Lecture 1 The 21 st Century Literature Literature is a term used to describe written and sometimes spoken material. Derived from the Latin word litteratura litteratura meaning "writing formed with letters," literature most commonly refers to works of the creative imagination, including poetry, drama, fiction, nonfiction, journalism, and in some instances, song. WHAT IS LITERATURE? Simply put, literature represents the culture and tradition of a language or a people. It's difficult to precisely define, though many have tried, but it's clear that the accepted definition of literature is constantly changing and evolving. For many, the word literature suggests a higher art form; merely putting words on a page doesn't necessarily mean creating literature. A canon is the accepted body of works for a given author. Some works of literature are considered canonical, that is, culturally representative of a particular genre. WHY IS LITERATURE IMPORTANT? Works of literature, at their best, provide a kind of blueprint of human civilization. From the writings of ancient civilizations like Egypt, and China, to Greek philosophy and poetry, from the epics of Homer to the plays of Shakespeare, from Jane Austen and Charlotte Bronte to Maya Angelou, works of literature give insight and context context to all the world's societies. In this way, literature is more than just a historical or cultural artifact; it can serve as an introduction to a new world of experience.
But what we consider to be literature can vary from one generation to the next. For instance, Herman Melville's 1851 novel Moby Dick was considered a failure by contemporary reviewers. However, it has since been recognized as a masterpiece and is frequently cited as one of the best works of western literature for its thematic complexity and use of symbolism. By reading Moby Dick in in the present day, we can gain a fuller understanding of literary traditions in Melville's time. DEBATING LITERATURE Ultimately, we may discover meaning in literature by looking at what the author writes or says, and how he or she says it. We may interpret and debate an author's message by examining the words she chooses in a given novel or work or observing which character or voice serves as the connection to the reader. In academia, this decoding of the text is often carried out through the use of literary theory using a mythological, sociological, psychological, historical, or other approaches to better understand the context and depth of a work.
Whatever critical paradigm we use to discuss and analyze it, literature is important to us because it speaks to us, it is universal, and it affects us on a deeply personal level. QUOTES ABOUT LITERATURE Here are some quotes about literature from literature giants themselves. See what their perspective on writing is! "The difficulty of literature is not to write, but to write what you mean; not to affect your reader, but to affect him precisely as you wish." --Robert Louis Stevenson "The person, be it gentleman or lady, who has not pleasure in a good novel, must be intolerably stupid." --Jane Austen, Northanger Abbey. “Don't be satisfied with stories, how things have gone with others. Unfold your own myth.” -Rumi “I’ll call for pen and ink and write my mind.” --William Shakespeare, Henry VI.
What’s the Confusion all About?
Over the years, my students have come to sessions seeking help with literary devices. They have expressed confusion over the terms: literary devices, literary terms, literary elements and figurative language, and they also struggle with the many definitions.
What are Literary Devices, Literary Terms, Literary Elements and Figurative Language?
Literary Devices are creative writing strategies used by an author to convey his or her message(s). When used well, literary devices help readers to visualize, interpret and analyze literary texts. There are two kinds: literary techniques (which includes figurative language) and literary elements. Literary Techniques are words or phrases in texts of literature that writers use to achieve artistic or creative expression. Literary techniques also help readers to visualize, understand and appreciate literature. Literary Elements are components or pieces that make up a story or literary work. Figurative Language is the creative use of words and phrases that offers a hidden meaning beyond any literal interpretation.
A literary element, or narrative element,[1] or element of literatur e[2] is a constituent of all works of narrative fiction—a necessary feature of verbal storytelling that can be found in any written or spoken narrative. This distinguishes them from literary techniques, or non-universal features of literature that accompany the construction of a particular work rather than forming the essential characteristics of all narrative. For example, plot, theme, character and tone are literary elements, whereas figurative language, irony, or foreshadowing would be considered literary techniques. Literary elements aid in the discussion of and understanding of a work of literature as basic categories of critical analysis; literary elements could be said to be produced by the readers of a work just as much as they are produced by its author. For the most part, they are popular concepts that are not limited to any particular branch of literary criticism, although they are most closely associated with the formalist method of professional literary criticism. There is no official definition or fixed list of terms of literary elements; however, they are a common feature of literary education at the primary and secondary level, and a set of terms similar to the one below often appears in institutional student evaluation. For instance, the New York State Comprehensive English Regents Exam requires that students use and discuss literary elements relating to specific works in each of the three essays.
character A person or animal who takes part in the action of a story, play, or other literary work static character one who does not change much in the coarse of a work dynamic character changes as a result of the story's events protagonist the main character in a work of literature antagonist the character in a work of literature that opposes the protagonist indirect characterization revealing the personality of a character by words of a character, description of the character's thoughts and feelings direct characterization
when the writer directly tells the reader a description of a character's looks and clothing, or that the character is amusing brave, or lonesome, or specifically the build or height or age of a character motivation any force that drives or moves the character to behave in a particular way conflict a struggle or clash between opposing characters or forces internal conflict takes place within a character's mind external conflict character struggles against some outside force character vs character one character is in conflict with another character; external character vs nature character in conflict with a natural force; external character vs self character has to make a decision; internal foreshadowing the use of hints and clues to suggest what will happen later in a plot symbol Person, place, thing, or event that stands for itself and for something beyond itself as well. metaphor an imaginative comparison between two unlike things in which one thing is said to be another thing simile a comparison between two unlike things using a word such as like, as, then, or resembles theme the truth about life revealed in a work of literature
personification a figure of speech in which a nonhuman or nonliving thing or quality is talked about as if it were human or alive flashback an interruption in the action of a plot to tell what happened at an earlier time onomatopoeia the use of words whose sounds echo their sense (boom pow zap) allusion a reference to a statement, person, place, or an event from literature, history, religion, mythology, politics, sports, or science dialect a way of speaking that is characteristic of a particular region or group of people alliteration the repetition of the same or very similar consonant sounds in words that are close together suspense the uncertainty or anxiety you feel about what will happen next in a story imagery language that appeals to the senses plot the series of related events that make up a story setting the time and place in which the events of a work of literature take place climax the most emotional or suspenseful moment in the story resolution when the characters problems are solved and the story ends point of veiw
the vantage point at which a story is told
LITERARY DEVICES What are Literary Devices? From the very first time humans began sharing stories, literary devices have played a key role in our history. Along with the creation of storytelling came the development of narrative elements like plot, character, and tone. As storytelling evolved over the millennia, so too did the range and complexity of techniques available to authors. Many of the elements that authors use are so fundamental that they are not necessarily conscious choices, such as theme or tone (though these two examples, of course, could be consciously constructed by the author). Other techniques, however, are more intentional, such as foreshadowing and red herrings.
We will explore the difference between literary elements and literary techniques, and look at examples and definitions of several popular literary terms. We’ll also look at how these literary devices function in two popular works, Shakespeare’s Hamlet and The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald.
Literary Elements vs. Literary Techniques Literary elements are the universal constituents of literature and thus can be found in any written or oral story. Plot and character, for example, are necessary to story and are present in stories from every culture and time period.
Literary techniques, however, are not universal or necessary in the sense that not all works contain instances of them. Simile and irony are examples of literary techniques. While many poems contain similes, not all do. Simile, therefore, is a literary technique instead of a literary element.
Examples of literary devices There are many hundreds of terms that refer to a unique aspect of li terature. Below, we’ve chosen three popular literary devices to examine in depth.
Metaphor
Common in all forms of literature, metaphor is a way of comparing things by stating that one thing is the same or very similar to another seemingly unrelated object. Metaphor is a type of analogy, and is often mistaken with simile. The difference between metaphor and simile is that a simile includes “like” or “as” in the comparison (for example: “O my luve’s like a red, red rose), whereas metaphor is an assertion of the comparison without modifiers or conjunctions. One of the most famous examples of metaphor is from Shakespeare’s play As You Like It:
All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances, And one man in his time plays many parts, His acts being seven ages. Here, the character Jaques states that the world is a stage, which we know not to be literally true. However, by extending the metaphor, Jaques compares the lifetime of a human to acts in a play, with birth and death being merely “entrances” and “exits”, respectively. Psychologically, the use of metaphor often expands the way the reader or viewer understands the world around him or her, as it does in this example.
Alliteration Most common in poetry, though also present in some lines of prose and theater, alliteration is the repetition of the same sound at the beginning of adjacent words. This was a very popular literary device in Old English storytelling, as the presence of alliteration made the oral stories easier to remember and retell through the generations. The Mother Goose rhyme “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers” is an example of alliteration due to the repetition of the letter “p”. Alliteration is a special case of consonance, wh ich is the repetition of consonant sounds anywhere in the word (the “ck” sound from the previous Mother Goose rhyme is an example of consonance, as it comes in the middle of the words rather than at the beginning, though the repetition of “p” sound can als o be described as consonance).
Point-of-view Point-of-view is a term for the narrative mode, and is a primary characteristic of prose. It is the way in which the author narrates the story. There are many options, the most common of which are first person singular and third person limited; authors also sometimes choose to mix different points of view in the same novel. Here is a list of the types of point-of-view:
First person singular: This point-of- view uses an “I” character to narrate the story. The nar rator is not necessarily the protagonist, though this is often the case as this point-of-view is the most intimate and allows for the most direct access to a character’s thoughts. First person plural: A relatively uncommon choice for point-of-view, the first person plural uses the pronoun “we” as the narrator. In this case, there must be some uniting factor between the group of people narrating the story. One example of this is the 1993 novel The Virgin Suicides by Jeffrey Eugenides in which a group of unnamed young men from a small town observe and comment on a family with five sisters. For example: Whenever we saw Mrs. Lisbon we looked in vain for some sign of the beauty that must have once been hers. Second person: Even less common is the novel narrated w ith “you.” This is a very difficult point of view to sustain, as the reader must identify with the “you”, or it must be clear that the “you” character is, in fact, a way for the narrator to reflect back on his or her own actions. The most successful examples are the Choose Your Own Adventure series, in which the reader is encouraged to imagine himself or herself as the protagonist. For example: You are a deep sea explorer searching for the famed lost city of Atlantis. This is your most challenging and dangerous mission. Fear and excitement are now your companions. Third person limited: This point-of- view uses “he” or “she” to refer to the narrator of the story. It is less intimate than the first person point of view, yet being limited to only one person’s thoughts it can still provide psychological access to that character. However, it also allows for the author to add descriptive and narrative details that the character doesn’t necessarily notice. Third person omniscient: Here the author uses the pronouns “he” and “she”, but can access the thoughts of any character in the story. This point of view creates the most distance between the reader and any one character of the story. Literary Devices in Hamlet Shakespeare’s classic play Hamlet is full of literary devices. Below is an excerpt from the most famous soliloquy from the play (and, indeed, perhaps the most famous soliloquy ever written).
To be, or not to be, that is the question — Whether ’tis Nobler in the mind to suffer The Slings and Arrows of outrageous Fortune, Or to take Arms against a Sea of troubles, And by opposing, end them? To die, to sleep — No more; and by a sleep, to say we end
The Heart-ache, and the thousand Natural shocks That Flesh is heir to? ‘Tis a consummation Devoutly to be wished. To die, to sleep, To sleep, perchance to Dream; Aye, there’s the rub, For in that sleep of death, what dreams may come, When we have shuffled off this mortal coil, Must give us pause. In just this short excerpt, we are able to find many literary devices at work. There are many instances of repetition, especially of the word “sleep,” which functions as a metaphor for death. There are other metaphors in this excerpt, such as the “slings and arrows of outrageous fortune” and the “sea of troubles.” Fortune does no t literally shoot arrows, and there is no literal sea of troubles, yet the reader or viewer is able to connect the two concepts mentally. In this excerpt, Hamlet is contemplating death, both murder and suicide, and thus the mood is quite somber. The soliloquy provides access to Hamlet’s motivation for whether or not to avenge his father’s death.
Literary Devices in The Great Gatsby The Great Gatsby is famous for its use of a third person limited narrator who is not the protagonist. This is a relatively uncommon method in which to narrate a novel. Nick Carraway tells the story, and yet the plot revolves around the actions of his friend Jay Gatsby.
There is much juxtaposition in the novel between West Egg and East Egg, and the comparable fortunes of the men who arrive at Jay Gatsby’s famous parties. Fitzgerald also uses irony throughout the novel, including readers’ knowledge of Jay and Daisy’s affair of which Daisy’s husband Tom is unaware (dramatic irony) and Daisy’s decision to stay with Tom at the end of the novel, contrary to readers’ expectations (situational irony)
