Leadership Styles Elmer A. F. Conde
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definition of leadership core concepts in leadership dimensions in leadership core elements of leadership types of leaders styles of leadership theories and models in nursing leadership
Definitions of Leadership • The privilege to have the responsibility to direct the actions of others at varying levels of authority and with accountability to both successful and failed endeavors (Roberts, 1989) • The process of influencing the activities of an organized group in its effort to ward goal setting and goal achievement (Stogdill, 1974).
Definitions of Leadership • A process by which one inspires others to work together for the achievement of a common mission and goal, a social transaction (Merton, 1969). • A vital ingredient which transforms a mere crowd into a functional and useful organization. It can be taught and that is a transferable skill (Adair, 1983).
Definitions of Leadership • A means of persuasion and example by which an individual induces a group to take action in accord with a purpose common to everyone (Gardner, 1993).
Leadership is therefore: • Who leaders are: values, motives, personal traits • What leaders know:: knowledge, skills and abilities • What leaders do: behavior, habits, styles, and competencies
Nursing Leadership • The process where the nurse influences one or more persons to achieve specific goals in the provision of nursing care of one or more patients. It is also a multidimensional process.
Core Concepts of Leadership • L : lead, love, learn • E : enthusiastic, energetic • A : assertive, achiever • D : dedicated, desirous • E : effective, efficient • R : responsible, respectful
Dimensions in Leadership • LEADER • SITUATION • FOLLOWER
Leader • Initiator or innovator to followers to direct them to a situation that faces them. • Seeks to address a situation to make it better to everyone involved. • “The only test of leadership is that if somebody follows” – Robert Greenleaf
Situation • The medium where the directing takes place. It also includes the space or locale to which related activities are tested and implemented.
Follower • Hock (1999) identifies the characteristics of a follower to include the following attributes: active, responsible, autonomous in their behavior, critical in their thinking without being insubordinate or disrespectful. • Kellerman underscores types of followers as any of the following: alienated, sheep, yes people, survivors, and effective followers.
Elements of Leadership • • • • • •
Vision Influence Power Authority Responsibility Accountability
VISION • Provides direction to the influence process • Can have one or more visions of the future to assist them to move a group successfully toward the goal • To make the vision work, the three critical elements must be involved: the leader of the organization, the members or staff and the situation in which they are to function or the community
Effectiveness of Vision: • Appears as a simple, yet vibrant, image in the mind of the leader • Describe a future state, credible and preferable to the present state • Act as a bridge between the current state and a future optimum state • Appear desirable enough to energize followers • Succeed in speaking to followers at an emotional or spiritual level
POWER • The ability to efficiently and effectively exercise authority and control through personal, organizational and social strength. It is the ability to impose the will of one person or group to bring about certain behaviors in other groups or persons. • According to French and Raven (1959), sources of power can be: legitimate, reward, coercive, expert, information and referent.
AUTHORITY • Authority represents the right to expect or secure compliance and is backed by legitimacy. • Forms of authority could either be: line authority, staff authority, and team authority.
Line Authority • It is a direct supervisory authority from superior to subordinate. It flows in a direct chain of command from the top to the company’s bottom. • Under this type of authority the chain of command is strictly followed. There is unity of command within the chain that cannot be broken otherwise there will be chaos in the organization. The line authority also knows the extent or span of control over her subordinates.
Staff Authority • It is an authority that is based on expertise and which usually involves advising line managers. • They coordinate and provide technical assistance or advice to all advisors such as accounting, human resources, information technology, research, advertising, public relations and legal services.
Team Authority • It is granted to committees or work teams involved in an organization’s daily operations. • They are empowered to plan and organize their work and to perform that work with a minimum supervision.
RESPONSIBILITY • It is the obligation to perform the assigned task. • When given a responsibility for a job, he must also be given the degree of authority necessary to carry out the task.
ACCOUNTABILITY • It is answering for the result of one’s actions or omissions. • It is a form of reckoning, where one accepts the consequences of their decisions, good or bad. • It is the final act in the establishment of one’s credibility. • Accountability results in rewards for the good performance, as well as discipline for poor performance.
Behaviors of a Leader • Passive or non – assertive • Aggressive • Assertive
Passive • A leader that feels self-pity and is lacking self-worth, acts apologetically, is easily dominated by others and speaks hesitantly. • Has self-denial issues, inhibited, puts her self down as a norm. • This behavior is borne from low selfesteem and confidence. • This leader most of the times allows others to choose and does not achieve desired goals.
Aggressive • Talks loudly on every subject • Often depreciates other’s remarks and shown insensitivity to the feelings of others • Disregards other people’s rights and the aggressive behavior is characterized by propensity to point finger and says “you” frequently • Enhance themselves at the expense of others • Dictate the actions of others and achieve goals by hurting others
Assertive • Midway between passive and aggressive • Express opinions and beliefs without infringing on or belittling the rights of others, refuse to be dominated or manipulated • They strive to enhance self and others, quite expressive • They naturally feel good about their self, they choose for their self and achieve desired goals
Styles of Leadership • Autocratic • Bureaucratic • Democratic • Laissez-faire
Autocratic • Nurse leader-manager retains as much power and decision – making authority as much as possible. • Does not consult other nurses or co – employees, nor they are allowed to give any input in decision making. • Nurses are expected to obey orders without receiving explanations.
Autocratic • Under this leadership, the nurses are motivated by rewards and punishments • Leaders rely on threats and punishments to influence others and they do not trust their employees. • Best suited type of leadership in an emergency care set-up.
Bureaucratic • Nurse leader-manager manages “by the book”, everything is done according to procedure or policy. • If it is not covered by the book, the nurse leader-manager refers to the next level above her. • The nurse leader is more than a rule enforcer rather than a leader.
Bureaucratic • This task is effective in situations such as: Routine tasks are performed Certain standards or procedures are to be understood Employees are working with dangerous or delicate equipments that require definite set of procedures to operate Safety or security training is being conducted Employees are performing tasks that require handling of cash
Democratic • Also called participative leadership, it encourages the nurse employees to be a part of the decision making. • Nurses are well-informed about everything that affects their work. • They share in the decision making and problem solving responsibilities. • The nurses are considered as rational who can perform assigned tasks efficiently and affectively according to the set of standards set by the profession.
Democratic • This style of leadership requires the leader to be a coach who has the final say, but gathers information from staff members before making a decision. • Can produce high quality and high quantity work for long periods of time. Many employees like the trust they receive and respond with cooperation, team spirit and high morale
Characteristics of a Democratic Leader • Develops plan to help employees evaluate their own performance • Allows employees to establish goals • Encourage the employees to grow on the job and be promoted • Recognizes and encourages achievement • Shares the problem solving and decisionmaking to the staff • Encourages team building and participation
Laissez-Faire • Also known as “hands-off ” leadership • There is little or no direction from the leader and the nursing staff has as much freedom as possible. • All authority or power is given to the employees and they must determine goals, make decisions and resolve problems on their own.
Laissez-Faire • Effective style of leadership when: • Employees are highly skilled, experienced and educated • Employees have pride in their work and the drive to do it successfully on their own • Outside experts such as staff specialists and consultants are being used • Employees are trustworthy and experienced
Nursing Leadership Theories • Trait Theories • Behavioral Theories • Situational or Contingency Theories • Contemporary Leadership Theories • Quantum Leadership
Trait Theories
“Great Man” Theory • Assumes that the capacity for leadership is inherent, that great leaders are born, not made. • Often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic, and destined to rise to leadership when needed.
Trait Theory • Assumes that people inherit extraordinary qualities and traits that make them suited for leadership. • They have special traits that make them leaders: tireless ambition, zest for life, great orator skills, irresistible looks and extremely persuasive
Trait Theory • Stogdill (1974) found that leaders tend to be higher than non-leaders on: intelligence, dominance, self-confidence, activity level and knowledge on the task. • Reeves (2001) noted that leaders possess these traits: emotional stability and composure, admitting error, good interpersonal skills, intellectual breadth
Trait Theory • Gardner (1993) also said that decisiveness, trustworthiness, self confidence, capacity to motivate people, skills in dealing with people, task competence among others make up traits
Behavioral Theories
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) • A famous psychologist, he postulated that the worker’s behavior is influenced by interactions between the personality, the structure of the primary work group and the socio-technical climate of the workplace. • Her categorized leadership styles into: authoritarianism, democratic, laissez-faire.
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) • Also developed the “Field Theory of Human Behavior”. He believed that people act the way they do depending on selfperceptions and their environments. To understand a leader’s behavior or that of the follower, one must look at the totality of the individual’s experience. • This individual carries perceptions that are valid and must be taken into account.
Chris Argyris (1932- __) • An organizational psychologist who developed the concepts of: “Ladder of Inference” and “Double Loop of Learning”
Ladder of Inference • It is based on the idea that the individuals interpret data to make meaning and make sense of it. • With the available data, one then selects to process, interpret, and finally draw up conclusions. • The conclusions that are drawn are not objective but subjective. At each step, there is bias in the process depending on the person’s experience.
Ladder of Inference
Ladder of Inference • It reminds nurse-managers that, when communicating, one needs to communicate not just subjective conclusions, but also the reasoning process and assumptions that underline the conclusions. • Otherwise, the real sources of disagreement will not be known which is usually lie in one’s assumptions rather than conclusions.
Double Loop Learning • A learning process of detecting and correcting errors. • The focus of the theory is on solving problems that are complex and illstructured and which change as problemsolving advances.
Double Loop Learning • This concept has an impact in nursing profession. • It would mean questioning the age-old ways of doing things that never works anyway but are continued for various reasons.
Rensis Likert (1903-1981) • Best known for the two theories: Linking Pin Model & Four Management Systems • The model hopes to achieve regularity of practice which would reinforce the organizational structure laid down by the organization. The competence and synergy of all the efforts of the workers would lead to the achievement of common purposes and goals.
Rensis Likert (1903-1981) • Likert gave special attention to the impact of leaders’ behaviors on workers motivation and the performance of groups. This leads to the identification of the four main styles of leadership which he called “Four Systems Approach”.
The Linking Pin & 4 Management Systems Theories
Four Management Systems 1. 2. 3. 4.
Exploitative – Authoritative Benevolent – Authoritative Consultative Participative
Blake and Mounton Managerial Grid Model • Conceptualized by Dr. Robert R. Blake (19182004) and Dr. Jane S. Mounton ( -1987) • It attempts to conceptualize management in terms of relations and leadership style.
Managerial Grid Model • Consists of two behavioral dimensions: concern for task or production and concern for people • Concern for task or production: leader cares little about people and operates in fear of something going wrong. The focus of the leader is on achieving results and productivity. • Concern for people: leader cares a little about productivity and operates wholly from a desire to be loved and approved of.
Managerial Grid Model • Leaders lay somewhere along the continuum of concern for productivity to concern for people • There is no ‘one best way’ of leadership • Different styles are needed for different situations. • Identified the 5 different leadership according to the varying emphasis on each of the two dimensions: impoverished style, country club style, produce or perish style, middle of the road style and team style.
Situational or Contingency Theories • Are theories that believe in different types of leadership for different situations • It is also called contingent theories because the leadership style would be dependent on the situation that a leader is faced at the moment • Proponents: Paul Hersey, Kenneth Blanchard, Fred Fiedler, Victor Harold Vroom and Yetton, Robert House
Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard • Leaders should adapt their style to follower development style based on how ready and willing the follower is to perform required tasks. Their readiness depends on their competence and motivation.
Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard • Identified four leadership style (S1 to S4) that match the development levels (D1 to D4) of the followers.
Leadership Styles • S1: Directing/Telling Leaders Leader defines the roles and tasks of the follower and supervises them closely. Decisions are made by the leader and announced, so communication is largely one-way.
Leadership Styles • S2: Coaching/Selling Leaders The leader still defines roles and tasks, but seeks ideas and suggestions from the followers. Decisions remain the leader’s prerogative but communication is much more two-way.
Leadership Styles • S3: Supporting/Participating Leaders The leader passes day-to-day decisions such as task allocation and processes to the follower. The leader facilitates and takes part in decisions but control is with the follower.
Leadership Styles • S4: Delegating Leaders Leaders are still involved in decision and problem-solving but control is with the follower. The follower decides when and how the leader will be involved.
Fred Fiedler • Developed the Contingency Model • Fiedler believed that the leader’s personal characteristics are stable and therefore, so is the leadership styles. • He believed that there is no single approach that could provide an adequate solution for the various management problems.
Contingency Model Theory • It is a leadership theory that moved from research of traits and personal characteristics of leaders to leadership styles and behaviors. • The model focused on the personality and relationship between the leader and group members, programming of group’s assignment and positional power of the leader. • The model exemplifies task oriented leadership style. The leader has a great influence or power over group members.
Contingency Model Theory • 3 distinct aspects of the theory: leader – member relation, task structure, position power. • Leader – member relation: refers to how well the manager and workers get along. • Task structure: refers to how the nature of the job to be done is highly structured or fairly unstructured or somehow in between • Position power: refers to how much legitimate authority the leader-manager possesses.
Vroom and Yetton Participative Model • Selection of leadership styles will determine decision making. • Effective ness of decision making is affected by: importance of the decision quality and acceptance, amount of relevant information possessed by the leader and the subordinates, the likelihood that subordinates will accept an autocratic decision or cooperate in trying to make good decision if allowed to participate, amount of disagreement among subordinates with respect to their preferred alternatives.
Participative Model • Provides set of rules or norms that determine how participatory a leader should be when making decisions. • After weighing up various contingencies, a leader can choose to: Decide on their own, and if necessary sell their decision. Consult some staff members individually, gathering some information ideas and then make decisions for themselves
Participative Model Consult the staff as a group, gathering their suggestions but still making the decision themselves Facilitate a meeting where they define the problem and set the limits which a decision needs to be made, and then uses a consensus approach to make a decision.
Participative Model – Delegate the decision-making process either to the team or individual responsible for enacting the decision.
Path-Goal Theory • Developed by Robert House, a leader adopts a certain leadership style such as: directive leadership, supportive leadership, participative leadership and achievement-oriented leadership.
Transactional Leadership • The leader motivates the followers by appealing to their own self-interest • Its principles are to by means of the exchange process. It is a contract for mutual benefit that has contingent rewards. • The leadership style may encourage the leader-manager to adapt to their style and behavior to meet the perceived expectations of the followers.
Transactional Leadership • The four types of behavior that comprises this style of leadership include: contingent rewards, management by exception, active management by exception and laissez-faire leadership.
Transformational Leadership • Most effective and beneficial leadership behavior to achieve long-term success and improved performance. • A person with this type of leadership style is a true leader who inspires her team constantly with a shared vision of the future. • Leaders are highly visible and spend a lot of time communicating. • They do not necessarily lead from the front as they tend to delegate responsibility among their team.
Characteristics of Transformational Leadership • Promotes employee development • Attends to needs and motives of the followers • Inspires through optimism, influences changes in perception • Provides intellectual stimulation and encourages follower creativity.
Characteristics of Transformational Leadership • Uses role modeling • Is focused on process, cooperation and networking • Provides sense of direction and encourages selfmanagement
Servant Leadership • Developed by Robert Greenleaf (19041990) • It emphasizes the leader’s role as the steward of the resources such as human, financial, and otherwise provided by the organization. • It encourages the leaders to serve others while staying focused on achieving results in line with the organization’s values and integrity.
10 Characteristics of Servant-Leaders • • • • • • • • •
Listening Empathy Healing Awareness Persuasion Conceptualization Foresight Stewardship Commitment to growth of people • Building community
Emotional Intelligence in Nursing Leadership • Developed by Daniel Goleman
Emotional Intelligence in Nursing Leadership • It is defined as a person’s self-awareness, self-confidence, self-control, commitment and integrity, the ability to communicate, influence, initiate change and accept change (Goleman, 1998). • Goleman developed a four quadrant model of EQ. These quadrants are selfawareness, social awareness, self management and relationship management.
Self-awareness • Is the ability to recognize one’s own feelings as it happens, to accurately perform self-assessment and have selfconfidence. It is the keystone of emotional intelligence. Emotional self-awareness: reading one’s own emotions and recognizing their impact Accurate self-assessment: knowing one’s strengths and limits Self-confidence: a sound sense of one’s selfworth and capabilities.
Self management • It is the ability to keep disruptive emotions and impulses in check, maintain standards of honesty and integrity, take responsibility for one’s performance, handle change, and be comfortable with novel ideas and approaches.
Self management • Emotional control: keeping disruptive emotions and impulses under control • Transparency: displaying honesty and integrity • Adaptability: flexibility on adapting to changing situations or overcoming obstacles • Achievement: the drive to improve performance to meet inner standards of excellence • Initiative: readiness to act and seize opportunities • Optimism: seeing the upside of the events
Social Awareness • Empathy: sensing other’s emotions, understanding their perspective, and taking active interest in their concerns • Organizational awareness: reading the currents, decision networks, and politics at the organizational level • Service: recognizing and meeting the needs of the followers, clients, or customers.
Relationship Management • Inspirational leadership: guiding and motivating with a compelling vision • Influence: wielding a wide range of tactics for persuasion • Developing others: bolstering others’ abilities through feedback and guidance
Relationship Management • Change catalyst: initiating, managing, and leading in a new direction • Conflict management: resolving disagreement • Building bonds: cultivating and maintaining a web of relationships • Teamwork & collaboration: cooperation and team building
Quantum Leadership • Developed by O’Grady and Malloch (2003) described it as a new leadership style for the new age. • They postulated mostly leaders are neither prepared or equipped to change outmoded models because the foundations of their leadership concepts are based in the past
Quantum Leadership • In quantum leadership, control is not he issue but rather change dominates the climate. • The quantum leader recognizes continual movement and change occur in reality and creativity and innovation are the core of good work performance.
Benefits of Applying Quantum Leadership in Healthcare • Recognize how healthcare changes have affected all of them • Properly explain each change, actively engage in conflict resolution and exchange of ideas • Work together to resolve the difficulties that emerge as their systems intersect.
As Quantum Leaders, Nurse-Managers: • Offer creative and innovative solutions • Seek to discover educational opportunities instead of relying on past methods of accommodating new nurses in the workforce
As Quantum Leaders, Nurse-Managers: • Provide mentoring opportunities and expert preceptorships, quantum leaders can effectively help all involved to provide better care for patients
References Adair, J. (1983). Effective Leadership. Gower: Aldershot Argyris, C. (1957). Personality and Organizations: The Conflict Between System and Individual. New York: Harper Collins French, J. & Raven B. H. (1959). “The bases of Social Power”. In D. Cartwright, Studies of Social Power. Michigan: Institute for Social Research. Gardner, J. (1989). On Leadership. New York: Free Press.
References Hersey, P & Blanchard, K. (2008). Management of Organizational Behavior: Leading Human Resources (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Kipnis, D & Schmidt, S. (1982). Profiles of Organizational Strategies. California: University Associates. Lewin, K.L. (1939). Field Theory in Social Science; Selected Theoretical Papers. New York: Harper & Row.
References Likert, R. (1932). “ A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes”, Archives of Psychology 140: pp. 1 – 55. Merton, R. K. (December 1969). “The Social Nature of Leadership,” American Journal of Nursing. Miner, J. (2005). Organizational Behavior: Essential Theories of Motivation and Leadership.” Armonk: M. E. Sharpe
References Porter-O’Grady, T & Malloch, K. (2003). Quantum Leaders: A textbook of New Leadership. USA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers Reeves, V. (2001). Traits of Effective Respected, and Liked Leader. Roberts, W. (1989). Leadership Secrets of Attila the Hun. New York: Grand Central Publishing.
References Stogdill, R. (1974). Handbook of Leadership. New York: Free Press. Tan C. & Beltran E. (2009). Leadership & Management in Nursing: A Transformative and Reflective Patient Care Text (1st ed.) Manila: Educational Publishing House.
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• Alienated: independent and critical yet passive in their behavior resulting in psychological and emotional distance with their leaders. They are potentially disruptive and a threat to the organization.
• Sheep: These are dependent and uncritical. They simply do as they are told by their leaders.
• Yes People: dependent or uncritical but very active in their behavior. They uncritically reinforce the thinking and ideas of their leaders with enthusiasm, never questioning or challenging the leader’s ideas or proposals. These types of followers are dangerous to the leader because they are most likely to give false positive reaction and give no warning to potential pitfalls to the leadership.
Survivors: They are the least disruptive and lowest-risk followers. They test the water or sample the wind most if not all the time. Their motto is “BETTER SAFE THAN SORRY.”
Effective followers: share four essential qualities: selfmanagement, commitment, competence and focus, courage.
Influence • The ability to obtain followers • In the art of influencing people, communication is important. Poor communication leads poor influence or none at all. • For Kipnis and Schmidt (1982), influence can be any of the following: assertiveness, ingratiation, rationality blocking, coalition, sanction, exchange, upward appeal.
Assertiveness • One sends direct messages to others and is able to stand up for her own rights without violating the rights of others.
Ingratiation An individual makes another feel important or good before making a request. The person acts humbly or is friendly before making a request.
Rationality Involves convincing someone of the merits of a detailed plan, which is supported by information, reasoning or logic
Blocking • A hostile form of influence where an individual achieves the goal of influencing another person either with the threat of or the actual act of cutting off from communication or interaction the other intended to be influenced.
Coalition Collective form of influence where a person gets several co-workers to “back her up” when making a request.
Sanction It is hinged on the promise of punishment in the case of noncooperation and reward in case of acquiescence or cooperation.
Exchange It involves offering a favor or a personal sacrifice as an incentive for the performance of a request.
Upward Appeal Obtaining support from the higher-up to push someone into action.
Legitimate Power Bestowed upon a leader by a given position in the hierarchy of an organization. This is the most important and obvious kind of power.
Reward Power Derived from the manager’s ability to give rewards to her subordinates for compliance to her orders or requests.
Coercive Power • Based on the leader’s ability to punish subordinates for non-compliance with his directives. It might refer to the ability to withhold rewards or even create an untenable working situation for such subordinates. • The most obvious but the least effective form of power as its builds resentment and resistance within the targets of coercive power.
Expert Power • Derived from special abilities or skills unique to the leader. It is the ability to influence others through the possession of knowledge or skills that are useful to them. • This power is highly specific and limited only to the particular area in which the expert is trained and qualified.
Referent Power • Based on relationships and connections. It is more known as “networking”. • It also means the power or ability of individuals to attract others and build loyalty.
Chain of Command is an unbroken line of reporting relationships that extends through the entire organization. It helps the employees know to whom they are accountable and to whom to go to with a problem.
Unity of Command • States that each person in an organization should take orders from and reports to only one person. This helps prevent conflicting demands being placed on employees by more than one superior.
Span of Control Refers to the number of employees that should be placed under the direction of one leadermanager. Generally a wide span of control is possible with bettertrained, more experienced, and committed employees.
Exploitative - Authoritative • Least effective performance • Managers show little confidence in staff associates and ignore their ideas • Staff associate do not feel free to discuss their jobs with the manager • Responsibility for the organization’s goal is at the top; goals are established through orders
Benevolent – Authoritative • The manager is condescending to staff associates • Staff associates ideas are sometimes sought after but they do not feel very free to discuss their jobs with the manager • Top management and middle management are responsible for setting goals • Decisions are made at the top with some delegation • Staff associates are occasionally consulted for problem solving
Consultative • The manager has substantial confidence in staff associates • Their ideas are usually sought and they feel free to discuss their work with the manager • Responsibility for setting goals is fairly general. • Managers are quite familiar with the problem faced by their staff associates.
Participative • Associated with the most effective performance • Managers have complete confidence in their staff associates • Ideas are always sought • Managers are very well informed about the problems faced by their staff associate and decision making is well integrated throughout the organization with full involvement of staff associates.
Impoverished Style • Description: leaders have low concern for both people and production. This style is used to avoid getting into trouble. • Characteristics: main concern is not to be held responsible for any mistakes which results in less innovative decisions. This leader is indifferent, non-committal, resigned and apathetic. Leaders just do enough to keep their job.
Impoverished Style • Results: disorganization, dissatisfaction, disharmony among people due to lack of effective leadership
Country Club Style • Description: Leader has high concern for people and a low concern for production. • Leaders use this style pay much attention to the security and comfort of the employees, in the hope that this would increase performance.
Country Club Style • Characteristics: Leader is attentive to his people’s needs and has developed satisfying relationships and work culture but at the expense of achieving results. • The leader is defined as agreeable, eager to help, non-confrontational, comforting and uncontroversial.
Country Club Style • Results: Work atmosphere is usually friendly but not necessarily productive.
Produce or Perish Style • Description: Has high concern for production and a low concern for people, leaders using this style of leadership find employees needs unimportant. They provide their employees with money and expect performance back. Managers using this style also pressure their employees through rules and punishments to achieve the company goals.
Produce or Perish Style • Characteristics: The leader concentrates almost exclusively on achieving results. People are viewed as commodity to be used to get the job done. Communication is de-emphasized and conflict is resolved by suppressing it. Leadership is controlling, demanding and over-powering.
Produce or Perish Style • Results: This style is based on Theory X (McGregor) and is commonly applied by companies on the edge of real or perceived failure. This is used in case of crisis management. Though high output is achieved in a short time, it becomes costly as there is high labor turn-out.
Middle-of-the-Road Style: • Description: Leaders use this style to balance between company goals and workers’ needs. By giving some concern to both people and production, leaders hope to achieve acceptable performance. • Characteristics: This leader is compromiser who wants to maintain the status quo and avoid any problems. The leader is aware of and wants to focus on productivity but not at the expense of the morale of the team.
Middle-of-the-Road Style • Results: Leader compromises in which neither production and people’s needs are met.
Team Style • Description: Leaders who use this style rely heavily on making employees feel as a constructive part of the organization • Characteristics: Leader pays high concern both to people and production. Leaders encourage teamwork and commitment among employees. The leader may be characterized as open-minded, flexible and one who inspires involvement.
Team Style • Results: Leader achieves high work performance through leading his people to become dedicated to the organizational goals. There is a high degree of participation and teamwork. Leader satisfies the basic need of people to be involved and committed to their work.
Directive Leadership Specific advice is given to the group and ground rules and structure are established. Such advises include clarifying expectations, specifying or assigning certain tasks to be followed.
Supportive Leadership Good relations are promoted with the group and sensitivity to subordinates’ needs is shown.
Participative Leadership Decision making is based on consultation with the group and information is shared with the group.
Achievement-oriented Leadership Challenging goals are set and high performance is encouraged while confidence is shown in the group’s ability.
Contingent Reward • To influence behavior, the leader clarifies the work needed to be accomplished. The leader uses rewards or incentives to achieve results when expectations are met.
Management by Exception • To influence behavior, the leader uses correction or punishment as a response to unacceptable performance or deviation from the standards. It seeks to minimize the opportunity for exceptions by enforcing defensive management processes.
Active Management by Exceptions • To influence behavior, the leader actively monitors the work performed and uses corrective methods to ensure the work is completed to meet accepted standards.
Laissez-Faire Leadership • The leader is indifferent and has a hands-off approach toward the workers and their performance. • The leader-manager ignores the needs of others, does not respond to the problems or does not monitor performance.
