Université Stendhal - Grenoble 3 UFR sciences de la communication Institut de la Communication et des Médias Master 2 Sciences de l’Information et de la Communication
Du NOMIC au Sommet Mondial de la Société de l’Information: Le rôle de l’UNESCO dans la réduction de la fracture numérique en Afrique Mémoire présenté par : Destiny TCHEHOUALI
Sous la direction de : Monsieur Bertrand CABEDOCHE
- Année Universitaire Universitaire 2006 / 2007 -
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Que Monsieur Bertrand CABEDOCHE trouve ici le témoignage de notre prof profon onde de reco reconn nnai aiss ssan ance ce po pour ur sa disp dispon onib ibil ilité ité et po pour ur l’en l’enca cadr drem emen entt rigoureux qu’il a bien accepté apporter à l’élaboration de ce travail. Nous Nous teno tenons ns ég égal alem emen entt à ad adre ress sser er no noss reme remerc rcie ieme ment ntss à Mada Madame me Isabelle Isabelle PAILLIART, PAILLIART, pour ses précieuse précieusess orientatio orientations ns dans la rédaction rédaction du mémoire. Nous ne saurions oublier les chercheurs, sans qui cette œuvre serait restée restée inachevée inachevée et qui de par leurs réflexio réflexions ns ont enrichi enrichi la substance substance des discours soumis à notre analyse. Un remerciement particulier à l’endroit de Madame Annie Lenoble-Bart, Professeur à l’Université de Bordeaux 3 qui, a bien voulu partager avec nous son avis sur les questions centrales de notre problématique de recherche. Madame Annie Lenoble-Bart est Animatrice du GREMA GREMA (Grou (Groupe pe de Recher Recherche chess et d'Étud d'Études es su surr les Médias Médias Africain fricains) s) et Coordinatrice de l'Axe 1 du programme 2003-2006 de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme d'Aquitaine sur " Modèles et transferts dans la mondialisation des Afriques : Gouvernance, démocratie, transferts et appropriation". Enfin, notre sincère gratitude à tous ceux qui de près ou de loin, par leur soutien moral, leur aide intellectuelle et leurs encouragements, ont contribué aux différentes phases de réalisation de ce travail.
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Je dédie ce travail :
A mes chers parents qui ont toujours cru en moi et qui à travers leur amour et leur soutien m’ont toujours aidé, malgré la distance nous séparant, à surmonter les épreuves difficiles de la vie et à relever les grands défis de ma destinée.
A tous les chercheurs, les institutions, les organisations nationales ou inte intern rnat atio iona nale les, s, les les ONG ONG ains ainsii qu qu’à ’à tout toutes es les les pe pers rson onne ness physiques ou morales qui dans le monde luttent pour la réduction de la fracture numérique Nord-Sud.
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SOMMAIRE
LISTE DES SIGLES ET ABREVIATIONS..................................... ABREVIATIONS................................................5 ...........5 INTRODUCTION............... INTRODUCTION .............................. ............................... ................................................. ........................................6 .......6 Première partie : Cadre théorique et méthodologique de la recherche ...9 Chapitre 1 : Contexte théorique....... théorique....................... ............................... .......................................10 ........................10 I-Genèse de la société de l’information : Un bref détour historique........................10 II-Théories et discours sur les TIC : Délimitation d’un champ de recherche...........12 A-Le paradoxe entre déterminisme technologique technologique et détermini déterminisme sme social......................12 social.............. ........12 B-Communication B-Communica tion internationale internationale au cœur des Théories du développe développement ment et du modernisme....................... modernism e.............................................. .............................................. .............................................. ..................................................14 ...........................14 III-Problématique et objectifs de recherche.............................................................18 A-Problématique..................................... A-Problématique.............. .............................................. .............................................. ............................................... ............................18 ....18 B-Objectifs................... B-Objecti fs.......................................... .............................................. .............................................. .......................................................20 ................................20
Chapitre 2 : Méthodologie de la recherche.............................................21 recherche.............................................21 I-Questions et hypothèses de recherche.................................................................21 II-Intérêt et valeur de la recherche...........................................................................22 III-Méthodes de recueil des données......................................................................23 A-Population d’étude... A-Population d’étude.......................... .............................................. .............................................. ..................................................... ................................23 ..23 B-Méthode historique et descripti descriptive............... ve...................................... .............................................. ....................................... ....................23 ....23 C-Entrevues de recherche.. recherche......................... .............................................. ..................................................................... .................................................24 ...24
Deuxième partie : L’Afrique dans la société globale de l’information......26 Chapitre 1 : Du rapport McBride à la société de l’Information................26 I-L’information à sens unique et la contestation des pays du Sud..........................26 Sud..................... .....26 II-Le rapport McBride : « Voix multiples, un seul monde »......................................30 ».................................... ..30 III-Conséquences de l’échec du NOMIC.................................................................33
Chapitre 2 : La facture des fractures...... fractures..................... .............................. .............................. ...................36 ....36 I-Fracture numérique et sous-développement sous-développement en Afrique ......................................36 ............................... .......36 A-Fracture numérique et Développement : Quels liens ?............................................. ?.................................................37 ....37 B-Le vécu de la fracture en Afrique.... Afrique........................... .............................................. .............................................. ................................40 .........40 II-Bilan sommaire et critique du SMSI : de Genève à Tunis ..................................43
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Troisième partie : Solidarité numérique en Afrique : Vers une dépendance technologique accrue de l’Afrique ou une résorption de la fracture ?............ ?........................... .............................. .............................. ............................... ............................... ........................55 .........55 Chapitre 1 : Une volonté volonté et une mobilisation internationale internationale manifestes. 55 I-L’e-inclusion à travers la solidarité numérique .....................................................55 II-L’engagement de l’UNESCO : Le PIDC à la loupe..............................................60 III-Les autres institutions internationales : UIT, OMC, PNUD, OIF, BM…..............62
Chapitre 2 : Communication internationale et souveraineté nationale : Les limites des organisations internationales.........................................66 I-Les enjeux géopolitiques de la régulation de la communication internationale.. internationale....66 ..66 II-Les limites de l’UNESCO dans sa lutte contre la fracture numérique.................67 III-Plaidoyer pour une réappropriation culturelle des TIC en Afrique .....................70
CONCLUSION................. CONCLUSION.. ............................... ............................... .............................. ........................................73 .........................73 BIBLIOGRAPHIE............... BIBLIOGRAPHIE .............................. ............................... ......................................................80 ......................................80 WEBLIOGRAPHIE WEBLIOGRAPHI E ............... .............................. .............................. ............................... ....................................8 ....................833
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LISTE DES SIGLES ET ABREVIATIONS •
ATU : Union Africaine des Télécommunications
•
BM : Banque Mondiale
•
CANAD : Central African New Agencies Development
•
CEDEAO : Communauté Economique Des Etats de l’Afrique de l’Ouest
•
CSDPTT : Coopération Solidarité Développement aux PTT
•
DOT Force : Digital Opportunity Task force
•
FMI : Fonds Monétaire International
•
Fonds de Solidarité Numérique
•
GRESEC : Groupe de Recherche Sur les Enjeux de la Communication
•
IAN : Indice d’Accès Numérique
•
NEPAD : Nouveau Partenariat pour le Développement de l’Afrique
•
NOEI : Nouvel Ordre Economique International
•
NOMIC : Nouvel Ordre Mondial de l’Information et de la Communication
•
OCDE : Organisation pour la Coopération et le Développement Economique
•
OIF : Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie
•
OMC : Organisation Mondiale du Commerce
•
OMPI : Organisation Mondiale pour la Propriété Intellectuelle
•
ONG : Organisation Non Gouvernementale
•
ONU : Organisation des Nations Unies
•
PIDC : Programme International pour le Développement de la Communication
•
PIPT : Programme Intergouvernemental Information Pour Tous
•
PMA : Pays les Moins Avancés
•
PMAC : Pays les Moins Avancés en Communication
•
PD : Pays Développés
•
PED : Pays en Développement
•
PNUD : Programme des Nations Unies pour le Développement
•
RASCOM : Regional African Satellite for Communication
•
SMSI : Sommet Mondial de la Société de l’Information
•
TIC : Technologies de l’Information et de la Communication
•
UIT : Union Internationale des Télécommunications
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INTRODUCTION Le développement effréné des technologies de l’information et de la communication (TIC (TIC)) depu depuis is quel quelqu ques es déce décenn nnie iess et la nouv nouvel elle le conf config igur urat atio ionn du mo mond ndee en rése réseau auxx planétaires planétaires est la preuve de la mondialisati mondialisation on de la communication communication que l’UNESCO définit définit comme « le symbole du triomphe mondial de l’économie de marché et de la libéralisation du commerce international ». L’effacement des frontières et des obstacles topographiques grâce aux « autoroutes de l’information » permet à la communication internationale d’entretenir l’utopie macluhanienne du village global, tout en nourrissant les imaginaires et les croyances inhérentes à la résorption de la fracture numérique mondiale, à la libre circulation des informations et des données, ainsi qu’à l’échange des connaissances et des cultures dans un contexte global de rééquilibrage des rapports humains. Pourtant, à ces grands espoirs s’impose la réalité de «sociétés à deux vitesses», une société société de l’information l’information divisée divisée et fondée fondée sur des bases bases inégalitaires inégalitaires où où se côtoient côtoient pauvres et riches, puissants et dominés, profiteurs et exploités, participants et exclus, savants et ignorants. Ceci amène d’ailleurs Marcel Merle 1 a affirmé que l’évolution de l’histoire a été scan scandé déee par par une une séri sériee d’in d’inno nova vati tion onss tech techni niqu ques es qui qui ont ont mené mené à deux deux mo mouv uvem emen ents ts contradictoires à savoir, d’une part la tendance à l’uniformisation de la condition humaine et d’autre part à la discrimination croissante entre ce qu’il appelle les « bénéficiaires » et les « lais laissé séss-po pour ur-c -com ompt ptee » du prog progrè rès. s. Face Face à la reco recomp mpos osit itio ionn géné généra rale le des des forc forces es géostratégiques sous-tendant ces inégalités, certains auteurs comme Ignacio Ramonet se retrouvent devant le constat que : « Partout alarme et désarroi succèdent à la grande espérance d’un nouvel ordre mondial. Celui-ci, on le sait à présent, est mort-né. Et nos sociétés, comme lors de précédentes époques de transition, se demandent si elles ne s’acheminent pas vers le
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De l’ouverture des débats sur le NOMIC dans les années 1970 jusqu’aux récents débats du Sommet Mondial de la Société de l’Information (2003, 2005), beaucoup de réflex réflexion ionss ont été été produi produite tes. s. Cepend Cependant ant,, duran durantt ces ces trois trois décenn décennie iess les les réflex réflexio ions ns et propositions qui ont pris corps à l’UNESCO avant de se déplacer et s’étendre à d’autres insti institu tuti tions ons (Comm (Communa unaut utéé europé européen enne, ne, OCDE, OCDE, UIT, UIT, OMC,… OMC,….) .) sembl semblent ent n’avo n’avoir ir pas réellement contribué à une communication internationale équilibrée et égalitaire à même de nous faire oublier aujourd’hui la ligne de démarcation symbolisant la fracture « Nord/Sud » ou plus spécifiquement les inégalités entre pays occidentaux et pays africains en matière de communication. Qu’est ce qui explique cette inefficacité inefficacité des stratégies stratégies de l’UNESCO dans la lutte pour le développement international de la communication? Y aurait-il des enjeux géopolitiques susceptibles d’argumenter en faveur d’une thèse de manipulation ou d’influence subie par l’UNESCO et dirigée par la toute puissance états-unienne ou occidentale ? Dans la première partie de ce travail, nous proposons quelques éléments de réponse à ces questions à travers des éclaircissements théoriques. Pour ce faire, nous avons tenu à rappeler par une brève genèse comment la notion de « société de l’information » s’est graduellement imposée à l’usage. Ensuite, à partir des controverses et critiques légitimant ou accablant accablant cette société de l’information, l’information, nous passerons en revue les discours déterministes déterministes sur les TIC, ainsi que les différentes théories de développement, de modernisation néolibérale, et d’impérialisme culturel pour déboucher sur une problématique sous-jacente centrée sur le rôle joué par les organisations internationales et notamment celui de l’UNESCO dans la régulation du déséquilibre des rapports Nord/Sud en matière de communication internationale. Une fois ce déblayage théorique fait, nous présenterons l’Afrique dans la société de
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Première partie : Cadre théorique et méthodologique de la recherche
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Première partie : Cadre théorique et méthodologique de la recherche Chapitre 1 : Contexte théorique I-
Genès Genèsee de de la la soc socié iété té de l’in l’info form rmat atio ionn : Un bref bref déto détour ur hist histor oriq ique ue
La Déclaration de principes de Genève adoptée au lendemain de la première phase du Sommet Mondial de la Société de l’Information (SMSI) par les gouvernements - avec des apports importants de la société civile -, signale dans son premier article : « Nous (...) pproc rocla lamon monss not notre re volon volonté té et not notre re déterm détermin inati ation on commun communes es d’édi d’édifi fier er une socié société té de l’information l’information à dimension humaine, inclusive inclusive et privilégiant privilégiant le développement, développement, une société société de l’information, dans laquelle chacun ait la possibilité de créer, d’obtenir, d’utiliser et de partager l’information et le savoir et dans laquelle les individus, les communautés et les peupl peuples es pui puisse ssent nt ain ainsi si mettre mettre en œuvre œuvre tou toute tess leurs leurs pot potent entia ialit lités és en favor favorisa isant nt leur leur développement durable et en améliorant leur qualité de vie, conformément aux buts et aux principes de la Charte des Nations Unies ainsi qu’en respectant pleinement et en mettant en œuvre la Déclaration universelle des Droits de l’Homme ». Société post-industrielle, ère technétronique, société de l’information, société de la connaissance…. Autant de pseudoconcepts pour qualifier et identifier la portée des changements technologiques caractéristiques de notre époque. Finalement, c’est l’expression « Société de l’information » qui s’est imposée comme terme hégémonique et ce comme le précisait Sally Burch, « non pas nécessairement parce qu’elle exprime une clarté théorique mais en raison du ‘‘baptême’’ qu’elle a reçu dans les politiques officielles des pays développés en plus du couronnement qu’a représenté un Sommet mondial organisé en son honneur. » Cette notion soulève des ambigüités, et des controverses qui la rendent floue et sans
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la prééminence du secteur tertiaire, la centralité de l’information et de la connaissance et l’émergence des nouvelles élites techniciennes et de nouveaux principes de stratification soci social ale. e. Gaët Gaëtan an Trem Trembl blay ay,, dans dans l’un l’unee de ses ses inte interv rven enti tion onss au cour courss des des sémi sémina nair ires es visiocon visioconfére férences nces GPB7 organisés organisés par le GRESEC GRESEC trouvait trouvait dans l’express l’expression ion sociét sociétéé de l’information, « une tentative d’appréhension globale des sociétés contemporaines ». D’autre part, la « société de l’information », en tant que construction politique et idéologique, s’est développée dans le cadre de la globalisation néolibérale qui visait principalement à accélérer l’instauration d’un marché mondial ouvert et « autorégulé ». Cette politique était menée en étroite collaboration avec des organismes multilatéraux comme l’Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC), le Fonds monétaire international international (FMI) et la Banque mondiale afin que les pay payss peu peu déve dévelo lopp ppés és aban abando donn nnen entt les les régl réglem emen enta tati tion onss nati nation onal ales es ou les les mesu mesure ress protectionnistes risquant de « décourager » les investissements. Le mythe de la société de l’information a donc été souvent utilisé pour déréguler les marchés des TIC en creusant davantage le fossé numérique Nord/Sud. Il n’y a alors selon Anne-Marie Laulan 3 « aucun étonnement devant l’enthousiasme industriel, financier, puis administratif à proclamer la naissance d’une nouvelle civilisation, fondée sur les dispositifs et systèmes que l’économie mondialisée maîtrise fort bien, (et à son profit quasi exclusivement). » Manuel Castells 4, l’un des chercheurs qui a le plus développé développé ce sujet préfère quant à lui qu’on parle de « société société info inform rmat atio ionn nnel elle le » plut plutôt ôt que que de « soci sociét étéé de l’in l’info form rmat atio ionn » en sign signal alan antt que que si la conn connai aiss ssan ance ce et l’in l’info form rmat atio ionn sont sont des des élém élémen ents ts déci décisi sifs fs dans dans tous tous les les mo mode dess de dével développ oppeme ement, nt, «
le term termee “i “inf nfor orma mati tion onne nel” l” cara caract ctér éris isee une une form formee part partic icul uliè ière re
d’orga d’organi nisat sation ion socia sociale le,, dans dans laq laquel uelle le la créati création, on, le trait traiteme ement nt et la trans transmis missi sion on de l’information l’information deviennent les sources premières de la productivité productivité et du pouvoir, en raison des nouvelle nouvelless conditi conditions ons technolo technologiqu giques es apparais apparaissant sant dans cette cette période période historiq historique-ci ue-ci ». Ce fondement d'une nouvelle « société de l'information et du savoir » est largement critiqué par
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Les diverses contradictions et les multiples définitions de la société de l’information partagent toutes cependant la caractéristique commune d’être empreintes de déterminisme, que ce déterminisme soit technologique ou social.
IIII-
Théor Théorie iess et disc discou ours rs sur sur les les TIC TIC : Dél Délim imit itat atio ionn d’un d’un cha champ mp de de recherche Au carrefour des SIC et des sciences sociales, la question de la fracture ou celle de la
solidarité numérique engendrée par les inégalités de la société de l’information appartient au contexte global des recherches portant sur l’intégration des technologies de l’information et de la communication dans les sociétés. Par ailleurs, il s’avère que l’intégration des TIC dans la sphère publique a favorisé des discours imaginaires, riches en projections voire contradictoires. Toutes les études menées sur les TIC se doivent alors d’être forgées sur l’adoption d’une posture technologique technologique explicite ou implicite implicite qui contribue à la fabrication fabrication des problématiques, problématiques, des méthodes et des axes d’interprétation. Ainsi, s’agira-t-il pour nous ici ici de confronter confronter quelques discours et théories sur les TIC, TIC, de souligner leurs oppositions ou convergences, d’être attentifs à leur révision ou à leur inflexion pour retracer le positionnement de notre sujet par rapport à ces différents courants de pensée. A- Le paradoxe entre entre déterminisme déterminisme technologique et déterminisme déterminisme
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Cette période est bien d’ailleurs celle de la première génération de chercheurs sur les TIC. Il y avait d’une part les technophobes technophobes pessimistes pessimistes comme P. Virilio, Virilio, qui dénoncent les les effets désastreux des TIC tout en les percevant comme les futurs désastres de l’humanité. D’autre part, les technophiles technophiles (prophètes du cyberespace), cyberespace), à l’instar l’instar de Pierre Lévy ou de J. de Rosnay et plus récemment les disciples de Michel Maffesoli, qui soutiennent de leur côté que les usages des TIC sont en train de transformer radicalement et positivement la socialité contemporaine. contemporaine. Norbert Wiener Wiener s’aligne dans ce courant courant de pensée quand il considère considère que l’organisation sociale fonctionne telle une machine autorégulée. A l’opposé de cette posture de déterminisme technique, le courant du déterminisme soci social al appréh appréhend endee les les rappor rapports ts socia sociaux ux et les ancie ancienne nness prati pratique quess comme comme les les fact facteur eurss déterminant ou influençant la technique. Ce courant s’oppose à la vision de M. Macluhan à faire du médium le message. La technologie technologie est le résultat d’une construction sociotechnique. sociotechnique. Ici, la technique est pensée en tenant compte de l’antériorité des pratiques sociales. Il est alors beaucoup plus question d’appropriation d’appropriation progressive ou de détournement des TIC au profit des individus ou des groupes. C’est dans cette logique que de nombreuses études d’impacts ont été réalisées par les laboratoires des grands groupes de télécommunication tels que France Télécom R & D. favorisant ainsi des disciplines comme l’économie, et le marketing afin d’étudier d’étudier l’offre de services à partir des différentes différentes dimensions de l’information l’information : marchandes, marchandes,
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Dans cette perspective d’analyse, nous sommes tenus de rester prudents dans nos jugem jugement entss en visan visantt une certa certaine ine neutra neutralit litéé et par consé conséque quent nt une certa certaine ine objec objecti tivit vitéé néces nécessai saire re à tou toute te démarc démarche he scien scienti tifiq fique ue ayant ayant pour pour vocat vocation ion de relat relativi iviser ser les les visio visions ns extrêmes d’un phénomène, qu'elles soient positives ou négatives. Par ailleurs, il est important de mettre fin ou tout au moins moins de pouvoir dépasser le paradoxe nourri par les débats débats sur les logiques techniques techniques et les logiques logiques sociales. sociales. Ainsi, faudrait-il convenir convenir avec Patrice Flichy 7 que « la technologie ne tombe pas du ciel mais est un produit sociotechnique. (…) La technologie est donc le résultat d’une construction sociotechnique que l’on peut analyser selon trois aspects : le projet d’un inventeur, des contraintes de technologie, d’usage et de marché, des hasards. (…) (…) ». Bernard Miège Miège critiquant le techno-déterminisme, techno-déterminisme, débouche débouche de son côté sur la nécessité d’une double médiation sociale et technique et parle, comme Serge Proulx, d’ancrage social (le social est dans la technique et la technique est dans le social en perma permane nence nce). ). Il est contre contre l’usa l’usage ge du terme terme d’ins d’insert ertio ionn socia sociale le des des TIC, TIC, et nous nous aussi aussi d’ailleurs, puisque : « les TIC ne peuvent pas être conçus à l’extérieur du social ». internationale au cœur des Théories du B- Communication internationale développement et du modernisme
Quoique favorisant la croissance économique, les TIC compromettent la viabilité de nombreux systèmes économiques économiques traditionnels dont notamment ceux des pays du Sud compte
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Cet appel à la coopération internationale a entraîné l’élaboration de politiques de développement prônées et tant promues par l'ONU, la banque mondiale, le G8, ainsi que par les organisations de coopération et de développement. Le recours aux concepts « fracture numérique » et « société de l'information l'information » aurait ainsi permis à ces institutions institutions de recycler les vieux concepts évolutionnistes évolutionnistes et technicistes technicistes des politiques politiques de développement développement et de retrouver élan, légitimité, et même argent. Du moins c’est ce que pensent de nombreux chercheurs du Nord et du Sud dont Marie Thorndal, la socio-économiste indépendante, qui, parlant des organisations internationales affirme qu’elles pratiquent la théorie du « comme si » 8, c’est-àdire « Toujours faire semblant qu'on va régler les problèmes du monde sans s'en donner les moyens. Tenir un discours universel en le validant par des événements enthousiastes et généreux mais sans effet. Faire « comme si » le modèle de développement du Nord était généralisable, généralisable, « comme si » la dette allait être remboursée, « comme si » le rattrapage du Sud était possible, « comme si » la fracture numérique pouvait être comblée. On change de discours, or ce sont les règles du jeu qui doivent être revues. A terme, c'est tout le système du multipartisme qui est en danger et l'ONU décrédibilisée. » En effet, la noti notion on de « sociét sociétéé de l’informati l’information on » et ses corollaire corollairess seraient seraient donc mobilisés mobilisés pour masquer des relations relations de domination. domination. Il convient de noter noter que ce n’est pas à partir des années 90 que les Nations Unies et d’autres acteurs de coopération internationale internationale se
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Dorénavant, Dorénavant, l'hégémonie mondiale se manifeste à travers une triple révoluti r évolution on : diplomatique, diplomatique, militaire et managériale menée par les Etats-Unis. C'est l'apparition des stratégies de « soft power » et de « global information dominance » qui alternent selon les circonstances la diplomatie des canons et la diplomatie des réseaux (la cyberguerre) pour réorienter le monde en fonction de ce qu'on appelle la démocratie de marché. La politique extérieure nationale de Georges Bush dans les années 80 légitimera la diplomatie des réseaux à travers une sorte de droit international international de la propagande : c’est la théorie de l’ingérence, l’ingérence, très présente aujourd’hui dans dans les les rela relati tion onss entr entree Etat Etats, s, mais mais auss aussii dans dans la régu régula lati tion on de la comm commun unic icat atio ionn internationale. Pour Isabelle Pailliart, la communication internationale mettrait ainsi fin à la capacité capacité d’un espace territorial à « gérer ses propres modalités d’expression d’expression ». Dans la mesure où à travers ce processus, et toujours selon cet auteur, « les frontières géographiques nati nation onal ales es se brou brouil ille lent nt » 10, la comm commun unic icat atio ionn donn donnee l’im l’impr pres essi sion on géné généra rale le d’un d’un affaiblissement du pouvoir étatique national. Cette limitation de la souveraineté est « voulue » ou acceptée par les États États à travers de traités, chartes, ou conventions... conventions... Exemple des projets projets de coopération technique en matière de communication (PIDC : Programme international de développement de la communication; Canad : Central african new agencies developpement ) developpement ) et de télécommunications. Missé Missé dans l’un de ses articles 11 rapporte que : « Sous la contrainte de cette
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« La théorie de la modernité est une théorie de la diffusion des innovations à partir d’un centre qui est censé les produire : (…) l’Occident à l’époque moderne. Pour Po ur Eisenstadt Eisenstadt et ses contemporains, le moteur mote ur de de cette diffusion, diffusion, c’est la rationalité scientifique, scientifique, donc universelle, universelle, qui s’impose à des civilisations civilisations particulières particulières fondées s ur d’autres ur d’autres modes de pensée, qualifiés de « pré-scientifiques », « pré-logiques », voire d’« irrationnels »13. La modernisation est ainsi perçue comme le rouleau compresse ur voué ur voué à écraser toutes les civilisations po ur les ur les réduire au modèle de l’Occident industrialisé. ». Cette école de la « modernisation modernisation », encore appelée école du « développement », a vite rencontré sa critique, articulée autour de la référence au concept « d’impérialisme », étendu du politique à l’économique et au culturel : « Le concept d’impérialisme d’impérialisme culturel est celui qui décrit le mieux la somme des processus par lesquels une société est intégrée dans le système moderne mondial et la manière dont sa strate dominante est attirée, poussée, forcée et parfois
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En confrontant ces théories, il apparaît légitime de se focaliser sur la communication internationale dans la « société de l’information » tout en recentrant les questionnements fondamentaux sur le rôle des organisations internationales dans ces rapports hégémoniques Nord/Sud Nord/Sud ayant hérité hérité dans un passé passé récent récent d’une d’une géopolit géopolitique ique de l’inform l’informatio ation, n, d’une d’une histoire des cultures, et de nouvelles lois du marché cachant des conflits d’intérêts et de pouvoir pas forcément évidents.
IIIIII-
Prob Problé léma mati tiqu quee et et obj objec ecti tifs fs de reche recherc rche he A- Problém Problématiq atique ue
Depuis trente ans que se sont ouverts les débats sur le Nouvel Ordre Mondial de l’Information, l’Information, la communication communication internationale internationale a semblé stagner, du moins au niveau du sens de circulation de l’information, bien que celle-ci puisse être considérée comme finalement
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hégémoniques des maîtres du monde. Il serait encore plus intéressant et c’est là l’une des particularités de notre travail, de nous questionner sur les probables pressions et influences que subirait l’UNESCO. Rappelons que les maîtres du jeu que sont les superpuissances du Nord n’hésitent pas pour imposer leurs propres intérêts à «discipliner» les organisations intergouvernementales en les menaçant d’un retrait (comme cela a été le cas pour les EtatsUnis et la Grande Bretagne qui se sont retirés de l'UNESCO pendant plus de 15 ans), et en exerçant, à l’encontre de certains récalcitrants, la politique de la carotte et du bâton. « L’insu L’insubor bordi dinat natio ion» n» et l’att l’attit itude ude hosti hostile le à l’éga l’égard rd des inté intérêt rêtss occid occident entaux aux ne manquent pas de générer de nouvelles sanctions, sanctions, telles l’exclusion l’exclusion de la clause de la nation la plus favorisée, ou des restrictions à l’exportation. Les actions des organisations internationales ou intergouvernementales intergouvernementales seraient donc soutenues par certains pays industrialisés industrialisés qui sont les pays pays (donateur (donateurs) s) finança finançant nt souvent souvent les poli politiq tiques ues de lutt luttee contre contre la fracture fracture numérique numérique
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Finalement, l’appropriation ou la réappropriation des TIC par les pays africains ne devra devrait it-el -elle le pas de ce fait fait être être repens repensée ée à un nivea niveauu plu plutôt tôt natio national nal,, régio régional nal et local local qu’inter qu’internati national onal ? Mais les Etats Etats africain africainss ont-ils ont-ils des budgets budgets suffisa suffisants nts pour une autoautoappropriation de ces TIC ? Sont-ils prêts à prendre en main leur destin numérique ? Avant le développement économique, à quand d’abord l’indépendance numérique des pays africains les moins avancés en communication ? B- Objec Objecti tifs fs
Notre premier objectif à travers ce travail est de proposer une autre lecture de l’évolution de la société de l’information en essayant de montrer que le discours sur la “ fracture numérique ” entre pays du nord et pays du sud n’est pas une nouveauté en soi, mais une croyance récurrente récurrente soutenue par les organisation organisationss internationales. internationales. C’est une analyse analyse rétrospective rétrospective du discours sur l’informatisati l’informatisation on ou l’informationnalisati l’informationnalisation on (Bernard Miège)
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Chapitre 2 : Méthodologie de la recherche I-
Questions et hypothèses de de recherche
Voici un ensemble ensemble de questionnements questionnements et de suppositions suppositions suscités aussi bien bien par des const constata atati tions ons empir empiriqu iques es que par par des discou discours rs théor théoriqu iques es et qui doi doiven ventt faire faire obj objet et de vérification à travers les tâtonnements de notre recherche :
L’UNESCO subirait des influences et des pressions dans l’élaboration de ses
stratégies et dans la réalisation de ses programmes d’action en faveur du développement de la communication. Depuis l’échec du NOMIC et le départ d’ Amadou Mahtar M’bow à la tête de l’institution, celle-ci ne s’est-elle pas pliée aux exigences des bailleurs de fonds et des grands financiers que constituent les Etats-Unis et les pays industrialisés ?
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L’UNESCO ne pourrait à elle seule, à travers ses missions, être à la hauteur
du rééquilibrage des rapports Nord/Sud. L’UIT réussirait-il mieux ? Le choix de l’UIT et de l’OMC pour l’organisation du SMSI devrait-il évoquer l’idée d’une certaine punition infligée à l’UNESCO qui, sortant de ses prérogatives, compromet les intérêts des Etats-Unis et de certains pays industrialisés ?
L’UNESCO, à travers son discours déterministe et déterminé de promotion
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III-
Méthodes de recueil des données
Après la délimitation de notre champ problématique à travers l’exploration de la littérature sur les postures de déterminismes technologique et social, nous présentons la démarche méthodologique appropriée pour la vérification de nos hypothèses et la réalisation des objectifs de notre recherche. A-
lation lation d’étu d’étude de
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du SMSI. Nous Nous remont remontons ons l’éche l’échell llee du temps temps pour pour situer situer not notre re travai travaill par rappor rapportt au conte contexte xte historique du rapport McBride tout en parcourant au préalable une bibliographie bibliographie sélective des réflexions menées depuis l’époque. Analy Analyser ser les phénom phénomène èness de déséq déséqui uili libre bre de l’acc l’accès ès à l’inf l’inform ormati ation on et de fractu fracture re numériq numérique ue pour situer situer les responsa responsabili bilités tés tout tout en se référant référant à un contexte contexte histor historique ique de
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Deuxième partie : L’Afrique dans la société globale de l’information Chapitre 1 : Du rapport McBride à la société de l’Information
I-
L’information à sens unique et la contestation des pays du Sud
Une analyse sémantique approfondie du concept d’information à sens unique nous révèle
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En effet, Annie Chéneau-Loquay remarque que les causes premières de la circulation à
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La Conférence Générale de l’UNESCO organisée à Nairobi (Au Kenya) en Novembre
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Et en réalité, dans la décennie 70-80, l’UNESCO, avec à sa tête Amadou Mahtar M’Bow,
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Nous sommes revenus sur cette partie sombre mais très importante de l’histoire de
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A un premier niveau niveau d’analyse nous nous arrêtons arrêtons sur le constat que que ce rapport publié publié
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Heureusement qu’il y a aujourd’hui un regain de confiance des donateurs ayant amené le Bureau du Programme international pour le développement de la communication (PIDC) à décider de financer 74 projets de développement des médias (dont 31 concernent l’Afrique) dans 59 pays en développement, lors de sa 51ème réunion annuelle (du 27 au 29 mars 2007 au Siège de l’UNESCO). Les pays donateurs qui soutiennent le PIDC ont augmenté de manière significative significative leur contribution financière en 2006, ce qui a permis au programme de recueillir cette année près de 2,7 millions de dollars à consacrer à des projets de développement des médias. Les principaux donateurs ont été le Danemark (445 000 dollars en 2006), l’Espagne (531 000 dollars en 2006), les Etats-Unis (305 000 dollars en 2006), la Finlande (250 000 dollars en 2006), la Norvège (654 000 dollars sur deux ans) et la Suisse (501 000 dollars sur trois ans). La Finlande et la la Norvège ont doublé leur leur assistance assistance financière au PIDC, tandis tandis que la contribution des Etats-Unis a été multipliée par cinq et celle de l’Espagne par dix. Nonobstant ce regain d’intérêt des pays donateurs, les espoirs sont beaucoup plus tournés aujourd’hui aujourd’hui vers le Fonds de Solidarité Solidarité Numérique. Numérique. Le FSN réussira-t-il là là où le PIDC PIDC semble semble être être tom tombé bé en panne panne sèche sèche (par (par manqu manquee de carbu carburan rantt finan financie cier r nécessaire nécessaire pour conduire ses nombreux projets jusqu’à terme) ? Ou l’histoire l’histoire n’est-elle qu’un éternel recommencement et que la solidarité numérique est juste l’invention d’un nouveau concept pour entretenir les imaginaires sociaux de la technique en Afrique et ressusciter ressusciter les espoirs des actions actions entreprises entreprises dans le cadre du PIDC ?
III-
Les autres institutions internationales : UIT, OMC, PNUD, OIF, BM…
L’UNESCO s’appuie dans son combat contre la fracture numérique sur un large éventail éventail de partenaires du système des Nations Unies (PNUD, UIT, OMPI et la Banque mondi mo ndiale ale). ). Il est égale égalemen mentt assi assisté sté par d’aut d’autres res organ organisa isati tions ons inte interna rnati tiona onales les et régionales régionales (telles que l’Union européenne), européenne), des ONG et communautés professionnelles professionnelles actives dans ses domaines de compétence et bien sûr le secteur privé. Nous ne nous intéresserons ici de façon brève qu’à quelques organismes internationaux dont le rôle devient de plus en plus déterminant en terme de contribution contribution financière par rapport aux
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En effet, les institutions internationales et régionales jouent pour la plupart un rôle rôle clé clé lors lorsqu qu'i'ill s'ag s'agit it d'in d'inté tégr grer er l'ut l'util ilis isat atio ionn des des TIC TIC dans dans le proc proces essu suss de développement et de mettre à disposition les ressources nécessaires pour édifier la société de l'information et pour évaluer les progrès réalisés. Les Nations Unies, en particulier, constituent une arène intergouvernementale aidant à la prise de décision concertée au niveau niveau mondial. Elles représentent représentent des plateformes plateformes multi-acteurs basées sur le dialogue. Elles favorisent la réflexion, la prise de décision et l’action autour de problèmes globaux majeurs qui ne peuvent trouver des solutions qu’à travers une véritable concertation internationale. De plus en plus, elles rassemblent les différents acteurs de la société autour d’une même table de négociation, négociation, comme ce fut le cas lors du Sommet Mondial sur la Société de l’Information (SMSI, Genève – Tunis). Mais face face au débat débat sur sur le finan financem cement ent des mesur mesures es visan visantt à rédui réduire re la fract fracture ure numé numéri riqu que, e, l’Or l’Orga gani nisa sati tion on Inte Intern rnat atio iona nale le de la Fran Franco coph phon onie ie (OIF (OIF)) est est la prem premiè ière re organisation internationale à avoir reconnu officiellement le principe de solidarité numérique et à avoir contribué financièrement à la dotation initiale du Fonds de Solidarité Numérique (FSN). Certains observateurs pourraient expliquer cette prompte diligence de l’Organisation Internationale Internationale de la Francophonie Francophonie par le fait qu’il a à sa tête le Président Abdou Diouf, ancien Chef d’Etat du Sénégal qui a transmis le pouvoir à Maître Abdoulaye Wade, actuel président du Sénégal et initiateur initiateur du FSN. Toujours est-il que l’OIF l’OIF n’est pas reconnue par les Nations Nations Unies comme le chef de file des institutions institutions internationales pour l’édification l’édification de la société de l’information. Ce privilège revient plutôt à l’Union Internationale des Télécommunications (UIT) dont « Les compétences fondamentales dans le domaine des TIC - assistance pour réduire la fracture numérique, coopération internationale internationale et régionale, gestion du spectre des fréquences fréquences radioélectriques, élaboration de normes et diffusion de l'information - sont déterminantes pour l'édification de la société de l'information. » Le choix de l’UIT comme institution onusienne orga organi nisa satr tric icee du SMSI SMSI,, au détr détrim imen entt de l’UN l’UNES ESCO CO trad tradui uitt la tend tendan ance ce «tec «techn hnic icooéconomique» de la priorité stratégique pour les bailleurs de fonds états-uniens d’accélérer la diffusion des réseaux au Sud. L’intégration des TIC dans toutes sociétés est la priorité affi affich chée ée aux aux dépe dépens ns de son son déve dévelo lopp ppem emen entt cult cultur urel el et inte intell llec ectu tuel el C’es C’estt la volo volont ntéé
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C’est C’est la raison raison pour laquelle, laquelle, nous nous allons allons nous attarder attarder particul particulière ièrement ment sur cette cette agence agence spécialisée des Nations Unies en charge du secteur et du domaine des télécommunications. Créée depuis 1865, l’UIT, avec ses 189 Etats membres et plus de 676 opérateurs du secteur, est selon le terme rme empl employ oyéé par Jean-L an-Loouis Fu Fulllsac sack 50 « la vieille dame des télécom télécommuni municati cations ons ». Elle Elle a pour mission mission principale principale de favoriser favoriser le développ développemen ementt et l’extension des réseaux et services de communication et des TIC dans le monde entier. D’où son projet présenté au SMSI et intitulé «Connecter le monde» : un projet qui vise à connecter 800.00 800.0000 vil villa lage gess à l’hor l’horiz izon on 2015. 2015. Mais Mais ce projet projet ne saurait saurait pour l’heur l’heuree qu’êt qu’être re une incant antation
réc récurre urrent ntee
et
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gra grande nde
créd rédibil bilité.
L’Uni ’Unioon
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des
Télécommunications a également signé un mémorandum d’accord avec la société Oracle et avec Cisco Cisco Systems Systems en vue de créer cinquante cinquante centres centres de formation formation dans le monde. monde. Mais l’UIT l’UIT reconn reconnaî aîtt que ses ambi ambitio tions ns ne suffi suffisen sentt pas pas pour pour releve releverr le défi défi de la fract fracture ure numérique. L’UIT lance alors un appel à d’autres organisations pour appuyer ses actions : « Les efforts déployés en vue d’utiliser ces technologies pour réduire la fracture numérique, ne relèvent plus du domaine réservé de l’UIT » 51. Cet appel n’est pas tombé dans des oreilles de sourd puisque très tôt, la Banque mondiale a pris de multiples initiatives, dont son célèbre Programme d’information pour le développement développement (InfoDev). InfoDev vise notamment la diffusion des conseils sur la politique politique à suivre en matière d’utilisation des TIC pour le développement et sur la conduite à tenir à cet égard. Le Programme des Nations Unies pour le Développement (PNUD) n’est pas en marge de cette forte mobilisation mobilisation internationale autour des inégalités inégalités socio-numériques de la planète. Avec son réseau unique 132 bureaux et son équipe de conseillers spécialisés régionaux et mondiaux, le PNUD est en bonne position pour promouvoir l’utilisation à grande échelle des TIC au service du développement grâce à sa vaste expérience dans ce domaine, notamment les projets et programmes de TIC au service du développement : « Certes, il est indéniable que nombre des merveilles technologiques technologiques qui fascinent le Nord ne sont d’aucune utilité pour le Sud. Il n’en demeure pas moins que les activités de recherche et développement ciblant des problèmes qui touchent plus spécifiquement les pauvres — de la lutte contre les maladies à 50 Membre du Conseil d’administration d’administration de CSDPTT. CSDPTT. Directeur-adjoint honoraire de de France Télécom, Télécom, ancien
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l’enseignement à distance — prouvent immanquablement que, loin de se contenter de venir couronner le développement, la technologie en est un instrument indispensable. »
52
En out outre, re, à la demande demande du G8, le PNUD PNUD réflé réfléchi chitt avec avec la Banque Banque mondia mondiale le aux moyens de réduire la fracture numérique en encourageant des partenariats entre les secteurs privés et publics. Disposant d’un Fonds d’affectation thématique spéciale TIC, le PNUD a entr entrep epri riss d´ai d´aide derr les les pay pays d´Af d´Afri riqu quee en comm commen ença çant nt par par la créa créati tion on de mi mill llie iers rs de "cybercafés". Le rôle du PNUD est, avant tout, celui d´un catalyseur de projets plutôt que d ´investisseur. Le PNUD a par ailleurs des contacts avec des grandes entreprises occidentales du secteur dont par exemple la société américaine Hewlett Packard 53 qui a annoncé son intention d´investir pour un milliard de dollars, de manière non lucrative, dans les pays en développement sur un projet d´équipement en site Internet que piloteront des fondations privées. Il ne serait pas superflu de signaler que la plupart des organismes des Nations Unies sont concernés par les technologies, soit parce qu’ils les utilisent, soit parce qu’elles ont une incidence sur le contenu et l’exécution des programmes de coopération technique. C’est d’ailleurs pour cette raison que la Conférence des Nations Unies sur le commerce et le développement développement (CNUCED), grâce à son Programme relatif aux Pôles commerciaux, cherche à encourager les petites entreprises des pays en développement à se lancer dans le commerce électronique afin de s’intégrer aux marchés internationaux et aux filières de plus-value. Un autre autre consta constatt imp import ortant ant au nivea niveauu de tous tous ces ces effort effortss déplo déployé yéss par les les organi organisat satio ions ns inte interna rnati tiona onale less est celu celuii du manqu manquee de coordi coordinat natio ionn entre entre ces projet projets. s. Cette Cette pléth pléthore ore d’in d’init itia iati tive vess témo témoig igne ne cert certes es d’un d’unee pris prisee de cons consci cien ence ce réce récent ntee de la comm commun unau auté té internationale sur la question des fractures. Mais on en sait peu sur l’efficacité réelle de ces programmes et projets qui, profitant souvent des frontières poreuses de la communication inte interna rnati tiona onale le,, en vienne viennent nt même même à concu concurre rrence ncerr les init initia iativ tives es local locales es,, les les poli politiq tiques ues publiques en défiant ainsi la souveraineté nationale des pays censés bénéficier de ces projets.
52 PNUD, PNUD, Rappo Rapport rt mondia mondiall sur le dévelo développe ppemen mentt humain humain : Mettre les nouvelles nouvelles
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Chapitre 2 : Communication internationale et souveraineté nationale : Les limites des organisations internationales
I-
Les enjeux géopolitiques de la régulation de la communication internationale
Armand Mattelart 54 nous rappelle que :« C’est à l’Unesco qu’à l’occasion du débat sur le Nouvel ordre mondial de l’information et de la communication (NOMIC) et plus tard au Gatt qu’il apparaît que l’autodétermination l’autodétermination dans le champ de l’information l’information et de la communication communication est imbriquée avec l’autodétermination dans les domaines politique, social, économique et culturel, et que la souveraineté nationale, l’identité culturelle, l’économie nationale et même la sécurité nationale des pays dits en développement sont menacés par la communication internationale. » Les TIC ont ainsi profondément profondément recomposé recomposé le monde depuis depuis que la chute du mur de Berlin a consacré de nouvelles doctrines militaires et diplomatiques basées sur la maîtrise de l’information, l’information, ou la information dominance, dominance , socle de nouvelles façons de faire la guerre et la paix, d’exporter le modèle de la démocratie de marché. La mondialisation ou globalisation globalisation de l’écono l’économie mie et des échanges échanges a été ensuite ensuite accéléré accéléréee par les processu processuss de dérégulat dérégulation, ion, de libéralisation et de privatisation orchestrés par les organisations intergouvernementales avec le soutien des politiques d'aide au développement des pays industrialisés. C’est cet environnement qui selon, Ignacio Ramonet, nous conduit à une géopolitique du chaos, inhérente à la révolution de l’informatique et de la communication ayant entraîné l’explo l’explosion sion des marchés marchés financie financiers rs et des réseaux réseaux d’informa d’informatio tionn : « La transmis transmission sion de données à la vitesse de la lumière (300 000 kilomètres par seconde) ; la numérisation des textes, des images et des sons ; le recours, devenu banal, aux satellites de télécommunications ; la révolution de la téléphonie, la généralisation de l’informatique dans la plupart des secteurs de la production et des services ; la miniaturisation des ordinateurs et leur mise en réseau sur Internet à l’échelle planétaire ont, peu à peu, chambardé l’ordre du monde » 55. La communication, au cœur de ce « système hégémonique instable et conflictuel alternant phases de stabilités, de tensions et d’affrontements d’affrontements » 56, devient alors un enjeu dont la régulation régulation est l’objet de grands débats car dessinant dessinant une cartographie cartographie mondiale des rapports de richesse et de puissance.
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Les autoro autorout utes es de l’inf l’inform ormati ation on globa globale less annonc annoncées ées en 1994 1994 à Bueno Buenoss Aires Aires à l’occasion d’une conférence générale sur le développement et les télécommunications sous les auspices de l’UIT, ont conduit en 1995 à la « société globale de l’information », appellation adoptée à Bruxelles par le G7 des pays les plus industrialisés. Cette société globale est prése présenté ntéee par les parti partisan sanss du free flow flow comme comme assise assise d’un Nouve Nouvell ordre ordre mo mondi ndial al de l’information (NOMI) qui était rejeté quelques décennies auparavant par les mêmes acteurs. Un balbutiement de l’histoire avec peut-être un nouveau départ : celui d’une ‘‘société de l’information’’ l’information’’ érigée en véritable enjeu géopolitique. Solveig Godeluck 57 écrit à cet effet que « Le réseau (...) se déploie autour d'un hypercentre hypercentre américain, presque en étoile, alors que la vertu supposée d'Internet est justement sa décentralisation ». C’est là que réside la vraie fracture numérique. Une fracture apparemment masquée par la volonté des grands pays, déten détente teurs urs de la techn technolo ologie gie et produc producte teurs urs de conte contenus nus.. Derriè Derrière re ce masqu masquee de bon samaritain, les pays industrialisés imposent, ou plutôt diffusent leurs normes et leur pouvoir. Dans cette logique, l’invocation de la souveraineté nationale serait, quant à elle, un moyen pour certains régimes autoritaires des pays du Sud de clamer leur exaspération face à la menace d’une technologie qui les contourne. L’UNESCO, dans sa mission de rééquilibrage de la circulation de l’information, a la possibilité de profiter du terrain balisé par la subversion numé numéri riqu quee des des terri territo toir ires es pour pour tran transp sper erce cerr le syst systèm èmee info inform rmat atio ionn nnel el des des nati nation onss indépendantes et pénétrer dans leurs politiques intérieures publiques. N’y aurait-il pas des li limi mite tess contra contraig ignan nantt parfoi parfoiss l’UNE l’UNESCO SCO à reste resterr dans dans un cadre cadre bien bien circon circonscr scrit it de ses compétences ? Ne se heurte-t-il pas à des résistances idéologiques locales ou régionales ?
IIII-
Les Les limi limite tess de l’U l’UNE NESC SCO O dans dans sa sa lutt luttee cont contre re la la frac fractu ture re num numér ériq ique ue
L’UNESCO situe la lutte pour l’accès universel au cyberespace dans le cadre d’une “
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mises à la disposition du public des technologies de l'information et de communication. Le terme “communautaire” se réfère à la fois à la propriété de la communauté et à l'accès de la communauté au centre multimédia. Aujourd’hui, on parle de plus en plus de télécentres communautaires polyvalents (TCP), qui sont des structures offrant une gamme des services dans différents domaines (éducation/formation aux affaires, de la santé au gouvernement local local). ). Une étude étude récent récentee pour pour la Banqu Banquee mo mondi ndial ale, e, sur sur les les pol polit itiqu iques es concer concernan nantt les les télécommunications, remet tout de même en cause la rentabilité de ces télécentres dont le fonctionnement est financé par des bailleurs de fonds externes. Les télécentres, selon l’étude, ne peuvent pas être rentables car ils sont conçus davantage en fonction d’une vision des bailleurs de fonds qu’en fonction de ce que les communautés sont réellement capables d’assumer. D’ailleurs le premier problème et l’un des plus cruciaux qui se posent au niveau de ces télécentres et face auxquels l’UNESCO reste indifférent pour des raisons d’insuffisance budgétaire est bien le défaut de maintenance. C’est un problème essentiellement lié au vieillissement du matériel qui est accéléré compte tenu des dures conditions climatiques. Etant donné le coût élevé de l’électricité, rares son en effet les télécentres qui sont climatisés. Ou soit soit,, même même quand quand le budget budget des factu factures res élec électri triqu ques es est allo alloué ué par par les les organi organisat satio ions ns internationales, les gérants desdits télécentres détournent ces ressources financières et se sentiraient contraints de couper la climatisation pour ne pas avoir à pays de leurs propres poches les factures élevées. On ajoute à ces problèmes de conditionnement des appareils et des des techno technolog logie ies, s, celui celui du manqu manquee de perso personne nnell quali qualifi fiéé pour pour assure assurerr la maint maintena enance nce informatique même des ordinateurs et fichiers dans le cas des télécentres. Mais l’UNESCO l’UNESCO essaie essaie surtou surtoutt dans dans ces actio actions ns d’int d’intégr égrer er tou toutes tes les les dim dimen ensio sions ns sociocu socioculture lturelles lles afin de contribuer contribuer à la réduction réduction de la fracture fracture numérique numérique en plaçant plaçant la personne humaine au centre des objectifs de développement. C’est d’ailleurs l’importante contribution contribution de l’institution l’institution à la préparation préparation du SMSI qui se résume dans les quatre points points
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L’UNESCO participe profondément sur la base de ces stratégies à la formulation de politiques politiques au niveau national et réalise des projets pilotes pour mieux explorer les possibilités d’action multisectorielle sur le terrain, analyser les difficultés réelles, les problèmes les plus urgents et tout ceci afin de proposer des voies de solutions suivant les différents contextes socioculturels. Cependant, l’UNESCO rencontre tout de même dans son combat pour la réduction de la fracture numérique en Afrique des obstacles de natures diverses dont certains ont déjà été évoqués évoqués au cours cours de ce travail travail.. Nous citons entre autres autres : le problème problème des infrastr infrastructu uctures res inadaptées, autant pour les sources d’énergie que pour les équipements informatiques, l’état embryonnaire embryonnaire des réseaux de télécommunication télécommunication et de diffusion de masse ; l’insuffisance des ressou ressource rcess finan financiè cières res;; l’ana l’analph lphabé abéti tisme sme persis persista tant nt ; l’abs l’absenc encee d’un d’un enviro environne nneme ment nt scientifique apte à accueillir ces technologies ; le manque de formation à l’utilisation des TIC ; la maintenance ou l’assistance l’assistance aléatoire ; les contenus inadaptés inadaptés voire inutilisables inutilisables pour des raisons linguistiques ou culturelles. Par ailleurs, l’UNESCO rencontre également des résistances de type idéologique et des réticences relevant de l’ordre de la technophobie. Notons que compte tenu de l’effet promotionnel des discours sur les TIC, il y a plus de simpl simples es rétice réticenc nces es techn technoph ophob obes es que de vérit véritabl ables es résist résistanc ances es idéolo idéologiq giques ues tradui traduisa sant nt éventuellement le refus des populations africaines (fortement conservatrices) à recevoir ces techn technolo ologie giess pour pour des motifs motifs de préser préservat vatio ionn de leur leur ident identit itéé cultu culturel relle le..
Le Présid Présiden entt
Abdou Abdoulay layee Wade Wade se mo montr ntrait ait d’ail d’aille leurs urs plu plutôt tôt rassur rassurant ant en affirm affirmant ant que : « l’ide l’ident ntité ité culturelle ne signifie pas que je ne vais pas prendre l’avion parce que mes ancêtres ne l’ont pas inventé. Il est certain que lorsque l’on utilise ces technologies au niveau populaire, le peuple s’y exprime et y crée selon sa culture. Apprenez à des enfants à dessiner avec un ordinateur, l’enfant du Sénégal ne dessinera pas comme un petit Norvégien. C’est un moyen
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africains). L’émetteur apporte la technologie (message) vers les pays africains (destinataires) sans tenir compte du bruit généré par les interférences culturelles du cadre de réception de la technologie. Ici, seul le canal importe réellement, la production du sens n’est pas de mise. L’information est ainsi coupée de la culture et de la mémoire. Et ceci pourrait être aussi une autre justification de l’attribution de l’organisation du SMSI à l’UIT, qui est un organisme technique des Nations Unies au détriment de l’UNESCO qui est la mémoire intellectuelle et culturelle de la communauté internationale. Ce raisonnement sémio-épistémologique permet de comprendre que l’OMC traite la culture comme un « service marchand » à l’égal des autres à l’heure même où la diversité culturelle est au cœur des débats.
IIIIII-
Plaido Pla idoyer yer pour pour une une réappr réappropr opriat iation ion cultur culturell ellee des TIC en Afri Afrique que
L’ancien Président français, François Mitterand, déclarait : « Il serait désastreux d’aider à la généralisation d’un modèle culturel unique. Ce que les régimes totalitaires, finalement, n’ont pas réussi à faire, les lois de l’argent alliées aux forces des techniques vont-elles y parvenir ? » 58. Cette question posée depuis 1993 reste toujours d’actualité et nous fait penser que la représentation idéologique 59 de l’univers symbolique des techniciens, pour ne pas dire des technocrates des TIC, serait de trop oublier les différences des cultures. Aussi une réelle appropriation culturelle des TIC en Afrique s’avère-t-elle nécessaire pour nous rappeler qu’il n’y a de richesses que de cultures. Pour affranchissant l’esprit humain John Perry Barlow, dans sa Déclaration d'indépendance du cyberspace, réclame une indépendance de la liberté de penser, de cliquer et de surfer dans un univers pluriculturel. « Gouvernements du monde industrialisé, géants fatigués de chair et d'acier, je viens du cyberspace, le nouveau domicile de l'esprit. Vous n'avez aucune souveraineté sur le territoire où nous nous assemblons. Nous n'avons pas de gouvernement élu, et il est peu probable que nous en ayons un jour : je m'adresse donc à vous avec la seule autorité que m'accorde et que s'accorde la liberté elle-
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hégémonie hégémonie qui réduira le monde à un seul modèle de pensée : l’hégémonie culturelle. culturelle. Comme l’ écrit écrit l’ l’ administrateur administrateur du PNUD, M. Malloch Brown, dans la préface au rapport sur le développement humain (2004), « si « si l’on veut que notre monde atteigne les objectifs de développement du millénaire et finalement éradique la pauvreté, il doit commencer par relever victorieusement le défi de savoir construire des sociétés intégratrices, qui respectent les diversités diversités culturelles culturelles ». Pourquoi Pourquoi un plaido plaidoyer yer pour la diversi diversité té culture culturelle lle 60 ? Tout simplement parce que comme nous l’avons vu tout le long de ce travail, le néo-libéralisme drainé par l’hégémonie économique affirmée de l’hyperpuissance l’hyperpuissance américaine innerve par une hypoc hypocris risie ie soci social alee de solida solidarit ritéé tou toute tess les les acti actions ons glo global balisa isant ntes es d’un d’un rééqui rééquili libra brage ge des des échanges à travers le monde. Il ne s’agit pas dans la présente démarche d’essentialiser en prescrivant le type de discours à adopter ou en indiquant la voie à prendre. Chaque peuple doit pouvoir trouver la voie qui est la sienne non pas en se détachant de l’héritage de l’histoire, mais en découplant le passé du présent, et en portant un regard nouveau vers l’Autre. Avec ce regard nouveau porté sur l’autre, l’on ne saurait s’aligner ni derrière les fervents détracteurs de l’occidentalisation l’occidentalisation du monde au risque de demeurer africanophiles, africanophiles, ni derrière les militants de la décroissance, au risque d’être traités d’anti-développementistes. Et c’est en cela que ce plaidoyer va plutôt en faveur de l’écoute et de la rencontre des cultures en faisant le pont entre ces différentes positions fortement ethnocentristes. De ce fait, la « diversité » ne devrait pas être perçue comme la promotion d’une « disparité » contre l’« homogénéité » ou la « singularité ». Aujourd’hui, la diversité culturelle remplace l’exception culturelle et vise à garantir le traitement particulier des biens et des services culturels culturels par le biais de mesures nationales nationales ou internationales. internationales. Synonyme de dialogue et de valeurs partagées, cette notion pourrait être utilisée comme base d’une réappropriation endogène des TIC par les pays africains. D’où le paradigme de glocalization et son fameux
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La question reste posée et pourrait faire objet d’une étude approfondie à partir d’une démarche ethnométhodologique pour la compréhension des usages des TIC par l’observation de certaines populations africaines en situation de pratiques. La certitude que nous avons à notre niveau est que l’e-inclusion ne saurait se faire sans une démarche dans laquelle les populations populations concernées prendraient une part active en choisissant choisissant les technologies technologies dont ils ont besoin et en les introduisant dans leur espace culturel. Loin de viser des simples transferts, les démarches d’e-inclusion, devraient aider les populations en marge de la “société de l’information” à acquérir les clés d’accès (techniques, économiques, culturelles, etc.) leur permettant de s’insérer de façon dynamique dans les systèmes systèmes de communication communication mondialisés. L’initiation L’initiation à la création de logiciels, logiciels, la maîtrise des logiciels existants, l’apprentissage de la programmation, la production des TIC à un niveau local, voilà autant de variables du processus d’appropriation qui, à notre avis, ne devrait plus appréhender les usages sous le seul angle des consommateurs ou récepteurs passifs des technologies que sont jusque là les pays africains. Pourr Alain Pou Alain Kiyind Kiyindou, ou, il s’agit s’agit « de promo promouvo uvoir ir le proces processus sus par leque lequell les les gens gens deviennent les principaux acteurs de leur propre développement». « Le mot développement, écrit justement Bertrand Cabedoche 61 en conclusion de son livre, Les Chrétiens et le Tiers-
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CONCLUSION Des Des analy analyses ses faite faitess dans dans les les chapi chapitre tress précéd précédent entss émerge émerge une série série de const constat atss concernant en premier lieu le type et la nature des discours et théories développées sur les TIC aussi bien par des auteurs en SIC que par des organisations organisations internationales ; en deuxième lieu les liens entre le sous-développement de l’Afrique et le vécu de la fracture numérique ; ensuite le bilan du SMSI, et enfin les enjeux de la solidarité numérique à travers l’engagement de l’UNESCO dans la lutte contre la fracture numérique en Afrique. Par rapport aux discours sur les TIC, nous avons pu noter qu’ils se fondent soit sur la théorie du déterminisme technologique, soit sur celle du déterminisme social, ou soit encore qu’ils se positionnent au milieu de ces deux théories sous un paradigme interactionniste interactionniste entre sphère sociale et sphère technique qualifié par certains de déterminisme socio-technique. L’aspect politisé de ces discours sur la fracture numérique a été dévoilé par des exemples concrets concrets de déclarat déclarations ions de certains certains dirigean dirigeants ts africai africains. ns. Ces déclarat déclarations ions prouvent prouvent que la finalité de ces discours est que les États africains soutiennent la demande en matière de TIC dans un contexte caractérisé par la libéralisation et l’internationalisation des marchés de télécom télécommuni municati cations. ons. Il s’agit s’agit là des discours discours « prospect prospectifs ifs ou préfigura préfiguratif tifss » (Jean (Jean Guy Lacroix 63), à finalité idéologique et politique, et ayant ayant pour but de convaincre la population de
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L’UNESCO alterne ces trois types de discours selon les éventuelles pressions et infl influe uenc nces es qu’i qu’ill subi subira rait it (de (de la part part des des Nati Nation onss Unie Unies, s, des des bail baille leur urss de fond fonds, s, des des multinationales privées,….) dans le cadre de la réalisation de ses programmes d’action en faveur du développement de la communication sur le plan international. Ceci confirme partiellement partiellement notre hypothèse selon laquelle l’UNESCO à travers son discours déterministe et promo promoti tionn onnel el des des TIC en Afriq Afrique, ue, contri contribue buerai raitt à l’in l’insta staura uratio tionn d’une d’une bureau bureaucra crati tiee supranationale supranationale qui perturbe le libre jeu du commerce mondial ( ultralibéralisme ou libéralisme libéralisme dérégulateur) en défaveur des pays africains. Mais l’organisation a pris actuellement à cœur ces dernières années le combat pour la diversité culturelle. Ce qui sans directement infirmer notre déduction prolonge tout au moins le délai de vérification de l’hypothèse susmentionnée. Au-d Au-del elàà des des disc discou ours rs parf parfoi oiss tend tendan anci cieu euxx et sect sector orie iels ls 64 des des organi organisat satio ions ns internationales, internationales, nos réflexions développées sur les conséquences conséquences de l’échec du NOMIC après l’étouffement du rapport McBride nous ont amené à vérifier les liens de causalité sous-tendant la relation entre sous-développement et fracture numérique. Il nous a été donné de démontrer ici que les statistiques émises par certaines organisations internationales ne reflètent pas réellement réelleme nt le vécu de la fracture numérique en Afrique. Ces statisti statistiques ques s’inscrivent dans une logique technico-marchande qui réduit la fracture au manque d’équipement en justifiant par là-même la nécessité de diffuser les technologies et d’équiper en matériel informatique et de
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internationales : facture géographique, énergétique, technologique, linguistique, éducative et culturelle, culturelle, mais surtout sociale et économique.» Et cette conclusion est valable à nos analyses sur les réalités de la fracture numérique quoique nous nous accordons avec Annie ChéneauLoquay sur le fait que « l’emploi de cette notion reflète la persistance d’une vision linéaire et déterministe du progrès qui, du courant cybernétique des années quarante avec Wiener à Castels aujourd’hui, et malgré les graves échecs de la « nouvelle économie », voit toujours dans la réduction de cette fracture la voie royale vers le développement et la réduction de la pauvreté66 ». On ne devrait pas, en effet, oublier que tout le monde ne peut pas se développer partout au même rythme. Ainsi, « en mettant l’accent sur les inégalités et sur les retards des pays pauvres, on occulte le fait que tout développement est par essence inégalitaire». C’est d’ailleurs sur cette idée réductrice de l’universalité d’accès au savoir comme édification mythique 67 d’une d’une « socié société té de l’in l’infor format mation ion » plus plus égali égalitai taire re et plein plein d’oppo d’opportu rtuni nités tés de développement pour les pays du Sud que s’est fondée l’organisation du SMSI de Genève et de Tunis. Un sommet dont le bilan s’avère mitigé dans l’ensemble, mais assez positif sur le plan organisationnel selon le point de vue des observateurs présents. La participation de la société civile civile est reconnue reconnue comme une original originalité. ité. Mais en réalité, réalité, la société société civile était était mise en vedette au moment où dans l’ombre, les représentants du secteur privé (pour la grande majorité des Américains) influençaient les débats et l’orientaient en tissant les ficelles en arrière plan. Car dans le nouveau contexte d’interdépendance globale et selon la « nouvelle
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La solidarité numérique, nous l’avons vu, est un projet porteur d’espoir et le premier résultat concret du SMSI. Mais face à l’indifférence des superpuissances, le secteur privé s’accapare de ce concept et y investit le plus. Ce qui dénote une nouvelle fois d’enjeux économiques prioritaires de pénétration des marchés au détriment d’un véritable esprit de collaboration Nord-Sud. Un constat qui soulève la tendance d’une certaine dépendance technologique accentuée accentuée par cette solidarité censée faciliter l’intégration l’intégration des pays africains dans la « société de l’in l’info form rmat atio ionn ». La soli solida dari rité té numé numéri riqu quee enve envers rs l’Af l’Afri riqu quee pour pourra rait it bien bien être être une une équivalence de « la politique de la main constamment tendue » par les pays africains. Le processus d’e-inclusion d’e-inclusion vient à peine d’être lancé comme palliatif à la fracture numérique que nous nous nous interrogeons interrogeons sur les véritables véritables enjeux enjeux de cette société société inclusive inclusive et sur le sort réservé à la solidarité numérique. Une chose est certaine : les actions menées par l’UNESCO pour le développement développement de la communication internationale, internationale, notamment l’installation l’installation au Mali, au Béni Bénin, n, au Burk Burkin ina, a, au Séné Sénéga gall et en Côte Côte d’Iv d’Ivoi oire re… … des des « Cent Centre ress Mult Multim iméd édia ia Communautaires », ainsi que l’engagement de l’Organisation à travers le PIDC se révèlent être très insuffisantes pour la réduction de la fracture numérique. La plupart de ces actions et de ces projets souffrant de manque de financement, sont souvent entamés mais ont du mal à aboutir et finissent parfois à être abandonnés aux populations qui n’arrivent même pas à s’en servir car ces technologies sont la plupart du temps « inadaptées ». Ce qui confirmerait que l’Afrique soit un véritable cimetière des technologies, des technologies inadaptées.
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Quoi Quoiqu qu’i ’ill en soit soit et sans sans pour pour auta autant nt
nous nous enfe enferm rmer er dans dans une une crit critiq ique ue de la
coopération Nord-Sud qui condamnerait la manière dont l’aide et la solidarité sont apportées aux pays du Sud, nous lançons un appel à une profonde réflexion sur cette solidarité qui semblerait toujours garder les mêmes caractéristiques de l’aide classique perpétuant depuis toujours la domination historique des pays du Nord sur ceux du Sud. Qu’il nous souvienne, à cet effet, les propos très illustrateurs de Serge Latouche 69 : « La main qui reçoit l’aide est toujours en dessous de celle qui la donne ». Cet épineux problème de financement et celui de l’inadaptabilité des technologies est renforcé par d’autres difficultés telles que celle des infrastructures inadéquates, de délestages fréquents et de manque d’énergie électrique dans les régions enclavées et même dans les grandes capitales africaines. Nous avons ainsi montré que toutes ces difficultés limitent les actions de l’UNESCO et posent la nécessité de créer un important fonds monétaire régional et
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Perspectives de recherches : Vers une nouvelle problématisation
Ce trav travai aill jett jettee les les base basess d’un d’unee rech recher erch chee qui qui débo débouc uche he sur sur des des pers perspe pect ctiv ives es d’approfondissement. Nous avons situé nos questionnements dans une analyse historique contextuelle en procédant à un recadrage élargi sur les divers points de vue et prise de position position des différents différents acteurs du rapport McBride et des revendica r evendications tions du NOMIC jusqu’au SMSI. Nous avons pour se faire mobiliser une revue de littérature sur les enjeux de la commu communic nicat ation ion inte interna rnati tiona onale le à traver traverss les rappor rapports ts de force forcess auxqu auxquels els sont sont li livré vréss les les différents différents acteurs dont les prises de position varient selon le côté duquel il se situe par rapport à la ligne fictive de démarcation entre inclus et exclus de la « société de l’information ». Quelques Quelques lig lignes nes directri directrices ces peuvent peuvent cependan cependantt être développ développées ées dans des recherch recherches es ultérieures sachant que :
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financières vers la doxa : « ce qui est bon pour les Etats-Unis est bon pour le reste du monde ». 6- La pluralité pluralité des usages usages sociaux sociaux des technologies technologies ne saurait être être analysée analysée selon l'unique l'unique univers univers symboli symbolique que des représent représentati ations ons historiq historiques ues des relatio relations ns Nord-Sud, Nord-Sud, dans lesquelles les cultures minoritaires subissaient la globalisation passive des standards culturels.
Nous Nous souha souhait iteri erions ons contri contribue buerr à l’app l’approf rofond ondis issem semen entt de ces axes axes de reche recherch rchee à l’occasion d’une thèse doctorale au cours de laquelle notre travail sur les trois prochaines années consistera à :
Approfondir les lectures et confronter les différentes théories sur l’interdépendance dans les relations internationales internationales afin de réaliser une revue critique de la littérature sur
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BIBLIOGRAPHIE
OUVRAGES
•
Décoloniser l’information, l’information, Paris, Editions CANA, 1978. BOURGES Hervé, Décoloniser
•
CASTELLS Manuel, La galaxie Internet , Paris, Fayard, 2001.
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CASTELLS Manuel, L’ère de l’information (3 tomes), Paris, Fayard, 1998-1999.
•
CHENEAU-LOQUAY Annie (Coord.), Enjeux des technologies de la communication en Afrique : du téléphone à Internet. Avec le cédérom Internet au Sud, Paris, Karthala,
2000, 402 p. •
GABAS Jean-Jacques, Société numérique et Développement en Afrique : Usages et politiques publiques, Paris, Karthala, 2004.
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MASMOUDI Mustapha, Voie libre pour monde multiple, Paris, Economica, 1986.
•
MATHIEN MATHIEN Michel, Michel, « La société société de l’informati l’information on » : Entre mythes et réalités, réalités, Bruxelles, Bruxelles,
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ARTICLES SCIENTIFIQUES ET DE REVUE Réduire re la fractu fracture re numé numériq rique ue Nord/ Nord/Su Sud, d, une une croyan croyance ce BENC BENCHE HENN NNA A Abde Abdel,l, « Rédui récurrente des organisations internationales. », www.tic.ird.fr/article.php?id_article=110
•
CABEDOCHE Bertrand, « La construction de l'étrangéité dans le discours d'information médiatique : pour une nouvelle problématisation problématisation », in Pascal Lardellier, Des cultures et
des hom hommes mes.. Clés Clés anth anthropo ropolog logiqu iques es pour la mon mondia dialilisat sation ion,, Paris, Paris, L'Harm L'Harmatta attan, n, septembre 2005, pp. 113-134. •
Manœuvres s autour autour des télécoms télécoms africaine africaines s », in Le CHENEAU-LOQ CHENEAU-LOQUAY UAY Annie, Annie, « Manœuvre
Monde diplomatique, 574, janvier 2002, p. 28. •
DECORNOY Jacques., « Aux ordres du Nord », in Médias, mensonges et démocratie , Le Monde diplomatique, Manière de voir, n°14, février 1992, pp. 42-45.
•
L'UIT, la vieil vieille le dame dame des téléco télécommu mmunic nicati ations ons dans dans la FULLSACK FULLSACK Jean-Louis, Jean-Louis, « L'UIT, tourmente néo-libérale néo-libérale
www.globenet.org/csdptt/doc_csdptt.php3?id_article=148
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Technologies de communication communication et d’information. d’information. Une MIGNOT-LEFEBVRE Yvonne, « Technologies nouvelle donne internationale internationale ? », in Revue Tiers Monde, t. XXXV, n°138, avril-juin
1994, pp. 245-277. •
TRAVAUX TRAVAUX ACADEMIQUES ACADEMIQUES CABEDOCHE Bertrand, La presse régionale à l’écoute du tiers-monde ? Analyse et essa essaii d’in d’inte terpr rpréta étatition on de l’im l’imag agee de dess pay payss du Sud Sud da dans ns Ou Oues estt-Fr Fran ance ce,, prem premie ier r quotidien régional de France., Rennes, CRAP, 1982, 419 pages (Mémoire de DEA Études politiques).
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RENAUD Pascal « SMSI : Avancée symbolique, résultats modestes ». Sommet de Tunis, 15 au 18 novembre 2006.
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Sommet mondial sur la Société de l’information, déclaration de principes , secrétariat général du sommet, Genève 2003.
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Sommet Mondial sur la Société de l’Information, Plan d’action , secrétariat général du sommet, 2003.
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UIT, Indicateurs des télécommunications africaines, Rapport de l’UIT, Genève, 2001.
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Annexe I : Entretien avec Annie LENOBLE-BART Madame Annie Lenoble-Bart est Professeur à l’Université de Bordeaux 3 et Animatrice du GREMA (Groupe de Recherches et d'Études sur les Médias Africains) . Elle est aussi Coordinatrice de l'Axe 1 du programme 2003-2006 de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme d'Aquitaine sur " Modèles et transferts dans la mondialisation des Afriques : Gouvernance, démocratie, transferts et appropriation". C’est en nous référant à ces nombreux travaux sur
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Question 5 : La solidarité numérique serait-elle une nouvelle forme de dépendance
techno-culturelle techno-culturelle des pays africains africains vis-à-vis de ceux industrialisés industrialisés et développés ? Ou seraitce plutôt une vraie réponse à l’exclusion numérique ? A.Lenoble-Bart :
« Je pense les deux. La ‘‘vérité’’ est souvent ambivalente… Et les effets
pervers ne sont jamais bien loin mais surtout difficiles à imaginer : ils sont souvent là où on ne les attend pas. Qui vivra verra. »
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Annexe III : Extrait d’une interview accordée au Président
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J’ai eu l’occasion de rappeler que le monde, depuis sa création, se divise de plus en plus en
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Pouvez-vous nous citer d’autres initiatives entreprises entreprises par le Sénégal dans le