Felicia Bucur
Limba engleză IV - suport de curs -
EDITURA UNIVERSITĂŢII „NICOLAE TITULESCU” BUCUREŞTI
2015
Acest material este destinat uzului studenţilor, forma de învăţământ la distanţă. Conţinutul cursului este proprietatea intelectuală a autorului /autorilor; designul, machetarea şi transpunerea în format electronic aparţin Departamentului de Învăţământ la Distanţă al Universităţii „Nicolae Titulescu” din Bucureşti. Acest curs este destinat uzului individual. Este interzisă multiplicarea, copierea sau difuzarea conţinutului sub orice formă.
Acest manual a fost analizat si aprobat in sedinta Departamentului de Stiinte Politice si Administrative din data de 25 septembrie 2014.
UNIVERSITATEA „NICOLAE TITULESCU” DIN BUCUREŞTI DEPARTAMENTUL PENTRU ÎNVĂŢĂMÂNTUL LA DISTANŢĂ
Felicia Bucur
Limba engleză IV
Editura Universităţii „Nicolae Titulescu” Calea Văcăreşti, nr. 185, sector 4, Bucureşti Tel./fax: 0213309032/0213308606 Email:
[email protected]
ISBN: 978-606-751-086-7
Unit 1: LOCAL GOVERNMENT Unit 2: FORMS OF GOVERNMENT Unit 3: CONTEMPORARY DIVISION OF GOVERNMENT Unit 4: THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM Unit 5: POLITICAL SYSTEMS
LIMBA ENGLEZĂ IV Titular curs: Asist.univ.drd. Felicia BUCUR Cadrul general al cursului: Cursul practic de limba engleză se adresează în principal studenţilor din anul al II-lea din cadrul sistemului de Învăţământ Deschis la Distanţă (IDD) al Universităţii „Nicolae Titulescu”, Facultatea de Ştiinţe Sociale şi Administrative, Specializarea Administraţie Publică, cu un nivel mediu de cunoaştere a limbii engleze şi doreşte să le ofere acestora posibilitatea de a recapitula cunoştinţele acumulate şi de a-şi însuşi noi elemente – noţiuni avansate din limbajul administrativ şi juridic. De asemenea, cursul îşi propune dezvoltarea unor strategii care să conducă la autonomia studenţilor în învăţare, prin conştientizarea nevoilor personale, efort individual şi autoevaluare permanentă. Cursul pentru semestrul al II-lea este structurat în 5 unităţi de învăţare. Textele sunt însoţite de exerciţii, care au rolul de a facilita procesul de înţelegere şi de a favoriza acumularea lexicală.
Obiectivele cursului sunt:
1. să formeze deprinderile necesare pentru a folosi limba engleză în mod flexibil şi eficient atât în scopuri sociale cât şi profesionale;
2. să îmbogăţească vocabularul studenţilor prin achiziţia de termeni juridici şi din
administraţia publică în limba engleză; 3. să crească încrederea studenţilor în capacităţile personale de îndeplinirea sarcinilor comunicative în limba engleză.
Competenţele pe care trebuie să le dobândească studenţii se înscriu în precizările oferite de Cadrul European Comun de Referinţă pentru Limbi: Învăţare, Predare, Evaluare (2001). Astfel, nivelul pe care îl au studenţii la începutul acestui curs ar trebui să fie B1 sau B2, şi ne dorim ca nivelul atins la finalizare să fie B2+. Competenţele de comunicare lingvistică pe care studentul le poate dobândi cuprinde următoarele componente: 1. Competenţa lingvistică generală: să se exprime clar şi fără a lăsa impresia că este nevoit să restrângă ceea ce vrea să spună; a. competenţa lexicală: să stăpânească o gamă bogată de vocabular pentru subiectele legate de domeniul economic, juridic şi administraţie publică şi subiectele cele mai generale; b. competenţa gramaticală: să menţină un control gramatical bun, să nu facă greşeli care să conducă la neînţelegeri; c. competenţa fonologică: pronunţie şi intonaţie fireşti; d. competenţa ortografică: să producă un text scris coerent, clar şi inteligibil ce respectă regulile curente de dispunere în pagină şi de organizare. 2. Competenţa sociolingvistică: să se exprime cu siguranţă, simplu şi politicos într-un registru oficial şi neoficial potrivit cu situaţia şi persoanele în cauză. 3. Competenţa pragmatică:
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a. competenţa discursivă: să poată face o descriere sau alcătui o poveste clară dezvoltând şi argumentând punctele importante cu ajutorul detaliilor şi al exemplelor semnificative; să poată interveni într-o discuţie într-o manieră adecvată; să poată utiliza cu eficacitate o varietate de cuvinte de legătură pentru a marca clar legăturile dintre idei. b. competenţa funcţională: să poată comunica cu spontaneitate, demonstrând adeseori o remarcabilă uşurinţă şi o facilitate de exprimare chiar şi în enunţurile complexe şi destul de lungi; să poată transmite o informaţie amănunţită în mod fiabil.
Resurse şi mijloace de lucru Propunem utilizarea următoarelor resursele si mijloacele de lucru: - prezentul curs practic de limba engleză; - o gramatică a limbii engleze, pentru referinţe (să poată fi consultată la nevoie 1); - un dicţionar general englez-român, român englez; - un dicţionar economic şi juridic englez-român/român-englez 2
Structura cursului Cursul pentru semestrul I este compus din 5 unităţi de învăţare, după cum urmează: Unit 1: LOCAL GOVERNMENT Unit 2: FORMS OF GOVERNMENT Unit 3: CONTEMPORARY DIVISION OF GOVERNMENT Unit 4: THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM Unit 5: POLITICAL SYSTEMS Fiecare unitate este alcătuită din: 1. OBIECTIVE [OBJECTIVES], pe care studenţii trebuie să le atingă prin parcurgerea unităţii respective (aceste obiective sunt stabilite pentru a coordona procesul de învăţare, pentru a-i motiva pe studenţi să-şi însuşească conţinutul şi de asemenea pentru a-i ajuta să se autoevalueze).
Sugerăm următoarele variante posibile: 1. Fleischhack, Eric; Schwarz (2009) – English Grammar, Bucureşti: ALL Educational 2. Vince, Michael (2008) - Macmillan English Grammar In Context Student's Book – Intermediate, London: Macmillan 3. Preda, Ioan; Leviţchi, Leon (2008) – Gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureşti: Gramar 4. Docherty, Vincent; Brough, Sonia (2009) – Gramatica standard a limbii engleze, Bucureşti: Niculescu 2 Sugerăm următoarele variante posibile: 1. Oxford Business. Dicţionar englez-român (2007), Bucureşti: ALL 2. Dicţionar de afaceri englez-român, (2007), Bucureşti: Niculescu 3. Dictionar englez-roman/roman-englez de termeni economici si juridici (2010), Iaşi: Polirom 4. Dicţionar juridic englez-român, român-englez (2009) Bucureşti: Lumina Lex 5. Dicţionar economic englez-român, român-englez (2009) Bucureşti: Teora 1
2. INTRODUCERE [LEAD-IN]: include întrebări, teme pentru dezbateri şi scurte fragmente de text legate de subiectul unităţii respective pentru a stârni interesul studenţilor şi pentru a le activa elementele lexicale necesare unităţii respective. 3. LECTURA [READING]: un text (500-700 cuvinte), în care se exprimă o opinie cu privire la tema din unitatea respectivă. 4. ÎNŢELEGERE [COMPREHENSION]: prin intermediul exerciţiilor se oferă posibilitatea de a verifica gradul de înţelegere a textului. 5. RECAPITULARE [LANGUAGE FOCUS]: revizuirea unor structuri şi funcţii deja studiate, dar care prezintă un interes deosebit în engleza pentru administrația publică. 6. DEZVOLTAREA APTITUDINILOR [SKILLS FOCUS]: activităţi menite să dezvolte competenţele necesare exprimării scrise în administrația publică. 7. TRANSLATION [TRANSLATION]: exerciţii de traducere şi retroversiune a unor texte şi fraze, pentru a-i face conştienţi pe studenţi de complexitatea pe care o presupune realizarea acestor activităţi cu succes (alegeri lexicale, acurateţea structurilor gramaticale). Pe platforma elis se află cheia exerciţiilor. TEME DE CONTROL Rezolvarea celor două teme de control reprezintă 30% din nota finală. Prima temă de control trebuie rezolvată şi expediată utilizând platforma e-lis, secţiunea TEME ONLINE, cu două săptămâni înainte de prima întâlnire tutorială prevăzută în orar, iar cea de-a doua temă, cu două săptămâni înainte de cea de-a doua întâlnire tutorială prevăzută în orar. Tema de control 1 presupune rezolvarea în scris, la alegere din unităţile 1, 2, sau 3, a unei activităţi propuse în secţiunea SKILLS FOCUS. Tema de control 2 presupune rezolvarea în scris, la alegere din unităţile 4 sau 5 a unei activităţi propuse în secţiunea SKILLS FOCUS.
Cerinţe preliminare pentru parcurgerea cursului Este necesar un nivel cel puţin mediu de limba engleză pentru parcurgerea acestui curs (de exemplu obţinerea cel puţin a calificativului B1 la examenul de bacalaureat sau al unui calificativ similar).
Durata medie de studiu individual 120 minute pentru fiecare unitate.
Evaluarea La sfârşitul semestrului studentul va primi o nota care va fi compusă din: 1. 70% evaluarea finală, care va avea loc în sesiunea de examene, sub formă scrisă. 2. 30% evaluarea pe parcurs, prin notarea celor două teme de control obligatorii.
Examenul scris de la sfârşitul semestrului al II-lea va evalua competenţele lingvistice, sociolingvistice şi pragmatice dobândite prin parcurgerea unităţilor de învăţare 1-5 şi va avea o durată de 75 de minute. Structura examenului scris va fi de tipul: 1. Un text şi şase întrebări. Trebuie să citiţi textul şi să alegeţi varianta corectă de răspuns (A, B, C sau D). 2. Un exerciţiu de completare a spaţiilor libere (15 propoziţii/fraze cu spaţii goale). Fiecare spaţiu gol reprezintă un cuvânt sau o expresie. Trebuie să citiţi propoziţiile/frazele şi să alegeţi cuvântul sau expresia potrivită (A, B, C sau D). 3. Descrierea unei situaţii. Trebuie să redactaţi un text (40-50 de cuvinte) folosind informaţia dată (writing a note, message, memo or email: giving instructions, explaining a development, asking for comments, requesting information, agreeing to requests, etc.). 4. Traducerea unui text de 60-70 de cuvinte din limba engleză în limba română, asemănător din punct de vedere al conţinutului cu textele studiate. 5. Retroversiunea a 5 propoziţii/fraze care să conţină structuri gramaticale revizuite în cadrul unităţilor din semestrul al II-lea. Bibliografie generală: 1. Georgeta Ghiga, Mădălina Monica Stancu (2004) Public Administration and Professional Communication, Editura Cavallioti, Bucuresti. 2. Vince, Michael, (2010) - New First Certificate Language Practice with Key, Longman, London, 3. Fleischhack, Eric; Schwarz (2009) – English Grammar, Bucureşti: ALL Educational, 4. Molnar Oprea, Nicoleta. Mateescu, Marinela Carmen (2000) Curs de limba engleză pentru studenţii facultăţilor cu profil juridic. Bucureşti: Editura All Educational. 5. Xavier Frege (1991) Descentralizarea, Humanitas, Bucureşti 6. Alan Lawton, Rose Aidan (1991) Organization and Management in the Public Sector, London: Pitman Publishing.
UNIT 1: LOCAL GOVERNMENT
OBJECTIVES This unit will help you: - get familiar with the concept of local government - revise and practise vocabulary related to local government - revise and practise various constructions following verbs - improve the skills you need for writing a short account - improve your translation skills
LEAD IN Briefly describe the system of local government in Romania.
READING AND COMPREHENSION A Read the text. Find the information referring to: 1. sources of local government financing; 2. the names used for local government entities; 3. the names used for the system of local government in the United Kingdom. WHAT IS LOCAL GOVERNMENT Local governments are administrative offices that are smaller than a state. The term is used to contrast with offices at nation state level, which are referred to as the central government, national government, or (where appropriate) federal government. In modern nations, local governments usually have some power to raise taxes, 5 though these may be limited by central legislation. In some countries local government is partly or wholly funded by subventions from central government taxation. The question of Municipal Autonomy – which powers the local government has, or should have, and why – is a key question of public administration. The institutions of local government vary greatly between countries, and even where similar arrangements 10 exist, the terminology often varies. Common names for local government entities include state, province, region, department, county, prefecture, district, city, town, borough, parish, municipality and village. However, all these names are often used informally in countries where they do not describe a legal local government entity. For example, local government is the third tier of government in Australia, after 15 Federal and State. According to its constitution, France has 3 levels of local government: - 22 Régions and 4 Régions d’outre-mer; - 96 départements and 4 départements d’outre-mer; - 36 679 municipalities (in French: Communes). 20 The Netherlands has three tiers of government. There are two levels of local government in the Netherlands, the provinces and the municipalities. The system of local government is different in each of the four countries of the United Kingdom. The oldest and largest divisions in England and Wales are called counties. In Scotland, the largest divisions are regions. Northern Ireland is sometimes
25 known as the Six Counties, but local government there is based on districts. Local government of the United States refers to the government at the city, town or village level. B Which countries are mentioned in the text? C Different terms are used for offices at nation-state level. What are they? D For sentences 1-6 choose the variant (a, b) which fits best according to the text. 1. The term local government is used to contrast with …………. a) city government. b) national government. 2. Local governments are usually financed by ………………….. a) receiving contributions from charity organizations. b) raising taxes. 3. The system of local governments in different countries ……… a) varies greatly. b) is the same. 4. Common names for local government entities include ………. a) region, department, county, district, city, etc. b) federation, union, state, confederation. 5. Australia and the Netherlands are countries with …………….. a) two tiers of government. b) three tiers of government. 6. The system of local government in each of the four countries of the United Kingdom is … a) the same. b) different. E Match the words with their definitions. 1. municipality (n) 2. region (n)
3. parish (n) 4. province (n)
5. county (n) 6. village (n)
7. town (n)
a) a place with many houses, shops and other buildings that is larger than a village but smaller than a city b) an administrative division of Britain, the largest unit of local government c) an area that has its own church and clergyman d) a town, city or district with its own local government; the governing body of such a town e) an administrative division of a country f) any of the parts into which a country is divided for the purpose of government g) a group of houses, shops, etc. usually with a church and situated in a country district F Match the verbs and nouns as they occur together in the text. 1. raise a) powers 2. include b) the national government 3. have c) offices at nation-state level 4. refer to as d) the names for local government entities 5. describe e) legislation 6. contrast with f) taxes 7. be limited by g) a legal local government entity
G Complete these sentences using the word combinations from the previous exercise. 1. Today local governments usually have the power ……… . 2. Sometimes the power of local governments to raise taxes is ……… . 3. Common names for local government entities ……… state, region, county, city, town, etc. 4. In modern nations, modern governments ……… to raise taxes. 5. The term local government is used to ……… the central government. 6. Such names as state, province, prefecture, district, etc. are often used informally in countries where they do not …... . 7. Offices at the nation-state level ……… the central government or federal government.
LANGUAGE FOCUS: VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVE OR GERUND AND THAT CLAUSE When you learn a new verb, it is advisable to check in a dictionary whether it is followed by a verbal noun (this is also called the -ing form, and the gerund) or infinitive (with to, or without to, also called bare infinitive). •
VERBS FOLLOWED BY VERBAL NOUN, -ING OR INFINITIVE: WITH LITTLE OR NO CHANGE OF MEANING
These include: begin, continue, not bear, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, start When she stood up, the President began to speak. When she stood up, the President began speaking. Some people at the back continued chatting/to chat. I can't bear listening/to listen for a long time. What do you intend doing/to do about it? I don't like watching television. I prefer reading/to read. I think you should start practising/to practise now! When we use prefer, we prefer one thing to another thing. If the things are activities, gerund is used. Tom prefers reading to watching television. For some speakers there is a difference between like to do and like doing. I like to listen to the radio every morning while I'm in the bath. (A HABITUAL ACTION) I like listening to the radio. (LIKES AND DISLIKES) Hate to do is more usual than hate doing in some idiomatic contexts. I hate doing the washing-up! I hate to tell you this, but we’ve missed the last train! Love to do is more common than love doing in some idiomatic contexts. Sue really loves swimming. He's the man they love to hate.
NOTE that would is used with like, love and prefer, they are followed by infinitive with to: I'd like to go to Portugal this summer: •
VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVE + TO
These include: afford, ask, choose, happen, help, manage, offer, refuse, wait, want I can't afford to go to the cinema twice in one week. In the end, Laura chose to study Economics. Do you happen to know the time? Could someone help* me to carry this? Jim can't manage to come this evening. I offered to give her a lift, but she said she'd ordered a taxi. The manager refused to see me. There are some people waiting to see you. What do you want to do this evening? *Help is also used WITHOUT TO: Could you help me carry this? •
VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVE + TO, OR THAT-CLAUSE
• • •
These include: agree, decide, expect, hope, learn, pretend, promise, seem, wish. It is possible to leave out THAT in everyday speech. NOTE that THAT-CLAUSES often follow sequence of tense rules, as in reported speech. The main verbs of this type are: Sarah agrees to meet you after school. Sarah agrees that she will meet you after school. Sarah agreed to meet me after school. Sarah agreed (that) she would meet me after school. We decided to go home. We decided (that) we would go home. Mike expects to win. Mike expects (that) he will win. I hope to see you later. I hope (that) I'll see you later. Helen pretended to be ill. Helen pretended that she was ill.
•
There is a small difference in the meanings of learn: At school Graham learned to speak French. (= learn a skill) At school we learned that the Earth goes round the Sun. (= learn information)
•
Note the uses of seem (It + seems / seemed + that-clause is very common): You seem to know the answer! It seems that you know the answer.
•
Wish followed by INFINITIVE WITH TO has a similar meaning want: I wish to leave early today (= want)
•
Wish followed by a THAT-CLAUSE usually includes would or could: I wish (that) I could leave early. I wish (that) my teacher would let me leave early.
VERBS FOLLOWED BY VERBAL NOUN, -ING OR INFINITIVE + TO OR THAT-CLAUSE: WITH CHANGE OF MEANING These include: forget, mean, remember, stop, try o
forget Sorry, I forgot to post your letter. (= I didn't remember) I'll never forget learning to drive! (= I'll always remember) I forgot that I'd promised to phone you.
o
mean Jan meant to watch the programme, but she forgot. (= intended) Keeping fit means taking exercise every day! (= involve) When I miss the bus, it means that I have to walk to school.
o
remember Remember to take your keys! (= don't forget a future action) I remember telling you! (= remember a past action) Then I remembered that you were out.
stop Jo has stopped learning French. (= give up) We stopped to look at the view. (= purpose infinitive) Stop is not followed by a THAT-CLAUSE. o
try Peter tried to lift the table, but it was too heavy. (= try/fail) If you have a headache, try taking two of these pills. (= suggesting an action) Try is not followed by a THAT-CLAUSE. o
•
VERBS FOLLOWED BY VERBAL NOUN -ING OR NOUN
These include: dislike, enjoy, fancy, *can't help, *keep, mind, practise, can't stand (those marked * have a change of meaning). I dislike going out in the rain. I really dislike my new boss. Everyone enjoys going to parties. I enjoyed this lesson. Do you fancy going to the cinema? I fancy a swim! I can't help feeling hungry. I can't help myself! (= I can't stop) Sue keeps phoning me late at night. (= a bad habit) Keep this. Don't throw it away. Do you mind waiting? Do you mind cold weather? I must practise speaking French more often. Julia practises the violin every day. I can't stand waking up early. I can't stand hot and spicy food. •
VERBS FOLLOWED BY VERBAL NOUN -ING, NOUN OR THAT-CLAUSE
These include: admit, deny, imagine, suggest.
The Minister admitted taking a bribe. Paul admitted that he was wrong. Tina denied stealing the money. Both men denied that they had done anything wrong. Imagine travelling to another planet! Do you really imagine that I want to see you again? I suggest going for a pizza. I suggest that we go for a pizza. Suggest is also followed by SHOULD. I suggest that we should go for a pizza.
PRACTICE 1. Correct the errors. Some sentences do not have errors. 1) Jim can’t afford going to the cinema twice a week. 2) David wishes leaving the room. 3) Are you waiting to use the phone? 4) I’d really like going swimming on Saturday. 5) Everyone decided to put off the football match. 6) Emma pretended leaving, but waited outside. 7) Jack agreed to meet me at the beach. 8) My bike seems having something wrong with it. 9) The director refused answering Helen’s phone call. 10) What exactly do you intend to say to Mrs Dawson? 2. Complete each sentence with a form of one the verbs from the list. Use each verb once only. afford learn
bear love
continue offer
expect prefer
happen pretend
1) John really ________ spending all day at the beach. 2) I’m completely broke, so I can’t ___ to go on holiday. 3) Excuse me, but do you ______ to know the way to Old Street? 4) We ____ our team to win, but they were badly beaten. 5) Kate ________ to speak French and German when she was at school. 6) Even when the examiner told him to stop, Bill ___ speaking. 7) I’m sorry, but I can’t ___ to listen to this awful music. 8) Last week George ______ to help me paint my bike. 9) Paul ________ to have a bad leg so he didn’t have to go to the gym. 10) Sam usually ____ playing football to doing homework 3. Choose the correct word phrase underlined in each sentence. 1) 2) 3) 4)
Tom suddenly realised he had forgotten to lock/ locking his door. On the way back we stopped to have /having some tea. Could you stop to talk/ talking, please. Learning the language means to be / being interested in another culture.
5) Ann tried to open / opening the window, but it was too high to reach. 6) Please remember to take / taking the dog for a walk. 7) Cathy says she will never forget to sky-dive / sky-diving for the first time. 8) I don’t really remember to start / starting school when I was 5. 9) Helen chose / enjoyed to learn French. 10) I really can’t afford / stand to travel by plane. 11) Do you mind / want coming back in half an hour? 12) Tina meant / suggested to buy some potatoes, but she forgot. 13) Kate denied / refused opening the office safe. 14) Bill admitted / agreed making a serious mistake. 15) My parents decided / disliked to send me to a different school. 16) I really fancy / like a trip to the country. 4. Rewrite each sentence so that it has a similar meaning and contains the word given. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
What are you thinking of doing? INTEND I find getting up early unbearable. BEAR I’ll see you in the morning, I expect. TO ‘I won’t help!’ said Tom. REFUSED Pat was taught to drive when he was young. LEARNED ‘Would you like me to help you?’ I asked Joe. OFFERED Ellen didn’t have enough money for the ticket. AFFORD ‘I’ll be back at 6.00’, said Susan. PROMISED
5. Put one suitable word in each space. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
Don’t ________ to buy some milk on your way home. If I am late, it ________ I have to wait until the next lesson begins. I ________ throwing the ball, but I didn’t break the window. Paul can’t ________ thinking about his favourite team. Lisa ________ leaving her books at home. I can’t ________ walking home in the rain! It’s horrible! I ________ playing with my friends when I was little. Gina ________ to climb in through the window, but it was locked.
6. Complete each sentence with a suitable form of the verb in brackets. 1) I really miss ______ (play) tennis like I used to. 2) I’m sorry, I meant ______ (write) to you, but I’ve been busy. 3) Harry says he doesn’t remember ______ (meet) Sally before. 4) Martin failed ______ (pay) the rent on time again. 5) It’s not worth ______ (buy) a return ticket. 6) Have you ever considered ______ (work) as a teacher? 7) I promise I won’t forget ______ (feed) the cat. 8) We’ve arranged ______ (meet) outside the school at 4.30. 9) If you’ve got a headache, why don’t you try ______ (take) an aspirin. 10) I can’t imagine ______ (not have) a car! 7. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence using the word given. 1. Jack said that he hadn’t cheated in the exam. Jack ________________________ in the exam 2. It was difficult for me not to laugh at Wendy’s letter.
cheating help
I _____________________ at Wendy’s letter. 3. I’m sorry but you haven’t been appointed to the post. I _____________________ you haven’t been appointed to the post. 4. I needed a drink of water and so I stopped running. I stopped running _____________________ water. 5. Luckily Peter didn’t pay a fine. Luckily Peter ____________________ a fine. 6. I think it would be a good idea to take the train. I _____________________ the train. 7. Don’t forget the lights when you leave. Don’t forget _________________________ when you leave. 8. I can hear voices upstairs. I _________________________ upstairs. 9. I think Derek has forgotten the meeting. Derek _____________________ the meeting. 10. My neighbour said he would call the police! My neighbour _______________________ the police.
regret to paying taking off talking appears threatened
8. Complete each sentence with a suitable form of the verb in brackets: 1) Pauline couldn’t manage ________ (eat) all the ice cream. 2) I’ve decided ________ (not sell) my bike after all. 3) A witness reported ________ (see) Terry at the scene of the crime. 4) William pretended ________ (not notice) the ‘No Parking’ sign. 5) One of the boys finally admitted ________ (start) the fire. 6) I suppose I tend ________ (buy) more books than I used to. 7) Bill told Christine that he couldn’t go on ________ (live) without her. 8) Sometimes I regret ________ (move) to this part of the country. 9) Did you notice anyone ________ (wait) outside when you left. 10) Mark expects ________ (finish) work round about 6.00.
SKILLS FOCUS: Writing – Short Account of the Romanian Local Government History in the 20th century Do some research and write a 160-200 word history of the Romanian Local Government in the 20th century.
TRANSLATION Translate into Romanian: Local government generally refers to the government of an area smaller than a country, state, or province. Such areas include counties, cities, towns, and villages. Each unit of local government has some important responsibility for the welfare of its citizens and provides certain services. Most local governments are run by elected officials and have some power of taxation.
SPECIFIC BIBLIOGRAPHY http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_government http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/verbs-followed-infinitive http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/verbs-followed-that-clause http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/gerund_verbs.php http://www.englishpractice.com/improve/verb-patterns-thatclauses/
UNIT 2: FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
OBJECTIVES This unit will help you: - get familiar with the various forms of government - revise and practise vocabulary related to forms of government - revise and practise relative clauses - improve the skills you need for writing a short description - improve your translation skills
LEAD IN Discuss these questions: 1. What forms of government do you know? 2. What are their characteristics?
READING AND COMPREHENSION A Scan the text below and see if your answers in the LEAD IN section were correct. B Read the text and fill in the sentences below. 1. The expression form of government can be replaced by ……………… . 2. Not all states ………………………. in their official names. 3. There are 33 kingdoms in the word, but only 18 ……….… . 4. The word ‘republic’ is used by …………………..…..…… . FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
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A form of government is a term that refers to the set of political institutions by which a government of a state is organized in order to exert its powers over a community politics. Synonyms include “regime type” and “system of government”. This definition holds valid even if the government is unsuccessful in exerting its power. But a failed government is still considered a form of government. Churches, corporations, clubs, and other subnational entities also have “government” forms. Beyond official typologies it is important to think about regime types by looking at the general attributes of the forms of government: • traditional or modern; • autocracy (totalitarianism or authoritarianism), oligarchy, or democracy; • direct or indirect elections; • republic or monarchy; • constitutional monarchy or absolute monarchy; • majority government or coalition government; • parliamentary, presidential, or semi-presidential; • confederation, federation, or unitary. Nineteen states in the world do not explicitly name their government forms in their official names (the official name of Jamaica, for instance, is simply “Jamaica”), but most have an official name which identifies their form of government, or at least
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the form of government toward which they are striving: • Australia, the Bahamas, and Dominica are each officially a commonwealth. • Luxemburg is a grand duchy. • Russia and Switzerland are each a federation. • There are 33 kingdoms in the world, but only 18 named as such. The other 15 are known as realms. Jordan is specifically titled the “Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,” while Britain is formally the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. • Andorra, Liechtenstein, and Monaco are each a principality. • The word “republic” is used by 132 nations in their official names. Many specify a type of republic: China is titled a “people’s republic; North Korea- a “democratic people’s republic”, Egypt and Syria-“Arab republics”; Algeria is a “democratic and popular republic”; Vietnam - a socialist republic. • States that wish to emphasize that their provinces have a fair amount of autonomy from central government may specifically state this: Germany and Nigeria are each a federal republic, Ethiopia is a federal democratic republic, the Comoros is a federal Islamic republic, and Brazil is a federative republic. Besides the Comoros, four other nations dictate that they are Islamic republics. • Eleven nations simply refer to themselves as states, but a handful specify what kind of state. Papua New Guinea and Samoa emphasize that they are independent states, while the United States of America and the United Mexican States are made up of constituent states. • Brunei and Oman are sultanates.
C The text states different attributes of the forms of government. Match these attributes with the countries according to the text. 1. Monaco, Liechtenstein 2. Egypt, Syria 3. Luxemburg 4. China 5. North Korea 6. Germany, Nigeria 7. Australia
a) Arab republics b) a people’s republic c) a democratic people’s republic d) a principality e) a federal republic f) a commonwealth g) a grand duchy
D In which line(s) does the author: a) give the definition of the term ‘form of government’? b) specify a type of republic? c) explain the usage of the name ‘kingdom’? E Match the words with their definitions. 1. democracy (n) 2. federation (n) 3. principality (n) 4. confederation (n) 5. monarchy (n) 6. realm (n)
a) a country ruled by a king or queen b) an organization consisting of countries that have joined together for mutual benefit c) a system of government by all the people of the country d) a union of states in which individual states keep control of many internal matters e) a country ruled by a prince f) a system of government by a monarch
F Add nouns to the following adjectives to form phrases as they occur in the text. political, official, constitutional, direct, traditional, socialist, independent. G Is there any phrase in the list given below, which you do not associate with a form of government? a coalition government direct elections policy decisions
a grand duchy a federal republic a commonwealth
public administration autocracy a constitutional monarchy
LANGUAGE FOCUS: RELATIVE CLAUSES Relative clauses are normally joined by relative pronouns, but these pronouns can sometimes be left out. Some types of relative clauses are more common in formal speech and writing. It is important to know whether a relative clause is DEFINING or NONDEFINING, and whether it is a subject or object clause. •
DEFINING AND NON-DEFINING CLAUSES
Defining clauses give information which cannot be left out because it gives important information about the subject. The doctor who treated me told me not to worry = This describes which doctor we are talking about. Non-defining clauses give extra information. This is separated from the main sentence by commas. Pablo Picasso, who died in 1973, was a painter and sculptor. •
DEFINING CLAUSES
WHICH, THAT: - which and that refer to things; - that is less formal than which, and some speakers prefer to use which; - that is also used to refer to people in speech and informal writing in defining clauses. The bus which goes to Cairo leaves from here. The road that we took led to an ancient temple. The woman that we spoke to gave us directions. WHO and WHOM: - who and whom refer to people; - we use whom in formal speech and writing to introduce an object clause; - whom is used after a preposition in formal language - in informal language, many people prefer to use who, or that, instead of whom (many speakers never use whom – see also LEAVING OUT RELATIVE PRONOUNS.) The woman who teaches us music also plays in an orchestra.
It was the same boy whom I met yesterday. (formal) No one knows by whom the victim was shot. (formal) No one knows who the victim was shot by. (informal) The people that live next door make a lot of noise. WHOSE: - whose means “of whom”. The girl whose case had been stolen went to the police station. •
SUBJECT AND OBJECT CLAUSES
Subject clauses refer to the subject of the sentence. The doctor who treated me told me not to worry. The doctor (= subject) treated me (= object). Object clauses refer to the object. The doctor that/who/whom I spoke to told me not to worry. I (= subject) spoke to the doctor (= object). •
LEAVING OUT RELATIVE PRONOUNS
We cannot leave out the relative pronoun in non-defining clauses. Pablo Picasso, who died in 1973, was a painter and sculptor. We can leave out the relative pronoun in defining clauses which are object clauses. The doctor I spoke to told me not to worry. We cannot leave out the relative pronoun in defining clauses which are subject clauses. The doctor who treated me told me not to worry. We can also leave out the relative pronoun after a superlative. That was the best meal I've ever eaten! •
COMBINING SENTENCES
NOTE the changes made when sentences are combined using a relative clause. A bus goes to Cairo. It leaves from here. The bus that/which goes to Cairo leaves from here. We took a road. It led to an ancient temple. The road (that) we took led to an ancient temple. We spoke to a woman. She gave us directions. The woman (that) we spoke to gave us directions. A woman teaches us music. She also plays in an orchestra.
The woman who teaches us music also plays in an orchestra. NOTE that articles are often changed e.g. from a/an to the when sentences are combined. A girl's case was stolen. She went to the police station. The girl whose case was stolen went to the police station. A doctor treated me. She told me not to worry. The doctor who treated me told me not to worry. I spoke to a doctor. She told me not to worry. The doctor I spoke to told me not to worry. •
NON-FINITE CLAUSES
These are clauses with an -ing form verb. I sent a card to the girl living across the street. (= / sent a card to the girl who was living across the street.) •
NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES
These can be used as subject or object. They are common with what which here means “the things which”. We didn't understand what she said. What I want now is a cup of coffee.
PRACTICE 1. Choose the correct word underlined in each sentence: 1) An old man, who / which was carrying a suitcase, knocked at the door. 2) The girl who / whom lives here knows my sister. 3) The box that /whom Jean picked up had a hole in it. 4) The winner, who / whose bike was an unusual design, won a medal. 5) The girl who / whom spoke to me turned out to be in my class. 6) The museum, which / whose was in a beautiful building, was closed. 7) A policewoman that / which we asked told us how to get there. 8) The boy whose / whom house I was staying at was an old friend. 9) The last person which / whose pen I borrowed didn’t get it back! 10) The train which / who leaves at 8 stops at every station. 2. Put either WHO or WHOM in each space: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9)
The waiter by _________ we were served expected a large tip. The teacher _________ taught us yesterday also teaches my brother. The friend to _________ I lent my basketball managed to lose it. The boy _________ opened the door looked familiar. The man to _________ I spoke told me to wait outside the office. The people with _________ I travelled were good company. The assistant _________ sold me the computer made a mistake with the bill. The player _________ had the ball was tripped by the goalkeeper. The girl from _________ I received the card was someone I met on holiday.
10) A strange man _________ said he knew you phoned while you were out. 3. Put WHO, WHOSE or THAT in each space. 1) The friend _________ house I stayed in is coming to stay with us. 2) The guidebook _________ we bought explained everything. 3) It’s difficult to say _________ this portrait was painted by. 4) The couple _________ house I bought both work in my office. 5) I’d like you to tell me _________ you were talking to. 6) The girl _________ ruler I had borrowed wanted it back. 7) The game _________ we played was difficult to understand. 8) I can’t remember _________ I lent my bike to. 9) Do you know _________ Katherine works for? 10) The places _________ we visited were all very interesting. 4. Decide whether the clause underlined is defining or non-defining. Write D or N next to each sentence. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
The girl who was waiting was becoming impatient. The room, which was enormous, was filled with lines of chairs. The students, who were late, waited in the playground. The food, which was left, was eaten the following day. A tall girl, who was wearing a hat, came into the room. The dog, which was lying on the sofa, had long pointed ears. The train which leaves at 8 doesn’t stop at Bath. The boys, who were playing football, saw the robbery. 5. Underline relative pronouns which can be left out in these sentences.
1) The book that John was reading was a bit frightening. 2) The travel agency which sold me the ticket was near my office 3) The name of the girl who lived next door was Ellen 4) In the end, our holiday was the best that we had ever had. 5) The dentist who I go to isn’t very expensive. 6) The film which we saw last week was much better that this one. 7) The people who were leaving couldn’t find their coats. 8) The garden, which wasn’t very large, was full of flowers. 9) The car which David bought was not in good condition. 10) The girl who I sit next to in class is my best friend. 6. Rewrite each formal sentence as an informal one, ending with the word given. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)
These are the boys with whom I went on holiday. (with) This is the letter for which I have been waiting. (for) This is the shop from which Sue bought her bike. (from) That is the bed-and-breakfast at which I stayed. (at) Tim is someone to whom I hardly ever write. (to) Do you know by whom this book was written? (by) Ravenna was the most interesting town in which we stayed. (in) United were the best team against which we played. (against) 7. Add a relative pronoun to each sentence.
1) Friday was the last time I saw Jim. 2) The island we visited was extremely beautiful.
3) The girl I met was a friend of Harry's. 4) The meal we ate was not very tasty. 5) Mary was the first person I asked. 6) The book I read didn't explain the problem. 7) The teacher we usually have was away ill. 8) The friends I met last night send you their love. 9) Unfortunately I’ve lost the pen l always use. 10) The bus I catch stops outside the university. 8. Choose the correct word underlined in each sentence. 1) The train which/who goes to Brighton leaves from here. 2) That/What I like best is an afternoon at the beach. 3) I didn't know who/which to ask about my timetable. 4) The people which/whose luggage was lost had to wait a long time. 5) Where's the ruler whose/that I left on this desk? 6) The shop what/that I went to didn't have any milk. 7) Do you know whom/whose bag this is? 8) Everyone who/which was there will remember the day forever. 9) The second bus, which/whose was full, didn't stop either. 10) Jim was helped by someone who/whom told him the answer.
SKILLS FOCUS: Writing – Short Description Each type of government holds different views as to the role the leaders and citizens should perform in their country. Different types of government include: oligarchy, where the government is run by the best leaders; tyranny, where those in power consider that they should have complete control over the citizens. Choose one type of government and describe its main features, pointing mainly to the role of the leaders and citizens (200 words).
TRANSLATION Translate the following text into Romanian: A constitutional republic is a state where the head of state and other officials are elected as representatives of the people, and must govern according to existing constitutional law that limits the government’s power over citizens. In a constitutional republic, executive, legislative, and judicial powers are separated into distinct branches and the will of the majority of the population is tempered by protections for individual rights so that no individual or group has absolute power. The fact that a constitution exists that limits the government’s power makes the state constitutional. That the head of state and other officials are chosen by election, rather than inheriting their positions, and that their decisions are subject to judicial review makes a state republican.
SPECIFIC BIBLIOGRAPHY http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Forms_of_government http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/clause-phrase-and-sentence/verbpatterns/relative-clauses http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/relative-clauses.html http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/relative_clauses_form.php
Unit 3: CONTEMPORARY DIVISION OF GOVERNMENT
OBJECTIVES This unit will help you: - get familiar with the contemporary division of government - revise and practise vocabulary related to the contemporary division of government - revise and practise time expressions - improve the essay writing skills - improve your translation skills
LEAD IN Discuss these questions: 1. What is the role and structure of the legislature in Romania? 2. What is the role and structure of the executive in Romania? 3. What is the role and structure of the judiciary in Romania?
READING AND COMPREHENSION PART 1 A Scan the text below and answer these questions: a) What is the role of the legislature? b) Which is one of the largest legislatures in the world? B Read the text and answer these questions. 1. What is the function of the legislature in parliamentary systems? 2. What is the function of the legislature in presidential systems of government? 3. Which legislatures are among the smallest? 4. How is legislature with one house called? 5. What countries have abolished their second chamber? The Legislature The three branches of government are: legislature, executive, and judiciary. A legislature is a type of representative assembly with the power to create, amend and ratify laws. The law created by a legislature is called legislation or statutory law. In most systems, however, legislatures also have other tasks, such as selection and criticism of 5 the government, supervision of administration, ratification of treaties, impeachment of executive and judicial officials. Legislatures, then, are not simply lawmaking bodies. In most systems the executive has a power of veto over legislation, and even where this is lacking, the executive may exercise original or delegated powers of legislation. Legislatures are known by many names, the most common being parliament and 10 congress. In parliamentary systems of government, the legislature is formally supreme and appoints the executive. In presidential system of government, the legislature is considered a power branch which is equal to, and independent of, the executive.
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Legislatures differ greatly in their size, the procedures they employ, the role of political parties in legislative action. In size, the British House of Commons is among the largest; the Icelandic lower house, the New Zealand House of Representatives, and the Senate of Nevada are among the smallest. The primary components of a legislature are one or more chambers or houses- assemblies that debate and vote upon bills. A legislature with one house is called unicameral. A bicameral legislature possesses two separate chambers, usually described as an upper house and a lower house, which often differ in duties and powers. Most legislatures are bicameral, although New Zealand, Denmark, the state of Queensland in Australia have all abolished their second chamber. In most parliamentary systems, the lower house is the more powerful house while the upper house is merely a chamber of advice or review. However, in presidential systems, the powers of the two houses are often similar or equal. In federations it is typical for the upper house to represent the component states; the same applies to the supranational legislature of the European Union. For this purpose the upper house may either contain the delegates of state governments or be elected according to a formula that grants equal representation to states with smaller populations, as is the case in Austria and the modern United States. In general, the legislature has a supervisory role over the actions of the executive, and may replace the Head of Government and/or individual ministers by a vote of (no) confidence or a procedure of impeachment. On the other hand, it may be dissolved by the Head of State, leading to new elections.
C Match the sentence beginnings (1-5) to the correct endings (a-e). 1. A legislature has the power to ………………………………... 2. In parliamentary systems of government, the legislature …….. 3. In presidential systems of government, the legislature ……….. 4. The primary components of a legislature are ………………… 5. In general, the legislature has ………………………………… a) ……………………………………….. appoints the executive. b) …………. a supervisory role over the actions of the executive. c) ……………………………….. create, amend and ratify laws. d) ………………………………………. one or more chambers. e) …………………... is considered to be equal to the executive. D Match these verbs and nouns as they occur together in the text. 1. amend 2. supervise 3. appoint 4. debate 5. grant 6. dissolve 7. exercise
a) the executive b) equal representation c) administration d) the legislature e) laws f) powers g) bills
PART 2 A Scan the text below and answer these questions: a) Why is the year 1958 mentioned in the text? b) What happened in the 20th century, according to the text?
B Read the text carefully and complete the information below. 1. The executive branch is responsible for…….…….…..…. 2. The executive is subject to…………………….….…..…. 3. Political executives include……………….……….….…. 4. The executive is often delegated some…………..…...…. 5. The executive may also have powers to………..….….…. THE EXECUTIVE
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In political science and constitutional law, the executive is the branch of government responsible for the day-to-day management of the state. The executive branch acts by and with the advice and consent of the legislative made by the legislature and thus is subject to the legislative branch. Political executives are government officials who include heads of state and government leaders-presidents, prime-ministers, premiers, chancellors, and other chief executives, and many secondary figures, such as cabinet members, ministers, councilors. The executive is identified by the head of government. In a presidential system, this person (the President) may also be the Head of State, whereas in a parliamentary system he or she is usually the leader of the largest party in the legislature and is most commonly termed the Prime Minister (Taoiseach in the Republic of Ireland, Chancellor in Germany and Austria). In France, executive power is shared between the president and the prime minister and this system has been reproduced in a number of former French colonies, while Switzerland and Bosnia and Herzegovina have collegiate systems for the role of head of state and government. The head of government is assisted by a number of ministers, who usually have responsibilities for particular areas (e.g. health, education, foreign affairs), and by a large number of government employees or civil servants. The crucial element in the organization of a national executive is the role assigned to the chief executive. In parliamentary systems, such as in Great Britain, the prime minister is the national political leader, but another figure, a monarch or elected president, serves as the head of state. In mixed presidential-parliamentary systems, such as that established in France under the constitution of 1958, the president serves as head of state but also wields important political powers, including the appointment of a prime minister and Cabinet to serve as the government. In nearly all political systems the 20th century saw an alarming increase in the powers of chief executives. The office of the presidency in the United States, like the office of prime minister in Britain, greatly enlarged the scope of its authority. The executive is often delegated some legislative power, mainly the power to issue regulations or executive orders which complete a piece of legislation with technical details or points which might change frequently (e.g. fees for government services). The executive may also have powers to issue legislation during a state of emergency.
C. Decide whether the following sentences are True or False according to the information in the text. Justify your answers by reference to the text. 1. The executive is responsible for the day-to-day management of the state. 2. The executive is identified by the leader of a political party. 3. Political executives include not only chief executives. 4. Sometimes the executive is delegated some legislative power. 5. The executive may not have to issue legislation, even in emergency cases.
D Match these verbs and nouns as they occur together in the text. 1. issue 2. delegate 3. include 4. share 5. assign
a) powers b) executive power c) the role d) legislation e) heads of state
PART 3 A Scan the text below and answer the questions: a) Why are the United States and Germany mentioned in the text? b) Find the sentences which describe: - the definition of the judiciary under the doctrine of the separation of powers; - the structure of established court systems; - types of local courts. B Read the text. Which is the main idea of each paragraph? THE JUDICIARY
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(1) In the law, the judiciary is the system of courts which administer justice in the name of the sovereign or state, a mechanism for the resolution of disputes. The term is also used to refer collectively to the judges, magistrates and other adjudicators who form the core of a judiciary, as well as the support personnel who keep the system running smoothly. Under the doctrine of the separation of powers, ‘the judiciary is the branch of government primarily responsible for interpreting the law’. It construes the laws enacted by the legislature. (2) Like legislators and executives, judges are major participants in the policymaking process. The process of judicial decision making, or adjudication, is distinctive, however, for it is concerned with specific cases in which an individual has come into conflict with society by violating its norms or in which individuals have come into conflict with one another. In common law jurisdiction, courts interpret law, including constitutions, statutes, and regulations. In civil law jurisdictions, courts interpret the law, but are, at least in theory, prohibited from creating law. In socialist law, the primary responsibility for interpreting the law belongs to the legislature. (3) Established court systems are found in all advanced political systems. Usually there are two judicial hierarchies, one dealing with civil and the other with criminal cases, each with a large number of local courts, a lesser number at the level of the province or the region, and one or more courts at the national level. This is the pattern of judicial organization in Britain, for example. In some countries-for example, in Francethe distinction is not between courts dealing with criminal cases and other courts dealing with civil cases but rather between those that handle all civil and criminal cases and those that deal with administrative cases. Reflecting the federal organization of its government, the United States has two court systems: one set of national courts and 50 sets of state courts. By contrast, Germany, which is federal in government organization, possesses only a single integrated court system. (4) Local courts are found in all systems and are usually of two types. The first type deals with petty offences and may include a traffic court, a municipal court, a smallclaims court. The second type, sometimes called trial courts, are courts of first instance in which most cases of major importance are begun. In all systems there are national supreme courts that hear appeals and exercise original jurisdiction in cases of the greatest importance.
C. Arrange these sentences in the logical order according to the information in the text. 1. Local courts are usually of two types. 2. Usually, there two judicial hierarchies in established court systems. 3. Judicial system is the system of courts which administer justice in the name of the sovereign or state. 4. Judges are major participants in the policy-making process. 5. The judiciary construes the laws enacted by the legislature. D Which of the word combinations below do you associate with the judiciary characteristics? Translate these word combinations into Romanian. to create laws; to administer justice; to deal with civil cases; to grant equal rights; to dissolve Parliament; small-claims courts; to hear appeals; to possess two chambers; to resolve disputes; to interpret the law; to amend laws. E Match the first half of each sentence with the most appropriate second half. 1. Judicial system is………………………………………… 2. The judiciary is…………………………………………… 3. Judges are………………………………………………… 4. In common law jurisdiction, courts……………………… 5. There are usually two judicial hierarchies in…………….. 6. Established court systems………………………………... 7. National supreme courts………………………….……… a) ……………………………………………... interpret law. b) ………………………… are found in all political systems. c) ……………………………….. the branch of government responsible for interpreting the law. d) ……………………………………………… hear appeals. e) …………….. a system of courts which administer justice. f) ………………………………... established court systems. g) ………... major participants in the policy-making process.
LANGUAGE FOCUS: TIME EXPRESSIONS 1) IN, ON and AT
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IN years: in 2004 months: in January seasons: in the summer
morning: in the morning afternoon: in the afternoon evening: in the evening
ON days: on Wednesday, on my birthday
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AT times: at 4.00, at midday, at midnight night: at night
2) DURING
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is used about periods of time: I didn’t feel nervous during the performance.
3) CALENDAR REFERENCES
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we say: the seventh of September, September the seventh; we write: 7 September, 7th September, September 7th; dates are written Day/Month/Year in British English: e.g. 07/12/15; If today is Monday: Wednesday is in two days’ time. Next Monday is this time next week.
4) DAY REFERENCES If today is 7 September tomorrow: 8 September the day after tomorrow: 9 September yesterday: 6 September the day before yesterday: 5 September 5) PERIODS OF THE DAY this morning yesterday morning tomorrow morning
this afternoon yesterday afternoon tomorrow afternoon
tonight last night tomorrow night
6) FOR, SINCE and AGO
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FOR refers to a period of time. I have lived here for two years. I studied French for ten years.
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SINCE refers to a point at the beginning of a period of time. I have lived here since 2002. I have been waiting since 3.30.
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AGO refers to a point in the past We arrive five hours ago. I knew that ages ago!
7) ONCE and ONE DAY
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ONCE refers to a state in the past. Once I owned a motorbike.
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ONE DAY can refer to past or future. One day I was walking through the town centre when I met Jill. – PAST One day I’ll be famous! – FUTURE
8) NOW and NOWADAYS
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NOW refers to an exact moment, or a general state. You have to finish… Now! Peter used to live in Rome, but now he is living in Florence.
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NOWADAYS is used when we generalise about the present Nowadays people are not as polite as they used to be.
9) THEN, AFTERWARDS, AFTER and LATER
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THEN refers in the past to the following moment We went to the cinema, and then we had a pizza.
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AFTERWARDS can be used in the same way. We went to the cinema, and afterwards we had a pizza.
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When AFTER is used, there is an object. After the film we had a pizza. After that we went home.
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LATER means at a later time Mrs James isn’t here at the moment. Can you come back later?
10) UNTIL and BY
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UNTIL refers to the latest point in a period of time. I waited for Alex until 6.00, and then I left. I’ll be here until the end of March.
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BY means at a time before. We use it when we do not know exactly when something happened or will happen. We’ll be there by 5.30. (not at 5.30, but not later) Helen worked all day, and by 6.30 she felt exhausted.
11) AT LAST, IN THE END and AT THE END
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We use AT LAST when we are pleased that a long wait has ended. At last we can be together!
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IN THE END/EVENTUALLY describes the final result. We waited for Tim for ages, and in the end we left.
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AT THE END describes a point at the end of something. At the end of the film we all cried.
12) ON TIME and IN TIME
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ON TIME means at the hour which was arranged. The plane took off exactly on time.
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IN TIME means with enough time to do something. We arrived in time to have a meal before the plane left.
PRACTICE 1. Choose the correct word or phrase underlined in each sentence. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)
I met Tina a day/ one day last week. In these days/Nowadays everyone seems to watch too much television. This morning/The morning I was busy in the garden. We have to finish this project by/until the end of the week. Bye. I’ll see you the day after tomorrow/the next day. During/While the film I remembered where I’d left my keys. John played tennis, and after/afterwards had a shower. Helen’s birthdays is in/on January 10th.
2. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence. a) We had lunch, and afterwards we went for a coffee. After ________________________________. b) Jill is never late for lessons. Jill is always ______________________________. c) I won’t leave before 8.00. I’ll be there ______________________________. d) I’ve living here for three months. I started living here ______________________________. e) When we met for lunch it was 12.00. We met for lunch ______________________________. f) What do you do in your country on January 1st? What do you do in your country on the ______________________________? g) I’ll see you not tomorrow but the next day. I’ll see you the ______________________________. h) It’s 10.00 and I’ve been waiting here since 7.00. I’ve been waiting here ______________________________ hours.
3. Put one suitable word in each space. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j)
Would you like to go out ___________ my birthday? Rita moved to this town four years __________. I won’t phone Jim now. I’ll phone him __________. I woke up twice __________ the night. __________ midnight the frog turned into a prince. People in cities used to take the bus, but __________ most use their cars. Luckily Kate arrived just __________ time to catch the train. We felt fine in the restaurant, but we both felt ill __________. I’ve been waiting here __________ half an hour! Don’t wait for me any longer. I’ll see you __________.
4. Rewrite each sentence so that it has a similar meaning and contains the word given. a) I spend the summer at the seaside. IN _________________________________. b) I’ll see you in a few hours. LATER _________________________________. c) I started at this school in 2013. SINCE _________________________________. d) George had a bath and after that washed his hair. THEN _________________________________. e) Diane left my house at 10.00. UNTIL _________________________________. f) The train arrived exactly when it was supposed to. ON TIME _________________________________. g) I won’t arrive later than 2.00. BY _________________________________. h) Paul tried hard, but finally gave up. END _________________________________. i) I was too late to say goodbye to Lisa. TIME _________________________________. j) I’ve been learning English for two years. AGO _________________________________. 5. Put one suitable word in each space. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)
Did you sleep well ________ night? ________ the hot weather, we have our meals in the garden. ________ the lesson, Mike and Tina decided to play basketball. Sam hasn’t seen Lisa ________ three weeks. I know that ________ day you will be a star! It’s very important to arrive ________ time for the examination. The robber ran out of the bank and ________ was arrested shortly. There is a lot of noise in our street ________ night.
6. Choose the most suitable word or phrase underlined. 1. 2. 3. 4.
I haven’t seen Jim before/ since we worked together in London. I’ll finish the letter now and you can post it after/ later. What were you doing last evening/ yesterday evening? Did you live here in/ since 1987?
5. Diana hasn’t finished her course already/ yet. 6. What do you usually do in the afternoon/ this afternoon? 7. Have you seen Jean and Chris nowadays/ recently? 8. Helen arrived here at Thursday night/ on Thursday night. 9. It’s really ages since/ when I saw you last. 10. Ann is going to be famous once/ one day. 7. Put one word in each space. 1. Graham came to see us over a week ago, the Friday before _________. 2. Is it very warm here ___________ winter? 3. No thanks, I’ve had some tea ___________. 4. Don’t worry, it won’t hurt and I’ll ___________ finish. 5. I liked the book. I didn’t know what was going to happen ___________. 6. I think that people had much more spare time in the ___________. 7. This is very urgent. Please send it at ___________. 8. Harry isn’t here. He left about five minutes ___________. 9. The film doesn’t start until 7.30. We’re half an hour ___________. 10. Would you mind waiting for ___________ a moment, please? 8. Complete each sentence with a word or phrase from the list. Use each word or phrase once only. afterwards early
eventually immediately
in the end lately
nowadays once
soon yet
1. There is far too much traffic on the roads ___________. 2. Never mind. I’m sure we’ll find what we are looking for ___________. 3. I haven’t seen you for ages. What have you been doing ___________? 4. Jack hasn’t left. He hasn’t finished his work ___________. 5. Take some notes in the meeting, and we’ll discuss them ___________. 6. If you don’t mind waiting, Brenda will be back ___________. 7. I consider taking a new job, but decided against it ___________. 8. Norman and I worked for the same company ___________. 9. You didn’t fool me! I recognised you ___________. 10. You can get more work done if you get up ___________.
SKILLS FOCUS: Essay Writing What are the roles of the legislature in a political system, and examine the constraints that can limit how effectively those roles can be fulfilled? Are there practical solutions to those limits - what new problems could the solutions pose? Use examples from the Romanian system in answering these questions. Your analysis should include discussions of the relationship between the legislature, the electorate, political parties, and the executive.
TRANSLATION Translate the following text into Romanian: Of the three branches of government, the presidency has changed the most in the last 200 years. At first, presidents mostly served as administrators carrying out the laws passed by Congress. But in time they have come to stand at the center of the national government. In fact, presidential power had increased so much by the middle of the 20th century that in 1951 the states ratified the 22nd Amendment, which limited the president to two terms.
SPECIFIC BIBLIOGRAPHY http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/467746/political-system/36732/Contemporarydivisions-of-government http://www.learnamericanenglishonline.com/Red%20Level/R16%20Expressions%20of%20Ti me.html http://www.mysterycove.ch/game/files/resources/grammar/grammar_time_expressions.pdf http://www.eslpartyland.com/quiz-center/time.htm http://www.englishexercises.org/makeagame/viewgame.asp?id=1692
Unit 4 THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES This unit will help you: - get familiar with the electoral system - revise and practise vocabulary related to the electoral system - revise and practise means of expressing purpose, result and contrast - improve the skills you need for writing a strengths and weaknesses essay - improve your translation skills
LEAD IN What are the main characteristics of the electoral system in Romania?
READING AND COMPREHENSION PART 1 A Scan the text below and answer these questions: a) What is the role of electoral system? b) What is the main goal of voting in Great Britain? c) What is the main goal of voting in European countries? B Read the text carefully. Mark the statements True or False according to the information in the text. Justify your answer by reference to the text. 1. The type of electoral system is of no importance in our democracy. 2. The choice of electoral system is closely connected with the purpose of elections. 3. The choice of system also depends on what it is supposed to achieve. 4. All electoral systems can be divided into four categories. 5. Each country has only one type of elections. Types of Electoral Systems The choice of the electoral system is a question of great importance in our democracy. To a significant degree electoral systems define how the body politic operates. As Farell 3 points out: ‘they are the cogs which keep the wheels of democracy properly functioning’. The choice of system raises issues about the nature of 5 representative government and the purpose of elections. In making that selection, much depends on what the electoral system is supposed to achieve. Obviously, it is desirable that it produces an outcome which is acceptable to as many people as possible. Fundamental to the issue is the question ‘What is the point of voting?’ Is it primarily to choose a government, or is it to choose 10 membership of the legislature? Is the emphasis placed upon electing a strong 3
DAVID M. FARRELL is Professor of Politics and Head of the School of Politics and International Relations at University College Dublin
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administration which has broad support in the community, or is it to elect an assembly which accurately reflects prevailing opinion? On the continent the emphasis is upon choosing a representative assembly, and then from its midst finding a government which commands sufficient support – usually, a coalition government. In Britain, which has tended to pride itself upon its tradition of strong, single-party government, importance is attached to ensuring that there is an effective administration in place. There are two broad categories of electoral system. It is, however, possible to combine elements of the two categories. Thus, the categories are: 1. Majoritarian systems,which are designed to leave one party with a parliamentary majority. In this category, we may include: • First Past the Post (FPTP); • The alternative vote (AV); • The double ballot. 2. Proportional systems. There are many different forms of proportional representation, all of which are designed to ensure that the number of seats allocated in the legislature is broadly in the line with the number of votes won by each party in the election. 3. Mixed systems. These represent a compromise between majoritarian and proportional systems. There is no perfect electoral system, appropriate to every country at every time. Indeed, it is quite possible to have different types of election within a particular country.
C The text states different types of electoral systems. Match these types with the characteristics according to the text. 1. majoritarian 2. proportional 3. mixed
a) the number of seats in the legislature equals to the number of votes won by each party b) represents a compromise between majoritarian and proportional systems c) one party wins with the majority of votes
D Match the words with their definitions. 1. electoral (a) 2. voting (n) 3. legislature (n) 4. majority (n) 5. ballot (n) 6. win (v) 7. elect (v)
a) the number by which votes for one side are more than for the other side b) the action of formally indicating one’s choice of candidate c) relating to elections or electors d) a body of people with the power to make and change laws e) choose smb. by voting f) the system of secret voting g) be successful in smth.
E Is there any phrase in the list below which you do not commonly associate with the characteristics of an electoral system? a point of voting a parliamentary majority a double ballot
a representative assembly a proportional representation the number of seats
a coalition government sovereignty of the state scarce resources.
F Match the first half of each sentence with the most appropriate second half. 1. The choice of the electoral system 2. Electoral systems define 3. The choice of systems raises issues about 4. When choosing the electoral system much depends on
5. In majoritarian systems a) the nature of representative government. b) one party has a parliamentary majority. c) is of great importance in our democracy. d) what the electoral system is supposed to achieve. e) how the body politic operates. PART 2 A Scan the text below and identify the main issue that we have to consider when organizing elections? CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTIONS
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The question who may vote is a central issue in elections. The electorate does not usually include the entire population; for example, many countries prohibit those judged mentally incompetent from voting, and all jurisdictions require a minimum age for voting. Suffrage is typically only for citizens of the country. Further limits may be imposed: for example, in Kuwait, only people who have been citizens since 1920 or their descendants are allowed to vote, a condition that the majority of residents do not fulfill. However, in the European Union, one can vote in municipal elections if one lives in the municipality and is an EU citizen; the nationality of the country of residence is not required. In some countries, voting is required by law; if an eligible voter does not cast a vote, he or she may be subject to punitive measures such as a small fine. Normally there is a citizenship requirement, an age requirement, a residency requirement, and, perhaps, a non-felon requirement. Before the Second World War, in most countries women were not eligible for public office. Non-partisan systems tend to differ from partisan systems as concerns nominations. In a direct democracy, one type of non-partisan democracy, any eligible person can be nominated. In some non-partisan representative systems no nominations take place at all, with voters free to choose any person at the time of voting in the jurisdiction. As far as partisan systems, in some countries, only members of a particular political party can be nominated, or an eligible person can be nominated through a petition, thus allowing him or her to be listed on a ballot. The government positions for which elections are held vary depending on the locale. In a representative democracy, such as the United States, some positions are not filled through elections. For example, judges are usually appointed rather than elected to help protect their impartiality. There are exceptions to this practice, however; some judges in the United States are elected, and in ancient Athens military generals were elected. In some cases, there may exist an intermediate tier of electors between constituents and an elected figure. However, in most representative democracies, this level of indirection is usually nothing more than a formality. For example, the President of the United States is elected by the Electoral College, and in the Westminster System, the Prime Minister is formally chosen by the head of state (and in reality – by the legislature or by their party).
B Read the text carefully. Mark the statements True or False according to the information in the text. Justify your answer by reference to the text. 1. As a rule, the entire population of the country takes part in elections.
2. Jurisdictions of all countries require a minimum age of voting. 3. Women have always been eligible for public office. 4. In a direct democracy any eligible person can be nominated. 5. In a representative democracy some positions are filled through appointment. C Derive nouns and adjectives from the following verbs. The text may give you some clues. to elect to nominate to require to appoint to represent
LANGUAGE FOCUS: EXPRESSING PURPOSE, RESULT AND CONTRAST (I) PURPOSE 1) FOR FOR followed by a noun can be used to describe purpose, especially with verbs of motion: I went to the shops for some milk. 2) INFINITIVE We can use the INFINITIVE to describe the purpose of the person mentioned in the opening of the sentence. Jim went to the station to meet his parents. 3) SO (THAT)+PRESENT SIMPLE We can use SO (THAT)+PRESENT SIMPLE to describe a habitual purpose. Bill wears thick socks in bed so (that) his feet don’t get cold. 4) SO (THAT)+WILL / WOULD We can use SO (THAT)+WILL/WON’T to describe a future purpose. We’ll take an umbrella so (that) we won’t get wet. We can also use present simple to describe a future purpose. We’ll take an umbrella so (that) we don’t get wet. When we describe in the past a future event, WILL becomes WOULD. We took an umbrella so (that) we wouldn’t get wet. We can also use past simple. We took an umbrella so (that) we didn’t get wet. 5) SO (THAT) + CAN / COULD
We can use SO (THAT)+CAN for present time and SO (THAT)+COULD for past time when we describe purpose. I leave the window open so (that) the cat can get in and out. Dora left the class early so (that) she could go to the dentist. If the person mentioned in the opening of the sentence and the action in the second part of the sentence are different, we can’t use the INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE. We have to use SO (THAT) + CAN / COULD. Helen played the piano to entertain her friends. Helen played the piano so (that) everyone else could dance. 6) IN ORDER TO In formal speech and writing we can use IN ORDER TO. Both verbs must have the same subject. The President made a speech in order to explain the policy (this means: The President wanted to make a speech because the President wanted to explain the policy). NOTE that the INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE is more often used than IN ORDER TO. 7) SO AS NOT TO This is a more formal way of expressing purpose: The soldiers moved at night, so as not to alarm the villagers. (II) RESULT 1) SO+
MUCH MANY FEW LITTLE
+NOUN+(THAT)
These expressions can be used with THAT, but THAT is often left out in speech and informal writing.
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Countable I bought so many books (that) I couldn’t carry them all. There were so few people in the theatre (that) the actors didn’t perform well.
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Uncountable There is so much rain at the moment (that) we hardly ever go out. We have so little free time (that) we don’t watch television.
2) SO+ADJECTIVE+(THAT) THAT is often left out in speech and informal writing. Jim was so tall (that) he hit his head on the ceiling. NOTE also this formal use: Helen is so busy a person (that) she never feels bored. 3) SUCH+ADJECTIVE+NOUN+(THAT) THAT is often left out in speech and informal writing. It was such a lovely day (that) we went for a walk in the country. 4) TOO+ADJECTIVE+LONG INFINITIVE TOO always suggests difficulty, and that something cannot be done. It was too far to walk so we took a taxi. The mountain was too difficult (for us) to climb. 5) NOT+ADJECTIVE+ENOUGH+LONG INFINITIVE Little Gerry is not old enough to walk to school. 6) AS A RESULT, IN THE END, EVENTUALLY We can also introduce the result of a situation by using a result phrase, such as AS A RESULT, or time expressions such as IN THE END and EVENTUALLY. We usually use these in formal speech or writing. Two metres of snow fell during the night. As a result, several main roads were blocked. It started raining while we were having our picnic, and eventually we decided to go home. Kate and Tim waited for the bus a long time, and in the end they took a taxi. (III) CONTRAST 1) ALTHOUGH, THOUGH and EVEN THOUGH
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ALTHOUGH is used to introduce a contrasting sentence. this is a second statement which contrasts with the first statement. Maria went to school although she was ill.
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ALTHOUGH is often emphasised by expressions such as still, anyway and all the same. Maria still went to school, although she was ill. Although she was ill, Maria went to school anyway/all the same.
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EVEN THOUGH is used to emphasise the contrast. Even though she felt ill, Maria went to school.
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THOUGH is used in speech and informal writing. In these contexts, the two clauses are often made into two sentences, and THOUGH is put at the end. Though she was ill, Maria went to school. Maria went to school. She was ill, though.
2) WHILE and WHEREAS WHILE and WHEREAS can often be used in formal speech and writing instead of ALTHOUGH. While/Whereas some experts expect the Government to win the election, most believe that the opposition will win. 3) DESPITE and IN SPITE OF DESPITE and IN SPITE OF are used to introduce a contrasting clause. They are always followed by a noun phrase, or the verbal form of the noun (-ing). They cannot be followed by a main verb. Despite her illness/being ill, Maria went to school. In spite of her illness/being ill, Maria went to school. NOTE that we cannot say: *Despite/In spite of she felt ill, Maria went to school. ( = incorrect sentence) 4) HOWEVER HOWEVER introduces or completes a contrasting sentence. HOWEVER always has punctuation before and after. HOWEVER is more common in formal speech and writing. Maria was ill. However, she went to school. Maria went to school. She was ill, however. NOTE that we cannot say: *However she was ill, Maria went to school. (incorrect sentence) 5) NEVERTHELESS This is a very formal way of expressing HOWEVER. Smith says he is poor. Nevertheless, he has bought a new car. 6) BUT and YET
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The most common kind of contrast is made with BUT. Maria felt ill, but she went to school.
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BUT is often emphasised by expressions such as still, anyway and all the same. Maria felt ill, but she went to school anyway/all the same. Maria felt ill, but she still went to school.
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YET can be used instead of BUT in formal speech and writing. Maria felt ill, yet she went to school.
7) ON THE OTHER HAND ON THE OTHER HAND introduces a contrasting opinion. It is usually used in formal speech and writing. Television has many advantages. It keeps us informed about the latest news, and also provides entertainment in the home. On the other hand, television has been blamed for the violent behaviour of some young people, and for encouraging children to sit indoors, instead of taking exercise.
PRACTICE 1. Put one suitable word in each space. Contractions count as one word. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j)
I wrote the date in my diary _____ _____ I wouldn’t forget it. Most tourists come here ____visit the ancient temples. Mary called a meeting ____ ____ ____ announce the team. The thief ____ in black so that nobody ____ see him. Jack came to me ____ advice. Our teacher made us sit far apart so that we ____ cheat! I’ll leave the box open so that you ____ help yourself. Lisa got up early so that she ____ finish her homework. We went into town by bike so that we ____ have parking problems. The school sent everyone a letter ____ explain the rules.
2. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word given. a) I went to the shops to get some eggs. FOR ___________________________________________. b) Ann came here for a meeting with the director. TO ___________________________________________. c) We went on holiday to have a rest. FOR ___________________________________________. d) Peter plays chess for relaxation. TO ___________________________________________. e) I opened the window to let in some air. FOR ___________________________________________. f) Helen went shopping to buy some new clothes. FOR ___________________________________________. g) I went to a private school for English lessons. TO ___________________________________________.
h) Sam went to a specialist to get treatment. FOR ___________________________________________. 3. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence. a) Paul had to go to the doctor’s, and left work early. Paul _______________ so that ______________ to the doctor’s. b) The school was rebuilt because it wasn’t large enough. The school ____________ in order to ____________ larger. c) Tina wanted Jack to call her, and gave him her phone number. Tina ____________ so that ____________ her. d) I might get sunburnt, so I’ll put on some suntan oil. I’ll ____________, so that ____________ sunburnt. e) Cathy hid the presents and nobody saw them. Cathy ____________ so that ____________ them. f) We wanted people to dance, so we had the party in a large hall. We ____________ so that ____________ dance. g) Dick wanted to get a good seat, so he arrived early. Dick ____________ so that ____________ a good seat. h) I couldn’t see well in the cinema, and changed seats. I ____________ so that ____________ better. i) Harry wanted his friends to notice him so he wore a funny hat. Harry ____________ so that ____________ him. j) We didn’t want to feel hungry, so we took some sandwiches. We took ____________ so that we ____________. 4. Choose the correct word or phrase underlined in each sentence.
a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l) m) n) o) p) q)
It was such/so delicious drink, that I had to have another glass. Jack ate so much/so many cakes that he could hardly walk! Kate’s offer sounded so/too good to be true! There are so few/ so little good programmes on TV that I rarely watch it. I felt so/too weak that I couldn’t stand up. We had so much/so many rain last night, that the roads were flooded. I waited for Mary for ages, and as a result/in the end I gave up. David was too tall/tall enough/enough tall/very tall to reach the shelf. I had so few/so little knowledge of the subject that I got zero in the test. I read the book you suggested. I didn’t enjoy it, although/however. In spite of/Although we warned him, Harry still got lost. Although/However I like it here, I won’t stay here long. Cars are fast and convenient. On the other hand/Whereas, they cause traffic problems in cities. I didn’t have much time, but/however I managed to visit lots of places. Kate won the race, although/despite falling over. Although/In spite of the delay, the train arrived on time. I didn’t manage to jump over the wall, although/yet I tried twice.
5. Put one suitable word in each space. a) b) c) d)
My tea is _____ hot to drink at the moment. Tom had _____ _____ homework, that he had to stay up till midnight. There were _____ _____ people in front of us that we couldn’t see. There were _____ _____ customers that the shop closed down.
e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l) m) n) o) p) q)
The room wasn’t large _____ for so many guests. Sue was _____ tired that she fell asleep on the train. We had _____ _____ money that we couldn’t even buy a sandwich. _____ Tim felt tired, he stayed up to finish his homework. Alan didn’t enjoy skating, _____ he went with his friends to the skate centre. I found French hard at first. _____, I soon started to enjoy it. Jane kept running, _____ though she knew she couldn’t win. Mike was lost, but he _____ refused to look at the map. Carol went to see the film, _____ she had seen it before. _____ the rain, the school sports were a great success. Helen won the swimming competition, in _____ of her cold. I’m not sure I agree with you. _____, your ideas are worth discussing. Tony was short of money, but he _____ lent some to his sister.
6. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word given. a) The question was so difficult that I had to ask for help. SUCH ____________________________________________________. b) There weren’t enough seats for all the guests. FEW ____________________________________________. c) There weren’t enough seats for all the guests. MANY ____________________________________________. d) I couldn’t take any more clothes as there wasn’t any space in my suitcase. LITTLE ____________________________________________. e) It was such a good play that the audience cheered. SO ____________________________________________. f) I’ve got such a lot of work that I can’t go out. SO ____________________________________________. g) She had lots of children and didn’t know what to do. MANY ____________________________________________. h) I haven’t got enough time to do all my work. TOO ____________________________________________. 7. Underline the errors in these sentences. Rewrite each sentence. a) Sorry, but I haven’t got little time. _______________________________________. b) Helen is not enough old to drive a car. ____________________________________________. c) Paul has so much friends that he is always busy. ____________________________________________. d) We had too few time to go sight-seeing. ____________________________________________. e) It’s too hot that I can’t think! ____________________________________________. f) There was too much snow that we couldn’t travel. ____________________________________________. g) It was so a long way that we decided to drive there. ____________________________________________.
8. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence. a) I’m afraid you are not fast enough to be in the running team. I’m afraid you are too _____________________________. b) The film was so long that we missed our last bus. It was ____________________________________________. c) Tina felt unhappy and she cried. Tina felt so ____________________________________________. d) Some millionaires have lots of money, and don’t know what to do with it. Some millionaires have so ______________________________________. e) Jim is too young to get married. Jim isn’t ____________________________________________. f) I can’t afford to buy this bike. I haven’t got ____________________________________________. g) There are too few plates, I’m afraid. There aren’t ____________________________________________. h) Although it was snowing, we went out for a walk. Despite ____________________________________________. i) Some experts think the world is growing warmer, but others disagree. While ____________________________________________. j) I don’t enjoy rock music, but I went to the concert anyway. Although ____________________________________________. k) Even though they were losing at half-time, City won in the end. Despite ____________________________________________. l) Despite the heat, Diana wore her winter clothes. Although ____________________________________________. m) Whereas prices rose last year, this year they have gone down. Prices rose last year ____________________________________________. n) Jim had a headache, but he still read until late. In spite of ____________________________________________. o) Although Sam hadn’t studied, he did well in the test. Sam hadn’t studied ____________________________________________.
SKILLS FOCUS: Writing – Strengths and Weaknesses Essay Compare the strengths and weaknesses of using a proportional representation electoral system or a single member majority system. Use examples to support your arguments. Also, your analysis should give some idea why a state might choose one form of electoral system over another.
TRANSLATION Translate the following text into Romanian: Election is the process by which people vote for the candidate or proposal of their choice. The basis of democratic government is that citizens have the right to choose the officials who will govern them. Elections thus rank as one of the most important political activities.
Elections also serve as a means of peacefully transferring power from one person or group to another. Most countries hold elections to select governmental officials. But in countries without democratic government, the people have little real choice. The only candidates allowed on the ballot are those approved by the leaders or by a single political party. In such countries, elections are held for propaganda reasons and to demonstrate popular support for the government.
SPECIFIC BIBLIOGRAPHY http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting_system http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/kingch/Electoral_Systems.htm http://www.scribd.com/doc/19712465/Contrast-and-Purpose-Exercises http://na2english.wikispaces.com/file/view/worksheet.pdf
Unit 5: POLITICAL SYSTEMS
OBJECTIVES This unit will help you: - get familiar with the various political systems - revise and practise vocabulary related to political systems - revise and practise inversion - improve the essay writing skills - improve your translation skills
LEAD IN Try and answer the following questions: • •
What types of political systems do you know? Which is the most effective political system, in your opinion?
READING AND COMPREHENSION PART 1 A Scan the text below and identify what types of supranational political systems are mentioned in the text. POLITICAL SYSTEMS OF STATES
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1. The political system is the set of formal legal institutions that constitute a “government” or a “state”. More broadly defined, the political system is seen as a set of “processes of interaction” or as a subsystem of the social system interacting with other nonpolitical subsystems, such as the economic system. 2. The most important type of political system in the modern world is the nationstate. The world today is divided territorially into more than 175 states, in each of which a national government claims to exercise sovereignty and seeks to compel obedience to its will by its citizens. The world’s political organization suggests the distinction among supranational, national, and subnational political systems. 3. Supranational relations is the result of the division of the world into a number of separate national entities, or states, that have contact with one another, share goals or needs, and face common threats. In some cases, as in many alliances, these relationships are short-lived. In other cases, they lead to interstate organizations and supranational systems. Examples of supranational political systems are: 4. Empires which are composed of peoples of different cultures and ethnic backgrounds. They are characterized by the centralization of power and the absence of effective representation of their component parts. The history of the ancient world is the history of great empires-Egypt, China, Persia, and imperial Rome whose autocratic regimes provided relatively stable government for many subject peoples in immense territories over many centuries. 5. Leagues are one of the commonest forms of supranational organization in history. Leagues are composed of states seeking to resist some common military or
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economic threat by combining their forces. Common features of leagues include the existence of some form of charter or agreement among the member states, an executive organ, and an arbitral or judicial body for handling disputes. The League of Nations was one of the great experiments in supranational organization of the 20th century and the predecessor in several important respects of the United Nations. 6. Confederations are voluntary associations of independent states that agree to certain limitations on their freedom of action and establish some joint machinery of consultation or deliberation. Historically, confederations have often proved to be a first or second step toward the establishment of a national state, usually as a federal union. Thus, the federal union of modern Switzerland was preceded by a confederation of the Swiss cantons; the federal constitution of the United States is the successor of the Articles of Confederation. In some other cases confederations have replaced more centralized arrangements, as, for example, when empires disintegrate and are replaced by voluntary associations of their former colonies. The British Commonwealth, or Commonwealth of Nations, and the French Community are cases of this type.
B Match each headword on the left with its characteristics on the right. 1. empires 2. leagues 3. confederations
a) voluntary associations of independent states b) centralization of power and the absence of effective representation of their component parts c) include states which combine their forces to resist common military and economic threat
C Replace the underlined items with the words and phrases from the text that have a similar meaning. 1. A political system is a set of formal legal institutions that make up a “government” or “state”. (P 1) 2. The political system is viewed as a set of “processes of interaction”. (P 1) 3. The world today consists of more than 175 states. (P 2) 4. Separate national entities have contact with one another, share aims and face common threats. (P 3) 5. Leagues are formed of states which combine their forces to resist common military or economic threat. (P 5) 6. In some cases confederations have substituted more centralized arrangements. (P 6) D Match these verbs and nouns as they occur together in the text. 1. claim / exercise 2. share 3. face 4. provide 5. resist 6. handle 7. establish
a) common threats b) disputes c) national state d) common economic threat e) sovereignty f) stable government g) goals and needs
E Complete these sentences using an appropriate phrase from Exercise E. 1. Supranational relations means that states share goals and ..... ........................................... 2. The regimes of great empires ............................ for many subject peoples. 3. Leagues include states that seek ................................... . . 4. Leagues have a judicial body for .................................. . . 5. Confederations were a first step towards ....................... .
PART 2 A Scan the text below and identify the factors that contribute to radical political change. B Read the text carefully and answer these questions: 1. What political systems have proved stable political systems? 2. What does internal warfare lead to? 3. What can cause a revolutionary outbreak? 4. What tests the stability of a political system? 5. What is the main cause of failures of unstable political systems? STABLE AND UNSTABLE POLITICAL SYSTEMS
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The simplest definition of a stable political system is one that survives through crisis without internal warfare. Several types of political systems have done so, including despotic monarchies, military regimes, and other authoritarian and totalitarian systems. The key to their success is their ability to control social development, to manage and prevent change, and to bring under governmental direction all the forces that may result in innovations that are threatening to the system. In some systems, survival does not depend on the detailed management of the society or close governmental control over social processes. It is the result of sensitive political response to the forces of change and of open political processes that allow gradual and orderly development. Much of the western democratic world has achieved peaceful progress in this way, despite new political philosophies, population increases, industrial and technological innovations, and many other social and economic stresses. In modern times the great majority of the world’s political systems have experienced one form or another of internal warfare leading to violent collapse of the governments in power. Many factors in such a situation, including the cheapening of human life, the ready availability of arms, the discrediting of the national leadership, material scarcities, and a sense of wounded national pride, contribute to the creation of an atmosphere in which radical political change and violent mass action are acceptable to large numbers of people. Economic crisis are another common stimulus to revolutionary outbreaks, for they produce a threat to the individual’s social position, a sense of insecurity and uncertainty as to the future, and an aggravation of the relationships among social classes. Crisis situations test the stability of political systems, for they place extraordinary demands on the political leadership and the structure and processes of the system. Unstable political systems are those that prove vulnerable to crisis pressures and that break down into various forms of internal warfare. The fundamental cause of such failures is the absence of some general agreement on appropriate forms of political action. Governments suffer their gravest handicap when they must govern without consent or when the legitimacy of the regime is widely questioned. This is often the case in systems that have experienced prolonged civil war, that are torn by tensions among different national or ethnic groups, in which there are divisions along sharply drawn ideological or class lines.
C Choose the most suitable word in each sentence. 1. A stable political system is one that surrounds / survives / supplies through crisis without internal warfare. 2. In some systems, survival / support / source does not depend on governmental control over social processes.
3. Many political systems have experienced external / internal / important warfare that led to collapse of the government in power. 4. Crisis situations examine / control / test the stability of political systems. 5. The main / great / different cause of failures of unstable political systems is the absence of agreement on political actions. D Match these verbs with an appropriate preposition, as they occurred together in the text depend lead contribute break be torn
down on to by
LANGUAGE FOCUS: INVERSION 1) INVERSION AFTER NEGATIVE ADVERBS
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INVERSION in this case means that the verb is in a question form and is necessary if a negative adverb (or one with negative meaning) begins the sentence. This only occurs in formal speech and writing, usually for rhetorical effect, such as in political speeches. Compare: Never have I heard a weaker excuse! I have never heard a weaker excuse!
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TIME EXPRESSIONS: NEVER, RARELY, SELDOM. These are most common used with present perfect, past perfect or with models such as can and could. Sentences of this type often contain comparatives. Never have I enjoyed myself more! Rarely can a minister have been faced with such a problem. Seldom has the team given a worse performance.
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TIME EXPRESSIONS: HARDLY, BARELY, SCARCELY, NO SOONER. These refer to an event which quickly follows another in the past. They are usually used with past perfect, although no sooner can be followed by past simple. Note the words used in the contrasting clause. Hardly had the train left the station, when there was an explosion. Scarcely had I entered the room, when the phone rang. No sooner had I reached the door, than I realised it was locked. No sooner was the team back on the pitch than it started raining.
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after ONLY. Here only combines with other time expressions and is usually used with past simple.
Only after posting the letter did I remember that I had forgotten to put on a stamp. Other examples are ONLY IF/WHEN, ONLY THEN, ONLY LATER. Note that when only refers to the “state of being the only one”, there is no inversion following it.
Only Mary realised that the door was not locked.
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phrases containing NO/NOT. These include UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES, ON NO ACCOUNT, AT NO TIME, IN NO WAY, NOT ONCE, ON NO CONDITION, NOT UNTIL, NOT ONLY … (BUT ALSO). Note that the inverted verb is the verb describing the event limited by the negative adverbial. On no condition are they to open fire without a warning! Not until I got home, did I notice that I had the wrong umbrella. Not only did he fail to report the accident, but also later denied that he had been driving the car.
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LITTLE. Little also has a negative or restrictive meaning in this sense. Little does the government appreciate what the results will be.
2) INVERSION AFTER SO/SUCH WITH THAT
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This occurs with so and adjectives when the main verb is BE. It is used for emphasis and is more common than the examples with such. Note that inversion only occurs if so/such is the first word in the clause. So devastating were the floods that some areas may never be recovered.
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such used with be means so much/so great Such was the force of the storm that trees were uprooted.
3) INVERTED CONDITIONAL SENTENCES WITHOUT IF
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Three types of IF sentences can be inverted without IF. This makes the sentences more formal and makes the event less likely. If they were to escape, there would be an outcry. Were they to escape, there would be an outcry. If you should hear anything, let me know. Should you hear anything, let me know. If I had known, I would have protested strongly. Had I known, I would have protested strongly.
4) INVERSION AFTER AS
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This is more common in formal or written language. We were short of money, as were most people in our neighbourhood. I thought, as did my colleagues, that the recession would soon be over.
5) INVERSION AFTER SO, NEITHER AND NOR
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These are used in ‘echoing’ statements, agreeing or disagreeing. ‘I’m going home.’ ‘So am I.’ ‘I don’t like meat.’ ‘Neither/Nor do I.’
6) INVERSION FOR EMPHASIS The verb comes before the subject if the adverb begins the sentence.
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COME and GO. These are mainly used with adverbs of place. In this way, more emphasis is put on the subject in an exclamation. Here comes Jack! There goes my money! Up went the plane into the cloud! Along the road came Jim!
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OTHER EXPRESSIONS. Live and stand are used in formal writing. Now is used with be. In this house lived Charles Dickens. On a hill outside the town stands the castle. Now is the best time to visit the Channel Islands.
PRACTICE 1. Rewrite each sentence beginning as shown so that the meaning stays the same.
(a) Tony was not only late, but he had left all his books behind. Not only _________. (b) I had no sooner gone to bed than someone rang my doorbell. No sooner _________. (c) I have seldom stayed in a worse hotel. Seldom _________. (d) I have never heard such nonsense. Never _________. (e) I realised only then that I had lost my keys. Only then _________. (f) The economic situation has rarely been worse. Rarely _________. (g) The manager not once offered us an apology. Not once _________. (h) You should not send money to us by post under any circumstances. Under no circumstances _________.
(i) I understood Hamlet only after seeing it on the stage. Only after seeing Hamlet_________. (j) The embassy staff little realised that Ted was a secret agent. Little _________. 2. Rewrite each sentence so that it begins with the word or words underlined.
(a) The best time to buy a house is now. (b) The bus came round the corner. (c) The price of petrol went up. (d) The Parthenon stand on the top of the Acropolis. (e) The wheels of the engine went round and round.
(f) Winston Churchill lived in this house. (g) The flag went down. (h) The best part of the story comes now. 3. Rewrite each sentence beginning as shown so that the meaning stays the same. a) Their sacrifice on behalf of their country will never be forgotten. Never _______________________________________________. b) Hardly ever have we had such cold weather. We _______________________________________________. c) Never have I heard anything so ridiculous. I _______________________________________________. d) They will not be permitted to leave the country under any circumstances. Under no circumstances __________________________________________. e) So much money can seldom have been spent for so little result. Seldom _______________________________________________. f) Scarcely had I had time to take my coat off when the boss came in. I _______________________________________________. g) We have no sooner solved one problem than another appears. No sooner _______________________________________________. h) Not only in the morning, but also in the afternoon, do I have English classes. I _______________________________________________. i) This information must not be given to unauthorised personnel at any time. At no _______________________________________________. j) Nowhere will you find a supermarket offering you better service. You _______________________________________________. 4. Decide which answer A, B, C or D best fits each space. Asking for advice You don’t happen to know how this computer works, (1) _________? (2) _________ had I bought it (3) _________ I regretted spending so much money! I haven’t got an instruction manual. (4) _________ did I completely fail to understand the instructions, (5) _________ then I accidentally threw the manual away. Now I’ll never understand it, (6) _________, I said to myself. (7) _________ my weekend, I thought, but then I remembered you. You’ve done a course on computers, (8) _________? Let’s look at it together, (9) _________, and try to understand it. You press this button first, (10) _________? Then (11) _________ this little light, and a message that says ‘Error’. It shouldn’t do that, (12) _________? You can fix it, (13) _________? Don’t do that! This label says: ‘(14) _________ should an unqualified person remove this panel’. Well you are unqualified, (15) _________? What do you mean, do it yourself … 1. A. are you 2. A. No sooner 3. A. that 4. A. Not only 5. A. than 6. A. can’t I 7. A. It goes 8. A. isn’t it 9. A. do we 10. A. don’t you 11. A. on comes 12. A. does it
B. is it B. After B. but B. seldom B. but B. won’t I B. Goes it B. haven’t you B. don’t it B. isn’t it B. comes on B. should it
C. do you C. Not only C. and C. not once C. so C. will I C. Goes there C. didn’t you C. shall we C. can’t you C. it comes on C. shouldn’t it
D. isn’t it D. As soon as D. than D. Only then D. and D. can I D. There goes D. don’t you D. aren’t you D. won’t you D. comes it one D. won’t it
13. A. isn’t it 14. A. Not only 15. A. isn’t it
B. don’t you B. Only then B. are you
C. can’t you C. Never C. don’t you
D. can’t it D. Under no circumstances D. aren’t you
5. Choose the most suitable words underlined: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j)
Jim promised that would never/ never would he tell anyone else. Not until it was too late I remembered / did I remember to call Susan. Hardly had we settled down in our seats than / when the lights went out. Only after checking three times I was / was I certain of the answer. At no time I was aware / was I aware of anything out of the usual. Only Catherine and Sally passed / did they pass the final examination. So the waves were high / So high were the waves that swimming was dangerous. Only when Pete has arrived / has Pete arrived can we begin the programme. No sooner had it stopped raining than / when the sun came out. If should you / Should you leave early could you give me a lift?
6. Complete each sentence with a suitable word or phrase: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j)
____________ had we arrived at the hotel, when there was a power cut. ____________ are members of staff to accept gratuities from clients. ____________ Detective Dawson realise what she was to discover. ____________ so many employees taken sick leave at the same time. ____________ to pay the full amount now, there would be a ten per cent discount. I supposed, as ____________ most people, that I would be retiring at 60. ____________ the doctors seen a more difficult case. ____________ Jean win first prize, but she was also offered a promotion. ____________ will late arrivals be admitted to the theatre before the interval. ____________ one missing child been found, than another three disappeared.
7. Rewrite each sentence, starting as shown, so that the meaning stays the same. a) It was only when the office phoned me that I found out about the meeting. Not until ____________________________________________________. b) The facts were not all made public until later. Only _______________________________________________________. c) If I had realised what would happen, I wouldn’t have accepted the job. Had _______________________________________________________. d) The response to our appeal was so great that we had to take on more staff. Such _______________________________________________________. e) Harry broke his leg, and also injured his shoulder. Not only _______________________________________________________. f) The police didn’t at all suspect that the judge was the murderer. Little _______________________________________________________. g) If you do happen to see Helen, could you ask her to call me? Should _______________________________________________________? h) The bus driver cannot be blamed for the accident in any way. In _______________________________________________________. i) The snowfall was so heavy that all the trains had to be cancelled. So _______________________________________________________. j) If the government raised interest rates, they would lose the election. Were _______________________________________________________.
8. Decide which sentences are inappropriate in the contexts given. a) Guest to host: ‘So nice was that pudding, that I would like to have some more.’ b) Witness to court: ‘No sooner had I turned out the light, than I heard a noise outside.’ c) News reader: ‘Such was the force of the earthquake, that whole villages have been devastated.’ d) Parent to child: ‘Should you fancy a pizza, let’s order one now.’ e) Friend to friend: ‘Never before have I seen this film.’ f) Politician to audience: ‘Seldom has the country faced a greater threat.’ g) Celebrity to interviewer: ‘Were I to have the time, I’d go climbing more often.’ h) Victim to police officer: ‘Scarcely had we been introduced when he punched me for no reason.’ i) Printed notice: ‘Under no circumstances is this control panel to be left unattended.’ j) Colleague to colleague: ‘Should you change your mind, just let me know.’
SKILLS FOCUS: Essay Writing Consider the following questions: • What are the different roles of violence in a political system, both in maintaining a particular political order and in bringing about political change? • When is violence more likely to be resorted to and why might it succeed? • Is it sometimes necessary? • How do value judgments cloud discussions of the legitimacy of violence in a political system? Starting from this questions write a 200-word essay. In your essay you may mention the situations in which government authorities may resort to force; the political culture of the communities.
TRANSLATION Translate the following text into Romanian: The development of civilization makes democracy and the humanization of society inevitable. The best minds tirelessly look for a new and effective form of state government that would adequately represent today's changing society. The solution is near and the necessary resources to establish a new form of government are already available in society.
SPECIFIC BIBLIOGRAPHY http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_system http://www.politicalsciencedegree.com/the-five-most-common-political-systems-around-the-world/ http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/007248179x/student_view0/chapter6/web_map_2.html http://www.eslgold.com/grammar/inversions.html http://www.tolearnenglish.com/exercises/exercise-english-2/exercise-english-88760.php http://www.eslprintables.com/grammar_worksheets/word_order/inversion/