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Emerging Trends in Japan in Education Education of the Gifted: A Focus on Science Education Manabu Sumida Journal for the Education of the Gifted 2013 36: 277 originally published online 3 July 2013 DOI: 10.1177/0162353213493534 10.1177/0162353213493534 The online The online version of this article can be found at: found at: http:// jeg.sagepub.com/content/36/3/277 jeg.sagepub.com/content/36/3/2 77

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Sumida JEG36310.1177/0162353213493534Journal for theEducation of theGifted

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Emerging Trends in Japan in Education of the Gifted: A Focus on Science Education

Journal for the Education of the Gifted 36(3) 277 –289 © The Author(s) 2013 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0162353213493534 jeg.sagepub.com

Manabu Sumida1

Abstract Japan has no formal educational system for gifted children. However, in 2005, Japan’s Cabinet approved and established the third Science and Technology Basic Plan (200610), which includes “nurturing the individuality and ability of gifted ( sainou in Japanese) children.” Enforcement of this plan is exemplified in programs such as “Super Science High Schools,” “Next-Generation Scientists Programs,” “Science Camps,” and “Japan Science Tournaments.” The number of Japanese participants in the Science Olympiad has increased threefold within 5 years. The characteristics of gifted (sainou) education in Japan are domain-specific, however, and emphasis is placed on science and technology and research and development rather than on education. On the other hand, Japanese people put great faith in the thought that giftedness can be taught. This paper describes trends in educational policy on the gifted in Japan, and the characteristic of Japanese education for the gifted is discussed from both historical and cultural viewpoints. Keywords Sainou, Japanese Mode of Education, Domain Specificity of Giftedness, The Third Science and Technology Basic Plan (2006-2010)

Introduction Many children show a strong interest in natural phenomena from an early age and demonstrate an outstanding ability to think creatively and in abstract terms. Although the overall goals for education in Japan address the development of individuals and their creativity, it would be difficult to argue that Japan has adequately developed an educational system that recognizes and develops the strong 1Ehime

University, Matsuyama, Japan

Corresponding Author: Manabu Sumida, Faculty of Education, Ehime University, 3 Bunkyo-cho, Matsuyama 7908577, Japan. Email: [email protected]

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intellectual interests and advanced abilities that children possess. Japan’s Basic Education Act (2000) has four goals: “(1) developing the abilities of individuals while respecting their value; (2) cultivating their creativity; (3) fostering a spirit of autonomy and independence; and (4) fostering an attitude that values labor while emphasizing the connections with career and practical life” (Article 2-2). However, the country currently has no formal system for educating gifted children. Matsumura (2007) has suggested that public opinion in Japan does not support the provision of gifted education as a distinct focus. In particular, the selection of some students for special learning opportunities is inconsistent with the Japanese tendency to value egalitarianism (or groupism) and emphasize the importance of environmental influences over heredity. Prior to educational system reforms in 1947, a system of gifted education known as early admission or skipping grades was officially sanctioned. This involved early enrollment in junior high school from elementary school and/or early enrollment in high school from junior high school. In 1930, 0.5% of all students were reportedly early enrollees in junior high school, and 24.8% were early enrollees in high school (Aso & Iwanaga, 1997). As seen by these numbers, early enrollment in junior high school was not as widespread as early enrollment in high school. Even in 1931, when the number reached its peak, only 0.9% of all students in junior high school enrolled early. Growth in the number of early enrollees in high schools was seen as a problem because of the serious impact it was having on the education of junior high school students who did not skip grades. As a result, a change was made to restrict the implementation of early enrollment (Aso & Iwanaga, 1997) and the practice was abolished in 1943. The first national course of study (national education standard) was established in 1947 after World War II, and today all schools, both public and private, conduct their educational activities in accordance with those guidelines. The course of study regulates the purpose of learning and the content covered, and the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) inspects all textbooks used in classrooms. For example, the latest course of study for science includes specific provisions regarding the educational purpose and content of science education—as well as the handling of the content—for every grade level from elementary through junior high school. Insofar as the Japanese education system has become highly standardized around the national course of study since the end of World War II, it might be said that, in essence, public education for the gifted has been neglected. However, the reality is that an informal, hidden gifted education system has been present. The taboo status of formal gifted education likely gave rise to the afterschool cram schools ( juku) and home tutoring that offer students advanced and/or accelerated learning opportunities in the form of early education, arts and sports education, and other forms of special instruction. This article illuminates the concept of giftedness and gifted education in Japan and its fundamental problems while outlining the need for practical gifted education based on the idea of domain-specific understanding/intelligence. The trends and practices in gifted education policies are also explained, along with the national efforts that have


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emerged in the early-21st century as Japan strives to become a science and technology– driven nation.

The Concepts of Giftedness and Sainou in Japan and Their Fundamental Problems Giftedness and Sainou The English word gifted is defined in the Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary (n.d.) as “having great natural ability” (n.p.). However, the Japanese word often used as the equivalent of gifted in Japanese, sainou, is defined in the Kojien (Shinmura, 2008, p. 1095) as meaning “intelligence and ability. The certain aptitude of an individual, or an ability obtained through practice.” That is, whereas the English word gifted strongly implies something that is inherent to an individual, the Japanese word sainou has a stronger connotation of something resulting from environmental factors through education. Other Japanese equivalents to gifted may also be considered, such as tensai or eisai. The former means “a natural sainou. A sainou someone is equipped with at birth. Also, a person who has such sainou” (Shinmura, 2008, p. 1943). Eisai, however, means “an outstanding sainou. Also, the person who has such sainou” (Shinmura, 2008, pp. 298299). If we combine these with the definition of sainou above, they become even more conceptually confusing. In this paper, gifted/giftedness is used as a blanket term to avoid conceptual confusion in Japanese about the English term gifted and talented . The Japanese word sainou is also used as necessary. To identify a gifted child, a definition of the term is essential. It must not be forgotten that the concept of giftedness itself has sociocultural factors, and that who is deemed to be gifted can change significantly based on what identification standards are used, along with changes over time, in the theories being relied on, and in the desired results. For example, it is well known that the classical method of identifying a gifted child in many countries has been an IQ test. The IQ test score (e.g., a score of 130 or higher) is still used as a partial basis for identification. In some cases, some upper percentage of a score (e.g., 10%) is still used as the standard based on the notion that a gifted child is someone who performs better than other children of the same age. Researchers and practitioners have come to agree that a more diverse system that incorporates measures other than IQ must be used to identify gifted children. In the United States, for example, criteria such as intellectual ability, creativity, performance/visual arts, leadership, and academic achievement are used in many states, such that the proportion of children identified as gifted is on average less than 10% nationwide (National Association for Gifted Children, 2007). This is about the same percentage of children that need special education, and is therefore not a percentage that can be ignored in ordinary school education activities. If we think in terms of students ranging from kindergarten to high school in Japan, this would mean that every year about 1.5 million students would be receiving special support as gifted children in what would be considered public education in the United States. Instead, in Japan their presence is being ignored.


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Advantages and Disadvantages of the Japanese Mode of Education The Japanese government has emphasized science and technology and has proposed initiatives in science education. The Vocational Education Promotion Act was enacted in 1951 and the Science Education Promotion Act in 1953. The Science and Technology Basic Law was enacted in 1995, based on the idea that Japan would become a nation focused on the creativity of science and technology. The MEXT was established in 2001 with the integration of the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture and the Science and Technology Agency. These actions demonstrate the high priority that the Japanese government has placed on the development of talent in science and technology over the past 60 years. However, although science education has been prioritized in Japan, the recent performance of Japanese students has declined relative to students from other countries. Japan has a history of superior performance in the sciences. For example, in the First International Science Study that was conducted in 1970 by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), Japanese elementary and junior high school students had the highest science grades among the partici pating elementary schools (16 countries) and junior high schools (18 countries). Furthermore, many Nobel Prize–winning scientists have been produced in Japan. In the 60 years since Dr. Hideki Yukawa received the Nobel Prize in physics, 14 Japanese people have received Nobel Prizes. This number of Nobel laureates is particularly high among countries in Asia, and the rapid scientific progress and qualitative social and life improvements that Japan achieved in the latter half of the 20th century won the attention of the entire world. However, in the early-21st century, in the context of the current status and future development of Japan’s national power in education, there is a growing awareness of Japan’s reduced competitiveness compared with countries in Europe and Asia; other countries in Asia are catching up to Japan. In the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD)’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) survey conducted from 2000 to 2009, Japan’s global ranking in terms of its students’ math and science literacy has not risen. The results of the PISA 2006 survey showed that Japanese 1st-year high school students ranked 6th among the 57 participating countries in their overall scientific literacy scores (National Institute for Educational Policy Research, 2010). On the index that describes students’ enjoyment of science, which is based on five survey items, such as “I generally have fun when I am learning (broad science) topics,” Japan’s score was much lower than the OECD average on all five items. Particularly, on the item “I am happy doing (broad science) problems,” only 29% of Japanese respondents indicated that they either agreed or strong agreed (vs. the OECD average of 43%). The International Science Study made it clear that although Japanese students rank at the top in terms of their achievements, their personal interest in the subject is rather low. For example, in the 2003 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), the science scores of Japanese fourth graders ranked 3rd


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among 25 participating countries, and the science scores of Japanese 2nd-year junior high school students ranked 6th among 46 participating countries (National Institute for Educational Policy Research, 2005). In contrast, in response to the item “I enjoy studying science,” the percentage of Japanese fourth graders who replied either “strongly agree” or “agree” was close to the international average, and the percentage of 2nd-year junior high school students who gave either of those responses (59%) was significantly lower than the international average (77%). The low levels of enjoyment and interest in science that have been measured in Japanese children endanger Japan’s ability to produce scientists and engineers or future Nobel laureates. In many fields such as energy and manufacturing technologies—including fields such as the life sciences, nanotechnology, and materials science—there has been a reduction in the number of researchers and engineers from 2001 to 2009 (National Institute of Science and Technology Policy, 2010). Compared with other countries in Asia, Japan’s superiority in many fields has been gradually falling over the years. The increase in the science and technology budget as a percentage of gross domestic product that had been spurred by the enactment of the Science and Technology Basic Law in 1995 has stagnated since 2000, and is now below that of the United States and France (National Institute of Science and Technology Policy, 2010). In the Japanese mode of education, which thus far has focused on the development of a national curriculum in which the content is carefully selected at the national level, and which has raised the achievement of the nation as a whole, there has been a growing quantitative and qualitative disparity between formal education and informal education. A response is therefore urgently needed for dealing with rapid globalization, increased sophistication, and diversification in society today.

The Need to Develop a Practical Concept of Giftedness Domain Specificity of Giftedness To identify gifted children, it may be helpful to use general behavioral characteristics, such as having a large vocabulary, the ability to express themselves well, mental agility, a sense of humor, and the ability to concentrate on one thing for a long period of time. However, just because a child can systematically memorize the names and characteristics of hundreds of animated cartoon characters, it does not mean he or she will easily be able to learn and retain the names and properties of the 118 chemical elements. Similarly, even children who can focus for hours at a time on an activity such as catching insects may not demonstrate any talent or interest in the intricacies of research or the creative arts such as painting or music. When we observe children who have strong personalities or high levels of ability, their gifts are typically very domain specific. It is normal for people to be stronger in some areas and weaker in others, and a bias toward one skill, in a sense, may be a sign that a particular child has a strong aptitude in a specific field (Winner, 1996).


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A great deal of attention has recently been paid to science education in research and practice related to domain-specific giftedness. Some researchers have provided lists of the behavioral characteristics of children who demonstrate giftedness in science. Johnsen (2004) summarized nine such criteria in the fields of math and science, including “is interested in numerical analysis” and “has a good memory for storing the primary features of problems and solutions” (p. 8). There are also commercially available tests, such as the Scales for Identifying Gifted Students (SIGS; Ryser & McConnell, 2004) and the Screening Assessment for Gifted Elementary and Middle School Students (SAGES-2; Johnsen & Corn, 2001), which can be used to identify students who are gifted in science. Nonetheless, in few cases have the foundations, reliability, or suitability of these criteria been adequately tested from the perspective of science education. In fact, perhaps because they have been largely developed in the West, many of the criteria are not appropriate to the Japanese educational context. Sumida (2010) has developed an original behavior checklist that can be used for Japanese elementary school students in science classrooms, including 60 items such as “reports clearly the result of an observation and experiment”; “likes to collect animals, plants, or rocks”; and “tries to do things in his/her own way, not according to the instructions given” (p. 2103). As a result of his analysis, three gifted styles in science were identified. These are (a) spontaneous style, (b) expert style, and (c) solid style. In the sample of third to sixth graders in eight urban elementary schools, just less than 10% of children strongly demonstrated these behaviors of scientific giftedness.

Uneven Profiles in Gifted Children It is possible that some scientists—like Einstein—demonstrate outstanding skills that will allow their names to be written on the pages of history but at the same time tend to exhibit mild developmental disorders known today as learning disabilities or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (West, 1991). Unique children who possess both gifts and challenges are referred to as twice-exceptional or dual-exceptional children. Sumida (2010, 2012) has empirically validated a science behavior checklist and science learning assessment as valid for identifying twice-exceptional elementary children in Japan. Because concepts of giftedness are diverse, and social contexts are influential, who is identified as a gifted child will change over time as ideas around the topic change, depending on the criteria used for identification. Even when children are identified as gifted, it is inaccurate to view them as perfect children who will demonstrate excellence in every field. In reality, they may exhibit imbalances in their socioemotional development, experience difficulties in their interpersonal relationships, or be underachievers in fields not of interest to them (Davis, Rimm, & Siegle, 2011). Therefore, when developing science instruction for the gifted from the perspective of domainspecific giftedness, it is important that we do not simply choose people who excel in a specific field and focus only on their academic development. Exceptional students will also need support for their unique socioemotional development.


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Gifted Education Policies and Early-Stage Challenges Science and Technology Basic Law In 1995, Japan established the promotion of science and technology as a top policy priority, enacted the Science and Technology Basic Law, drafted plans and basic policies for promoting science and technology, and began to promote related policies actively. These actions were taken in an effort to become a nation based on the creativity of science and technology. Japan’s status as an advanced nation means that there is an expectation that its people would contribute to progress in science and technology worldwide and to the sustainable development of human society. Japanese people were expected to realize truly prosperous lifestyles and to make even greater social and economic progress on which that prosperity would be built. In accordance with the Science and Technology Basic Law, the government outlined science and technology policies that looked forward over the upcoming 10-year period. Japan’s cabinet has thus far approved four Science and Technology Basic Policies. The third Science and Technology Basic Plan (2006-2010; The National Cabinet, 2006) proposed to “develop the individuality and abilities of gifted (sainou) children.” It incorporated three major goals: “to develop the individuality and abilities of gifted (sainou) children,” “to improve the support system for high schools that emphasize science and mathematics education,” and “to promote the participation of gifted (sainou) children in various international science and technology competitions.” By improving connections between high schools and universities, the provisions of this policy included a review of university admission evaluation criteria, special high school educational program configurations developed in cooperation with universities, and opportunities for high school students to be exposed to university-level education and research. This third Science and Technology Basic Plan was a historic plan insofar as it explicitly referred to the giftedness (sainou) of children in a public policy document. The fourth Science and Technology Basic Plan (2011-2015; The National Cabinet, 2011) discussed the need “to nurture consistently and systematically gifted (sainou) children to lead the next generation” and “to develop consistent activities to identify gifted (sainou) children and develop their abilities,” calling for the further elaboration and systematization of gifted education.

Early-Stage Efforts to Promote Gifted (Sainou) Education The Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) is one of the core institutions responsible for the implementation of science and technology policy in Japan, including the government’s Science and Technology Basic Plan. JST also works to provide a sound infrastructure of science and technology information and to raise awareness and understanding of science and technology–related issues in Japan. JST has promoted various support projects aimed at expanding the pool of children who like science and cultivate their giftedness (sainou). Those missions can be largely divided into ones that develop children’s potential and others that inspire children’s interest and attitudes, as


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Figure 1. Number of participants in Japan Science Olympiad from 2005 to 2009. Source. Data from Japan Science Olympiad Committee (JSOC) (2012).

well as into those that are promoted in schools and those promoted outside of schools. They are broadly developed in partnership with universities, research institutions, schools, and boards of education. Projects that develop children’s potential and are related to gifted education are primarily conducted at the high school level in science. The following projects have been planned and promoted, and are producing outcomes: the in-school Super Science High School program (since 2002) and the Japan Science Tournament ( kagaku-nokoshien) program (since 2011), as well as the extracurricular Science and Technology Contest, Science Camp (since 1995), and Next-Generation Scientists Program (since 2008). In the Next-Generation Scientists Program, for example, high school students who have won the number one spot in the Japan Science and Engineering Challenge (Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology’s Award) have had articles published in international academic journals. Figure 1 shows the trends in the number of participants in the Japan Science Olympiad between 2005 and 2009 who took part in the Physics Challenge, the Chemistry Grand Prix, the Japanese Olympiad in Informatics, and the Japan Biology Olympiad. The figure shows that over these 5 years, the total number of Japanese participants in these science-focused Olympiads has tripled. Still, the proportion of Japanese high school students to the total participants is only a slim 0.2%. If the target proportion/ fraction of students designated as gifted in the United States is about 5% to 10%, it is quite possible that there are large numbers of heretofore unidentified potentially gifted students in Japan.


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Figure 2. Percentage of students at each level of proficiency on the Science scale in PISA. Source. Data from National Institute for Educational Policy Research (NIER) (2010).

On the previously mentioned PISA survey conducted by the OECD, the performance is rated from Level 1 (can understand scientific knowledge only in limited situations) to Level 6 (can consistently recognize, explain, and apply scientific knowledge and knowledge related to science in complex everyday life scenarios). Figure 2 shows the percentage of students included in each level in Japan as indicated by the 2006 and 2009 surveys, with a comparison to the OECD average. The figure shows that the proportions of Japanese students among those ranked at Levels 1 and 2 are low compared with the OECD average, and the proportions of Japanese students among those ranked at Levels 4 and 5 are relatively high. In international comparative studies of science textbooks and science classrooms, Japanese science education is often characterized as dealing with select basic concepts (Roth et al., 2006; Valverde, Bianchi, Wolfe, Schmidt, & Houang, 2002). This suggests that, from the perspective of international standards, Japanese school science education may not have been able thus far to adequately develop the individuality and abilities of many students with higher levels of understanding than the international standard. New strategies need to be proposed to uncover and ignite Japan’s latent strength in science. In 2009, the JST established the Gifted (Sainou) Education Subcommittee under the Task Force to Investigate Science Education Support, and commissioned it to examine how a system could be constructed for cultivating giftedness in science. The final report (JST, 2010) identified the three goals of gifted science and technology education as (a) maximizing individual potential by meeting students’ needs as a foundation of developing the giftedness (sainou), (b) identifying and showing individual potential, and (c) cultivating advanced, professional skills in students who possess a


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high level of giftedness (sainou). Based on these, the subcommittee made comprehensive proposals for offering opportunities and developing the environment for gifted (sainou) education. Japanese researchers have now begun to publish research findings on gifted education. Research is being published on science curriculum development, scientifically gifted behaviors and learning styles of children, twice-exceptional children in science, teacher education, teaching methods, information and communication technology (ICT) use, and international comparisons. Short reports about the previously described JST programs are also being published. In 2012, the Japan Society for Science Education (JSSE) published a special issue titled “Science Education for the Gifted (sainou).” Five of the seven articles in the special issue targeted mainly high school students. For example, Nomura et al. (2012) showed a positive effect of support from scientists on the students’ learning. Kano, Mizumachi, Yamamizu, and Tanabe (2012) developed an advanced science program on induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells. Tamura (2012) found that sharing the ideas of the particularly mathematically gifted high school students with peers enhanced the study of other academically advanced classroom students, changed their image of mathematics, and stimulated their aspirations. The special issue also included trends in policy and practice in the science education of the gifted in Korea (Hashimoto & You, 2012) and in the Philippines (Faustino & Hiwatig, 2012). For the JSSE to produce a special issue on gifted education—a topic formerly viewed as taboo in Japan, particularly in public education—was a historically significant step forward.

Toward the Development of Gifted Education for All Japanese Given Japan’s views on giftedness and education, and the historical and cultural context surrounding this issue, it is important to focus on the idea that in the Japanese mode of gifted education, the nation’s strength in education is continuously promoted from the bottom by actively recognizing and providing educational support for the unique abilities and learning styles of gifted students. The challenge is to build a concept of giftedness and gifted education within in the context of Japanese standardization. Several points are proposed for consideration with regard to the development of gifted education in Japan. First, there is a need to reevaluate just what young children are potentially capable of doing. At the start of the 21st century, various research findings show that students’ scientific competence—even among very young children—exceeded the expectations of the past. When designing formal gifted education, the provision of high-quality education that meets individual needs in early grades—when the foundations of all of the children’s future learning are being established—is crucial in terms of meeting the goals of the national educational policy. The second point to be considered is the issue of respect for individuality and diversity in education. Winner (1996) said that the first myth regarding gifted children is that children are “gifted across the board” (p. 7). In reality, the major issues faced by gifted educators are problems like students’ loss of self-confidence, the pressures Downloaded from jeg.sagepub.com at Alexandru Ioan Cuza on December 8, 2013

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related to the perfectionism typical of gifted students, and the underachievement of gifted students in areas outside their interests. It would be difficult to suggest that the Japanese school education environment, where class sizes are large, can adequately accommodate student diversity. An appropriate balance is needed between a focus on acquiring knowledge efficiently and developing skills appropriately within the expected context and on demonstrating independence and collaborative creativity. Third, an appropriate and robust educational model must be developed for gifted students to ensure that their talents are properly cultivated and can blossom fully, and to ensure that these students can actively contribute to society. The development of curriculum and teaching materials that accommodate the special needs of gifted children and the implementation of related teaching methods and assessment are relevant to all teaching subjects, school types, and education in general, and can be used in the educational activities of parents and communities as well. There are times when gifted students have social and emotional concerns; counselors or teachers who can respond to the specific needs of gifted students are therefore essential. Sumida, Shirahata, and Kato (2010) conducted interviews with teachers from the elementary school to high school levels who had mentored students who won prizes in a scientific research contest. They created a professional model of those science teachers, and have begun trying to incorporate the model into a teacher training program. In 2009, the National Center for Teachers’ Development Japan sent, for the first time, 14 Japanese teachers from the elementary school to high school levels to the Center for Gifted Education at the College of William and Mary for professional development in gifted education. The fourth issue to be considered is the need to provide opportunities where all children can demonstrate their giftedness. Support for highly gifted social minorities is an important issue. While studying student winners of the Mathematics Olympiad, Sugiyama (2005) found that in Japan, there is a bias in the participating schools starting at the stage of application acceptance. Several times during her research, it came to her attention that there must be many children in outlying areas whose giftedness is going unnoticed simply because they do not know about such events. Opportunities need to be created where all children can develop their giftedness and receive highquality education. Finally, a model of gifted education must not only cultivate excellent professionals such as scientists and engineers but also must be usable as a model of education that can improve the general literacy of the public. Gifted individuals, even students, must give their maximum effort, just like scientists and athletes. Improving one’s own knowledge and raising one’s level of thinking and skills is a beautiful process, brings joy and inspiration, and produces educational value that serves as a good model for others. It is important to raise the level of all national science education using a bottomup approach by actively recognizing and supporting the individuality, abilities, and learning styles of students who are deeply interested in science. Gifted education is neither merely a tool of social selection for the elite, nor a tool for the social exploitation of intelligence. Instead, it must contribute to the cultivation of emotionally and physically healthy citizens and to the formation of a peaceful, sound society. Schools, local communities, and families may be able to work collaboratively to clarify their Downloaded from jeg.sagepub.com at Alexandru Ioan Cuza on December 8, 2013

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various roles and targets for achieving advancements, diversification, and qualitative improvements in 21st-century education. Going beyond the mere competition for grades and elite status is strongly recommended so that Japan can move instead toward the cultivation of diverse, meaningfully individualistic, and creative people by recognizing diversity in education.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding The author disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article: This research is partly supported by Grant-in Aid for Scientific Research supported by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Grant Number: 23402003/22500857)..

References Aso, M., & Iwanaga, M. (1997). Education for the creative talent . Tokyo, Japan: Tamagawa University Press. Davis, G. A., Rimm, S. B., & Siegle, D. (2011). Education of the gifted and talented (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Faustino, J. B., & Hiwatig, A. D. F. (2012). Special science elementary school: Project and prospects for gifted education in the Philippines. Journal of Science Education in Japan, 36 , 131-141. Gifted. (n.d.). In Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary. Retrieved from http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/gifted Hashimoto, T., & You, K. (2012). Suggestions from gifted education of science in South Korea. Journal of Science Education in Japan, 36 , 153-161. Japan’s Basic Education Act. (2000). Act number 120. Retrieved from http://www.mext. go.jp/b_menu/houan/kakutei/06121913/06121913/001.pdf Japan Science and Technology Agency. (2010). Blooming the eminent gifts for future innovation in science & technology. Final report of the Gifted Education Subcommittee. Retrieved from http://rikashien.jst.go.jp/highschool/cpse_report_008.pdf Japan Science Olympiad Committee (2012). Number of participants in Japan Science Olympiad . Retrieved from http://www.jsoc-top.jp/03soc/oubosuu.htm Johnsen, S. K. (2004). Definitions, models, and characteristics of gifted students. In S. K. Johnsen (Ed.), Identifying gifted students: A practical guide (pp. 1-21). Waco, TX: Prufrock Press. Johnsen, S. K., & Corn, A. L. (2001). Screening assessment for gifted elementary and middle school students (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Kano, K., Mizumachi, E., Yamamizu, K., & Tanabe, K. (2012). Development of a high-level science education program for high school students using an emerging science as a topic. Journal of Science Education in Japan, 36 , 162-171. Matsumura, N. (2007). Giftedness in the culture of Japan. In S. Phillipson & M. McCann (Eds.), Conceptions of giftedness: Sociocultural perspectives (pp. 349-376). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.


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Author Biography is an associate professor in the Faculty of Education, Ehime University, Japan. He holds a BS from Kyusyu University and a PhD from Hiroshima University. His research interests are focused on relating gifted education and culture studies in science education. He is currently Director of the Japan Society for Science Education, Executive Board of East-Asian Association for Science Education, and Country Delegate of the Asia-Pacific Federation of the World Council for Gifted and Talented Children. Manabu Sumida


Journal for the Education of the Gifted-2013-Sumida-277-89

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