LAPORAN PRAKTIKUM VERTEBRATA HAMA
Disusun oleh:
Agus Fitriani Ta Tambun
A34070002
Agustin Iriani
A43070010
Tatit Sastrini
A34070014
Andrixinata
A34070016
Furgon Avero
A34070021
Heny Emilia
A34070075
Dosen Pembimbing: Dr. Ir. Swastiko Priyambodo, M.Si
DEPARTEMEN PROTEKSI TANAMAN FAKULTAS PERTANIAN INSTITUT PERTANIAN BOGOR
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2009
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UJI TRAP
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PENDAHULUAN Latar belakang
Tikus merupakan mamalia yang kerap kali menjadi hama penting dalam kehidupan manusia yang sangat sulit dikendalikan. Bahkan bisa dikatakan bahwa tikus adalah hama yang sangat dekat dengan kehidupan manusia. Tikus memiliki kelebihan-kelebihan dari hama-hama lain diantaranya tikus merupakan organisme omnivo omnivora ra sehing sehingga ga sulit sulit untuk untuk kekura kekuranga ngan n makana makanan. n. Selain Selain itu, itu, tikus tikus juga juga memiliki kemampuan fisik yang baik sehingga mampu beradaptasi dengan baik dalam keadaan lingkungan baru. Kemudian reproduksi tikus juga sangat baik, hal ini menyebabkan populasi tikus sangat mudah mengalami kenaikan. Peningkatan populasi tikus merupakan masalah utama dalam pengendalian tikus. Hal ini terjadi karena tikus mampu merupakan kerusakan yang jauh lebih besar dibandingkan dengan jumlah makanan yang dimakan oleh tikus itu sendiri. Reprod Reproduks uksii tikus tikus sangat sangat baik, baik, rahim rahim tikus tikus betina betina mampu mampu menamp menampung ung 10-16 10-16 embrio dalam satu masa kehamilan dan tikus jantan mampu kawin sepanjang tahun, selain tiu masa matang seksual tikus juga sangat singkat yaitu 2-2,6 bulan. Pening Peningkat katan an popula populasi si tikus tikus inilah inilah yang yang menjad menjadii ancama ancaman n bagi bagi manusi manusiaa dan perekonomiannya. Oleh sebab itu, tindakan pengendalian harus segera dilakukan begitu terdeteksi kehadiran tikus.(Priyambodo Swastiko, 2003). Tiku Tikuss meru merupa paka kan n hama hama dalam dalam berb berbag agai ai kehi kehidu dupa pan n manu manusi sia, a, sela selain in menjadi hama dalam pertanian, tikus juga sangat dekat dengan manusia dengan menjad menjadii hama hama di dalam dalam rumah rumah manusi manusia. a. Hal ini menyeb menyebabk abkan an tikus tikus menjad menjadii organisme yang sangat mengganggu dalam kehidupan manusia. Berbagai upaya dilakukan manusia untuk mengendalikan populasi tikus tersebut, diantaranya dengan racun atau rodentisida , dengan perangkap, dll. Pada praktikum kali ini, mencoba mengamati efektifitas suatu jenis perangkap dalam mengendalikan populasi tikus.
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Praktikum Praktikum ini diharapkan diharapkan dapat memberikan memberikan gambaran tentang tentang tingkat tingkat efektifitas penggunaan suatu jenis trap. BAHAN DAN METODE
Bahan
Pada praktikum uji trap ini, alat-alat yang digunakan digunakan berupa berupa kandang kandang untuk untuk tikus, tikus, enam enam jenis jenis trap yaitu tomahawk tomahawk,, multiple multiple,, havahart havahart,, shermann, shermann,
single dan snap trap. Bahan yang digunakan adalah pakan tikus yaitu gabah dan tikus pohon ( Rattus tiomanicus).
Metode
Setelah kandang disiapkan, terlebih dahulu semua trap diletakkan pada kandang dengan posisi yang acak, setiap trap diberi makanan yaitu gabah yang diletakkan pada sebuah mangkuk. Setelah semua semua trap diletakkan di dalam kandang, kemudian tikus yang telah disiapkan ditimbang terlebih dahulu, dan dilihat jenis kelaminnya. Setelah itu, tikus dimasukkan ke kandang yang telah diberi perangkap tadi dan ditutup bagian atasnya dengan kain berwarna gelap agar kondisi cahaya di dalam kandang gelap. Setalah semua selesai, tikus tersebut ditinggal di dalam kandang selama ±24 jam. Kemudian diamati apakah tikus tersebut terperangkap atau tidak, jika terpengkap, maka terperangkap pada jenis apa. Lalu Lalu dilaku dilakukan kan pengul pengulang angan an selama selama enam enam hari hari dengan dengan perlak perlakuan uan trap apa. pemindahan posisi trap.
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HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN Hasil Pengamatan
PENGUJIAN TRAP
Comp Comple lete te Ran Rando dom m Desi Design gn 18:3 18:39 9 Thur Thursd sday ay,, May May 1, 2009 2009 Analysis of Variance Procedure Dependent Variable: YIELD Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Value Pr>F Model 5 42.00000000 8.40000000 14.78 0.0001 Error 66 37.50000000 0.56818182 Corre orrect cted ed Total otal 71 79.5 79.50 00000 00000 00 R-Square 0.528302 Source DF TRTMENT 5
C.V. Root MSE YIELD Mean 82.23037 0.75377836 0.91666667 Anova SS Mean Square F Value 42.00000000 8.40000000 14.78
Comp Comple lete te Ran Rando dom m Desi Design gn 18:3 18:39 9 Thur Thursd sday ay,, May May 1, 2009 2009 Analysis of Variance Procedure Duncan’s Multiple Range Test for Variable: YIELD Alpha = 0.05 df = 66MSE = 0.568182 Number of Means 2 3 4 5 6 Critic Critical al Range Range 0.6144 0.6144 0.6464 0.6464 0.6675 0.6675 0.6829 0.6829 0.6948 0.6948 Means with the same letter are not significantly different. Duncan Grouping Mean N TRTMENT A 2.1667 12 Tomahawk A 1.6667 12 Multiple B 0.8333 12 Havahart BC 0.5833 12 Shermann C 0.1667 12 Single C 0.0833 12 Snap Comp Comple lete te Ran Rando dom m Desi Design gn 18:3 18:39 9 Thur Thursd sday ay,, May May 1, 2009 2009 Analysis of Variance Procedure Duncan’s Multiple Range Test for Variable: YIELD Alpha = 0.01 df = 66MSE = 0.568182 N
b
fM
2
3
4
5
6
Pr>F 0.0001
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A A B B B B
2.1667 12 1.6667 12 0.8333 12 0.5833 12 0.1667 12 0.0833 12
Tomahawk Multiple Havahart Shermann Single Snap
Pembahasan
Meto Metode de peng pengen enda dali lian an tiku tikuss meng menggu guna naka kan n peran perangk gkap ap ( trap) dapat dilakukan menggunakan berbagai jenis perangkap. Akan tetapi, setiap perangkap dapat dapat memilik memilikii efekti efektifita fitass yang yang berbed berbeda. a. Hal ini terjadi terjadi karena karena karena karena tikus tikus memiliki sifat trap shyness yaitu kejadian dimana tikus tidak mau masuk kedalam perangkap.(Priyambodo, 2003). Trap shyness dapat dapat terjadi terjadi akibat akibat adanya adanya sifat sifat genetik, dimana tikus pada awalnya mudah tertangkap tetapi pada pemerangkapan selanjutnya akan sulit untuk terperangkap. Biasan Biasanya, ya, tikus tikus dengan dengan ukuran ukuran yang yang lebih lebih besar besar lebih lebih mudah mudah masuk masuk keda kedala lam m pera perang ngka kap, p, demi demiki kian an juga juga tiku tikuss beti betina na lebi lebih h muda mudah h dita ditang ngka kap p diband dibanding ingkan kan dengan dengan tikus tikus jantan jantan.. Hal ini ada hubun hubungan gannya nya dengan dengan prilak prilaku u maka makan, n, dima dimana na tiku tikuss beti betina na dan dan tiku tikuss deng dengan an ukur ukuran an yang yang lebi lebih h besa besar r memerlukan makan yang lebih banya dibandingkan dengan tikus jantan dan tikus kecil. Karena prilaku makannya yang banyak, maka disaat kekurangan makanan, maka maka tikus tikus terseb tersebut ut akan akan mengam mengambil bil makana makanan n yang yang ada di dalam dalam perang perangkap kap sehingga sehingga ia terperangkap terperangkap.. Tikus betina memerlukan makanan yang lebih banyak dari dari tikus tikus jantan jantan karena karena tikus tikus betina betina memerl memerluka ukan n nutris nutrisii yang yang lebih lebih banyak banyak terutama terutama di saat sedang sedang menyusui. menyusui. Selain itu, tikus betina juga harus mencukupi mencukupi makanan bagi anak-anaknya.
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dilihat dari cara kerjanya, kedua perangkap ini memiliki cara kerja yang hampir sama. Apabila tikus melewati kedua perangkap ini, tampa ia memakan umpan pun ia akan terperangkap dengan sendirinya. Kemudian perangkap jenis havahart dan shermann berdasarkan data yang diperoleh, kedua perangkap ini memiliki tingkat efektifitas yang cukup baik. Lalu perangkap jenis single dan snap merupaka merupaka jenis perangkap yang memi memilik likii efek efekti tifi fitas tas pali paling ng rend rendah ah dian dianta tara ra pera perang ngka kapp-pe peran rangk gkap ap lain lainny nya. a. Perangkap snap merupa merupakan kan perang perangkap kap mati mati yang yang paling paling banyak banyak diguna digunakan kan sehingga sehingga bisa dikatakan dikatakan perangkap ini merupakan merupakan perangkap yang paling paling umum dikenali oleh tikus. Perangkap ini hanya akan memerangkap tikus yang menarik pakan yang diletakkan diatasnya, apabila tikus tidak kekurangan makanan, maka ia tidak akan mendekati perangkap ini. Selain itu, ukurannya juga sangat kecil dan jumlah makanan yang diletakkan juga sangat sedikit. Kemudian perangkap single juga juga kurang kurang efektif efektif dalam dalam memeran memerangka gkap p tikus. tikus. Perangk Perangkap ap ini pada pada dasarn dasarnya ya memiliki desain yang mirip dengan sarang tikus, dan tidak diletakkan umpan di dalamnya. Kurang efektifnya perangkap ini bisa saja disebabkan karena tidak adanya makanan yang diletakkan. Selain itu tikus memiliki kecurigaan terhadap benda yang ada disekitarnya, sehingga ia lebih memilih memasuki sarang awlnya dibandingkan dengan memasuki single trap . Oleh sebab itu, intensitas pemakaian perangkap juga berpengaruh pada hasil yang diperoleh. Selain hal di atas, faktor yang mempengaruhi efektifitas perangkap yang digunakan dapat juga terjadi karena pakan yang diberikan terlalu banyak sehingga menyebabkan tikus tidak berminat untuk mencari makan lagi. Kemudian adanya aroma-aroma yang ditinggalkan tikus sebelumnya yang terperangkap pada jenis
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Gambar perangkap tikus yang biasa digunakan
Tomahawk Livetrap www.shelbypets.com
Shermann Aluminium Livetrap http://animalhandling.yellowpages.co.za
Hava hart snap trap \ www.enasco.com
www.made-in-china.com
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KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN
Kesimpulan
Pada praktikum uji perangkat kali ini, tomahawk dan multiple merupakan peran perangka gkap p yang yang memilik memilikii tingka tingkatt efekti efektifit fitas as paling paling baik baik dianta diantara ra perang perangkap kap- perangkap lainnya. Bentuk dan ukuran perangkap juga mempengaruhi efektitas suatu perangkap. Faktor genetik dan adaptasi tikus mempengaruhi tikus untuk memasuki suatu perangkap.
Saran
Dari Dari percob percobaan aan yang yang telah telah dilaku dilakukan kan,, dapat dapat disaran disarankan kan apabil apabilaa dalam dalam menggu menggunak nakan an perang perangkap kap yang yang paling paling efekti efektiff yaitu yaitu
tomahawk dan multiple.
Karena tingkat perangkap lainnya lebih rendah jika dibandigkan dengan kedua perangkap tersebut.
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DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Anonim. http://animal http:// animalhandlin handling.yell g.yellowpages. owpages.co.za co.za .20 Mei 2009 Anonim. www.enasco.com.18 Mei 2009 Anonim. www.made-in-china.com www.made-in-china.com.. 18 Mei 2009 Anonim. www.shel www. shelbype bypets.c ts.com om17 Mei 2009 Priyambodo, Swastiko. 2003. Pengndalian Pengndalian Hama Tikus Terpadu . Jakarta: Penebar Swadaya.
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UJI UMPAN PAKAN KUCING DAN
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PENDAHULUAN Latar Belakang
Hama Hama tiku tikuss meru merupa paka kan n sala salah-s h-sat atu u masa masala lah h yang yang hing hingga ga saat saat ini ini suli sulitt ditangani. Tidak hanya di rumah, di perkantoran, bangunan-bangunan lain, di atas kapal laun maupun di tempat lain ternyata tikus selalu menimbulkan masalah karena selalu mengerat. Aktivitas mengerat yang dilakukan tikus adalah akibat dari dari pert pertum umbu buha han n gigi gigi serin serinya ya yang yang akan akan teru teruss mema memanj njan ang. g. Jadi Jadi akti aktivi vitas tas mengeratnya ini bertujuan untuk mengurangi pertumbuhan gigiserinya. Namun, yang lebih penting adalah hewan ini sangan potensial menimbulakan kerusakan dan kerugian yang tidak sedikit bagi bidang pertanian bahkan di sawah, ladang maupun maupun perkeb perkebuna unan n pun sering sering tikus tikus sangat sangat meraja merajalela lela.. Sudah Sudah beratu beratus-ra s-ratus tus sawah, ladang, dan areal perkebunan yang rusak akibat keganasan serangannya. Yang lebih gila lagi adalah mereka bias merusak tanaman hanya dalam waktu semalam saja (Mahfus,2005). Pengendalian harus terus dilakukan untuk menekan populasi tikus ini agar kerusa kerusakan kan tidak tidak terua terua mening meningkat kat,, salah salah satuny satunyaa adalah adalah dengan dengan member memberika ikan n umpan beracun atau rodentisida yang secara umum terdiri dari bahan racun, bahan umpan, dan bahan tambahan. Umpan beracun harus masuk ke dalam tubuh tikus,
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BAHAN DAN METODE Bahan dan alat
Bahan-b Bahan-baha ahan n yang yang dibutu dibutuhka hkan n dalam dalam prakti praktikum kum uji umpan umpan ini adalah adalah berbagai jenis umpan tikus, yaitu gabah, kacang tanah, pakan kucing, pakan ikan, jagung, jagung, dan beras. Selain itu dibutuhka dibutuhkan n pula air untuk minum tikus, dan seekor tikus pohon ( Rattus tiomanicus tiomanicus ). Adapun alat yang diperlukan adalah timbangan untuk untuk menguk mengukur ur tikus tikus dan pakan, pakan, kurung kurungan an tikus tikus yang yang berisi berisi tempat tempat makan, makan, tempat minum dan bubung bamboo, Kantung plastic uktuk tempat pakan dan tempat menimbang tikus.
Metode
Metode yang pakai dalam praktikum uji umpan ini adalah metode pengujian deng dengan an pili piliha han n (choice ) . Lanh Lanhka kah h pert pertam amaa yang yang kami kami laku lakuka kan n adala adalah h choice test ). menimbang tikus yang akan digunakan dengan bantuan kantung plastic untuk mendapatkan bobot awalnya. Lalu jenis kelamin tikus ditentukan. Setelah tikus dipersiapkan, selanjutnya pakan tikus disiapkan. Pakan tikus ditimbang sejumlah ±10% dari bobot tubuh tikus. Tikus dimasukkan kedalam kurungan dan tikus tersebut dibiarkan untuk beradaptasi di dalam kurungan tersebut sampai tikus itu
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kons konsum umsi si dila dilaku kuka kan n deng dengan an meng mengko konv nvers ersii juml jumlah ah tiap tiap-ti -tiap ap paka pakan n yang yang dikonsumsinya terhadap 100 gram bobot tubuh tikus. 100
Kons Konsum umsi si sebenarnya
perh erhitun itunga gan n
=
bobot
rerata
tikus
x
konsumsi
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HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN Hasil Pengamatan PENGUJIAN UMPAN PAKAN KUCING Compl omplet etee Ran Rand dom Des Desig ign n 18:3 18:39 9 Th Thursd ursday ay,, May May 1,200 ,2009 9 Analysis of Variance Procedure Dependent Variable: YIELD Source DF Model 4 Error 25 Corrected Total 29 29 R-Square 0.331296 Source TRTMENT
DF 4
Sum of Squares 47.53260635 95.94220032 143.47480667
Mean Square 11.88315159 3.83768801
C.V. 106.0703
Root MSE 1.95900179
YIELD Mean 1.84689000
Anova SS 47.53260635
Mean Square 11.88315159
F Value 3.10
Compl omplet etee Ran Rand dom Des Desig ign n 18:3 18:39 9 Th Thursd ursday ay,, May May 1,200 ,2009 9 Analysis of Variance Procedure Duncan’s Multiple Range Test for Variable: YIELD Alpha= 0.05 df= 25 MSE= 3.837688 Number of Means Critica Criticall Range Range
F Value Pr > F 3.10 0.0336
2 3 4 5 2.329 2.329 2.447 2.447 2.522 2.522 2.576 2.576
Means with the same letter are not significantly different.
Pr > F 0.0336
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PENGUJIAN UMPAN PAKAN IKAN
Compl omplet etee Ran Rand dom Des Desig ign n 18:3 18:39 9 Th Thursd ursday ay,, May May 1,200 ,2009 9 Analysis of Variance Procedure Dependent Variable: YIELD Source DF Model 4 Error 25 Corrected Total 29 R-Square 0.693934 Source TRTMENT
DF 4
Sum of Squares 75.12514793 33.13459241 108.25974034
Mean Square 18.78128698 1.32538370
F Value Pr > F 14.17 0.0001
C.V. 63.25671
Root MSE 1.15125310
YIELD Mean 1.81997000
Anova SS 75.12514793
Mean Square 18.781128698
F Value 14.17
Compl omplet etee Ran Rand dom Des Desig ign n 18:3 18:39 9 Th Thursd ursday ay,, May May 1,200 ,2009 9 Analysis of Variance Procedure
Pr > F 0.0001
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Pembahasan
Dilakukan pengujian umpan pakan kucing dan pakan ikan untuk mencari dan menget mengetahu ahuii umpan umpan yang yang disuka disukaii oleh oleh tikus, tikus, diband dibanding ingkan kan dengan dengan bahan bahan pakan lain yang berada di sekitar kehidupan tikus, seperti gabah, kacang, jagung dan beras. Pada Pada penguj pengujian ian umpan umpan pakan pakan kucin kucing g ini diguna digunakan kan 4 perlak perlakuan uan yang yang dilakukan dan total koreksi adalah 29. Pada alpha= 0.05 atau persen kesalahan uji 5%, terlihat bahwa gabah adalah pakan yang paling disukai oleh tikus, dengan nilai mean paling besar, yaitu 3,973 (Duncan grouping A). Pakan Pakan kucing kucing,, jagung jagung,, dan beras beras tidak tidak berbed berbedaa nyata, nyata, artiny artinyaa tingka tingkatt kesukaan tikus pada ketiga bahan umpan itu sama (Duncan grouping B). Nilai mean dari ketiganya berturut-turut adalah 1.312, 0.913, dan 0.511, dilihat dari
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dan jagung, dilihat dari nilai mean, yaitu 0.511 (Duncan grouping B). Umpan gabah berbeda nyata dengan umpan beras. Dapat dilihat dari hasil analisis bahwa penggunaan umpan dengan menggunakan pakan kucing cukup baik, karena nilai yang didapat tidak berbeda jauh dari tingkat kesukaannya pada gabah sebagai pakan yang paling disenangi tikus. Pada Pada peng penguj ujia ian n umpa umpan n paka pakan n ikan ikan ini ini digu diguna naka kan n 4 perl perlak akua uan n yang yang dilakukan dan total koreksi adalah 29. Pada alpha= 0.05 atau persen kesalahan uji 5% dan pada persen kesalahan 1%, terlihat bahwa gabah dan pakan kucing tidak berbeda nyata, artinya tingkat kesukaan tikus pada gabah dan pakan kucing sama (dinotasikan dengan huruf A). Kacang Kacang tanah, tanah, jagung jagung dan beras beras tidak tidak berbed berbedaa nyata, nyata, artinya artinya tingk tingkat at kesukaan tikus pada ketiga bahan umpan itu sama (dinotasikan dengan huruf B).
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(tikus lebih suka mengkonsumsi gabah dari pada pakan kucing atau pun pakan ikan). Jadi, bahan yang paling baik digunakan sebagai umpan tikus adalah gabah. Tikus sebagai hewan omnivore omnivore biasanya mau menkonsumsi menkonsumsi semua makanan makanan yanga dapat dimakan oleh manusia, baik sumber makanan hewani ataupun nabati. Selain itu tikus akan memilih pakan yang berkadar gizi seimbang dari beberapa macam pakan yang ada. Walaupun demikian tikus lebih cenderung untuk memilih biji-bijian(serealia) seperti gabah. Untuk mengetahui jenis umpan yang disenangi oleh tikus, terdapat beberapa karakt karakteris eristik tik yang yang perlu perlu diperh diperhati atikan kan,, dianta diantaran ranya ya umpan umpan harus harus menari menarik k bagi bagi tikus, umpan harus (sedapat mungkin) tidak menarik bagi hewan lain yang bukan sasaran, umpan harus mudah di dapat dan umpan harus mudah dicampur dengan racun (Priyambodo,2003). Pengetahuan tentang ciri-ciri umpan yang disukai oleh
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KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN
Kesimpulan
Pada uji umpan yang menggunakan tambahan umpan pakan kucing dan pakan ikan terlihat bahwa tikus lebih menyukai makanan serealia yaitu gabah, dimana dimana terlih terlihat at lebih lebih besar besar konsum konsumsin sinya ya diband dibanding ingkan kan jenis jenis umpan umpan lainny lainnya. a. Meskipun beberapa data menunjukan bahwa hasil pengamatan yang memenyertai pakan kucing,terlihat bahwa tikus masih menyukai kacang ta nah dan jagung tetapi tidak lebih baik jika dibandingkan dengan gabah. Jadi, bahan yang paling baik digunakan sebagai umpan tikus adalah gabah.
Saran
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DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Mahfur. 2005. Sifat dan Biologi Tikus . http://www.tanindo.com/abdi12/hal3801.htm. [9-05-2009] Priyambodo Priyambodo,, Swastiko. Swastiko. 2003. 2003. Pengnda Jakarta:: Peneba Penebar r Pengndalia lian n Hama Tikus Tikus Terpadu Terpadu. Jakarta Swadaya.
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PENDAHULUAN
Latar Belakang
Tikus merupakan satwa liar yang menjadi hama penting dalam kehidupan manusia baik dalam bidang pertanian, perkebunan, pemukiman, dan kesehatan (Meehan.1984). Setidaknya ada 24 spesies tikus yang merupakan hama penting
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Tikus hidup dekat dengan sumber makanan; gudang, lumbung pangan, kandan kandang. g. Tikus Tikus dapat dapat memanj memanjat at dan melomp melompat at dengan dengan keting ketinggia gian n 91cm 91cm dan sejauh 122cm. Tikus dapat memanjat batubata, dinding dan berjalan diatas kawat. Tikus besar dapat menyelinap dilubang dengan diameter 1cm, sedangkan tikus kecil 0,6cm bahkan lebih kecil. Tikus aktif dimalam hari. Untuk memprediksi intensitas serangan tikus tanaman padi dengan pendekatan SIG, disarankan peta
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BAHAN DAN METODE
Bahan dan Alat
Berb Berbag agai ai jeni jeniss baha bahan n peny penyed edap ap untu untuk k tiku tikuss yang yang digu diguna naka kan n dala dalam m praktikum ini adalah beras sebagai bahan dasar umpan, air minum, timbangan
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Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.
The world’s largest digital library
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The world’s largest digital library
Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.
The world’s largest digital library
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The world’s largest digital library
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The world’s largest digital library
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The world’s largest digital library
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The world’s largest digital library
Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.
The world’s largest digital library
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The world’s largest digital library
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The world’s largest digital library
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The world’s largest digital library
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The world’s largest digital library
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The world’s largest digital library
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The world’s largest digital library
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The world’s largest digital library
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The world’s largest digital library
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