$ement, or satisfaction are e#uall" high or e#uall" low!
We $iew workHfamil" balance as a matter of degree, a continuum anchored at one end b" extensi$e imbalance in fa$or of a particular role 1for example, famil"2 through some relati$el" balanced state to extensi$e imbalance in fa$or of the other role 1e!g!, work2 as the other anchor point! /n addition, we conceptualize balance as independent of an indi$idualPs desires or $alues! 9ielb" and 9ielb" 1=6?62 obser$ed that married working women ma" emphasize their famil" OOin balancing work and famil" identities 1p! C?>2 and Lambert 1=66B2 discussed OOmaintaining a particular balance between work and home 1p! A5A2! These researchers appear to be using the term balance to represent a range of different patterns of commitment, rather than an e#ualit" of commitments across roles! We belie$e that an indi$idual who gi$es substantiall" more precedence to one role than the other is relati$el" imbalanced e$en if the distribution of commitment to famil" and work is highl" consistent with what the indi$idual wants or $alues! Whether such imbalance in fa$or of one role is health" or not is, in our opinion, an empirical #uestion!
D! The measurement of workHfamil" balance Researchers has used se$eral different approaches to operationall" define role balance, workHfamil" balance, or work-life balance! 0or example, some studies ha$e assessed an indi$iduals reaction to an unspecified le$el of balance! )ilkie and %eltola 1=6662 used the item: OO3ow successful do "ou feel in balancing "our paid work and famil" life' White 1=6662 and *altzstein et al! 1ABB=2 focused on satisfaction with balance with the items OO(re "ou satisfied or dissatisfied with the balance between "our ob or main acti$it" and famil" and home life' and OO/ am satisfied with the balance / ha$e achie$ed between m" work and life respecti$el"! These measures are somewhat limited because the" measure perceptual or affecti$e reactions to balance rather than balance itself! 3ill et al! 1ABB=2 de$eloped a fi$e-item scale to assess work-life balance! 3owe$er, three of their items 1e!g!, OO3ow eas" or difficult is it for "ou to balance the demands of "our work and "our personal and famil" life'2 seem to assess percei$ed success in achie$ing balance rather than the le$el of balance! )arks and colleaguesP scales come closest to assessing balance as conceptualized in the present research! /n their first stud" of emplo"ed wi$es and mothers, )arks and )ac&ermid 1=66>2 used a single item to measure role balance: OOFowada"s, / seem to eno" e$er" part of m" life e#uall" well! (lthough, as the authors acknowledged, a one-item scale is not ideal, at least the item assessed e#ualit" among roles in eno"ment or satisfaction, one component of workHfamil" balance!
/n their second stud", )arks and )ac&ermid 1=66>2 de$eloped a more complex ?-item scale of role balance! Three t"pes of items were included in the scale: 1=2 e#ual satisfaction or eno"ment across roles 1OO! ! ! / find satisfaction in e$er"thing / do!2N 1A2 e#ual importance or caring about roles 1OOe$er"thing / do feels special to meN nothing stands out as more important or more $aluable than an"thing else!2N and 1D2 e#ual attention or time across roles 1OO/ tr" to put a lot of m"self into e$er"thing / do!2! )arks et al! 1ABB=2 used four items from )arks and )ac&ermidPs 1=66>2 ?-item scale, two of which reflected e#ual satisfaction and two of which assessed e#ual time or attention! The alpha coefficients were modest for women 1!>@2 and men 1!5>2, suggesting that the satisfaction and time components of balance ma" be distinct constructs! (lthough the items b" )arks and his colleagues are faithful to their definition of role balance, the" represent respondentsP udgments of balanced satisfaction, importance, or attention across roles! (s )arks and )ac&ermid 1=66>2 acknowledged, it is difficult to interpret the meaning of a low score on their items! 0or example, indi$iduals who disagree with the item OO/ tr" to put a lot of m"self into e$er"thing / do might put $er" little into e$er"thing the" do 1negati$e role balance2 or might put much more into one role than another 1role imbalance2! Therefore, )arks and )ac-&ermid 1=66>2 encourage researchers to obtain direct measures of positi$e balance, negati$e balance, and imbalance! Ene obecti$e of this stud", as we elaborate below, was to de$elop direct measures of the components of workH famil" balance that do not depend on emplo"eesP self-reported assessment of balance!
@! The relation between workHfamil" balance and #ualit" of life WorkHfamil" balance is generall" thought to promote well-being! ofodimos 1=66D2 suggests that imbalanceKin particular work imbalanceKarouses high le$els of stress, detracts from #ualit" of life, and ultimatel" reduces indi$idualsP effecti$eness at work! 3all 1=66B2 proposes an organizationchange approach to promoting workHfamil" balance, and the popular press is replete with ad$ice to companies and emplo"ees on how to promote greater balance in life 18ummings, ABB=N 0isher, ABB=N /zzo < Withers, ABB=2! Wh" should workHfamil" balance enhance an indi$iduals #ualit" of life' 0irst, in$ol$ement in multiple roles protects or buffers indi$iduals from the effects of negati$e experiences in an" one role 19arnett < 3"de, ABB=2! 9e"ond this buffering effect, workHfamil" balance is thought to promote well-being in a more direct manner! )arks and )ac&ermid 1=66>, p! @A=2, belie$e that balanced indi$iduals are OOprimed to seize the moment when confronted with a role demand because no role is seen as OOless worth" of
onePs alertness than an" other! (ccording to this reasoning, balanced indi$iduals experience low le$els of stress when enacting roles, presumabl" because the" are participating in role acti$ities that are salient to them! /n fact, )arks and )ac&ermid 1=66>2 found that balanced indi$iduals experienced less role o$erload, greater role ease, and less depression than their imbalanced counterparts! )oreo$er, a balanced in$ol$ement in work and famil" roles ma" also reduce chronic workHfamil" conflict! 9ecause balanced indi$iduals are full" engaged in both roles, the" do not allow OOsituational urgencies to hinder role performance chronicall" 1)arks < )ac&ermid, =66>2! /nstead, the" de$elop routines that enable them to meet the long-term demands of all roles, presumabl" a$oiding extensi$e workH famil" conflict! /n sum, a balanced engagement in work and famil" roles is expected to be associated with indi$idual well-being because such balance reduces workH famil" conflict and stress, both of which detract from well-being 10rone, Russell, < 8ooper, =66A2! 3owe$er, the beneficial effects of balance are based on the assumption of positi$e balance! We suggested that an e#uall" high in$estment of time and in$ol$ement in work and famil" would reduce workHfamil" conflict and stress thereb" enhancing an indi$idualPs #ualit" of life! To determine whether there are different effects of positi$e balance and negati$e balance on #ualit" of life, it is necessar" to distinguish indi$iduals who exhibit a high total le$el of engagement across their combined work and famil" roles from those who displa" a low total le$el of engagement! 0or example, those indi$iduals who de$ote a substantial amount of time to their combined work and famil" roles and distribute this substantial time e#uall" between the two roles exhibit positi$e time balance! 9" contrast, those indi$iduals who de$ote onl" a limited amount of time to their combined work and famil" roles and distribute the limited time e#uall" between the two roles exhibit negati$e time balance! *imilarl", indi$iduals who in$est a substantial amount of ps"chological in$ol$ement in their combined roles and distribute their substantial in$ol$ement e#uall" between their work and famil" roles exhibit positi$e in$ol$ement balance, whereas those who distribute their limited in$ol$ement e#uall" exhibit negati$e in$ol$ement balance! We belie$e that positi$e balance has a more substantial positi$e impact on #ualit" of life than negati$e balance! When indi$iduals in$est substantial time or in$ol$ement in their combined roles, there is more time or in$ol$ement to distribute between work and famil"! /n this situation, imbalance can reflect sizeable differences between work time and famil" time or between work in$ol$ement and famil" in$ol$ement, and therefore produce extensi$e workH famil" conflict and stress that detract from #ualit" of life! 3owe$er, we expect little or no benefit of balance when indi$iduals in$est limited time or in$ol$ement in their combined
roles! /n this situation, because there is so little time or in$ol$ement to distribute, imbalance reflects small differences between work time and famil" time or between work in$ol$ement and famil" in$ol$ement, and arouses little or no workHfamil" conflict and stress that detract from the #ualit" of ones life! Therefore, we tested the following h"potheses! 3"pothesis =! There is an interaction between time balance and total time de$oted to work and famil" roles in predicting #ualit" of life! The relation between balance and #ualit" of life is stronger for indi$iduals who de$ote a substantial amount of time to their combined work and famil" roles than for indi$iduals who de$ote a limited amount of time to their combined work and famil" roles! 3"pothesis A! There is an interaction between in$ol$ement balance and total in$ol$ement in work and famil" roles in predicting #ualit" of life! The relation between balance and #ualit" of life is stronger for indi$iduals who are highl" in$ol$ed in their combined work and famil" roles than for indi$iduals who are relati$el" unin$ol$ed in their combined work and famil" roles! Recall that the interactions are based on the notion that balanced indi$iduals experience less workHfamil" conflict and stress than imbalanced indi$iduals onl" when substantial time and ps"chological in$ol$ement are in$ested across their work and famil" roles! .nder conditions of more limited in$estment of time and in$ol$ement, there are smaller differences in the degree of balance and hence smaller differences in workHfamil" conflict, stress, and ultimatel" #ualit" of life! /n effect, we belie$e that workHfamil" conflict and stress explain or mediate the effects of balance on #ualit" of life! Therefore: 3"pothesis D! The interaction between time balance and the total amount of time de$oted to work and famil" roles predicting #ualit" of life is mediated b" workH famil" conflict and stress! 3"pothesis @! The interaction between in$ol$ement balance and total in$ol$ement in work and famil" roles predicting #ualit" of life is mediated b" workHfamil" conflict and stress! 3"potheses =H@ predicted relations of time balance and in$ol$ement balance with #ualit" of life! 9alanced satisfaction across work and famil" roles 18lark, ABBBN irchme"er, ABBBN ofodimos, =66D2 is also likel" to be associated with a high #ualit" of life! /ndi$iduals who are highl" satisfied with both roles are likel" to experience a more substantial achie$ement of $alued goals than those who are less satisfied with one role than the other, and goal achie$ement has been associated with indi$idual well-being 1&iener, *uh, Lucas, < *mith, =6662! )oreo$er, we expect that an imbalanced satisfaction between work and famil" roles
can produce extensi$e stress because the imbalance is a constant reminder that one is not meeting his or her needs or $alues as extensi$el" in one role as the other! 3owe$er, the relation between satisfaction balance and #ualit" of life is likel" to depend on the total le$el of satisfaction across work and famil" roles! .nder conditions of high total satisfaction, there is more satisfaction to distribute across work and famil" roles! Therefore, imbalance can produce sizeable differences between work satisfaction and famil" satisfaction, a high le$el of stress, and therefore a low #ualit" of life! .nder conditions of low total satisfaction, where there is not much satisfaction to distribute across roles, imbalance produces minor differences between work satisfaction and famil" satisfaction, generates little stress, and has little or no effect on #ualit" of life! Therefore: 3"pothesis 5! There is an interaction between satisfaction balance and total satisfaction with work and famil" roles in predicting #ualit" of life! The relation between balance and #ualit" of life is stronger for indi$iduals who are highl" satisfied with their combined work and famil" roles than for indi$iduals who are relati$el" dissatisfied with their combined work and famil" roles! The rationale behind 3"pothesis 5 is that imbalanced indi$iduals experience more stress than balanced indi$iduals onl" when there is a substantial amount of satisfaction to distribute across their work and famil" roles! /n effect, stress explains the effect of satisfaction balance on #ualit" of life! We do not belie$e that workH famil" conflict explains the relation between satisfaction balance and #ualit" of life because an imbalance in satisfaction is not likel" to produce extensi$e workHfamil" conflict as an imbalance in time or in$ol$ement is expected to produce! Therefore 3"pothesis >, The interaction between satisfaction balance and total satisfaction with work and famil" roles predicting #ualit" of life is mediated b" stress! )eferences
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orman, (! !, < orman, R! ! 1=6?B2! 8areer success;personal failure! nglewood 8liffs, F+: %rentice- 3all! Lambert, *! +! 1=66B2! %rocesses linking work and famil": ( critical re$iew and research agenda! 3uman Relations, @D, AD6HA5C! Lodahl, T! )!, < ener, )! 1=6>52! &efinition and measurement of ob in$ol$ement! +ournal of (pplied %s"cholog", @6, A@HDD! )arks, *! R!, 3uston, T! L!, +ohnson, ! )!, < )ac&ermid, *! )! 1ABB=2! Role balance among white married couples! +ournal of )arriage and the 0amil", >D, =B?DH=B6?! )arks, *! R!, <)ac&ermid, *! )! 1=66>2! )ultiple roles and the self: ( theor" of role balance! +ournal of )arriage and the 0amil", 5?, @=CH@DA! )ead, 7! 3! 1=6>@2! *elected writings! /ndianapolis, /F: 9obbs-)errill! )ilkie, )! (!, < %eltola, %! 1=6662! %la"ing all the roles: 7ender and the workHfamil" balancing act! +ournal of )arriage and the 0amil", >=, @C>H@6B! Feteme"er, R! 7!, 9oles, +! *!, < )c)urrian, R! 1=66>2! &e$elopment and $alidation of workHfamil" conflict and famil"-work conflict scales! +ournal of (pplied %s"cholog", ?=, @BBH@=B! Fielson, T! R!, 8arlson, &! *!, < Lankau, )! +! 1ABB=2! The supporti$e mentor as a means of reducing workHfamil" conflict! +ournal of Vocational 9eha$ior, 56, D>@HD?=! %arasuraman, *!, 7reenhaus, +! 3!, < 7ranrose, 8! *! 1=66A2! Role stressors, social support, and wellbeing among two-career couples! +ournal of Erganizational 9eha$ior, =D, DD6HD5>! %arasuraman, *!, %urohit, M! *!, 7odshalk, V! )!, < 9eutell, F! +! 1=66>2! Work and famil" $ariables, entrepreneurial career success, and ps"chological well-being! +ournal of Vocational 9eha$ior, @?, AC5HDBB! %atchen, )! 1=6CB2! %articipation, achie$ement, and in$ol$ement on the ob! nglewood 8liffs, F+: %rentice- 3all! Iuinn, R! %!, < *heppard, L! +! 1=6C@2! The =6CAH=6CD #ualit" of emplo"ment sur$e"! .ni$ersit" of )ichigan, (nn (rbor, )/: *ur$e" Research 8enter! *altzstein, (! L!, Ting, M!, < *altzstein, 7! 3! 1ABB=2! WorkHfamil" balance and ob satisfaction: The impact of famil"-friendl" policies on attitudes of federal go$ernment emplo"ees! %ublic (dministration Re$iew, >=, @5AH@>C! *taines, 7! L!, %ottick, ! +!, < 0udge, &! (! 1=6?>2! Wi$esP emplo"ment and husbandsP attitudes toward work and life! +ournal of (pplied %s"cholog", C=, ==?H=A?!
*umer, 3! 8!, < night, %! (! 1ABB=2! 3ow do people with different attachment st"les balance work and famil"! ( personalit" perspecti$e on workHfamil" linkage! +ournal of (pplied %s"cholog", ?>, >5DH>>D! Thompson, 8! (!, 9eau$ais, L! L!, < L"ness, ! *! 1=6662! When workHfamil" benefits are not enough: The influence of workHfamil" culture on benefit utilization, organizational attachment, and workH famil" conflict! +ournal of Vocational 9eha$ior, 5@, D6AH@=5! White, +! )! 1=6662! WorkHfamil" stage and satisfaction with workHfamil" balance! +ournal of 8omparati$e 0amil" *tudies, DB, =>DH=C5! Literature )evie$# Work Life Balance#
Work life balance 1acron"m WL92 is the separation between work life and personal life of an emplo"ee in the organization! /t is the boundar" that one creates between the professional life, career ad$ancement, personal life or an" other segment that makes up the life of an indi$idual! (part from the career life these segments include famil", personal growth, fitness and health, communit" relations and friendship! 0inding the balance between career and personal life has alwa"s been a challenge for working people! *ome widel" used definitions of work-famil" issues or work-famil" balance, found in the literature, are listed below: 1Work-family conflict is defined as a form of role conflict characteri)ed by the incongruence between res(onsibilities of the home and work(lace which are mutually incom(atible! 17reenhaus and 9eutell, =6?52 WL9 is defined as J satisfaction and good functioning at work and at home with a minimum of role conflict2 18lark, ABBB2 WL9 is defined as Jthe absence of unacceptable le$el of conflicts between work and nonwork demands! 17reenbatt, ABBA2 Work life balance as Jthe extent to which an indi$idual is e#uall" engaged in H and e#uall" satisfied with H his or her work role and famil" role 17reenhaus et al, ABBD, 2 Work life balance is Jthe extent to which an indi$iduals effecti$eness and satisfaction in work and famil" roles are compatible with the indi$iduals life priorities! 17reenhans and (llen, ABB>2 WorkHfamil" balance is defined 1as accom(lishment of role related e3(ectations that are negotiated and shared between an indiidual and his or her role-related (artners in the work and family domains 17rz"wacz and 8arlson, ABBC2!
WL9 for an" person is ha$ing the Jright combination of participation in paid work 1defined b" hours and working conditions2 and other aspects of li$es! This combination will change as people mo$e through life and ha$e changing responsibilities and commitments in their work and personal li$es! 0rone, Russell, < 8ooper, 1=66A2! With these definitions it can be understood that an" imbalance that is formed either creates more pressure or ps"chological in$ol$ement or satisfaction towards one role as compared to other role! The origin of the research work life balance can be seen from the seminal work of rapport and rapport 1=6>62, the research are been that both work and famil" needs time and energ"! Work is an important source of income, financial stabilit" and status! Where tow partners come oin hands together and earn and support and raise their children together! (s work and famil" has no direct relationship with each other so conflicts is ine$itable to arise! han wolf, Iuinn, snoek and Rosenthal, =6>@2 from their seminal studies associated work life balance with role theor", that is conflicting expectations associated with different roles which the male and female has to pla" in their da" to da" life! anter 1=6CC2 was able to continue the research of khan 1=6>@2 pro$ing that work and famil" are not independent of each other rather ha$e an interlink which conse#uentl" brings in conflicts between the two! With the pioneering work of pleck 1=6CC2 there was a general consensus formed that work and famil" affect each other either in a positi$e or negati$e wa"! (nd there are $arious extraneous $ariables like time, task, attitudes, stress emotions, and beha$iors which ha$e an influence o$er work life imbalance! (nother influential theor" after %leck 1=6CC2 was the theor" of spill o$er 1%iotrkowski , =6C62, based on as"mmetric permeable boundaries between the work and famil" life domains! The spill o$er theor" basicall" talked about two t"pe of factors ob related factors and work related factors! There was a relationship established between the two domains of ob related factors and work related factors like the influence of spill o$er theor" o$er ob context more for women then for men, whereas the con$erse would be true for ob related factors! 0urther the spill o$er theor" also in$ited $arious research scholars to identif" few more factors that influence the work famil" dependenc" like compensation, benefits, and bonuses 18hampoux, =6C?2! 7reenhaus < 9eutell 1 =6?52 further segregated few more factors like time, task, attitudes, stress emotions, and beha$ioral spill o$er work and famil"! The" tried to maintain either positi$e or negati$e relation between the two domains! 1=6??2 found out that interface between work and famil" is as"mmetric and work tends to influence more on famil" than
famil" on work! ( distinction was made between work famil" interface 1famil" interfering work2 and 1work interfering famil"2 greenhouse < 9rutell 1=6??2! *e$eral scholars during that time concluded that interference between work and famil" and the conflict arising out of it are conceptuall" and empiricall" distinct from each other! 1Wile", =6?C2! (s explained pre$iousl" the field was dominated more b" role theor" which was deri$ed from seminal studies of khan, Wolfe 1=6>@2! (ccording to 8ohen < wills 1=6?52 role theor" and its conflicting expectations form the tow domains ha$e detrimental affects on the well being of male and females both! This further led to the stressors H strain mode 18ohen < wills 1=6?52, rasek < Theorell, =66B2 with work famil" conflicts as stressors! )an" theoretical models were then published detailing the stressors that cause conflicts among work and famil" domain 19edeian, 9ruke < )offet, =6??2! ell" < Vo"danoff, =6?52 offered a general integrati$e framework of work famil" interface! 0actors which were taken into considerations were social support, time commitment, o$erload 1both at work and at famil"2 as antecedents, and work famil" conflict and famil" work conflicts and core $ariables, and distress, dissatisfaction and performance as outcomes! This mismatch between the two set of roles that is work role responsibilit" and famil" role responsibilit" leads to work H life imbalance 1 7reenhaus et al! , ABBD2! The general aim of such working time policies is to strike a balance between emplo"ment and domestic commitments that is e#uitable and beneficial to both emplo"er and emplo"ee! 7reenhaus et al, 1ABBD2 conceptualized mainl" three components of work life balance! 0irstl" the" took time as a base and obser$ed that if e#ual amount of time is de$oted to work and famil" there happens to be a balance between two! *econdl" ps"chological in$ol$ement balance has to be there in two roles of work and famil" and thirdl" satisfaction balance which stri$es to keep balance between ob satisfaction and famil" life satisfaction! Work-life balance is the term used in the literature to refer to policies that stri$e to achie$e a greater complimentar" and balance between work and home responsibilities! These policies appl" to all workers, not ust working parents, alone females or working parents with children and dependents particularl" in udging their own abilit" to combine both work and famil" life! *ome of the terms used in the literature on work-life balance which were then commonl" used b" $arious organizations are gi$en below: WL9: Work-life 9alance also referred to as famil" friendl" work arrangements 100W(2, and, in international literature, as alternati$e work arrangements 1(W(2!
V-Time: this is $oluntar" o$ertime to meet production needsN extra hours are banked and taken as time off or as extra pa"! /t differs from flextime where starting and finishing times are staggered, and can mean reduced or increased weekl" working hours o$er a period of time! Gero hours contract: this is a flexible contract that does not specif" the amount of time a worker will spend per "ear on their emplo"ment, lea$ing it open to meet demand! -working: the term used to describe flexible working that can be done from an" location using technologies such as laptops, wireless internet connection and mobile phones! Teleworking: this is where the location is flexible b" using technologies to complete work this allows work to be done from homeN also known as e-working! Term-time working: this is when a parent is allowed to work onl" during school term times, with all school holida"s off! %a"ment can be calculated either b" usual pa"ment, with no pa"ment during holida"s, or salaries can be spread out across the "ear! Ether forms of flexible working conditions include: %art-time working, +ob sharing, 0lexitime, *hift working, 8ompressed hours, 3ome working, and 8areer breaks! 1*ource: mplo"ment (ct ABBA, .!!, which came into force in (pril ABBD2 Work Life 1onflict#
The assumption, that in$ol$ement in one role 1i!e! ob2 necessaril" precludes attention of another 1i!e! famil"2! *uch interference between role commitments leads to WL8! 10rone,ABBD2 /n other words indi$iduals percei$e that the" ha$e more flexibilit" in terms of engaging in famil" commitments and responsibilities than the" do for work commitments! 18arlson and 0rone , ABBD2! There are basicall" two interfaces to work life conflict: Work to famil" interference 1W/02 0amil" to work interference 10W/2 Working time of an indi$idual is dictated b" the persons emplo"ment contract or the organization commitments whereas famil" time is purel" discretion of the indi$iduals! The clash of time in these two aspects creates an imbalance in two directions i!e! work famil" interference 1W0/2 tends to dominate the famil" work interference 10W/2! Work home interference generall" operates in two directions! 0irst, work demands more time and energ" hindering acti$ities at the famil" end! 0or example attending an earl" morning meeting or marketing tours arranged b" the organization leads indi$idual to compromise on home related acti$ities! Researchers call this as work interference with home! *econd, responsibilities at home interfere with performance at work! 0or example worr"ing about sick
dependents, spouse or partners responsibilit" man" a times di$erts an indi$iduals attention towards work related responsibilities leading to famil" interfering work! 1 &uxbur", 3iggins, < Lee, =66@, )acwen < 9arling =66@2! *tudies distinguishing between the two directions of interference ha$e presupposed a positi$e, reciprocal relationship between work interference with home and home interference with work, based on the assumption that if work-related problems and obligations begin to interfere with the fulfillment of responsibilities at home, these unfulfilled home responsibilities ma" then begin to interfere with ones da"-to-da" functioning at work, and $ice $ersa 10rone, Russell, < 8ooper, =66A2! 8ombining both directions of work-famil" interference and famil" to work interference into one construct renders it difficult to ascertain whether gi$en antecedents are predicting work interference with home or the $ice-$ersa! 1rdwins, 9uffardi, 8asper, < E9rien, ABB=N 3ill, 3awkins, 0erris, < Weitzman, ABB=N %arasuraman < *immers, ABB=N *altzstein, Ting, < *altzstein, ABB=N Tausig < 0enwick, ABB=2!
1onceptual /rame$ork#
8arlson and 0rone 1ABBD2 discussed about the ps"chological in$ol$ement of the person in the organization as well as on the famil" front! ( high degree of ps"chological in$ol$ement with context to role of an indi$idual i!e! ob role and famil" role would prioritize the indi$idual to be somewhat mentall" preoccupied with their performance in that role, such imbalance in performance will ha$e significant implications on work to famil" and famil" to work interference! 8onceptuall", it seems e$ident that ps"chological in$ol$ement would ha$e significant implications for le$els of work to famil" and famil" to work interference! 8arlson and 0rone 1ABBD2 found that both ps"chological in$ol$ement and beha$ioral 1time2 in$ol$ement were significant related to W/0 but the re$erse did not appl" with 0/W or famil" in$ol$ement into work! 8learl" more research and d"namic interpla" in relationship of time and famil" was re#uired to draw conclusions! Therefore, 0rone 1ABBD2 summarized the findings from .* based sur$e" and noted that famil" boundaries ma" be more permeable than ob boundaries and hence the le$els of work to famil" 1W0/2 interference are reported higher or more intense than those of famil" to work interference 10W/2! Various other researches in .* and other western countries ha$e confirmed these findings! *o finall" 0rone 1ABBD2 mainl" concluded two main antecedents to Work H 0amil" 9alance!
Work related and famil" related conditions in which indi$idual work! Ef the Work Related Variables were +ob demands, Working hours, Role responsibilit", Erganization citizenship beha$ior, Work load, irregular working hours etc! 0amil" Related Variables were 0amil" responsibilit", %arental responsibilit", Role of spouse and other famil" dependents responsibilit", Leisure time and other acti$ities with famil"! %ersonal Variables included 7ender, age , marital status, no of children etc! as the most important predictor of W08 ! 1%leck, =6CC, 7utek et al, =66=2 obser$ed that because of different role responsibilities of men and women the" exhibit different inter role conflict! 0or example men exhibit greater interference from work to famil" 1W0/2 and women reporting more interference from famil" to work 10W/2! 7utek et al! 1=66=2 pro$ed that women reported more interference in famil" than men despite spending about same number of hours in paid work as men do! Williams < (lliger 1=66@2 and Losocoo 1=66C2 found that women spend more hours in famil" work thatn men and reported same le$el of famil" interference! $en the spoil o$er theor" found out that both 0W/ and W0/ were stronger for women than men! *e$eral international studies ha$e been conducted on antecedents of W08! Ene of the prominent research programs was de$eloped b" *amuel (r"er and his colleagues in 3ong ong 1=6662 the" examined within +ob and within famil" conflicts along with ob in$ol$ement as predictors of W0/ < 0W/! (lso the results obtained from the stud" were similar to 0rone, Russell and 8ooper 1=6662 in .*! /n another stud" b" (r"er, Luke et al 1=6662 work o$er load and parental o$er load were considered as predictor of W0/ and 0W/ in the cit" of 3ong ong! The" obser$ed that W0/ was significantl" higher than 0W/ as especiall" males reported higher le$els of W0/ than females experiencing 0W/! ( ke" issue discussed in the stud" was impact of role stressors on both W0/ and 0W/! Where in the moderating $ariable was considered as gender! (s more work load leads to more W08 in case of males and more parental work load leads to mare W08 among females, (r"er, Luke et al 1=6662 also explored social support as potential moderator of relationship between W0/ and 0W/! The results of 0rone and 8arlson, 1ABBD2 about the ps"chological in$ol$ement with W08 were inconsistence with the conceptual framework! That is some research ha$e confirmed positi$e relationship between the domains others ha$e obtained either $er" less or no association between the two $ariables! 3owe$er looking to the different obs and e#ualit" of men and women man" results ha$e found no gender differences as e$en with 10W/ or W0/2 17rzwac and )arks, ABBB2! *tudies
done b" 17ua" , ABB=2 in 0rench H 8anadian *ample describe no gender difference same was in Mant et al 1ABB=2 in 8hina reported not much significant difference between 0W/ and W0/ with men or women! Ether dispositional antecedents of W08 in particular are personalit" factors! 9ernas<)aor 1ABBB2, 7rz"wacz< )arks, ABBB2 illustrated that huge le$els of hardiness, extra$ersion and self-esteem are linked with reduced W08! *imilarl" 9rruck< (llen 1ABBD2, examined relationship of T"pe ( beha$ior disposition, 9ig 5 %ersonalit" $ariables with both work and famil" interference and famil" to work interference! $idences from other .* and other uropean countries consistentl" demonstrated that work demands, work related stressors and stain are predictors to Work to famil" interference whereas famil" responsibilit" and famil" stressors 1 conflict within the famil" 2 contribute more towards famil" to work interference 1 0rone ABBD,2! Ether influencing $ariables ;moderators which ha$e influence of either W0/ or 0W/ were social support 1in both domains2: support in the organization b" super$isor;peers lead to more W0/ and support from the societ" ;relati$es leads to 0W/! 0rone 1ABBD2 also concluded antecedents of W0/ preside primaril" in +ob &omains and antecedents of 0W/ lie mainl" in 0amil" domains! 0rom the .* based stud" 7rz"wacz and )arks 1ABBB2 found out that social support at work and from ones spouse were negati$el" related to W08! Low le$els of support at work were strongl" correlated with negati$e spill o$er from work to famil" interference especiall" for women! 7reenhaus and beutelll 1=6?52 initiall" identified $arious kinds of ob demands affecting work life balance or work life conflict among men and women! 9asicall" researchers di$ided ob demands into time-based and beha$ior based! i!e! the amount of ones time that is spend on work place and the time de$oted for famil" acti$ities! *imilarl" the kind of ob responsibilit" the indi$idual is possessing in the organization! %arsuram, 7odshalk and 9eutell 1=66>2 suggested that time commitments at work place are more importantl" associated with WL8 because time is a limited source! 0urther 0rone et al! 1=66C2 pro$ed that along with time based conflict also beha$ior 1strain-based conflict2 is e#uall" the predictor of work life balance for indi$iduals in the organization! *uch role related or strain based predictors also lead to dissatisfaction or affect organizational performance 17reenhaus < 9eutell =6662! Work schedule flexibilit" has been found to be negati$el" associated with work life balance ; work famil" conflict! The financial industr" is a demanding work en$ironment wherein
emplo"ees are supposed to work of long hours! 3igher the flexibilit" lower is the work famil" conflict Victoria, Lingard and *ublet 1=66>2! /n other words, higher the work schedule flexibilit", higher is the work life balance! Loscocoo 1=66C2 examined how people with considerable control o$er their working hours construct and experience their work to famil" connections! /n a stud" in Few *outh Wales reported work hours to be significant predictors of #ualit" in the marital relationship 1(ldous, Esmond < 3icks, =6C62! Working hours ha$e consistentl" been linked to difficulties in balancing work and famil" life resulting in more the number of hours and less the work schedule flexibilit" leads to work famil" conflict! Role responsibilit" has been found to be negati$el" associated with work life balance or work life conflict! 3igher the responsibilit" of emplo"ee, the more tasks and roles one has to perform! /n other words, higher the works load, higher the imbalance between the work and famil" life 1Loseocoo =66C2! 3ill et al 1ABB=2 examined the percei$ed role stress on obs and flexibilit" of timings on work famil" balance issues! /t was found that emplo"ees with ob flexibilit" in timings and high work load work longer hours and lead to work life conflict issues! %arents reported more work life conflicts than other indi$iduals in the organization 1%leck et al! =6?B2! 3e tried to examine the impact of long excessi$e hours at work, less ob flexibilit", no support from organization or ps"chologicall" demanding work were associated with experiencing work life conflicts which in turn was also related to low ob satisfaction and low commitment with life in general! (r"ee 1=66A2 examined the impact of few such $ariables which ha$e influence on famil" domains! The famil" related $ariables were parental responsibilit", demands from household chores, lack of spouse support and number of dependants at the famil"! (s against the work related $ariables were task $ariet", ob autonom", role responsibilit", working hours flexible work schedules! /rregularit" of work hours and non standard work schedules ha$e also been identified as the most important $ariables affecting dual earner couples with children specific 1white < eith , =66A2 and 1Lingard < 0rancis, ABBA2 Tausig and 0enwick 1ABB=2 report that married couples without children reported higher le$els of work life balance and the presence of children H whether in single or two parent households or dual earner is relati$el" low on work life balance issues! 0or an indi$idual who is not subect to high le$els of famil" role expectations, being mentall" preoccupied with a ob assignment while at home ma" generate onl" a small amount of work interference with home! 0or an indi$idual who is pressurized b" friends or famil" to prioritize famil" o$er work, howe$er, the experience of work interfering with famil" ma" be more intense! %arental
demands are belie$ed to be greatest for people with infants and preschool aged children and less for those with school aged children and e$en lowest for with adult children who ha$e left home 1%arsuraman < *immers, ABB=2! 8ontinuing further with the research 1%arsuraman < *immers, ABB=2 in$estigated the relationship between parental responsibilities and time commitments to famil" and at work! The" reported the pattern that those with both the spouse working and more role responsibilit" with children of infant categor" face with work life balance issues and ha$e more conflicts in managing the two domains! Lingard 1ABB@2 examined whether or not an indi$idual complies with famil" role expectations, the pressure upon him;her o$er the ob responsibilities would focus attention on both domains! Wherein elements of work domain ma" interrupt famil" more prominent or it can be $ice-$ersa! (n impending explanation for this relationship is that conforming to famil" role expectations ma" result in role o$erload, generating time pressures and strain which can spill o$er into the work domain, creating home interference with work! Erganizational and support from co-workers and super$isors ha$e alwa"s been an influential $ariable for the stud" of work life balance issues! %re$ious studies demonstrated that, in order for emplo"ees to ha$e better work life balance it is e#uall" important that the" get supporti$e work en$ironment Thompson et al, =666, (llen, ABB=N, E&riscoll et al!, ABBD2! 0urther 0rances, ABBD2 re$ealed that emplo"ees who reported their organizations to be supporti$e of their famil" commitments, the" are satisfied with their ob and face less work life conflicts! /n contrast, unsupporti$e work en$ironments, stressful ob, long working hours, negati$e super$isors support leads to negati$e commitment on ob and work life conflicts issues in organizations! /n the work life literature re$iew some studies has confirmed that the presence of social support reduces the negati$e conse#uences of work related stressors and work famil" conflict 1Thomas < 7anster, =665N 7off, )ount < +amison, =66B2! /t is anticipated that, when super$isors or co-workers support is high, ob satisfaction and emplo"ee commitment is also $er" high! This leads to a better work life balance for emplo"ees! The extent to which fa$orable or unfa$orable treatments percei$ed b" the emplo"ees concerning the extent to which the organization $alues their contribution and cares about their well being is termed as %ercei$ed Erganization support Wiesenberger et al! 1=6?>2! 8asper et al! 1ABBA2 explored that emplo"ees who work in supporti$e or organizations are like to experience less amount of stress and more organizational commitment! This in turn leads to less work life conflicts and greater affecti$e commitment towards the organization!
*uper$isors pla" a particularl" important role in the work arrangements and controlling access o$er emplo"ees 1Walkins =6652! 3a$ing a supporti$e super$isor has been reported to reduce the negati$e impact of Work famil" 8onflict 1Thomas < 7anster =6652! /t has been examined that if the super$isor is supporti$e it leads to low le$el of stress, low ps"chological strain and reduced work life conflicts 1E&risoll et! al2! (lso 9arham 7otllieb, < ellowa" 1ABB=2 reported that when the super$isor is supporti$e it also leads to flexi work arrangements, gender fa$ors, reduced emplo"ee working hours and low amount of work responsibilities! Those with high le$els of super$isor support reported less conflicts and less ps"chological strain than those with unsupporti$e super$isor support! /n most of the studies, ob satisfaction has been directl" linked with work life conflict! 19oles, 3owards < &onrio, ABB=2! /t has been obser$ed that when there is high amount has been obser$ed that when work life conflict increases it creates the negati$e impact on ob satisfaction and the emplo"ee tends to lose interest in working in the organization! 9ruke, (llen and *pector 1ABBA2 framed the relationship between work life conflicts and ob satisfaction! The relationship was formed b" using two interfaces that is work to famil" and famil" to work and an" discrepanc" leads to ob dissatisfaction! When emplo"ees are not satisfied with their ob and are not able to balance between the two domains of work and famil" the" tend to withdraw from their work related acti$ities 7reenhaus, %arsuraman and 8ollins 1ABB=2! 0urther 7reenhaus et al! discussed about the le$el of stress that the emplo"ee possesses in the organization leads to work life conflict which then lead to #uitting of the ob! 9att and Valcour 1ABBD2 reported work interference with famil" to be significantl" and positi$el" related to turno$er intentions, and emplo"ee perceptions of control o$er managing work and famil" to be significantl" negati$el" related to turno$er intentions! Turno$er intentions are the direct outcome of work life conflict or W0/ or 0W/ 9o"ar et al! 1ABBD2! The abo$e literature re$iew on work life balance or work life conflict tries to associate work and famil" $ariables which are interlinked with each other! /t tries to examine $arious sources of conflict and its effect on organizational outcomes and indi$idual le$el outcomes! 9elow are four models explaining the relationship between $ariables studied which would then further be examined empiricall"! /iure
/iure 4 Relationship between Variables 1Work &omain and 0amil" &omain2 on W0/;0W/
0igure!= illustrates the relationships between work domain $ariables and famil" domain $ariables with its impact on W0/ and 0W/! (lso the model is able to explain the different wa"s in which work life practices and outcomes are conceptualized and measured in the literature! The model tries to explain the relationship of work to famil" interference and famil" to work interference with work life conflicts for an indi$idual in the organization! 3owe$er two things become $er" clear after re$iewing the literature on work life balance practices! Ene, that there is some association between work domain $ariables and famil" domain $ariables on W0/ and 0W/! (lso, the effect of moderating $ariables can also be seen in the framework! Two, regardless of effects on work life conflict, work life balance practices are often associated with impro$ed organizational outcomes and indi$idual outcomes! The model correlates to the concept of work life conflict and outcomes both at indi$idual le$el and organizational le$el!
1onclusion#
Literature on work life balance or work life conflict tires to identif" $arious factors associated with W0/ and 0W/! /t tries to examine $arious sources of conflicts that an emplo"ee possesses in the organization! The focus is mainl" on $arious roles that an indi$idual has to perform in his personal life as well as professional life! The literature re$iew re$eals that most of the studies done in the past were based on empirical research which tried to identif" relationship between work life conflict and its outcomes like ob satisfaction, organizational commitment , work to famil" interface and famil" to work interface! Ether $ariables like gender, age, marital status, no of dependents, emplo"ee role, ob responsibilit", parental status etc were widel" studied! The results show that all these ha$e either negati$e or positi$e relation with work life balance or work life conflict! &ifferent $iews of work life balance ha$e been suggested b" $arious research scholars in literature re$iew! &espite the popularit" of work life conflict as a topic of research interest, work life practices in the organization still ha$e a long wa" to tra$el to de$elop a compressi$e map of the antecedents and conse#uences of work life balance 1ersle" et al! , ABB5N .* 9ureau of labour ABBC2 (mong the $arious theoretical models that help us to understand $arious relationship constructs like ob satisfaction, long working hours, stressful ob, competing demands of work and famil" with work life conflict or work life imbalance! /n terms of organizational le$el, 3R policies and practices represent organizational efforts to pro$ide emplo"ees with supporti$e work place en$ironment, increase the commitment and citizenship beha$ior of emplo"ee towards the workplace! E$er the past two decades the outcomes of work life practices has been discussed b" $arious researchers in $arious disciplines 1e!g! +ohnson < %ro$an, =665N Whitehouse < Getlin, =6662, famil" studies 1e!g! 3ill, 3awkins, 0erris < Weitzman, ABB=N Raabe, =66>2, gender studies 1e!g! Felson, Iuick, 3itt, < )oesel, =66B2! The literature re$iew tries to examine the relationship between work life balance practices and organizational effecti$eness! The paper tires to find out from literature re$iew $arious $ariables and constructs which affect the work life balance policies in the organization!
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&epartment of 0amil" and 8ommunit" *er$ices: 8anberra, (8T!
>>F Lingard 3 and 0rancis V 1ABBA2 Work-life issues in the (ustralian 8onstruction
/ndustr": 0indings of a pilot stud"! 8onstruction /ndustr" /nstitute, (ustralia, Research Report, 9risbane, 6@pp! >?F Lingard, 3! < 0rancis, V! The work-life experiences of office and site-based emplo"ees
in the (ustralian construction industr"! 8onstruction )anagement and conomics, accepted A>th (pril ABB@! >6F Lingard, 3! < Lin, + 1ABBD2! 8areer, famil" and work en$ironment determinants of
organizational commitment among women in the (ustralian construction industr"! 8onstruction )anagement and conomics! >5F Lingard, 3! < *ublet, (! 1in press2! The impact of ob and organisational demands on
marital and relationship #ualit" among (ustralian ci$il engineers, submitted to 8onstruction )anagement and conomics! ?;F Lingard, 3! < *ublet, (!, 1ABBA2! The impact of ob and organisational demands on
marital and relationship #ualit" among (ustralian ci$il engineers! 8onstruction )anagement and conomics, AB, 5BC H 5A=! ?4F Lingard, 3!, 1ABBD2! The impact of indi$idual and ob characteris tics on Oburnout among
ci$il engineers in (ustralia and implications for emplo"ee turno$er! 8onstruction )anagement and conomics, A=, >6 - ?B! ?:F )arks, *!RN < )ac&ermid, *!)! 1=66>2! )ultiple roles and the self: ( theor" of role
balance! +ournal of )arriage and the 0amil", 5?, @=C H @DA! ?9F )auno, *! < innunen, .! 1=6662! The effects of ob stressors on marital satisfaction in
0innish dualearner couples! +ournal of Erganizational 9eha$ior, AB, ?C6 - ?65! ?
$alued b" managerial women! mplo"ee 8ounselling Toda", >, =? - A5! ?7F )e"er, +!%!, %aunonen, *!V!, 7ellatl", /!R!, 7offin, R!&!, < +ackson, &!F!, 1=6?62!
Erganizational commitment and ob performance: /ts the nature of the commitment that counts! +ournal of (pplied %s"cholog", C@, =5A - =5>! ?>F )e"er, +!%!, (llen, F!+!, < *mith, 8!(! 1=66D2! 8ommitment to organizations and
occupations: xtension and test of a three component conceptualization! +ournal of (pplied %s"cholog", C?, 5D? - 55=! ??F )oen, %! < Mu, M!, 1ABBB2! ffecti$e work;life strategies: Working couples, work
conditions, gender and life #ualit"! *ocial %roblems, @C, A6= - DA>!
?6F Feteme"er, R!7!, 9oles, +!*!, < )c)urrian, R! 1=66>2! &e$elopment and $alidation of
work-famil" conflict and famil"-work conflict scales! +ournal of (pplied %s"cholog", ?=, @BB - @=B! ?5F E&riscoll, )!%!, %oelmans, *!, alliath, T!, (llen, T! &!, 8ooper, 8! L!, and *anchez, +!
L! 1ABBD2, 0amil" responsi$e inter$entions, percei$ed organizational and super$isor support, work-famil"
conflict
and
ps"chological
strain,
/nternational
+ournal
of
*tress
)anagement,=B,DA>-D@@! 6;F %arasuraman, *! < *immers, 8!(! 1ABB=2! T"pe of emplo"ment, work-famil" conflict
and wellbeing, +ournal of Erganizational 9eha$ior, AA, 55= - 5>?! 64F %arasuraman, *! 1=6?A2! %redicting turno$er intentions and turno$er beha$ior: (
multi$ariate anal"sis! +ournal of Vocational 9eha$ior, A=, === - A=! 6:F %arasuraman, *!, 7reenhaus, +!3!, < 7ranrose, 8!*! 1=66A2! Role stressors, social
support and wellbeing among two career couples! +ournal of Erganizational 9eha$ior! =D, DD6 - D5>! 69F %arasuraman, *!, %urohit, M!*!, 7odshalk, V!)!, < 9eutell, F!+! 1=66>2! Work and famil"
$ariables, entrepreneurial career success and ps"chological wellbeing! +ournal of Vocational 9eha$ior, @?, AC5 - DBB! 6
%awson, I! 1=6662! 0itting fathers into families: men and the fatherhood role in contemporar" (ustralia! &epartment of 0amil" and 8ommunit" *er$ices: 8anberra! 67F *elder, 0! ! < %austian, (! 1=6?62! 9urnout: (bsence of $ision! /n &!T! Wessells, (!3!
utscher, /!9! 6>F *eeland, 0!! *elder, &!+! 8herico, < !+! 8lark 1ds!2! %rofessional 9urnout in
)edicine and the 3elping %rofessions! .*(: 3aworth %ress, /nc! 6?F *mithers, 7! 1ABBB2! The effect of the site en$ironment on moti$ation and de-moti$ation
of construction professionals! %roceedings of the =>th (nnual 8onference of the (ssociation of Researchers in 8onstruction )anagement, *eptember > - ?, 7lasgow 8aledonian .ni$ersit", 7lasgow, @55-@>@! 66F *tewart, W! < 9arling, +! 1=66>2! 0athers work experiences affect childrens beha$iours
$ia ob-related affect and parenting beha$iours! +ournal of Erganizational 9eha$ior, =C, AA= ADA! 65F *ulli$an, /!7! 1=6?62! 9urnout: ( stud" of a ps"chiatric centre! /n &!T! Wessells, (!3!
utscher, /!9! *eeland, 0!! *elder, &!+! 8herico, < !+! 8lark 1ds!2! %rofessional 9urnout in )edicine and the 3elping %rofessions! .*(: 3aworth %ress, /nc!
